A SHORT STUDY OF GAMMA RINGS AND GAMMA MODULES

B. Sc. Honors 4th Year Course Name : Honors Project Course No : MTH-490 Session : 2010-2011

Submitted By Class Roll Registration No Session : SN-8075 : HA-2048 : 2007-2008

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA

ABSTRACT
It is certainly a matter of great satisfaction to see that a project paper on A short study of gamma rings and gamma modules has been written by me with the help of my honorable project teacher and my friends. My project topic is an important field, namely Gamma rings and Gamma modules of abstract algebra, where I have studied set, function, group, ring, field and algebraic law in the first chapter to buildup the preliminary ground for the project material. Here I have initiated some useful definitions and examples to realize the concept of ring and field. I have also studied some set theoretic concepts which are useful for my project work. In the second chapter, I have studied Gamma rings and different types of theorems of Gamma rings. In the third chapter, I have studied Gamma modules. We have proved First, Second and Third Isomorphism theorems in -modules. At the end of this project I have given references which are used to complete my project work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
By the grace of Almighty Allah, I have finished my work perfectly. So, I firstly express my sincere gratitude to Almighty Allah and then to the Department of Mathematics, University of Dhaka to give me the opportunity for the project work .I express my profound gratitude to my project supervisor for his kind, constant and continuous co-operation from the beginning to complete this project. This project would never be completed without his total support, valuable advice and comments. I want to express my cordial gratitude to my dear madam Dr. Selina Parvin and Shapla Shirin. They inspired me all the time. I am also thankful to all other teachers of my Department of Mathematics. I always remember their kindness, sincerity, honesty to go ahead in my life. I am very much grateful to all of my classmates especially my group mates for helping me in the project work.

CONTENTS
PAGE NO

GLOSSSARY OF SYMBOLS HISTORICAL BACKGROUND CHAPTER ONE: PRELIMINARY

Contents: 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Set Relation Functions or mappings Group and related definitions Ring and related definitions Field and related definitions

.. .. ..

6 7-8 9-19

CHAPTER TWO: GAMMA RINGS

Contents: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

..

20-30

Gamma ring and its related definitions Some important theorems on -ring -ring with minimum condition and its related theorems Semi simple -ring and its related theorems Simple -ring and its related theorems

CHAPTER THREE: GAMMA MODULES

Contents: 3.1 Gamma module and its related definitions 3.2 Some important theorems on
4

31-48

-module

3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

First Second Third

-isomorphism theorem -isomorphism theorem -isomorphism theorem -module

Some other important definitions and theorems on Free gamma module

APPLICATION CONCLUSION REFFERENCES

49 50 51

GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS

: set of natural numbers : set of integers : set of rational numbers : set of real numbers : set of complex numbers : union or intersection : subset : less than or equal : greater than or equal : for all : there exist : belongs to : not belongs to : equal to : not equal to : isomorphism : is map from X to Y

: imaginary unit : centre of -ring rad M

6

: radical of -ring

Historical Background
The word mathematics comes from the Greek word mathema meaning science, knowledge or learning and mathematics meaning fond of learning .It is often abbreviated maths in British English and math in American English .Carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as a queen of science .Abstract algebra is the field of mathematics concerned with the study of algebraic structures such as groups ,rings, fields, where Gamma rings and Gamma modules are the most important topic in general field theory. Field theory considers sets, such as the real number line, on which all the usual arithmetic properties hold those governing addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The concept of a Gamma ring was first introduced by Nobusawa [8] in 1964. His concept is more general than a ring. He obtained analogues of the Wedderburn s theorem for Gamma rings with minimum condition on left ideals. Now a day, his Gamma ring is called a Gamma ring in the sense of Nobusawa. W.E Barnes[4] gave a definition of a Gamma ring which is more general. He introduced the notation of Gamma homomorphisms, prime and primary ideals, msystems and the radical of an ideal for Gamma rings. The notation of Jacobson radical, nil radical and strongly nilpotent radical for Gamma rings were introduced by Cop page and Luh[6] and they developed some radical properties. Also inclusion relation for these radicals were obtained and it was shown that the radicals all coincide in the case of a Gamma ring which satisfies the descending chain condition (DCC) on one-sided ideals. They studied Barnes prime radicals for a Gamma ring. J.Luh[6] gave a generalization of Jacobson structure theorem for primitive Gamma rings having minimal one sided ideals and obtained several other structure theorems for simple Gamma rings. A. Kurosh [5] introduced the notation of a Gamma ring M-module. G.L. Booth , N.J. Grunewald and W.A Oliver defined a general regularity for Gamma rings and explore ways a generating such regularities. They showed that
7

regularities for Gamma rings can be generated by means of polynomials. They also introduced a radical which lies between the Jacobson radical and right Brown-McCop radical. A.C Paul and T.M. Abdul Kalam Azad [9] studied Gamma rings. They developed some characterizations of these Gamma rings. A.C Paul and T.M. Abdul Kalam Azad [9] also studied Jacobson radical for Gamma rings by means of annihilators of the Gamma M-modules. Some properties of this radicals were developed here. Hiram Paley and Paul M. Weichsel [1] studied the theory of rings and modules in a classical notation. They proved some basic properties of modules and irreducible modules. They were characterizing semi-simple rings in terms of matrices. They have also shown how this problem was reduced to that of characterizing simple rings (with DCC) were of the form An where A has a division ring. In the book of Mary Gray[3], she discussed some characterizations of rings, matrix rings. She also proved the Wedderburn-Artin theorem for rings. She studied direct sums and free modules. She developed some characterizations of such type of modules.

Chapter one Preliminary

Contents:
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Set Relation Functions or mappings Group and related definitions Ring and related definitions Field and related definitions

Preview: 1st
This is my preparatory chapter. In this chapter I have introduced some useful definitions to understand the concept of Rings, Gamma Rings and Gamma modules. Here I also discuss the theoretic concept of set which are necessary for my present project work. To approach towards my goal, I have taken up the definition and example of group, ring and field.

1.1 Set: The word set, collection, family, bunch and herd are all familiar to us. These usually denote a number of objects about which we wish to think collectively. In any logical investigation certain terms must remain undefined. Any attempt to define every term would eventually lead to circular definitions. My project topic is A short study of gamma rings and gamma modules which is pure mathematics related topics. So I have to study sets. In this chapter I have studied some set theoretical concepts which are essential for the works in pure mathematics. 1.1.1 Definition of set: A well defined collection of objects is called a set. By the term well-defined we mean that we are given a collection of objects with certain definite property or properties, given in such a way that we are obviously able to distinguish whether a given object is in our collection or not. Thus every collection of objects is not a set. Examples: 1. The collection of vowels in English alphabet is a set, containing five elements namely 2. The set of all integers: Given the four real numbers and , clearly belong to but do not belong to 1.1.2 Notation: We usually denote the set by capital letters & the elements of the set by small letters. If is an object of a set then we write belongs to which means that is an element of or . On the other-hand ,if does not belong to then we write

1.1.3 Representation of set: The set can be represented by two ways: a) Roster method or Tabular method. b) Set builder method or description method. a) Roster method or Tabular method: Under this method the elements of the set are listed within braces { } after separating by commas ,. Examples: a) denotes the set of four fourth roots of unity. b) The set of all positive integers: b) Set builder method or description method: This method consists in the listing of the property or properties satisfied by the elements of the set. In this method we also use the such that term and brackets {}.

10

Examples: If counting number

then we may write }

,where

is a

1.1.4 Different kinds of sets: Finite set: A set in which the process of counting of elements surely comes to an end ,is called a finite set , otherwise it is an infinite set. Examples: 1. Set of all rivers in India is a finite set. 2. Set of all concentric circles is an infinite set. Infinite set: A set is called infinite if contains infinite number of elements. Example: The set real number} is an infinite set. Singleton set: The set which contains only one element is said to be singleton set. Example: The set is a singleton set. Null set / empty set: A set that contains no elements are called null set or empty set. Null set is denoted by which pronounced fie. Example: The set 1.1.5 Subset: Let and be two also element of , then we say that is a superset of and write . If written as . If but element of which is not in then Examples: 2) {1, 3} {2, 4, 6, 8} 3 1.1.6 Power set : Let be a set, then the family or collection of all subset of called the power set of and it is denoted by . Example: then is is even is a null set. sets given in such a way that every element of is is a subset of and write , then we say that but then is called a proper subset of then is improper subset of B. If even a single is not subset of and we write

If

1.1.7 Universal set: If all the set under consideration are subsets of a fixed set say then the fixed set is called the universal set.

11

Example: In the study of sets of real and imaginary numbers, the set of complex numbering the universal set. 1.1.8 Set operations: Union of sets: Let and be two sets. The union of the sets and, denoted by ,is the set that contains those elements that are either in or in or in both. belongs to belongs union if and only if belongs to or belongs to both and , this tells us that

An element to or

Example: Let

and

then

Intersection of the set: Let and be two sets. The intersection of the sets and B , denoted by ,is the set that contains those elements in both and . Example: Let and then L :

1.1.9 (a) (b)

1.1.10 Distributive Law: (a) (b) 1.1.11 Definition of order pair: An order pair consists of two element and such that is designated as a first element and is taken as second element and is written as The order pair and and will be equal iff are different. Two ordered pair and .

1.2 Relation: Let and be two nonempty sets. Then a relation from to is the subset of where the set is called the domain of R and the set is called the range of
12

The inverse of

denoted by is the relation from to defined by . If is a relation and we say that is Related to

Example: Let then the relation in in such that where and The elements of will be those ordered pairs of in which first element is less than the second element.

1.2.1 Types of relations: A relation (or binary relation) (a) Reflexive if for each (b) Symmetric if (c) Transitive if (d) Anti-symmetric if A binary relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equivalence relation. A binary relation which is reflexive, anti-symmetric and transitive is called a partial order relation. 1.3 Functions or mapping: Let and be unique two sets. If to each there is assigned a unique element of , then the collection of such assignments is called a function from into and is written The element of is called the image of the element , and is called the pre image of The set is known as Domain and the set is known as Co-domain of 1.3.1 Various types of function: 1. One-one function: A function is called one-one function (or mapping) if different elements in have distinct images in . Thus if f is one-one then or if is one-one then in a set is called

13

Example: is defined by Since two different natural numbers have there different triples. 2. On to (or surjective ) mapping or function: A function has at least one pre image in Example: Let onto function.

is one-one function.

is said to be onto function if every element .i.e be a function defined by is an

of

3. Bijective function: A function is said to be Bijective if it is both one-one and onto. Example: is a Bijective function. 4. Composite functions: Let and be three nonempty sets. Then the product or composite function of two functions and is defined to be the function and is given by Example: Let the function defined by and be defined on the real numbers ( ) be

1.4 Group: An algebraic system consisting of a non-empty set called a group if the following axioms are satisfied : i. ii. iii. Closure property: The set with binary operation , is

is closed for the binary operation , is associative i.e. such

Associative law: The binary operation

Existence of identity element: There exists an element that

14

iv.

Existence of the inverse of each element: Each element in possesses an inverse in i.e. corresponding to each an element such that = = , the element is called inverse of is a group under usual addition where

Example:

Abelian group: A group the composition is commutative .i.e. Example:

is said to be abelian or commutative group, if

is a group under usual addition (+), where

1.4.1 Cyclic group: A group is said to be a cyclic group, if there exists an element such that every element of can be expressed as some integral power of , then is called generator of, and we write = { }. Example: The multiplicative group { 1 , } of cube root of unity is a cyclic group generated by . Since 1= , = , . As every element of is expressed as some integral power of Cosets: Let be a subgroup of a group Whose binary operation has been denoted multiplicatively. Let ,then the complexes = and are known as the Right coset and left coset of Example: Consider the multiplicative group and be a subgroup of . Then right coset determined by is

1.5 Ring: Definition : Let be a non-empty set and let + and . denote two binary operations on which we refer to as addition and multiplication respectively. Then { } is called a ring if the following conditions hold: i. { is a commutative (abelian) group. ii. Multiplication is associative , i.e iii. (left distributive law) (right distributive law) where all

15

The identity of { } is denoted by 0 and is called the zero of the ring. If there exists an element e R such that for all then e is called a multiplicative identity of Example: ( 1.5.1 Various type of Ring : Commutative Ring: Let, ( ) be a ring. is called a commutative ring if for all in Example: The set is a commutative Ring. A ring with zero divisors : Let, be a ring. An element in is called a left zero divisor if there exists an element in such that . Similarly an element in is called a right zero divisors if there exists an element in such that . A zero divisor is an element that is either a right or left zero divisor. If is a commutative ring, then the concepts of right and left zero divisor coincide. Example: When zero divisors. A ring without zero divisors: A ring is called without zero divisors if it is not possible to find least two non-zero elements of , whose product is zero i.e. is without zero divisors, when [ where ] Example: The ring ( has no zero divisors with respect to multiplication. Integral domain: Let be a commutative ring, If has no zero divisors , we call an integral domain. Example: The set are integral domain. A division ring or skew field: A commutative ring is called a division ring if its non-zero elements form a multiplicative group. Example: The rings are three division ring since non-zero elements of each of these rings form a multiplicative group. is a composite integer then ( ,+,.) has ) is a ring with usual addition and multiplication.

16

 Characteristic of the ring: The characteristic of a ring is the smallest integer such that . In case, such an n does not exist, we say that the ring is of characteristic 0 or infinite characteristic . Example: In a ring ( it is clear that 5 is the least positive integer such that 5 =0 . So the characteristic is 5 of the given ring. 1.5.2 Sub-ring: Let sub-ring of if ( be a ring. Let be a non-empty subset of . Then is also a ring with respect to the operations + and . of is the sub ring of is called a is a

Example: ( 1.5.3 Ideals: A sub-ring i. ii. iii. of a ring

Right ideal of , if Left ideal of , if Both sided ideal or simply an ideal, if is a left ideal as well as right ideal, i.e. if then and Example: The set of even integer is the ideal of the set of integer = {,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4..}

Principal ideal: An ideal of a ring , generated by a single element of is called a principal ideal of the ring and we write Maximal ideal: A non-zero ideal of a ring such that is called a maximal ideal of , if there exists no proper ideal of containing Prime ideal: Let be a ring and be an ideal in . Then is said to be a prime ideal of if implies that or Example: Consider the ring of integers Then the ideal then either or must be a multiple of 7.

1.5.4 Ring Homomorphism: Let ( and +, .) be two rings. Let satisfy

17

I. II.

( Then is called a (ring) homomorphism from to . Also, if f is onto then we say is the homomorphism image of and we write .

1.5.5 Ring Isomorphism: Let and be two rings. Then a one-one mapping onto i.e is called isomorphism if i. ii. In this case we say that 1.5.6 Quotient Ring: Let be a ring and let be an ideal in . Let modulo is abelian, whence define the sum and product as follows: and be the quotient group of is normal in On the set is isomorphic to and we write .

of

+) ,

Then

is called the quotient ring of

modulo the ideal .

1.6 Field: A ring holds: i. ii. iii.

with at least two elements is said to be field if following axioms

is a commutative ring i.e. With binary operation addition and multiplication. has unity i.e. has multiplicative inverse,

=1

Example: Each of the algebraic system

is a field.

1.6.1 Subfield: A non-empty subset of a field is called a subfield, if is stable for composition in and is also itself a field with respect to induced compositions. The necessary and sufficient conditions for a non-empty subset subfield are: of a field to be a

18

(a) (b) Example: is the subfield of

1.6.2 Characteristic of field: Let be a field. If there exist a least positive m such that for all , then we say that has characteristic . If no such positive integer exists, has characteristic zero. We say or zero is the characteristic of . 1.6.3 Auto-morphism of field: Let be a field. Then a one-one mapping itself is called an automorphism of if the following conditions: and of onto

1.6.4 Quotient field: A field is said to be the quotient field of an integral domain contains and is itself contained in every field containing . Example: The field of all rational numbers is the integral domain of all integers.

, if

19

Chapter two Gamma Rings

Contents:
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Gamma ring and its related definitions Some important theorems on -ring -ring with minimum condition and its related theorems Semi simple -ring and its related theorems Simple -ring and its related theorems

Preview: 2nd

In this chapter we have discussed about the definition of gamma rings and its related topics, then the motivation and definition of the descending chain condition (DCC) and the ascending chain condition (ACC) of a -ring .Here we have also given the regular -ring, centre of a -ring and a -ring with minimum condition .I have also discussed some theorems relevant to these concepts and here we have developed the characterization of semi-simple -ring with minimum condition.

20

2.1 Gamma Ring: Let and be two additive abelian groups .If there exists a mapping from to (the image of ), being denoted by ( ), satisfying for all : 1. 2. Then is called a -ring in the sense of Barnes[4]. This definition is due to Barnes, and is slightly weaker than the original one due to Nobusawa[8].

If, in addition, there exists a mapping of to (the image of denoted by ) such that the following axiom are satisfied for all i. ii. iii. Then A Same as (1) for all implies

), being :

is called a -ring in the sense of Nobusawa. -ring is called commutative, if Example-1: Let and for all and all .

be two additive abelian groups. We denote = and

. Then the function clearly satisfies (1) and (2) and is a -ring.

Example-2: Let be a division ring and suppose denotes the additive group of all matrices whose entries are from . If then under the usual matrix multiplication, is a -ring. Every ring is a -ring if we take natural ways. and interpret the above operation in the

Throughout our project we consider gamma ring in the sense of Barnes. a) Sub- -ring: Let be a -ring and Then is called a sub ring if i. then ii. for all be a non-empty subset of -ring .

21

Example: Let and (set of integers) be two additive abelian groups. If we denote and then the function satisfies all the properties of -ring. Then is a -ring. Let, be a set of even integers. Then clearly satisfies (i) and (ii) and is a sub- -ring. 2.1.1 Ideal of a -ring: A subset of the -ring is a left (right) ideal of if is an additive subgroup of and is contained in If is both a left and a right ideal of , then we say that is an ideal or two sided ideal of 2.1.2 Identity element of a -ring: Let be a -ring. An element of -ring called an identity element if there exists an such that for Sometime we denote unique. by 1 and when and is

is a -ring with identity ,then the identity is

2.1.3 Nilpotent element: An element of a -ring if there exists a positive integer such that

is called nilpotent if for some

2.1.4 Nil -ring: A that is

-ring

is called a nil -ring if every element

of

is nilpotent,

for some particular of

where

depends on

2.1.5 Nilpotent ideal: An ideal , where

of a -ring is called nilpotent if is the least positive integer.

2.1.6 The descending chain condition (DCC): A -ring is said to have the descending chain condition on left ideals or DCC on left ideals if every descending sequence of left ideals terminates after a finite number steps, that is, there exists an integer such that = =. 2.1.7 The Ascending chain condition (ACC): A -ring is said to have the ascending chain condition on left ideals or DCC on left ideals if every ascending sequence of left ideals .. terminates after a finite number steps, that is, there exists an integer such that = =.
22

2.1.8 Noetherian -ring: A -ring in which every strictly ascending chain of left (right) ideals is finite is called a left(right) Noetherin -ring Equivalently, one can define a left (right) Noetherian ring which for every infinite ascending chain (right) ideals ,there exists a positive integer such that ring to be a of left for all

2.1.9 -ring with minimum condition: A -ring with identity element 1 is called a -ring with minimum condition if the left ideals of satisfy the descending chain condition or equivalently if in every non-empty set of left ideals of , there exists a left ideals which does not properly contain any other ideal in the set. 2.1.10 Minimum left ideal of a -ring: A left(right) ideal of left(right) ideal if ( ) (b) whenever is called a minimal

, B is a left(right) ideal of

, then either

or

From the definition it is obvious that a -ring satisfies the minimum condition on left (right) ideals, then has a minimal left (right) ideal. 2.1.11 Minimal element: Let be a -ring. Then a non-empty collection of left ideals in is called minimal with respect to this collection if (i) (ii) { , Whenever { ,

{ },

and

then

2.1.12 Prime ideal: An ideal of a -ring implies or

is prime if for any ideals .

2.1.13 Maximal Ideal: A non-zero ideal of a -ring such that is called a maximal ideal of , if there exists no proper ideal of containing . In other words, an ideal of is a maximal ideal if it impossible to find an ideal which lies between and the -ring .

23

2.1.14 Annihilator of a subset of a -ring. Let, Then the lest annihilator of defined by for some

be a

-ring and

be a subset of

2.1.15 Orthogonal idempotent element: A set of elements orthogonal idempotent if 2.1.16 Center of gamma ring: Let be a -ring, Then for all and for all .

of a -ring

is called .

for all and for all . are called the center and the -centre of a -ring, respectively. If then is called a commutative -ring. If is a -ring in the sense of Nobusawa, the centre and -centre of of a -ring are similarly defined. 2.1.17 Zero divisor: If divisor if there exists is a commutative -ring then , b 0 such that is said to be a zero

2.1.18 -Integral domain: A commutative -ring zero divisors. 2.1.19 Principal ideal: An ideal of a -ring , is called a principal ideal of the -ring That is for all .

is an integral domain if it has no

, generated by a single element of

2.1.20 -Principal ideal domain: A -ring is called a -principal ideal domain ( PID for short) if is a -integral domain and every ideal of is a principal ideal. 2.1.21 External direct sum: Let and denoted by is and be -rings. Then the external direct sum of where for ( ),( )

( (

)+( ) (

=( And =( and

) ) all of into

2.1.22 -Homomorphism: Let is called a - homomorphism, if

be two -rings. Then a mapping

24

and for all

and all

Again if is one-one and onto ,then is homomorphism and we write . If is a -homomorphism of into , then kernel of ,denoted by defined as is an ideal of and -homomorphic image of denoted by defined as is a sub- -ring of .If f is onto and homomorphism, then is called a -epimorphism. 2.1.23 Quotient -ring: Let be a -ring. Let be an ideal of . Then the set is called quotient -ring of by It is denoted by , where ( ) ( )= + and ( )+( )=( )+ for all and 2.2 Some important theorems on -rings:

Theorem (First -isomorphism Theorem): Every homomorphic image of a ring is isomorphic to some quotient ring. Proof. Let be the homomorphic image of a -ring and f be the corresponding homomorphism. Then is a homomorphism of onto . Let Then is an ideal of , and
.

is a ring of residue classes of

relative to

We have to show that If then

and

. Consider the mapping

defined by

i.

is well defined : For if

then

ii.

Hence is well defined. is one-one: Since

25

Hence iii. iv.

is one-one. such

is onto: For if then f being onto there exists that and so such that is a homomorphism since

Since f is a homomorphism.

And

Since f is a -homomorphism.

Therefore

is a -homomorphism. into

is an isomorphism of Hence

Thus the theorem is proved.

26

2.2.1 Multiplicatively closed subset of a -ring: Let be a -ring and S be a non-empty subset of . Then is said to be multiplicatively closed if whenever and for some 2.2.2 Theorem: If is a proper ideal of a -ring such that multiplicatively closed subset of , then is a prime ideal. is a

Proof: Let and be ideals of such that and for some Choose an element . Suppose that then there exists Since and is multiplicatively closed, so . This contradicts that

Therefore and is a prime ideal of Thus the theorem is proved.

2.2.3 Theorem ( only statement): Let be a commutative -ring and let proper ideal of Then the following statements are equivalent: (i) is a prime ideal; (ii) If are elements of (iii) If

be a

with

for some

, then

are elements of with for some then for some is a multiplicatively closed subset of if there

index; (iv)

2.2.4 Equivalent sets: Two sets and are said to be equivalent written as exists a function which is one-one and onto. Clearly two finite sets are equivalent if and only if they contain the same number of elements. 2.2.5 Cardinality of sets: If is equivalent to , that is have the same cardinality or cardinal number. We write number of . So if and only if

, then we say that and for the cardinality or cardinal

2.2.6 Z L mm : Let be a non-empty partially ordered set in which every totatlly ordered subset has an upperbound in Then contain at least one maximal element. 2.2.7 Theorem: Let be a commutative -ring with identity 1. Let ideal in Then is a prime ideal in . be a maximal

27

Proof: Let be a maximal ideal in a -ring Let such that for some but and Then the ideals and contains properly, Since is maximal, so and Thus and for some and Now using the commutativity of , we have

.But then is a prime ideal of

and so , a contradiction. Therefore (by theorem 2.47). Thus the theorem is proved.

or

Hence

2.3 Definition: Let be a ring with minimum condition. The two sided ideal which is the sum of all nilpotent left ideals of is called the radical of and is denoted by 2.3.1 Theorem: Let be a -ring with minimum condition, then every non-nilpotent left ideal contains an idempotent element. Proof: Let be a -ring with minimum condition. We shall use repeatedly the fact that every non-empty collection of left ideals of contains a minimal member. Since is non-nilpotent left ideal of the collection of non-nilpotent left ideals of contained in is non-empty. Let { }, be a non-empty collection of non-nilpotent left ideals of contained in . Let be a minimal member of { }, then any left ideal of properly contained in must be nilpotent. Now is a non-nilpotent left ideal of contained in , so Now we consider the collection { }, of all left ideals such that (i) (ii) 0, .

The collection { }, is non-empty, since it contains and hence it has a minimal member .By (i), there exists an element such that Then and is in { }, ,so .Hence there exists an element such that for some Then and so on

Therefore

contains the non-nilpotent element

and (

.Now the set

28

Since = 0 is a left ideal of properly contained in .Hence is nilpotent. Setting If .This implies that = . So is an idempotent element of . Hence .Thus the theorem is proved.If , proceed as follows: Set =( ) .Then and commute with each other. Hence if is nilpotent, so is also nilpotent. Thus is a non-nilpotent element of . Then we find that Let = .Then =(4 ) ( ).So is a factor of and commute with . By induction ,we can successively construct non-nilpotent elements .. in such that contains as a factor. Since is nilpotent, this factor is zero for sufficiently large i. Therefore , so that . Hence is idempotent. Thus the theorem is proved. 2.3.2 Corollary: The sum of any finite number of nilpotent left ideals is nilpotent. 2.4 Definition: A -ring 2.4.1 Lemma: Let (a) If (b) If is called semi-simple if .

be a semi-simple -ring. and for some and x M=0 for some , then then

Proof: (a) Let Let , then 0 and . Therefore .So If , all nd then Thus Hence is a right ideal of Clearly . Therefore Thus So is a nilpotent right ideal of Therefore is contained in the radical of Since is a semi-simple -ring and its radical is zero, so Therefore .Hence implies (b)The proof is similar to that of (a). 2.5 Definition: A -ring and 2.5.1 Theorem: Let zero. is called a simple -ring if and its ideals are {0}

be a simple -ring with minimum condition. Then radical of

is

29

Proof: Since is a simple -ring , the ideals of is either or {0}.Let So is a nilpotent ideal of . Then or Let Since N is nilpotent, , where is the least positive integer. This implies that , which contradicts that Thus .Hence the theorem is proved. 2.5.2 Corollary: A simple -ring with minimum condition on left ideals is a semisimple -ring. Proof: Let be a simple -ring. Let .By theorem 2.58, we get Hence is a semi-simple ring. Thus the corollary is proved. 2.5.3 Theorem (Schroeder-Bernstein Theorem): If . and , then

2.5.4 Theorem: The sum of any two nilpotent left ideals is nilpotent. Corollary: The sum of any finite number of nilpotent left ideals is nilpotent.

30

Chapter Three Gamma modules

Contents:
3.1 Gamma module and its related definitions 3.2 Some important theorems on 3.3 First 3.4 Second 3.5 Third -isomorphism theorem -isomorphism theorem -isomorphism theorem -module -module

3.6 Some other important definitions and theorems on 3.7 Free gamma module

Preview:
This is my third chapter. The abstract concepts of -modules are studied in chapter three. Here I have discussed some important definitions and theorems on -modules. Here I have also discussed about First, Second and Third Isomorphism theorem in -modules, which are the generalizations of the classical module theorem. I also study irreducible -modules.

31

3.1 Definition: Let be a -ring and let mapping ( -composition) from i. ii. iii. For all , has an identity 1 and for all unital -module . We define right Example: If scalar multiplication right ideal of ,then

be an abelian group. If there exists a sending ( ) to such that

then is called a left -module. If in addition and some , then , then is called a -module analogously. ring , then A is a left -module with being the product in .Similarly if is a -module. -module. Let if Q for all be a

is a left ideal of a is a right

3.1.2 Definition: Let be a -ring and be a left subgroup of .We call , a sub- -module of . Example: Let be a -ring. Let be a left . We call , a sub- -module of if be a

of

-module. Let for all

be a subgroup . .Let

3.1.3 Theorem: Let

ring. Let be a left -module and let . Then is a left ideal of . Hence is non-empty. Let since

Proof: Since -module. Hence

, so . So

, then is a left

. Again Hence is a suband , then

for all ring of . . Hence .

.Thus

Let

Therefore left ideal of . Hence the theorem is proved.

. Therefore

is a

32

3.1.4 Theorem: Let S be a left ideal of a -ring and let be a left . Then is a sub- -module of . Proof: Since , so for some , since . Let , since for all

module. Let

. Hence is non-empty. Let then Therefore . Then . Hence is a subof . Thus the theorem

is proved. 3.1.5 Definition: Let be a -ring and can be written as for some left -module generated by , that is 3.1.6 Definition: Let be a module of . Then the set It is denoted by ,where be a left -module. If every element and some . Then is called a cyclic .

ring and let be a left -module. Let be sub- is called the quotient -module of by . for all and for al .

3.1.7 Definition: Let be a -ring. Let and be the left -modules. A mapping is called a -homomorphism if the following conditions are satisfied: i. ii. In this case and a) b) are right

. -modules, then i and ii becomes

If ,then is called a -endomorphism of . Let be a left (right) -module. If is a sub- -module of , then defined by is a homomorphism ,called the canonical -epi-morphism. Remark : (a) (b) (c) and .

3.1.8 Definition: let be a -ring. Let and be two left -modules. Let be a -homorphism from into if is one-one and onto then is called a isomorphism. We say that and are isomorphic and we write .
33

Remark: Since every left (right) ideal of is itself a left (right) -module ,the -isomorphism between two left (right) ideals are the same as that of given above. 3.1.9 Definition: Let be a ring. Let and be two left -modules. If is a -homomorphism from to , then the Kernel of , denoted by ,is defined by . 3.1.10 Definition: Let be a ring. Let and be two left -modules. If is a -homomorphism from into , then the homomorphic image of , denoted by defined as 3.2 Some important theorems on -module: 3.2.1 Theorem: Let be a ring. Let be a -homomorphism. Then a) b) c) is a sub - -module of is sub- -module of is one-one if and only if and be two left -modules and let

the Zero sub-

-module of

Proof: a) Since such that ,since for all , then homomorphism. Hence b)Since and Hence of . c)Let where .Let so

,so is non-empty. Let , then there exist and .Therefore is a -homomorphism. Let such that . Let ,since is a is a sub- -module of . . Hence . Therefore and . Therefore is non-empty. Let ,then .

, Let =0 for all

, then

and so . Hence is a sub-

-module

34

,since . Hence Conversely, Let Therefore is one-one. Let

. is one-one. , then ,

, since

is one-one. Hence

Thus the theorem is proved. 3.3 Theorem (First Let be a -ring. Let homomorphism. Then Proof: Since since is a sub mapping - isomorphism theorem): and be two left . -modules and be a -

is a sub- -module of , is a left -module. Again -module of , is itself a left -module. Now consider a defined by for all

i.

First we will show that Let

is well defined. , Where

ii.

Therefore is one-one. Let

, Hence ,where

is well-defined.

35

. Therefore iii. Let is onto: , then there exists .Hence is onto. Finally we have to show that Let is a such that is one-one.

iv.

-homomorphism. , then

,since homomorphism.

is

. Let and ( ,Then ) for all .

, since

is a

-homomorphism.

Hence Therefore

is a

-homomorphism.

. Hence the theorem is proved. -Isomorphism Theorem): Let and be subbe a -ring

3.4 Theorem (Second and let be a left .

-module. Let

-modules of . Then

36

Proof: Since and as Hence and

are sub- -modules of ,so the sum of and . Since , so ,where is non-empty.Let , then .Then

is defined and ,where

,since . Let and , then for all

Hence is a sub- -module of . But module of . Then is a quotient are sub- -modules of , is also a subis also a sub- -module of .Therefore . Consider a mapping Let , where . defined by

. Therefore is a sub- -module of by . Since and -module of .But ,then is a quotient -module of by

for all

Hence is well-defined. Let Therefore

, then

and

Let

and

,then for all

Hence

is a

-homomorphism. Clearly

is onto. Therefore
37

By first Therefore proved.

-Isomorphism Theorem ,we get

. . Thus the theorem is

. Hence

3.5 Theorem(Third -Isomorphism Theorem):Let be left -module over a -ring and let and be sub- -modules of with . Then left -modules and are -isomorphic. Proof: Consider the mapping ( ) by is well-defined. .

1) We shall show that Let where

since

Therefore

. Hence

is well-defined.

2) We now show that Let

is

-homomorphism.

38

Also (

for all

and

Hence that

is a

-homomorphism. Now for any , where b B. Hence

, there exists a is onto. Therefore

such

By First

-IsomorphismTheorem , we get

Hence

.Thus the theorem is proved. -module: -module is cyclic if

3.6 Some other important definitions and theorems on

3.6.1 Theorem: Let be a -ring with identity element. A left and only if for some left ideal of .

Proof: Let be a cyclic left -module generated by .Then for all some and .Let .Then clearly is a left ideal of . Define a mapping by , m M. Let ,then and .Therefore

Let

,then

for all

.Hence

is a

-homomorphism.

39

Let

for some

,since . Hence is one-one. Let .Therefore is onto. Hence by First -Isomorphism Theorem , , that is . Conversely, let ,that is, proved. . Since for all , Then there exists an such that . . Hence

.Therefore

.Hence

. Hence is generated by is cyclic. Thus the theorem is

3.6.2 Definition: Let be a -ring. Let and external direct sum of and , denoted by and and for all

be the left is

-modules.Then the ,where for ( and

3.6.3 Definition: Let be a -ring and let and be two left -modules. Then the set of all -homomorphisms is denoted by defined as is a -homomorphism . If , then the set of all endomorphisms of forms a -ring.We give a proof for just this case. 3.6.4 Theorem: Let all in and all -module. For , define for all in and define by . Then is a -ring with identity element. Then ) ( ) for all be a by for

Proof: i) Let (

40

Thus ( Let Then

) and .

. Therefore

for all ( ( ) )

Therefore ( Let Then ( (

) and for all ))

.Hence

for all

Therefore ( ii) ( )

) for all ( ( )) for all ( ( )). )

.Hence and

Now (

and

Therefore (

.Hence

41

We Know that the identity mapping from into itself denoted by defined as for all is a -homomorphism.Hence is the identity element of . Thus satisfies all the conditions of -ring. Hence is a -ring with identity element. Thus the theorem is proved. 3.6.5 Theorem: Let into a left Proof: (i) Let is of the form multiplication Then be a -ring and let be a right -module for fixed . .Since for some for some . -module. Then can be made

is a right and some

-module, every element . We define a

, since

is right

-module.

(ii) Let and Then

, .

,then

and

for some

42

(iii) Let . Then

and let any

,then

for some

and

( Again

( (x) m)

( Hence Let , we have left

) .

, where is the identity function from into .Then for any for some and .So Thus satisfies all the conditions of a left -module. Hence is a -module. Thus the theorem is proved. -ring and , then either =0 or

3.6.6 Lemma: If is a minimal left ideal in a as left -modules for some .

43

Proof: Let we define a mapping Then for all and ,

by

for all

. and

for all .Hence is a homomorphism. Clearly is onto. Now let for some . Let be a left ideal generated by , that is, = .Then . So either or . Also implies .If , then which is not true by our assumption. Hence .Thus . This implies that the mapping is one-one. Hence . This completes the proof. 3.6.7 Definition: Let be a -ring and let irreducible left -module if I. II. be a left -module. We say that is an

and , is a sub- -module of , implies and for some and .

If we set .

equal to the set of all finite sum of the form , where varies and and . Then (II) is equivalent to

Example :A minimal left ideal irreducible left -module.

in a -ring

such that

. Then

is an

3.6.8 Theorem (Schurz L mm ): Let is a division -ring.

be an irreducible left

-module. Then

Proof: Let . Then exists. It is necessary to show that unique such that . Then for any , since identity mapping from = = = , since (

is one-one and onto. Thus . Let , then there exists a , , where I is the

into itself for some , since is a -homomorphism

44

= = = = = Let Then = = =( = )( ) ( ( )) , since ( ) ,then there exist unique . and in such that

, since

Hence is a -homomorphism. Therefore elements of form a multiplicative group. Hence division -ring. Thus the theorem is proved.

. Clearly the non-zero , is a

3.6.9 Definition: Let be a -ring and let be left -module. Then is said to satisfy the descending chain condition (DCC) on sub- -modules if whenever for subof , then there exists an integer such that We define the ascending chain condition (ACC) analogously. 3.7 Free gamma module: 3.7.1 Definition: Let be a -module over a -ring . Then for , a subset of is said to be linearly -independent or simply simply -independent if there exist distinct elements of X alind elements of M all of -modules for all

45

which are Zero such that dependent. If X is linearly -independent for some

=0. Otherwise, X is linearly -

, then X is called linearly -independent

Or simply -independent. Otherwise, X is linearly -dependent. If X= is a set of distinct elements of a left -module , then for , an expression where and at most finitely many is called a linear combination of . If is linear -combination of for some Then is called a linear -combination of .

3.7.2 Definition: Let be a left -module and let be a subset of such that each element can be written at least one way in the form, ,where , some and is called a set of generators of . If left generates and linearly -independent, then -module has a basis, then is said to be a free left is a basis for . If a -module.

3.7.3 Definition: Let be a -ring. A left -module of is called finitely generated if can be generated by a finite set of elements, that is, is finitely generated if and only if there exist finitely many elements such that each can be expressed as a -combination of the with coefficients for some . If is finitely generated, among all generating sets, then there are those with a minimum number of elements. The number of elements in a minimal generating set is called the rank of . It is denoted by rank 3.7.4 Lemma: Let be a free -module over a -ring no finite subset of can generates . . If has an infinite basis, then

Proof: Let be an infinite basis of and suppose on the contrary that is a finite subset of and . Since is a basis of for each , there exist a finite subset { } of distinct elements of and so that for some .Thus there is a finite subset of such that every element of is a linear -combination of the elements of , that is and so . Since is a finite subset of , so is non-empty. But

46

then for , the set is a linearly -dependent subset of ; a contradiction. Hence is infinite. Thus the lemma is proved. 3.7.5 Definition: If is free left -module over a -ring such that any two bases of have the same cardinality, then the cardinality of a basis of is also called the rank of over M and we can write rank , where P is a basis of . We say that a -ring M has an invariant rank property if for every free left -module of , the rank of over is defined, that is, any two bases of have the same cardinality.

We know that a left -module over a division -ring is a free left -module.

3.7.6 Theorem: Let and S be two -rings and let epimorphism. If has the invariant rank property, then

be non-zero has the invariant rank property.

Proof: Let be a free -module with bases and and let . Note that as is a non-zero -homomorphism. If , then is a -isomorphism. Now can be viewed as a -module with scalar multiplication given by for all and . Clearly and are also bases of -module . Hence . Now let . By First -isomorphism Theorem, . Therefore has invariant property. Also we know is a free left module with bases and such that

And where .Thus the theorem is proved. is canonical -epimorphism.

Hence

3.7.7 Theorem: Let M be a -ring with the invariant rank property and let B and D be free M-modules. Then B and D are M-isomorphic if and only if rank B= rank D. Proof: Let is a basis of D. Since be -isomorphism .If is a basis of B, then we verify that (P) is one-one and onto, |B|=| (B)|. Hence rank B=rank D.

Conversely, let rank B= rank D. Let P be a basis of B and let

47

be basis of D.

Since rank B= rank D, so |P|=| |. Thus there is a one-one and onto mapping then there is a -homomorphism such that and onto. Hence . Thus the theorem is proved. . Clearly is also one-one

48

APPLICATION

My present project work is purely theoretical on abstract ideas.But the knowledge and conception earned through this work can be applied in advance research on different types of rings and modules and in any other branch of abstract algebra.

49

Conclusion
By working on the topic A short study of gamma rings and gamma modules I have learned a beautiful approach to a classified subject. It has given me a better understanding of gamma rings and gamma modules. My aim was to explore the different sides of gamma rings and gamma modules and I have performed the work for that reason. I have made all efforts to represent the fundamental concepts of gamma rings and gamma modules along with some examples. I have also proved some related theorems.

50

*REFERENCES*
[1] Hiram Palely and Paul M. Weichsel: A First Course in Abstract Algebra New York, Holt,1996. [2] R. S. Aggarwal: A text book on modern algebra [3] Mary Gray : A radical approach to algebra, Addison-Wesley publishing Co.London,1970. [4] W.E. Barnes : On the gamma rings of Nobusawa, Pacific J.Math.18(1966), 411-422. [5] A.Kurosh : Radicals of rings and algebra, Math.Sb.33,13-26,(1953).

[6] J.Luh : on the theory of simple gamma rings, Michigan Math.J. 16(1969),65-75. [7] Charles W. Curtis and Irving Reiner : Representation theory of finite groups and Associative Algebras, Jhon Wiley & sons, New York(1962). [8] N.Nobusawa: On a generalization of the ring theory Osaka J.Math.1(1964),81-89. [9] A.C Paul and T.M Abul Kalam Azad: Artinian gamma ringsSouthest Asian Bulletin of Mathematics (1999),23:271-275. [10] Md. Sabur uddin : A study of characterizations of Gamma Rings and Gamma Modules, A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctors Of Philosophy in mathematics. Website : www.mathworld.wolfarm.com www.google.com www.encyclopedia.com http://mathforum.org/dr.math/

51