C H A R L E S

M.

S A L T E R

A S S O C I A T E S

A C O U S T I C S
A R C H I T E C T U R E E N G I N E E R I N G T H E E N V I R O N M E N T

Wave Frequency Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level Predicting Sound Pressure Levels from Multiple Sources Directivity Diffuse Sound Fields The Inverse Square Law

A sound wave is a physical disturbance o f molecules w i t h i n a m e d i u m a i r , water, o r s o l i d t h a t can be detected b y a listener. M o s t s o u n d waves result f r o m a v i b r a t i n g o b j e c t . L o o k a r o u n d and y o u ' l l see countless objects i n a state o f v i b r a t i o n : the w i n d o w s i n y o u r house w h e n a t r u c k drives by, a g u i tar w h e n its strings are p l u c k e d , o r tree branches i n the w i n d . E a c h o f these are examples o f a s o u n d source. These d i f f e r e n t waves c o m b i n e and reach a listener via n u m e r o u s direct and i n d i r e c t p a t h w a y s . T h e listener's i n n e r ear contains organs that vibrate i n response to these m o l e c u l a r disturbances, c o n v e r t i n g the v i b r a t i o n s i n t o c h a n g i n g electrical potentials that are sensed b y the b r a i n a l l o w i n g the p h e n o m e n o n o f h e a r i n g to occur. A c o u s t i c a l analysis involves n o t o n l y the s o u n d source b u t also w h o is h e a r i n g i t (receiver) a n d e v e r y t h i n g i n b e t w e e n (the path). T h e p a t h is made u p o f the e n v i r o n m e n t encompassing b o t h s o u n d source and receiver. T h e m e d i u m o f transmission can either be air, or a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e d i u m s , i n v o l v i n g a c o n v e r s i o n to v i b r a t i o n and t h e n back to sound,

t h r o u g h solid objects such as walls and floors. F i g u r e 2.1 shows an e x a m ple o f the c h a i n o f events f r o m s o u n d source to listener and a generalized source-path-receiver m o d e l .

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Acoustics

Figure

2.1 (top) A generalized

source-path-receiver m o d e l . T h e source is an e n t i t y that causes acousl:ical v i b r a t i o n . T h e p a t h is the e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t e x t a n d the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l aspects o f the m e d i u m . T h e receiver can refer t o a h u m a n listener o r a m i c r o p h o n e . Sound source Path Receiver

(bottom) An e x a m p l e o f t h e s o u r c e p a t h - r e c e i v e r m o d e l . T h e cuxles indicate sound radiation; their darkness indicates relative i n t e n s i t y . A listener (receiver) is l i s t e n i n g t o m u s i c from a r e c o r d player; this is a desired s o u n d source. I n an a d j o i n i n g u t i l i t y r o o m , a m a c h i n e emits s o u n d a n d i n f r a s o n i c v i b r a t i o n ; this is a noise s o u n d source. T h e t w o r o o m s a n d t h e i r surfaces (path) t r a n s f o r m the acoustical v i b r a t i o n from the sources b e f o r e t h e y reach the U s t e n e r . T h e s o u n d f r o m t h e l o u d s p e a k e r w i l l reach the ears o f the listener v i a a d i r e c t p a t h and i n d i r e c t paths f r o m r e f l e c t i o n s o f f o f walls; the latter is t e r m e d reverberation. T h e m a c h i n e is h e a r d a n d f e l t t h r o u g h the w a l l as a result o f .(owi/rf transmission (the w a l l i t s e l f b e c o m e s a v i b r a t i n g source) and possibly due t o s o u n d leakage t h r o u g h cracks i n the construction.

T h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a listener can be i n f l u e n c e d b y the treatment o f either the p a t h o r the source. F o r instance, w e can enhance the m t e l l i g i b i h t y o f speech m a conference r o o m by electronically a m p l i f y i n g the spok e n voice, or the s o u n d o u t p u t f r o m a p o w e r plant can be r e d u c e d t o l i m i t the disturbance m a c o m m u n i t y . N o t e the d i s t i n c t i o n m these examples b e t w e e n the spoken v o i c e and the sound sources. T h e spoken v o i c e is desirable, w h i l e s o u n d f r o m a p o w e r plant is n o t ; w e refer to undesirable sound as noise.

Wave Frequency

T h e m o l e c u l a r disturbance caused b y an acoustic source involves a series o f h i g h and l o w pressure areas ( t e r m e d compression and rarefaction). Fig-

ure 2.2 shows f i v e discrete m o m e n t s o f t i m e that c o m p r i s e a single wave cycle. A n equivalent i l l u s t r a t i o n , i n d i c a t i n g pressure v a r i a t i o n c o n t i n u o u s l y
Figure 2.2 C o m p r e s s i o n a n d

over t i m e , is s h o w n i n Figure 2.3. A ioundh frequency is d e f i n e d i n terms o f t h e n u m b e r o f wave cycles

r a r e f a c t i o n o f air m o l e c u l e s at f i v e discrete m o m e n t s o f t i m e . T h e " + " indicates c o m p r e s s i o n (an increase i n pressure) a n d t h e " - " indicates r a r e f a c t i o n (a decrease i n pressure). T h i s represents a single cycle o f pressure v a r i a t i o n .

that o c c u r d u r i n g one second. T h e u n i t used f o r d e s c r i b i n g f r e q u e n c y is hertz ( H z ) . For h i g h e r frequencies, kilohertz ( k H z ) is used to indicate the

n u m b e r o f osciUations times 1,000 that o c c u r w i t h i n a second. F o r e x a m ple, 1.68 k H z (1.68 X 1000 (kilo) H z ) is the same f r e q u e n c y as 1,680 H z .

'rPo

ri

.V.

Time

Fundamentals

Time Figure 2.3 A single cycle ( w a v e -

I f y o u d r o p a r o c k i n t o the n h d d l e o f a lake, ripples propagate o u t w a r d f r o m the p o i n t o f contact. These circular ripples are comparable to s o u n d waves traveling t h r o u g h air. I f y o u c o u n t the n u m b e r o f wave r i p ples that pass a single p o i n t o n the lake d u r i n g one second, y o u can c a l c u late the wave's frequency. F o r example, the f r e q u e n c y o f the r e d wave i n Figure 2.4 is five times greater t h a n the f r e q u e n c y o f the black wave. Waves that have a repeated p a t t e r n o f oscillation are called periodic waves. Figures 2.3 and 2.4 s h o w the simplest t y p e o f p e r i o d i c wave, the sine wave. Sine waves (also called " p u r e tones") have a single constant f r e q u e n c y obtainable o n l y f r o m electronic devices. H o w do these frequencies relate to hearing? W h e n the fi-equency is i n the range o f r o u g h l y 20 H z to 20 k H z , the waves are heard as sound waves; these are t e r m e d audio frequencies. H u m a n speech contains frequencies that He b e t w e e n 200 H z and 5 k H z ; the sound o f an orchestra can contain f r e quencies b e t w e e n 25 H z t o 13 k H z or even higher. Frequencies b e l o w 20 H z are sensed as v i b r a t i o n , are n o t audible to most people, and are t e r m e d infrasonic. Frequencies above 20,000 H z are t e r m e d ultrasonic. Figure 2.5 shows the typical f r e q u e n c y range f o r various s o u n d sources. JNAany situations e n c o u n t e r e d i n b u i l d i n g s i n v o l v e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h audio a n d i n f r a s o n i c frequencies; that is, s o u n d and v i b r a t i o n . For instance, at frequencies up to a r o u n d 100 H z , such as those p r o d u c e d b y a pipe organ, i t is possible to simultaneously hear s o u n d and feel v i b r a t i o n s . R e a l - w o r l d waves are n o t as p e r i o d i c as those j u s t described; i n fact, most waves usually c o n t a i n a m i x t u r e o f m a n y frequencies. W h i l e a sine wave is considered t e c h n i c a l l y t o be a " s i m p l e " wave, i n actuality, almost all waves i n nature are " c o m p l e x , " i n that they c o n t a i n m u l t i p l e frequencies. T h e reason a v i o l i n and a v i o l a s o u n d d i f f e r e n t f r o m each o t h e r is because each has a d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n o f frequencies, w h i c h is r e f e r r e d to as the s o u n d source's spectrum .The i n t e r a c t i o n and b e h a v i o r o f t h e d i f f e r e n t f r e -

length period) o f a continuously r e p e a t i n g wave (here, a sine w a v e ) is s h o w n as a c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n o f t i m e o n t h e x axis, w i t h pressure o n the y axis s h o w n m b o t h positive and negative d i r e c t i o n s f r o m t h e center l i n e .

T h e speed o f s o u n d t h r o u g h air depends o n a n u m b e r o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors such as t e m p e r a t u r e and h u m i d i t ) ^ : a g o o d a p p r o x i m a t i o n is 3 4 4 m / s e c (1,128 f t / s e c ) . T h e speed w i l l v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n the p r o p a g a t i o n m e d i u m ; f o r instance, the speed o f s o u n d is faster t h r o u g h w a t e r t h a n t h r o u g h air.

quencies w i t h i n a .spectrum can be q u i t e c o m p l e x , and are i n fact responsible f o r the r i c h palette o f s o u n d colors that w e experience daily. U s i n g the treble and bass tone controls o f a h o m e audio system is an everyday example o f h o w a sound's s p e c t r u m can be changed b y selectively e m p h a sizing some f r e q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t s and d e - e m p h a s i z i n g others.
Figure 2.4 T w o sine waves w i t h d i f f e r e n t frequencies. T h e r e d sine wave has a f r e q u e n c y that is five times the f r e q u e n c y o f t h e black sine wave, because there are five repetitions o f t h e wave over t h e t i m e span t g - t i .

Acoustics

Rocic music (large jirena) Dog kennel

Alarm clock

onal speech Wind in the trees

16k

Figure 2.5 Frequency range of typical sound sources.

The wave length o f a sound QC) is related to the speed o f sound (c) and the frequency () by the following formula: X =

Although noise was previously defined as "undesirable sound," it technically refers to sound waves with no periodic frequency Figures 2.6 and 2.7 show example plots of noisenoise consists of random frequencies that vary from moment to moment and sound like a waterfall. Ifthe noise is concentrated in a narrow range of frequencies, it is termed tonal noise. Most sound sources in our environment are composed of a combination of these types of periodic and random signals. For instance. Figure 2.8 shows a speech signal of the word "left." Speech is made up of a sequence of sound events with unique frequency characteristics called phonemes. The phoneme "e" is periodicwe could sing a song with just this "e" sound by changing its frequency On the other hand, the phoneme " f " is noisy, caused by the air that passes between the teeth and lower hp. Try this out for yourself by saying the word "left" very slowly and extending the "f."

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Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level

T h e concept of sound pressure is basic to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o u n d waves. Figure 2.3 shows h o w s o u n d pressure represents an increase and decrease above and b e l o w the atmospheric air pressure w e n o r m a l l y experience. A v a r i a t i o n i n s o u n d pressure is perceived as a change i n loudness; loudness is discussed i n C h a p t e r 3. T h e range o f s o u n d pressures that humans can detect is e n o r m o u s . T h e quietest s o u n d a typical y o u n g person can hear is equivalent to 20 micropascals (.00002 pascals), w h i l e the m o s t intense s o u n d that humans can tolerate is equivalent to a s o u n d pressure o f a r o u n d 200 pascals (Pa). T h i s is a change i n m a g n i t u d e o f 10,000,000 t o 1! B y u s i n g a p a r t i c u l a r l o g a r i t h m i c u n i t k n o w n as the decibel ( d B ) , a w i d e range o f pressure m e a surements are compressed o n t o a l o g a r i t h m i c scale.The d B scale is easy a n d
Figure 2.7 (bottom) A close-up o f Figure 2.6 (top) A noise w a v e : c o n trasting the sine wave, a noise wave is c o m p l e t e l y a p e r i o d i c .

c o n v e n i e n t to use w h e n d e s c r i b i n g sound. T h e range o f decibels laiost c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n acoustics extends f r o m 0 to 140 d B 0 d B c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the t h r e s h o l d o f h e a r i n g , and 140 d B c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the threshold o f pain. W i t h i n these l i m i t s is the d y n a m i c range o f the a u d i t o r y systenr. A s o u n d pressure expressed using the d B scale is t e r m e d the sound pressure level (SPL) and is the most f r e q u e n t l y used m e t r i c i n acoustics. I n order t o go f r o m s o u n d pressure t o SPL, there are three steps:

the noise s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.6.

Figure

2.8 A speech w a v e o f the

w o r d " l e f t . " N o t e h o w this w a v e varies over t i m e . T h e " e " p o r t i o n o f the wave is m o r e p e r i o d i c t h a n the " f " p o r t i o n , w h i c h is noisy.

Time

(1) convert the s o u n d pressure at successive instantaneous values i n t o an average s o u n d pressure over a particular t i m e p e r i o d ; (2) express this average value as a ratio to a reference level that is based o n the t h r e s h o l d o f hearing; and (3) convert to a decibel scale b y m u l t i p l y i n g 20 times the l o g a r i t h m o f that ratio.Table 2 . 1 shows comparative s o u n d pressure and s o u n d pressure level values f o r c o m m o n s o u n d sources.^
Technically, s o u n d pressure is a measure o f acoustic f o r c e over a u n i t area, measured i n n e w t o n s per m e t e r squared ( n e w t o n / m ^ ) . O n e n e w t o n / m - ^ is e q u i v a l e n t t o one pascal (Pa); it's easier t o say " 2

Predicting S o u n d P r e s s u r e Levels f r o m Multiple S o u r c e s

pascals" t h a n " 2 n e w t o n s p e r m e t e r squared." A newton is the a m o u n t o f f o r c e n e e d e d t o accelerate a mass o f one k i l o g r a m o n e m e t e r p e r second per second.

I n m a n y cases, i t is desirable to p r e d i c t h o w the s o u n d pressure level w o u l d change b y a d d i n g a d d i t i o n a l s o u n d sources. For example, consider the sound o f a single p u m p i n a m e c h a n i c a l e q u i p m e n t r o o m . A n engineer

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Acoustics

Sound p r e s s u r e (Pa) Table 2.1 C o m p a r i s o n o f s o u n d pressure a n d d B S P L f o r t y p i c a l s o u n d sources. 20.0 2.0 0.2 0.02 0.002 0.0002 0.00002

Sound pressure level (dB) Example s o u n d s o u r c e

200.0

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

T h r e s h o l d of pain N e a r a jet aircraft engine Near a jackhammer Typical f a c t o r y N o r m a l s p e e c h level Q u i e t living r o o m Q u i e t r e c o r d i n g studio T h r e s h o l d of hearing

T h e mathematical definition o f s o u n d pressure level:

measures the s o u n d at a reference distance (typically 1 m ) and obtains a level o f 65 d B . T h e engineer wants to k n o w w h a t the s o u n d level w o u l d be i f several m o r e p u m p s were added i n the r o o m . H o w does an engineer predict the s o u n d level o f m u l t i p l e sound sources? I n o u r example, a d d i n g

dB

SPL =

20

log

(PI/PQ)

W h e r e the value o f

is the aver-

age pressure o f the wave, and Pg is a i n b i e n t a t m o s p h e r i c pressure (equivalent t o the t h r e s h o l d o f h e a r i n g ) . A n i n t e r n a t i o n a l standard sets Pg t o a s o u n d pressure level o f . 0 0 0 0 2 n e w t o n s / m 2 . \ ) 7 h e n P , is equal t o Pg, t h e e q u a t i o n w o r k s o u t t o be equal t o the standardized r e f erence level o f 0 d B .

an a d d i t i o n a l p u m p i n the r o o m w o u l d n o t d o u b l e the s o u n d pressure level; d B values are n o t additive. A simple calculation o f the t o t a l resulting s o u n d pressure level can be made b y u s i n g the f o l l o w i n g s h o r t c u t f o r d e c i b e l a d d i t i o n : (1) i f the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t w o sound levels is 0 o r 1 d B , add 3 d B to the h i g h e r level; (2) i f the difference b e t w e e n t w o s o u n d l e v els is 2 o r 3 d B , add 2 d B to the h i g h e r level; (3) i f the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t w o s o u n d levels is 4 to 9 d B , add 1 d B to the h i g h e r level; (4) i f the d i f ference b e t w e e n t w o s o u n d levels is 10 d B o r m o r e , the resuk is the h i g h er o f the t w o sources; and (5) to c o m b i n e m o r e t h a n t w o levels, first add the t w o lowest t o g e t h e r a c c o r d i n g to the above rules; t h e n add the n e x t

Difference betv/een two sound levels 0 or 1 dB 2 or 3 dB 4-9 dB 10 dB or more

Add to higher sound level 3 dB 2 dB 1 dB 0 dB

t w o lowest levels together u n t i l o n l y t w o values are o b t a i n e d . T h e n the above rules are apphcable (see Table 2.2). R e f e r r i n g back t o the p r o b l e m , w e have one p u m p measured at

65 d B . T w o p u m p s w i t h the same level w i l l result i n an a d d i t i o n a l 3 d B (or 68 d B total). For three p u m p s , the t w o l o w e r sound levels are added t o g e t h er: since they are the same level, w e get 68 d B + 65 d B , resulting m 70 d B . For f o u r p u m p s , 65 d B 4- 65 d B = 68 d B f o r pumps one and t w o ; 65 + 65 d B = 68 d B f o r p u m p s three and f o u r ; and therefore add 68 4- 68 d B ,

Table 2.2 D e c i b e l A d d i t i o n

w h i c h results m an overall level 7 1 dB. W i t h five p u m p s , the total is 72 d B (71 d B 4- 65 d B ) . T h u s , five p u m p s w o u l d be 7 d B l o u d e r t h a n one p u m p . To c o m b i n e m u l t i p l e s o u n d sources together o f the same intensity,

N e w t o n s ? Pascals? H e r t z ? Decibels? T h e s e scientific units are based o n the names o f p r o m i n e n t figures i n science. H e r t z h o n o r s the 1 9 t h c e n t u r y scientist H e i n r i c h H e r t z . N e w t o n s are n a m e d after Sir Isaac N e w t o n , w h o sat u n d e r apple trees and i n v e n t e d d i f f e r e n t i a l calculus. Pascal was a f a m o u s F r e n c h m a t h e matician o f t h e 17th century.And t h e d e c i b e l is n a m e d after A l e x a n d e r G r a h a m BeU, the f a t h e r o f t e l e p h o n y

the f o r m u l a is SPL + 10 l o g ( N ) = Total s o u n d level, w h e r e SPL is the s o u n d level o f one s o u n d and N is the n u m b e r o f sources. To check o u r answer above: 65 + 10 log(5) = 72 d B .

Directivity

T h e spatial properties o f either a s o u n d source or a receiver at various f r e quencies and directions constitute its d i r e c t i o n a l p a t t e r n o r J/rerf;V/ty.When a s o u n d source radiates energy evenly i n all directions i t is called o m n i d i rectional. T h e r e f o r e , an o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e w o u l d be equally sen-

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33

sitive to sounds f r o m all directions, b u t most s o u n d sources e m i t m o r e p o w e r i n some directions than others. A j e t engine, f o r instance, is m u c h l o u d e r o n its exhaust side t h a n o n its intake side. Each f r e q u e n c y that makes u p the s o u n d source w i l l have its o w n directivity. Figure 2.9 shows the d i r e c t i o n a l p a t t e r n f o r various frequencies e m i t t e d b y a loudspeaker.

250 Hz

500 H z Figure 2.9 D i r e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f

a loudspeaker. Each p l o t shows the directivity f o r a different frequency. N o t e h o w the sound becomes m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l w i t h increasing f r e q u e n c y .

I kHz

8 kHz

16 k H z

Environmental context

T h e l o w e r frequencies are less d i r e c t i o n a l t h a n h i g h e r frequencies. I n g e n eral, w h e n a w a v e l e n g t h o f a sound is larger t h a n the source generating i t , the s o u n d p a t t e r n has an o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l characteristic.

Diffuse Sound Fields

D i r e c t s o u n d is the s o u n d wave that reaches the listener via a direct p a t h , w i t h o u t h a v i n g b o u n c e d o f f a r e f l e c t i n g suiTace. A diffuse sound field, o n the o t h e r h a n d , refers to the energy f r o m a s o u n d source that reaches the l i s tener indirectly, after r e f l e c t i n g o f f s u r r o u n d i n g surfaces. T h e b u i l d u p o f diffuse sound over t i m e is k n o w n as reverberation. R e v e r b e r a t i o n is a c o l l e c t i o n o f t i m e - d e l a y e d versions o f a s o u n d that have decayed i n i n t e n s i t y over t i m e as they arrive at the listener. A representation o f the reverberat i o n process is s h o w n i n Figure 2.10. W h i l e reverberation is most o f t e n heard i n enclosed spaces, s o u n d reflections also o c c u r i n o u t d o o r settings. O n l y i n anechoic chambers o r i n atypical e n v i r o n m e n t a l locations such as o n a m o u n t a i n s u m m i t is s o u n d ever free o f reflections. T h i s is the d e f i n i t i o n o f z f r e e sound field,"a mediFigure 2.10 (top) A s i m p l i f i e d p l o t o f Time Direct sound Early reflections Late reflections (reverberation) Source Listener

a d i r e c t s o u n d (blue) a n d t w o early r e f l e c t i o n s (red) f r o m a s o u n d source t o a hstener. (bottom) Reflectogram s h o w i n g d i r e c t s o u n d (blue), early r e f l e c t i o n s (red), and r e v e r b e r a t i o n ( g r e e n ) . T h e early a n d late r e f l e c tions taken t o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e t h e diffuse sound field.

u m w h e r e o n l y the direct s o u n d reaches the receiver." I n m o s t r o o m s , the direct and t i m e delayed sounds arrive so q u i c k l y i n succession that they are perceived as one s o u n d source, a r r i v i n g f r o m a single l o c a t i o n d e f i n e d b y the direct sound. H o w e v e r , i f the r e f l e c t i o n arrives late e n o u g h i n t i m e and has a significantly h i g h a m p l i t u d e , i t is heard separately as an echo.

34

Acoustics

Figure 2.11 shows an iiTipulse response o f a r o o m , obtained by r e c o r d i n e a b a l l o o n pop. A r o o m impulse response is a graphic representation o f the m o m e n t - t o - m o m e n t v a r i a t i o n o f sound pressure m a diffuse f i e l d . T h e r o o m impulse response is equivalent to the r e f l e c t o g r a m s h o w n at the b o t t o m o f Figure 2.10. T w o possibly significant early reflecdons that m i g h t be heard as echoes are indicated b y arrows i n Figure 2 . 1 1 . Chapter 6 treats the topics o f reverberation, echoes, and difliise sound fields m greater depth.
Figure 2.11 T h i s i m p u l s e response was o b t a i n e d b y p o p p i n g a b a l l o o n i n a r o o m and r e c o r d i n g the results. T h e arrows i n d i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n t early reflections.

T h e I n v e r s e S q u a r e Lavw

T h e inverse square l a w expresses the decrease m s o u n d pressure as a f u n c t i o n o f distance. Each d o u b h n g o f distance f r o m a reference p o i n t translates i n t o a 6 d B loss m s o u n d pressure level as s h o w n m Figure 2.12. T h e inverse square l a w p r i m a r i l y pertains to p o i n t s o u n d sources o u t - o f - d o o r s . Examples a p p r o x i m a t i n g p o i n t s o u n d sources i n c l u d e w i n d o w air c o n d i t i o n e r s and loudspeakers. A l i n e source o n the o t h e r h a n d radiates s o u n d c y l m d r i c a l l y U n l i k e the p o i n t source, the s o u n d pressure level f o r a l i n e source w i l l be r e d u c e d by 3 d B f o r every d o u b l i n g o f distance. W a t e r passing t h r o u g h a p i p e approximates a l i n e source.

T h e area of the wavefront is 4 times greater at d, (2m)

A r e a of the wavefront at d| ( I m )

Sound source

72 dB

66 dB

Figure

2.12 T h e inverse square law.

T h e inverse square law can be v e r y useful f o r estimating the f a l l - o f f i n direct sound level fi-om an o u t d o o r source. However, f o r a sound source m a reverberant r o o m , the inverse square l a w does n o t apply T h i s is because the reverberation contributes to the overall level; the f a l l - o f f m the direct sound level is compensated f o r b y reverberant energy that builds up w i t h i n a r o o m .

Because the area o f the wave is f o u r times as large f o r each d o u b h n g o f distance, there is a 6 d B loss.

Fundamentals

35

Conclusion

Notes 1. I t IS possible to refer to the soutid power ( W ) o f a source, i n d e p e n d e n t o f the distance a n d d i r e c t i v i t y o f the source, u n l i k e the s o u n d pressure level. A s o u n d source radiates s o u n d waves w h o s e total p o w e r can be measured i n ivatts, a standard s c i e n t i f i c u n i t f o r m e a s u r i n g energ)^, w o r k , o r t h e q u a n t i t y o f heat. L i k e s o u n d pressure level, t h e s o u n d p o w e r level is expressed m a t h e m a t i cally as a d B r a t i o to a reference level. I n this case, t h e reference is 10"'2 watts (1 p i c o w a t t ) :

I n this chapter, the f u n d a m e n t a l concepts o f acoustics were i n t r o d u c e d : f r e quency, s o u n d pressure level, s p e c t r u m , directivity, and reverberation. A l l o f these concepts are measurable i n a physical sense, b u t C h a p t e r 3, " P s y c h o acoustics and H e a r i n g , " covers h o w w e i n t e r p r e t these f u n d a m e n t a l c o n cepts. A c o u s t i c a l measurements make up a large part o f the engineering

efforts i n acoustics. C h a p t e r 4 discusses techniques used f o r m e a s u r i n g the frequency and a m p l i t u d e o f noise.

S o u n d Power Level (dB) = l O l o g i o ( W , / W , | ) W h e r e W I is the p o w e r i n watts o f the s o u n d source, and W Q is t h e r e f erence p o w e r level o f 1 p i c o w a t t . Sound intensity (I) refers t o t h e rate

o f f l o w o f s o u n d energy p e r u n i t area i n a specified d i r e c t i o n ; i t rs therefore a measurement o f n o t only s o u n d pressure b u t m o l e c u l a r air p a r t i c l e velocit)^. As w i t h S P L , the sound intensity lettel is measured as a r a t i o to a reference q u a n t i t y . I n a /fee sotind fteld, an o p e n field, o r o t h e r environmental context where r e f l e c t e d s o u n d is e f f e c t i v e l y n o t present, t h e values o b t a i n e d f o r SPL a n d s o u n d i n t e n s i t ) ' level arc the same:

S o u n d i n t e n s i t y level d B = 10 l o g , , , ( I , / l o ) W h e r e I | is the p o w e r measured i n w a t t s / m ' ^ a n d I n is a r e f e r e n c e value o f 10-'2 watts/m2.

The Auditory Loudness Measures

Mechanism

Perceptual Location

Interpretation

of Physical Effect

Cues

Pitch

Timbre

and Spatial

The Precedence

Psychoacoustic

H U M A N h e a r i n g can be separated i n t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l and perceptual aspects. T h e p h y s i o l o g y o f h e a r i n g refers t o aspects o f t h e a u d i t o r y m e c h a n i s m that respond d i r e c t l y t o acoustical events, w h i l e p e r c e p t i o n refers t o processing o f acoustic events b y t h e b r a i n . T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n physical measurements o f sound, the p e r c e p t i o n o f the Hstener, and legal o r scientific standards is illustrated i n Figure 3 . 1 .

The Auditory

IVIechanism

TraditionaUy, the a u d i t o r y m e c h a n i s m is s u b d i v i d e d i n t o the outer, m i d d l e , a n d i n n e r ear. Figure 3.2 a n d this t e x t p r o v i d e a t h u m b n a i l sketch o f the auditory mechanism, along w i t h a description o f their f u n c t i o n . Sound enters the a u d i t o r y m e c h a n i s m v i a the pinna first

(the visible p o r t i o n o f the

o u t e r e a r ) . T h e p i n n a acts as a filter w h o s e f r e q u e n c y response depends o n the incidence angle o f sound. Because o f this, the p i n n a is considered t o f u n c t i o n as a cue t o a u d i t o r y l o c a l i z a t i o n . F o U o w i n g t h e p i n n a , i n c o m i n g s o u n d is t r a n s f o r m e d b y the efliects o f t h e meatus (or "ear c a n a l " ) . T h e m e a -

tus can be a p p r o x i m a t e d b y a tube 6 m m (0.2 i n . ) i n diameter and 27 m m (1.0 i n . ) l o n g , w i t h a resonant frequency o f a r o u n d 3.5 k H z .

T h e e n d o f the ear canal marks the b e g i n n i n g o f the m i d d l e ear, w h i c h consists o f the eardrum and the ossicles (the smaH bones p o p u l a r l y

38

Acoustics

t e r m e d the " h a m m e r - a i i v i l - s t i r r u p " ) . S o u n d is t r a n s f o r m e d at the m i d d l e ear f r o m acoustical energy at the e a r d r u m to m e c h a n i c a l energy at the ossicles. T h e ossicles c o n v e r t the m e c h a n i c a l energy i n t o f l u i d pressure w i t h i n the i n n e r ear (the coMed) via m o t i o n at the oval w i n d o w . T h e f l u i d pres-

sure causes f r e q u e n c y - d e p e n d e n t v i b r a t i o n patterns a l o n g the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 m m (1.0 i n . ) l o n g basilar m e m b r a n e w i t h i n the i n n e r ear.These

Sound source

v i b r a t i o n patterns cause n u m e r o u s fibers p r o t r u d i n g f r o m a u d i t o r y hair cells (cilia) to b e n d at certain locations along the basilar m e m b r a n e . H i g h f r e q u e n c y s o u n d activates the basilar m e m b r a n e near its c o n n e c t i o n beneath the oval w i n d o w . W i t h l o w e r frequencies, the v i b r a t i o n occurs f a r t h e r a l o n g the m e m b r a n e . These ciha i n t u r n activate electrical potentials w i t h i n the neurons o f t h e a u d i t o r y system, resulting m aural p e r c e p t i o n and c o g n i t i o n . H e a r i n g loss o r damage to the h e a r i n g m e c h a n i s m can be caused by

Listener (ptiysiology, perception)

either b r i e f o r l o n g - t e r m exposure to appropriately h i g h s o u n d levels. D a m a g e t o the h e a r i n g m e c h a n i s m or to health i n general is t e r m e d a physiological effect o f noise, and can result f r o m b o t h unsafe w o r k c o n d i tions and l o u d recreational activities such as Hstening t o music t h r o u g h headphones o r f i r i n g guns. T h e h e a r i n g loss that occurs naturally i n a g i n g is k n o w n as presbycusis.

l^easurement device

P e r c e p t u a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of P h y s i c a l C u e s

U n d e r c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s , a measurement o f a physical aspect o f sound IS repeatable, a l l o w i n g an accurate p r e d i c t i o n o f its variables. B y contrast, the measurement o f h u m a n perceptual response t o s o u n d is less p r e -

dictable, and has a n o n - l m e a r relationship t o physical measurements. For these reasons, a d i s t i n c t i o n is made b e t w e e n acoustics and psychoacoustics.

Psychoacoustics refers t o the scientific study o f h u m a n a u d i t o r y percepData relating perceptual and physical measures

tion.

T h e n o n - l i n e a r relationship b e t w e e n physical and psychoacoustical

aspects o f s o u n d can be made b y the f o l l o w i n g analogy t o c o o k i n g . A c h e f can add 1, 1^4, or 4 teaspoons o f oregano to a sauce, b u t the sauce w i t h 4 tea,spoons w i l l n o t taste " f o u r times as spicy," and it m a y be impossible to n o t i c e the difference b e t w e e n a sauce w i t h 1 and 1>'4 teaspoons.Taste is the perceptual d i m e n s i o n , w h i l e the a m o u n t o f spice added to the sauce is the physical d i m e n s i o n . T h e change i n the physical d i m e n s i o n does n o t c o r r e s p o n d to the same p r o p o r t i o n a l change i n the perceptual d i m e n s i o n . Psychoacoustic studies ( c o l l o q u i a l l y r e f e r r e d to as "Hstening tests")

Acoustical & noise control standards

are c o n d u c t e d m order to estabhsh a standardized relationship b e t w e e n physical and perceptual p h e n o m e n a , f o r instance, b e t w e e n s o u n d pressure level and loudness. C a r r y i n g the c o o k i n g analogy f u r t h e r , a gastronomic

Figure

3 . i T h e relationship between form

experiment

could

estabhsh

the

relationship

between

"teaspoons

of

o b j e c t i v e physical measures a n d subjective p e r c e p t u a l measures noise c o n t r o l standards.

o r e g a n o " and "perceived spiciness." A similar procedure is used f o r establ i s h i n g relationships b e t w e e n physical and perceived magnitudes o f sound. Table 3.1 identifies equivalent physical and psychoacoustical parameters. T h e relationship b e t w e e n physical and perceptual parameters have been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o noise c o n t r o l standards. Studies have investigated the role o f noise i n d i s t u r b i n g sleep; as a consequence, noise c o n t r o l standards aUow

t h e basis for m a n y acoustical a n d

Psychoacoustics and Hearing

39

Figure

3.2 O v e r v i e w o f t h e a u d i t o r y

system. A . p i n n a ; B . meatus; C . ear d r u m ; D . ossicles; E . oval w i n d o w ; F. cochlea; G . a u d i t o r y n e r v e .

Outer Ear

Middle Ear

Inner Ear

less noise at n i g h t t h a n d u r i n g the day. M o s t people have e x p e r i e n c e d h o w b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d can i n f l u e n c e daily activity. Similarly, there are m a n y d o c u m e n t e d studies o n h o w w o r k p e r f o r m a n c e o r l e a r n i n g can be a d versely affected b y noise. These are called behavioral effects o f noise, i n contrast to the p h y s i o l o g i c a l noise effects discussed earlier.

Physical Terminology Frequency Sound pressure level Spectrum

Perceptual Terminology Pitch Loudness

Timbre (tone color)

Pitch

F r e q u e n c y is a measurable quantity, whereas p i t c h refers to the p e r c e p t i o n o f fi-equency. Pitch is also a t e r m used b y musicians t o refer to musical notes; someone w i t h " p e r f e c t p i t c h " is skilled at m a t c h i n g a p i t c h to an exact frequency. O n e t e r m c o m m o n t o b o t h musicians a n d acousticians is the octave. An octave relationship is a f r e q u e n c y i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t w o

Table 3. t Physical versus p e r c e p t u a l terminology.

sounds w h o s e r a t i o is 2 . T h u s , 100 H z t o 2 0 0 H z is an octave; as is 31.5 H z t o 63 H z . P i t c h can be i m p o r t a n t f o r d e s c r i b i n g c e r t a i n types o f p r o b l e m s i n noise c o n t r o l applications. G e n e r a l l y a noise is m o s t d i s t u r b i n g w h e n i t is c o n c e n t r a t e d i n a n a r r o w f r e q u e n c y range; this is t e r m e d t o n a l noise. T h e s o u n d f r o m a m a c h i n e can have a specific p i t c h due t o the f r e q u e n c y o f the m o t o r ' s oscillation; f o r c e d air can w h i s t l e across a v e n t . W e are all f a m i l iar w i t h the h u m o f t h e ballasts i n a fluorescent l i g h t system. B r o a d b a n d fleely

noise, conversely, w o u l d be e x e m p l i f i e d b y the s o u n d o f distant flowing traffic.

Loudness

Scientific tests have d e t e r m i n e d the relationship b e t w e e n s o u n d pressure level and the p e r c e p t i o n o f loudness. T h e equal loudness c o n t o u r s (also

t e r m e d " F l e t c h e r - M u n s o n curves") i n Figure 3.3 s h o w this relationship. T h e graph's c o n t o u r s indicate levels i n terms o f phons, w h i c h equal loudness represent

f o r a g i v e n pure t o n e SPL referenced to 1 k H z . For

instance, the r e d dots o n the c o n t o u r l i n e f o r 40 phons s h o w that 62 d B at

40

Acoustics

Figive

3.3 E q u a l - l o u d i i e s s c o n t o u r s 120

for p u r e tones ( F l e t c h e r - M u n s o n G r a p h ) . T h e c o n t o u r lines i n d i c a t e equal loudness levels (phons) relative to a 1 k H z f r e q u e n c y . R e f e r t o t e x t f o r discussion o f r e d dots o n t h e 40 p h o n c o n t o u r l i n e . 100

80

60

40

20

20

100

500

Ik

5k

I Ok

Frequency (Hz)

T h e equivalence b e t w e e n p i t c h a n d frequency becomes m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d w i t h real s o u n d sources. F o r e x a m p l e , musicians c o m m o n l y m o d u l a t e f r e q u e n c y over t i m e u s i n g a t e c h n i q u e k n o w n as v i b r a t o . A l t h o u g h the f r e q u e n c y is v a r i e d as m u c h as a s e m i t o n e at a rate o f 5 to 8 H z , a single p i t c h is p e r c e i v e d .

100 H z sounds equally l o u d as 40 d B at 1 k H z , and 50 d B at 10 k H z . T h e frequency weighting filters b u i l t i n t o sound level meters described i n

C h a p t e r 4 physically a p p r o x i m a t e these contours. N o t surprisingly, the c o n t o u r s that e x h i b i t m a x i m a l sensitivity are at those frequencies associated w i t h speech (approximately 200 H z t o 5 k H z ) . A t m e d i u m and h i g h s o u n d levels, the contours are relatively linear, w h i l e at l o w e r levels, the c o n t o u r s i n d i c a t e that sensitivity to l o w frequencies is less t h a n at h i g h frequencies. T h u s , the relationship b e t w e e n physical and perceptual scales is dependent o n b o t h f r e q u e n c y and s o u n d pressure level. A n o t h e r measurement o f loudness is the sone scale. A s o u n d w i t h a l o u d ness o f 40 phons is equal to 1 sone. T h i s is an a r i t h m e t i c scale such that a d o u b l i n g i n sones is equivalent t o a d o u b l i n g o f loudness. T h e f o r m u l a f o r relating sones and phons is: sones = 2(pl"'"^ ~
4)/l0^

For c o m m u n i t y noise assessment, certain s o u n d sources that are considered to be noisy by one g r o u p o f people may n o t be a p r o b l e m f o r another g r o u p . A general procedure i n such assessments is that the average person's level o f annoyance needs to be considered. A b o u t 10 percent o f any p o p u l a t i o n can be expected to o b j e c t to any noise n o t o f t h e i r o w n m a k i n g . T h i s g r o u p is r e f e r r e d to as hypersensitive. A b o u t 25 percent are p r a c t i c a l l y i m p e r t u r b a b l e . T h i s g r o u p is insensitive to noise. T h e r e m a i n i n g t w o thirds g r o u p are considered people w h o have w h a t is called n o r m a l sensitivity. Some people w i l l o b j e c t to certain noises t h r o u g h association; f o r example, the fear o f h a v i n g an aircraft crash i n t o one's house can m o t i v a t e o b j e c t i o n to aircraft sound, w h i l e another type o f s o u n d at the same s o u n d level m a y n o t be perceived as d i s t u r b i n g .

Psychoacoustics and Hearing

41

O n e type o f psychoacoustic measure is k n o w n as A just noticeable dijference ( J N D ) . A n example o f a J N D as applied to e n v i r o n m e n t a l acoustics is i n Table 3.2, w h i c h shows the expected response to an increase i n noise level.

Increase in noise level (dB) 1

Expected response Possibly detectable under laboratory conditions

Timbre and Spatial Location

T h e s p e c t r u m o f a s o u n d source is largely responsible f o r the perceptual quahty of timbre, o r " t o n e color." T i m b r e is sometimes d e f i n e d i n terms o f w h a t i t is n o t , f o r example, "the q u a l i t y o f s o u n d that distinguishes i t from
10

Some individual comment and reaction is expected but no group action is likely Perceived as twice as loud

other sounds o f t h e same p i t c h and loudness." O u r ability to discriminate b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t timbres is v e r y c o m p h c a t e d a n d n o t fuUy u n d e r s t o o d , b u t

20

Perceived as four times as loud

the m a i n cues seem to involve the change i n a sound's s p e c t r u m over t i m e . Spatial l o c a t i o n is also an i m p o r t a n t perceptual q u a l i t y o f sound. T h e audible difference i n level b e t w e e n the ears as the l o c a t i o n o f a s o u n d moves relative to a listener is t e r m e d an interaural level difference, and is the same cue m a n i p u l a t e d by a stereo s o u n d system. For instance, i f y o u snap y o u r fingers to the r i g h t o f y o u r head, the level w i l l be l o u d e r at the r i g h t ear t h a n at the l e f t ear. H i g h frequencies above 1.5 k H z are shielded fi-om the opposite ear b y the head. A n o t h e r cue f o r spatial h e a r i n g is the inter-

Table 3.2 E x p e c t e d response t o increase i n noise level.

aural time difference. T h e wave reaches the r i g h t ear b e f o r e the l e f t ear, since the p a t h l e n g t h to that ear is s h o r t e r . T h i s t i m e d i f f e r e n c e cue is most e f f e c tive f o r frequencies b e l o w 1.5 k H z . Besides level and t i m e differences, another cue f o r l o c a l i z a t i o n is the spectral m o d i f i c a t i o n caused b y the o u t e r ears (the p i n n a e ) . F o r every s o u n d source p o s i t i o n relative to a listener, the pinnae cause a u n i q u e spectral m o d i f i c a t i o n that acts as an acoustic signature, as s h o w n i n Figure 3.4. These spectral m o d i f i c a t i o n s are especially i m p o r t a n t i n p e r c e i v i n g the u p / d o w n a n d f r o n t / b a c k locations o f a s o u n d source.

The Precedence Effect

T h e precedence effect (also called the "Haas e f f e c t " ) explains an i m p o r t a n t i n h i b i t o r y m e c h a n i s m o f the a u d i t o r y system that allows one to hear

Figure Front

3.4 Spectr al m o d i f i c a t i o n

caused b y the p i n n a e f o r t w o p o s i t i o n s . N o t i c e h o w t h e s o u n d is b r i g h t e r i n fi'ont a n d m o r e a t t e n u a t e d i n b a c k . Inset: overhead v i e w s h o w i n g s o u n d source p o s i t i o n s .

-SO Ik 2k 4k 6k 8k Frequency (Hz) I Ok 12k 14k 16k

42

Acoustics

sounds i n the presence o f reverberation. I t is also i m p o r t a n t f o r u n d e r standing the disturbance o f speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y i n r o o m s . A l t h o u g h w e are b o m b a r d e d w i t h m u l t i p l e s o u n d reflections i n a reverberant e n v i r o n m e n t , o u r h e a r i n g system interprets the s o u n d as located at one p o i n t . U p to about 40 msec, w e perceive b o t h s o u n d reflections and the direct s o u n d as a single, i n t e g r a t e d s o u n d source. I n o t h e r w o r d s , the direct s o u n d takes precedence over the later sounds.This is also t r u e f o r s o u n d reflections after about 40 msec, i f the a m p l i t u d e o f t h e reflections is l o w e n o u g h . B u t i f the amplitude o f a r e f l e c t i o n is s u f l i c i e n t l y h i g h , and occurs after about

40 msec, w e hear the r e f l e c t i o n as a separate s o u n d source, or echo, because the precedence effect n o l o n g e r operates. T h i s is the same type o f echo e x p e r i e n c e d w h e n s h o u t i n g i n t o a canyon and the s o u n d r e f l e c t i o n o f f the walls i n the distance is heard. Echoes can be v e r y d i s t u r b i n g i f heard d u r i n g a music p e r f o r m a n c e or d u r i n g a lecture; as a result, echo m i t i g a t i o n is an i m p o r t a n t part o f r o o m acoustics design.

P s y c h o a c o u s t i c IVIeasures

M a n y o f the noise c r i t e r i a discussed i n this b o o k are based o n psychoacoustic measures. I n o t h e r w o r d s , an attempt is made to relate a physical measurement o f a q u a n t i t y to a perceptual quantity, i n order t o p r e d i c t

h u m a n response to a g i v e n acoustical p h e n o m e n o n . Some specific psychoacoustic measures that are c o m m o n l y used are listed i n Table 3.3. As an example, Figure 3.5 illustrates N o i s e C r i t e r i a ( N C ) curves, w h i c h are used f o r relating b a c k g r o u n d noise to the octave

Table 3.3 R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n some psychoacoustic measures a n d applications.

Psychoacoustic-based measure Ardculation index (Al) Speech interference level (SIL) A-weighted sound levels (dBA)

Description & Application Estimate of speech intelligibility in noisy contexts Simplified Al method dB levels adjusted for a particular equal loudness contour Widely used as "general measure," hearing conservation (OSHA), and community noise ordinances Frequency-based value used to describe maximum allowable background noise, used for continuous (as opposed to time-varying) noise Like N C , but curves allow more low-frequency noise An improved version of N C curves, accounting for speech interference level by HVAC systems Like N C , but curves adjusted for characterizing a "blander" background noise Like N C , but curves extend to lower frequencies; designed to be more sensitive to "rumble" and "hissiness" from HVAC systems A rating of aircraft "noisiness" used in assessment of aircraft flyover disturbance Used for assessing annoyance by noise to a community, including various types of day v. nighttime sensitivity weightings Used to rate the noise of some ventilation fans

Noise criteria ( N C ) curves

Noise criteria-A (MCA) curves Noise criteria-B ( N C B ) curves "balanced noise criterion" Preferred noise criteria (PNC)

Room criteria (RC)

Perceived noise level (PNL)

Night avei-age sound level (NL) Community noise equivalent level ( C N E L ) Day/night average sound level ( D N L ) Bels (equal to 10 dB)

Psychoacoustics and Hearing

43

Figure

3.5 N o i s e C r i t e r i a ( N C )

curves. T h e s e are used t o describe the target c r i t e r i a f o r t h e level o f b a c k g r o u n d noise i n a r o o m . L i k e the equal-loudness curves s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3.3, the N C curves c o m p e n sate f o r t h e f a c t that h u m a n h e a r i n g is less sensitive t o l o w e r f r e q u e n c i e s than to higher frequencies. I n meas u r e m e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s (see C h a p ter 4 ) , a p a r t i c u l a r c u r v e is i n d i c a t e d o n t h e basis o f the l o u d e s t frequenc y r e g i o n o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d noise.

31.5

63

125

250

500

ll<

2I<

4i<

8I<

Octave-band center frequency (Hz)

b a n d s o u n d pressure level i n r o o m s . These m e t h o d s f o r r a t i n g noise are p e r i o d i c a l l y revised or m o d i f i e d as researchers develop n e w insights i n t o the effects o f noise and v i b r a t i o n o n h u m a n p h y s i o l o g y and p e r c e p t i o n .

Conclusion

I n this chapter, i t was p o i n t e d o u t that physical measurements o f s o u n d f o r m the basis o f psychoacoustic descriptors. Psychoacoustics is a j o i n t f i e l d o f physics and p s y c h o l o g y that deals w i t h acoustical p h e n o m e n a as related to a u d i t i o n . T h e relationship b e t w e e n physical acoustic variables a n d h u m a n response is n o t linear a n d cannot be precisely p r e d i c t e d . A w i d e v a r i e t y o f psychoacoustic measures are used t o correlate the physical measurement o f a s o u n d w i t h people's subjective response, d e p e n d i n g o n the specific a p p l i c a t i o n .

4
Measurements
Durand R. Begault, Ph.D.

Measurement Octave-Band

Types Sound Measurements

Level Measurements

Octave-Band

and

One-Third Analysis

Diffuse versus Free Field Incidence Fourier

As

a part o f acoustical design, i t is o f t e n necessary t o q u a n t i f y aspects o f an

existing e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t o p r e d i c t the result o f a d d i n g an acoustical treatm e n t . Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n are t w o aspects o f acoustical measurem e n t ; q u a n t i f i c a t i o n involves the use o f i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , w h i l e p r e d i c t i o n involves calculations based o n p r e v i o u s l y made measurements. B y f o r m i n g a p r e d i c t i v e m o d e l , i t is possible t o develop a design that can be tested against a target c r i t e r i a . Because m e t h o d s o f acoustical q u a n t i f i c a t i o n are standardized, a m o d e l can be created that is b o t h accurate a n d replicable f r o m s i t u a t i o n to s i t u a t i o n . Figure 4.1 shows a simple i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e relationships j u s t described. T h e d i f f i c u l t y o f accurately p r e d i c t i n g a result o b v i o u s l y increases w i t h the c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e acoustical c o n t e x t .

Sound Level

Measurements

In C h a p t e r 2, the c o n c e p t o f s o u n d pressure level was i n t r o d u c e d as a w a y o f characterizing the a m p l i t u d e o f a s o u n d source. Table 2.1 i n C h a p t e r 2 lists s o u n d levels b e t w e e n the t h r e s h o l d o f h e a r i n g (0 d B ) and the threshold o f p a m (140 d B ) . T h e sound level m e t e r is essential to q u a n t i f y i n g a s o u n d level. Figure 4.2 shows a generic s o u n d level m e t e r and indicates its m a j o r features. These are (1) the use o f an o m n i - d i r e c t i o n a l i x i i c r o p h o n e as a sensor; and (2) the m e t e r display, w h i c h indicates the s o u n d l e v e l . T h e m i c r o p h o n e

..16

Acoustics

Figure

4.1 A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n acoustic q u a n t i f i c a t i o n a n d p r e d i c t i o n . Probieiri: K house h a d t o o m u c h o u t s i d e noise i n t r u s i o n f r o m v e h i c u l a r trafEc. Solution: (1) measure noise level i n t h e house; (2) s p e c i f y target c r i t e r i a f o r noise r e d u c t i o n ; (3) design noise c o n t r o l c o n s t r u c t i o n ; a n d (4) v e r i f y p r e d i c t e d noise reduction o f i m p r o v e d wall and w i n d o w constructions.

[Microphone

and the m e t e r display are the respective " i n p u t " and " o u t p u t " c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e device. A n o t h e r characteristic c o m m o n to sound level meters is the range c o n t r o l f o r a d j u s t i n g the d y n a m i c range. T h e s o u n d level m e t e r indicates s o u n d pressure levels, however, w e are usually m o r e interested i n a d j u s t i n g the measurement to c o r r e s p o n d to

Frequency^ Weighting

p e r c e p t i o n . T h e averaging o f s o u n d pressure level over t i m e is r e f e r r e d to as a time-weighted average measurement.hn average level is o f t e n m o r e i m p o r -

tant than the m o m e n t - t o - m o m e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s i n level. W e can also apply d i f f e r e n t types frequency weightings i n order to make s o u n d pressure l e v -

els better c o r r e s p o n d w i t h h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n o f loudness.

Figure meter. 4.2 G e n e r i c s o u n d l e v e l

Typically, a sound level m e t e r has t w o types o f t i m e w e i g h t i n g s : fast and slow response. T h i s refers to the t i m e p e r i o d over w h i c h the level is averaged and subsequently i n d i c a t e d at the o u t p u t . T h e t i m e p e r i o d s c o r respond to 125 milliseconds f o r "fast" and 1000 msec (one second) f o r "slow." C o n s i d e r the s o u n d level o f a s l o w - m o v i n g t r u c k , as s h o w n i n Figure 4.3; b o t h slow and fast response values are i n d i c a t e d . Let's say that there's a b u m p i n the road that is o f interest; the slow measurement will

Measurements

47

hide d i e event, b u t the fast response w i l l indicate i t q u i t e clearly as b o t h t r u c k axles pass over the b u m p . T h i s is because the t r u c k passby noise has a h i g h degree o f v a r i a t i o n over t i m e . T o measure the level o f a steady n o n v a r y i n g source, such as an air c o n d i t i o n e r , the slow and fast settings w i U indicate the same s o u n d level. I n m a n y applications, i t is desirable to measure an average s o u n d pressure level over a particular d u r a t i o n . T h i s is accomplished w i t h an i n t e g r a t i n g / a v e r a g i n g s o u n d level meter; the o b t a i n e d s o u n d level is t e r m e d the equivalent continuous sound level o r average sound level (Leq).The Leq is the steady s o u n d level whose s o u n d energy is equivalent t o that o f v a r y i n g s o u n d i n the measured p e r i o d . O f t e n , m a n y Leq measurements need to be o b t a i n e d over an extended d u r a t i o n . F o r example, over a 2 4 - h o u r p e r i o d , an acoustic analysis n i i g h t i n c l u d e the Leq f o r each o n e - h o u r segment.
0 .5 1.0 Time I.S readings from meter fast slow

T h e m e t e r i n Figure 4.2 shows a f r e q u e n c y w e i g h t i n g selection; t y p ically, the level can be adjusted to measure w i t h either a C-weighting A-weighting. Mthou^ "Hnear measurement") o r an
Figure

4. J T r u c k passby; d i f f e r e n c e

w e can o b t a i n a " f l a t response" (sometimes t e r m e d a f r o m a s o u n d level meter, w e i g h t i n g s are usually

i n s l o w a n d fast s o u n d level r e a d ings. N o t e t h a t i t is possible t o d e t ect w h e n the w h e e l s pass over the b u m p i n the r o a d w i t h t h e fast sett i n g , b u t n o t w i t h t h e s l o w setting.

applied i n order t o make the measurements better c o r r e s p o n d t o actual l o u d n e s s . T h e equal loudness c o n t o u r s i n Figure 3.3 ( C h a p t e r 3) indicate h o w perceptual sensitivity varies as a f u n c t i o n o f frequency. Figure 4.4 illustrates the A and C - w e i g h t i n g s . T h e C - w e i g h t i n g is v e r y close to a flat response over the audible frequencies; i t has a gentle r o l l - o f f b e l o w 50 H z and above 5 k H z . T h e A - w e i g h t i n g contrasts this i n that fl-equencies b e l o w 1000 H z are de-emphasized: the r o U - o f f is m o r e severe. F o r the m e t e r to read 70 d B w i t h an A - w e i g h t i n g , a 100 H z f r e q u e n c y tone w o u l d n e e d t o have a Hnear level 20 d B m o r e t h a n i f the t o n e w e r e at 3 k H z .

Figure

4A

Frequency weightings f o r

d B A and d B C .

31.5

63

125

250

500 Frequency (Hz)

|k

2k

4k

8k

16k

A - w e i g h t i n g f o r m s the basis f o r m o s t standards related to noise. C w e i g h t i n g is sometimes used instead o f " f l a t " to avoid the i n f l u e n c e o f l o w frequencies i n the measurement.

48

Acoustics

W h e n r e p o r t i n g levels

from

a s o u n d level meter, the A m e r i c a n

N a t i o n a l Standard Institute ( A N S I Y10.11) r e c o m m e n d s that the time and f r e q u e n c y w e i g h t i n g be i n d i c a t e d b y a d d i n g a subscript to the level. For
Fc (Hz) 20 25 31.5 40 50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000 5000 6300 8000 10000 12500 16000 X X X X X X X X X X octave 1/3 octave X

example, "Ly\p = 70 d B " refers to an A f r e q u e n c y - w e i g h t e d , fast t i m e w e i g h t e d , sound pressure level o f 70 d B . A c c o r d i n g to the standard, i f n o subscript f o r f r e q u e n c y w e i g h t i n g is g i v e n , t h e n A - w e i g h t i n g is to be

X X X X X X X

assumed. H o w e v e r , i t is c o m m o n practice to attach the f r e q u e n c y w e i g h t i n g i n d i c a t i o n after the decibel, a l t h o u g h the decibel itself is n o t w e i g h t e d : f o r instance, one c o m m o n l y sees "70 d B A " o r "62 d B C . " T h e instantaneous peak sound level (Lpk) is another a t t r i b u t e that can be useful to measure. T h i s is s i m p l y the highest s o u n d pressure level that occurs d u r i n g a measurement. Since slow and fast t i m e w e i g h t i n g s are based o n averaging, these s o u n d level values w i l l always be l o w e r t h a n L^^, B u t f o r some applications, such as f o r h e a r i n g risk assessment, i t is i m p o r tant to k n o w the highest level o f an i n d i v i d u a l acoustic event over t i m e . I n

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Figure 4.5, Lpk w o u l d be 72 d B , u p u n t i l the s o u n d event o f 84 d B occurs; therefore, Lpk equals 84 d B d u r i n g the entire measured p e r i o d . I t is also possible t o measure the highest level using b o t h time and f r e q u e n c y w e i g h t i n g s . T h e m a x i m u m A - w e i g h t e d s o u n d level (LAiax) uses a fast t i m e averaging. LAmax o f t h e signal s h o w n i n Figure 4.5 w o u l d be less than Lpk as a result o f the t i m e averaging and f r e q u e n c y w e i g h t i n g . T h e m a x i m u m A - w e i g h t e d level using n o t i m e w e i g h t i n g is called the peak A - w e i g h t e d s o u n d level (LApk).

Octave-Band and One-Third-Octave-Band Measurements

C h a p t e r 2 demonstrated that the waves o f m o s t sounds are c o m p o s e d o f m u l t i p l e frequencies. These waves are c o m p l e x , i n that they c o n t a i n n u m e r o u s frequencies that make up the sound's s p e c t r u m . B u t o u r h e a r i n g system tends t o integrate spectral i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t ranges o f frequency, as opposed to evaluating i n d i v i d u a l frequencies. S o u n d level measurements are sometimes made b y analyzing the a m o u n t o f energy o r one-third-octave-bands. T h e w o r d band refers t o the w i t h i n octave-bands

b a n d w i d t h o f the filters used to divide the i n c o m i n g s o u n d i n t o f r e q u e n X X X X X X X

c y ranges. These filters are analogous to the way a p r i s m divides an i n c o m i n g b e a m o f h g h t i n t o d i f f e r e n t c o l o r bands. T h e s p e c t r u m o f the s o u n d source is o b t a i n e d b y m e a s u r i n g the s o u n d pressure level w i t h i n each b a n d w i d t h . O c t a v e - b a n d measurements usually p r o v i d e e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n about a s o u n d s p e c t r u m , b u t one-third-octave-bands are closer to the m a n n e r i n w h i c h the ear processes sound. Table 4.1 lists the standard c e n ter frequencies used i n octave-band and o n e - t h i r d - o c t a v e - b a n d analyses. T h e reason f o r m a k i n g octave-band o r o n e - t h i r d - o c t a v e - b a n d m e a surements is so that the f r e q u e n c y c o n t e n t o f a s o u n d source can be accu-

rately characterized. T h i s allows a m o r e effective a p p l i c a t i o n o f acoustical treatments i n m a n y situations. F o r instance, consider t w o d i f f e r e n t s o u n d sources A and B w i t h the same u n w e i g h t e d s o u n d level. Figure 4.6 c o m -

Table

4.1 C e n t e r frequencies (F J

f o r octave-band and o n e - t h i r d o c t a v e - b a n d analysis.

pares the acoustical energy d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the t w o sources. T h e type o f treatment i n these situations w o u l d need to be m a t c h e d to results o f the

Measurements

49

84 dB peak Figure 72 dB peak 4 . 5 T h e m a x i m u m (peak)

level o f this signal is 7 2 d B , u n t i l an event that causes an 8 4 d B peak.

S O U N D LEVEL, S O U R C E A

Time

octave-band analysis. T h i s is because the s o u n d a b s o r p d o n o f materials and the s o u n d i s o l a t i o n o f constructions v a r y w i t h f r e q u e n c y . T h e p o t e n t i a l disturbance f o r a particular activity can also be assessed f r o m an octave-band analysis. For example, because speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y is h i g h l y dependent o n frequencies b e t w e e n 200 H z to 5 k H z , s o u n d source B w o u l d interfere w i t h speech m o r e than s o u n d source A , T h e m a j o r i t y o f acoustical measurements made f o r b u i l d i n g a c o u stics, e n v i r o n m e n t a l acoustics, and i n d u s t r i a l noise purposes u t i l i z e A w e i g h t e d , octave-band, o r o n e - t h i r d - o c t a v e - b a n d analysis. H o w e v e r , some applications d e m a n d an even n a r r o w e r f r e q u e n c y band. W h e r e people are c o m p l a i n i n g about t o n a l noise, i t is necessary to measure i n n a r r o w bands o r m d i v i d u a l frequencies t o d e t e r m i n e the cause o f the p r o b l e m . T h e investigation involves measurements at the l o c a t i o n o f t h e c o m p l a i n t and close to suspect sources o f t h e t o n a l noise. B y i d e n t i f y i n g the spectral c o m ponents, i t is possible to d e t e r m i n e the frequencies o f s o u n d that people are c o m p l a i n i n g about and the sources o f those frequencies.
60 100 S O U N D LEVEL, S O U R C E B

I II

IMIH
S
(N

^\

S
(N

O m

Octave-band frequency (Hz)

Diffuse versus Free Field

Incidence

I n C h a p t e r 2, the concept o f a diffuse sound f i e l d was contrasted to a free f i e l d . T h e basic difference is that i n a free f i e l d , s o u n d arrives b y a direct p a t h o n l y ; i n a diffuse f i e l d , s o u n d arrives n o t o n l y a l o n g a direct p a t h b u t from

i n d i r e c t paths o f reflections and reverberation as w e l l . Because the diffuse field arrives fr-om p o t e n t i a l l y any d i r e c t i o n relative to a receiver, the s o u n d

field is t e r m e d as h a v i n g a random incidence; the free field c o n d i t i o n is sometimes t e r m e d frontal incidence. Some s o u n d level meters have a s w i t c h to

_
Octave-band frequency (Hz)

choose b e t w e e n the t w o types o f measurements. Typically, free field c o n d i tions occur o u t - o f - d o o r s and diffuse field c o n d i t i o n s o c c u r i n d o o r s . T h e s w i t c h activates an appropriate equalization f o r the system. Special m i c r o phones o r adapters can also be used f o r each purpose. I n m a k i n g these m e a surements, i t can be i m p o r t a n t to d e t e r m i n e the i n f l u e n c e o f the diffuse s o u n d field o n a particular measurement l o c a t i o n . I f care is n o t taken i n the placement o f a sound level m e t e r w i t h reference to the s o u n d source, the measurements m a y be u n d u l y i n f l u e n c e d b y reverberation o r reflections.
Figure 4.6 S o u n d levels m e a s u r e d i n octave-bands, f o r t w o s o u n d sources A a n d B . W h i l e b o t h sources have t h e same overall SPL, the o c t a v e b a n d measurements i m m e d i a t e l y s h o w that s o u n d source A has energy p r i m a r i l y i n the l o w e r frequency range, especially a r o u n d 63 H z , a n d that s o u n d source B has e n e r g y predominately i n higher frequencies around 2 k H z . T h e frequency Fourier Analysis i n f o r m a t i o n is i m p o r t a n t since the acoustical t r e a t m e n t a n d p r e d i c t i v e m o d e l i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n is frequency-dependent.

W e can measure the spectral c o n t e n t o f a s o u n d source over a fixed p e r i o d o f t i m e b y p e r f o r m i n g a Fourier analysis o n the wave. F o u r i e r analysis is

50

Acoustics

o f t e n abbreviated F F T , f o r "Fast F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m . " T h e result o f an F F T is v e r y similar t o the octave-band and o n e - t h i r d - o c t a v e - b a n d analyses described above, except that the t i m e p e r i o d over w h i c h the analysis is p e r f o r m e d can be v a r i e d d u r i n g the post-measurement phase. F F T analyses can be v e r y u s e f u l i n areas such as audio forensics. F o u r i e r analysis w o r k s
Time *

b y m a t h e m a t i c a l l y separating a c o m p l e x wave i n t o a series o f sine waves w h o s e levels can t h e n be d e t e r m i n e d . T o d e t e r m i n e the t e m p o r a l e v o l u t i o n o f the h a r m o n i c structure o f a sound, m u l t i p l e F F T s o f a wave can be taken over successive t i m e periods. These can t h e n be displayed using a spectrogram as s h o w n i n Figure 4.7; the relative intensity i n each f r e q u e n cy corresponds t o the c o l o r scale value. A n o t h e r w a y to v i e w the t i m e v a r y i n g nature o f the spectral energy o f a s o u n d is to take m u l t i p l e FFTs a n d t h e n arrange t h e m o n the z axis o f a 3 - D graph, as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 4.8. T h i s is also t e r m e d a perspective (time-level-fi-equency) g r a p h , or a waterfall display.

Figure

4.7 A s p e c t r o g r a m o f a s o u n d

w i t h three acoustic "events." A spectrogram is u s e f i i l f o r post-analysis o f a recording, i n order to v i e w the t i m e - v a r y i n g nature o f a s o u n d source. T h e c o l o r scale indicates t h e relative i n t e n s i t y o f t h e spectral e n e r g y at a p a r t i c u l a r f r e q u e n c y .

Conclusion

A c o u s t i c a l measurement techniques p r o v i d e a means o f q u a n t i f y i n g s o u n d levels i n an e n v i r o n m e n t . Ivleasuring A - w e i g h t e d s o u n d levels is c o n i m o n .

Frequency

A l s o c o m m o n are octave-band, o n e - t h i r d - o c t a v e - b a n d , and n a r r o w - b a n d measurements. S o u n d level measurements a l l o w calculation, analysis, and

Figure

4.8 A " w a t e r f a l l " display o f a

p r e d i c t i o n o f various acoustical factors i n c l u d e d i n this b o o k , such as m e a surements o f b a c k g r o u n d noise, o f s o u n d i s o l a t i o n , and o f reverberation and acoustical a b s o r p t i o n i n a r o o m .

p i a n o n o t e decay. E a c h t i m e - s h c e indicates a separate F o u r i e r analysis, w h i c h c o l l e c t i v e l y s h o w the spectral e v o l u t i o n o f a sound. N o t e h o w the higher frequencies die o u t faster frequencies. t h a n the l o w e r

Planning Design Rooms Diffusion Sound Materials Music

The Growth ParametersSmall Seating

of Multipurpose Rooms

Spaces Design

Criteria

Architectural

Architectural Reflected Focusing

Design

ParametersLarge Reflection

Terraced Seating

Sound

Specular

Echoes Flutter Echoes Levels in Rooms

Reverberation Surfaces

Standing Sound

Waves Absorbing

Sound

Transparent

Porous Absorbers

Panel Absorbers

Resonators

Air Absorption

Hall Evaluation

and Active Acoustics Appendices

Objective

Parameters

Subjective

Impressions

Active Acoustics

Is r o o m acoustics design an art o r a science? T h i s f r e q u e n t l y asked quest i o n h i g h l i g h t s the c o m p l e x and esoteric nature o f acoustical design. M a n y have posed this question, p a r t i c u l a r l y as i t relates t o c o n c e r t halls. R o o m acoustics is i n fact a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h art a n d science. S c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y plays an i m p o r t a n t role i n d e f i n i n g acoustical measurements and analysis techniques. StiU, the best acoustical t h e o r y must be c o m b i n e d w i t h creativity, i n t u i t i o n , and experience t o be i m p l e m e n t e d effectively. I n other w o r d s , w h i l e applied acoustics is heavily based i n theory, i t is also m u c h i m p r o v e d b y the e m p i r i c a l j u d g m e n t o f an e x p e r i e n c e d acoustician. T h i s chapter explores the science and the e n g i n e e r i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f r o o m

acoustics design, w h i l e also discussing the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n acoustical measurements, calculations, and h u m a n preference. R o o m acoustics as a discipline involves the study and analysis o f direct and reflected sound. A p p r o p r i a t e r o o m acoustics are essential i n all spaces w h e r e s o u n d is to be t r a n s m i t t e d to a listener; this includes b o t h

Acoustics

speech and music. R o o m acoustics design criteria are d e t e r i T u n e d a c c o r d i n g to the room's i n t e n d e d use. JVlusic, f o r example, is best appreciated i n spaces that are " w a r m " and reverberant. Speech, b y contrast, is m o r e i n t e l l i g i b l e i n r o o m s that are less reverberant and m o r e absorptive. T h i s means the c r i t e r i a that create g o o d speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y are v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m the c r i t e r i a that create a space suitable f o r l i s t e n i n g to and appreciating music. I t is possible to create suitable acoustics f o r b o t h speech and music i n the same space, a l t h o u g h this is rarely accomplished w i t h o u t degree o f c o m p r o m i s e . T h e t e r m r o o m acoustics t y p i c a l l y brings to m i n d spaces w h e r e music is p e i - f o r m e d and recorded: c o n c e r t halls, r e c o r d i n g studios, and scori n g stages, f o r example. W h i l e acoustics are especially i m p o r t a n t to the success o f these spaces, a m u c h w i d e r v a r i e t y o f facilities benefits f r o m w e l l designed acoustics. L e c t u r e and c o n v e n t i o n haUs, classrooms, b o a r d r o o m s , c o u n c i l chambers, c o u r t r o o m s , places o f w o r s h i p , theaters, cinemas, and broadcast studios all d e p e n d o n t h e i r acoustical quality. Speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y is essential i n all o f these spaces. D i f f e r e n t acoustic design c r i t e r i a are r e q u i r e d f o r r o o m s w h e r e music is to be played, w h e r e " n a t u r a l " acoustics help s u p p o r t u n a m p l i f i e d musical instruments. A p p r o p r i a t e r o o m acoustics are also r e q u i r e d to reduce reflected noise i n such spaces as restaurants, l o b bies, offices, libraries, and factories. T h i s chapter is organized to h i g h l i g h t g o o d acoustical design p r i n c i ples. For this reason, examples o f spaces that benefit f r o m a particular acoustical approach are presented to the reader t h r o u g h o u t the chapter.To make this chapter m o r e readable, i t is d i v i d e d i n t o five sections. Part I discusses the g r o w t h o f m u l t i p u r p o s e spaces (theaters), acoustical p l a n n i n g , and architectural design criteria. Part I I explains the principles o f reflected sound i n rooms. Part I I I is devoted to sound pressure levels i n rooms and also to acoustically transparent and sound-absorbing materials. Part I V is c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h music and r o o m acoustics. O b j e c t i v e r o o m acoustics m e a surements are c o m p a r e d here w i t h subjective acoustical impressions. A b r i e f e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g concept o f active (electro-enhanced) acoustics rounds o u t part IV, w h i c h is f o U o w e d b y the chapter's conclusion. Part V o f the chapter makes u p the appendices, w h i c h are f o r those readers w h o are interested i n the m o r e technical aspects o f acoustical r o o m design. U s i n g three d i f f e r e n t music hall shapes as examples, this i n f o r m a t i o n illustrates the closing gap b e t w e e n acoustical calculations and measurements. some

I. P l a n n i n g a n d D e s i g n

Criteria

Planning

I n order to achieve the best results, the acoustical requirements f o r a n e w f a c i l i t y s h o u l d be considered early i n the design phase. These considerations i n c l u d e : (a) Room shapea room's shape, i n part, determines the " s i g and p e r f o r m e r adjacenciesfunc-

nature s o u n d " o f a space; (b) Space allowancesaudience capacities, w a l l thickness, storage requirements; (c) Space

t i o n a l p r o x i m i t y requirements and separation b e t w e e n noisy and q u i e t

Room

Acoustics

f u n c t i o n s ; (d) Materialsa

room's

finish

materials and t h e i r m o u n t i n g s

d e t e r m i n e the a m o u n t o f s o u n d absorbed and reflected. These considerations are o f t e n i n d i v i d u a l l y established b y an a c o u stical consultant w o r k i n g i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h architects, i n t e r i o r designers, and o t h e r specialists such as theater consultants.

T h e G r o w t h of M u l t i p u r p o s e

Spaces

Since 1980, there has b e e n an e x p l o s i o n o f m u l t i p u r p o s e a n d p e r f o r m i n g arts theaters i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . I n a d d i t i o n t o the m a j o r u r b a n centers that have h i s t o r i c a l l y devoted halls and theaters to concerts, theatrical p e r f o r mances, dance, films, a n d lectures, m a n y suburban and r u r a l t o w n s have b u i l t or are p l a n n i n g to b u i l d such facilities. O f t e n , these projects are p a r t o f redevelopment, u r b a n renewal, h i s t o r i c preservation, o r adaptive reuse programs. I t is n o t u n c o m m o n f o r these n e w facihties to have capacities i n the range o f 400 to 700 seats. H o w e v e r , u n l i k e the m a j o r cities, w h i c h can aflibrd to construct separate symphony, opera, and dramatic venues, smaller cities and t o w n s o f t e n require facilities that are f u n c t i o n a l l y m u l t i p u r p o s e i n order to a c c o m m o d a t e a v a r i e t y o f artistic pursuits. W h f l e m a n y o f t h e theaters b u f l t today are m u l t i p u r p o s e , a great n u m b e r are also c o n s t r u c t e d f o r c o m m e r c i a l film e x p o s i t i o n . These cinemas typically range i n size f r o m 80 t o 400 seats, and are usually b u f l t i n multiplexes o f at least f o u r , and as m a n y as twenty, separate theaters. T h e acoustical t r e n d i n u r b a n theaters has p r i m a r i l y f o c u s e d o n r e n o v a t i o n and adaptive reuse. M a n y architecturaUy ornate vaudeville theaters became cinemas d u r i n g the 1960s and 1970s. M o r e recently, these theaters, as weU as the c i n e m a palaces b u i l t i n the twenties and thirties have b e c o m e t o o expensive t o operate due t o t h e i r large, typicaUy m o r e t h a n 1,000 seats, capacities and t o the advent o f m o r e p r o f l t a b l e m u l t i p l e x e s . A t the same t i m e , w i t h the increasing n u m b e r o f p e r f o r m i n g arts groups dedicated to drama, musical theater, dance, and symphony, as weU as the h i s t o r i c a l preservation efforts o f c o m m u n i t y and n a t i o n a l groups, m a n y o f these o n e t i m e vaudeville and film palaces have b e c o m e p e r f o r m i n g arts centers.

A d a p t i v e reuse has also e x t e n d e d to the c o n v e r s i o n o f places o f w o r s h i p i n t o music and r e c o r d i n g halls. Suitable acoustics f o r these n e w theaters play an i m p o r t a n t role i n t h e i r overaU success, c o m m u n i t y acceptance, u t f l ity, and profitabUity.

Design

Criteria

T h e design c r i t e r i a f o r any r o o m s h o u l d be based o n its estimated p e r centage o f use f o r a particular f u n c t i o n . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r m u l t i p u r p o s e spaces that m a y need t o serve, f o r example, b o t h as a lecture f a c f l i t y as w e l l as f o r music recitals. O f t e n such d i f f e r e n t requirements pose a design c o n f l i c t that is d i f f i c u l t to resolve, especially i f the r o o m is large. W h i l e h i g h e r levels o f reverberation are o f t e n suitable f o r l i s t e n i n g t o music, the same levels o f t e n reduce speech inteUigibility. As a general rule, speech is i n t e l l i g i b l e i n r o o m s h a v i n g a reverberation t i m e o f one second o r less. Conversely, music is c o m p o s e d o f a w i d e v a r i e t y o f r e p e r t o i r e and

72

Acoustics

genres, each o f w h i c h has its o w n desirable range o f reverberation o r " l i v e ness" p r o v i d e d b y t h e r o o m . I f the r o o m is t o f u n c t i o n as a m u l t i p u r p o s e space, t h e n i t is essential that the room's v a r y i n g f u n c t i o n s be p r i o r i t i z e d . A l t h o u g h i t is possible to create m u l t i p u r p o s e r o o m s that can a c c o m m o d a t e several f u n c t i o n s , the acoustical design f o r these m u l t i p u r p o s e spaces, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n larger rooms, usually d e m a n d some degree o f c o m p r o m i s e . F o r example, i f a c o n m i u n i t y center is designing an a u d i t o r i u m that w i l l be used p r i m a r i l y as a lecture f a c i l i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e year, b u t w i U also be used f o r t h e p r e sentation o f musicals d u r i n g t h e summer, t h e n the center m i g h t decide t o create a space that is o p t i m a l f o r lectures a n d also suitable (but n o t ideal) f o r appreciating music. I t is possible t o reduce o r even e l i m i n a t e this c o m promise using active acoustics as discussed i n Part I V o f this chapter. I n cases w h e r e speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y must be optinxized, such as i n the dialogue o f a f i l m sound track, m o r e specific acoustical c r i t e r i a are r e q u i r e d . Clear dialogue i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y is, after all, essential t o t h e s t o r y teUing art o f f i l m m a k i n g . R e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e criteria are developed as a f u n c t i o n o f r o o m v o l u m e and frequency. Establishing acceptable reverbera t i o n times that v a r y w i t h respect t o f r e q u e n c y has proven t o be successful i n n u m e r o u s f i l m studio s o u n d - m i x i n g a n d screening applications. Such c r i t e r i a are also useful i n o t h e r situations w h e r e t h e i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y o f d i a logue is p a r a m o u n t . I n a d d i t i o n t o c r i t e r i a f o r reverberation t i m e , spaces used f o r critical l i s t e n i n g s h o u l d be designed w i t h c o n c e r n f o r the audio signal's i m a g i n g and echoes. I m a g i n g includes the apparent size and l o c a t i o n o f sounds that
Tiireshold of separate echo perception Tfiresfioid of image shift / spreading Absolute threshold of detection 5

are part o f audio r e p r o d u c t i o n . R e c e n t psychoacoustic research has d e f i n e d the early s o u n d f i e l d thresholds f o r p e r c e p t i o n o f reflections, changes t o the audio image, and echoes based o n t h e s o u n d level o f reflections, and t h e i r delay after t h e direct s o u n d . ' I f a c r i t i c a l l i s t e n i n g space is t o be designed t o be neutral, that is w i t h o u t added " c o l o r a t i o n , " t h e n t h e early r e f l e c t i o n levels s h o u l d lie at o r b e l o w the t h r e s h o l d f o r image shift, as s h o w n i n Figure 6 . 1 . T h e t h r e s h o l d f o r image shift is the level at w h i c h a sonic image appears t o m o v e f r o m its actual l o c a t i o n . A c h i e v i n g these relatively l o w r e f l e c t i o n levels i n a studio c o n t r o l r o o m requires t r e a t m e n t o f all surfaces i n v o l v e d i n p r o v i d i n g first

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Time delay relative to direct sound (msec)

80

order s o u n d reflections t o the listener. O n e surface w h i c h is i n v o l v e d that cannot be treated b y the studio design consultant is t h e u p p e r surface o f

Figure

6.1 A u d i b i l i t y o f discrete

the m i x i n g console. F u t u r e m i x i n g console designs s h o u l d consider u s i n g c o n t r o l surfaces made o f porous m a t e r i a l , such as sintered aluiiTinum. A n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e design o f critical Hstening spaces is e h m i n a t i n g "rattles a n d resonances" o f t e n associated w i t h m e t a l f i x t u r e s , such as l i g h t i n g , ducts, diffusers, a n d f u r n i t u r e . D i f f i c u l t i e s are o f t e n

r e f l e c t i o n s v. t i m e o f a r r i v a l , w i t h speech as t h e test signal.

resolved b y a p p l y i n g visco-elastic d a m p i n g material. D a m p i n g is n o r m a l l y available as sheet m a t e r i a l w i t h a self-adhesive b a c k i n g or i n l i q u i d f o r m . T h e s o u n d i n t e n s i t y p r o d u c e d b y a v i b r a t i n g surface is n o r m a U y p r o p o r tional to t h e v e l o c i t y o f the panel v i b r a t i o n . D a m p i n g reduces the panel

v e l o c i t y and hence t h e sound.

N u m e r o u s sources state that l o c a t i n g s o u n d - r e f l e c t i n g surfaces near a speaking person is essential to a c h i e v i n g adequate loudness and i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y f o r an audience o f m o r e t h a n 50 people. I f the r o o m is s u f f i c i e n t l y quiet and absorbent, however, this may n o t be the case. I n fact, early s o u n d reflections f r o m nearby adjacent surfaces can result i n listeners l o c a l i z i n g t h e talker (auditoraUy) to another l o c a t i o n t h a n w h e r e he o r she is actuall y standing. R o m a n and Greek amphitheaters p r o d u c e d g o o d speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y i n part because o f t h e l o w a m b i e n t noise levels i n the s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , and i n p a r t because these outside theaters d i d n o t p r o duce significant reverberation. I t has also been observed that substantial additional vocal e f f o r t is n o t necessary i n relatively absorptive r o o m s seati n g u p to 500 people, p r o v i d e d that the a m b i e n t b a c k g r o u n d noise level is very l o w ( N C 20 o r less). M a n y speech inteUigibility analyses culminate i n a signal-to-noise ratio calculation. T h e signal radiates direcdy f r o m the talker o r loudspeaker. R e f l e c t e d r o o m sound may be considered "noise," because the earliest reflections affect t i m b r e and locaUzation p h e n o m e n a , w h i l e later reverberation is k n o w n to mask speech.Therefore, aU reflections can be considered a f o r m o f noise correlated to the signal. R e v e r b e r a t i o n is especially devastating to the inteUigibility o f a signal such as speech heard b y a h e a r i n g - i m p a i r e d person or someone Hstening monaurally, " w i t h oiUy one channel o f audio i n f o r m a t i o n . " A c o m m o n example o f the latter is the speakerphone t h r o u g h w h i c h distant talkers are d i f E c u l t to understand due to their l o c a t i o n i n a reverberant field and to the m o n a u r a l listening c o n d i t i o n . Figure 6.2 depicts reverberation t i m e criteria f o r g o o d speech inteUigibiHty i n cinemas, a venue type devoted to storyteUing and the inteUigibUity o f dialogue
Figure 6.2 R e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e c r i t e r i a t o r cinemas a n d s c r e e n i n g theaters, [left] D e s i r a b l e r e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e envelope as a f u n c t i o n o f frecjuency. [riglit) M a . x i m u m r e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e i n the 5 0 0 H z octave b a n d f o r o p t i m u m d i a l o g u e intelhgibiht)'.

2.0

0.2 3i.5 63 125 250 500

Ik

2k

4k

8k

10

100

O c t a v e - b a n d c e n t e r frequency ( H z )

R o o m v o l u m e (thousands o f cubic feet)

I n order to o p t i m i z e speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y , the d i r e c t - t o - r e f l e c t e d s o u n d (signal-to-noise) ratio s h o u l d be 15 d B or greater. E a r l y s o u n d reflections can aid i n increasing the early-to-late s o u n d ratios i n reverberant spaces to help overcome the i n t e r f e r i n g late or reverberant sound. I n the case o f music, the h u m a n hear-

74

Acoustics

i n g response integrates the early sound. T h i s early s o u n d comprises direct s o u n d and early reflections o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n the first 80 msec after the a r r i v a l o f the direct s o u n d at the listener. T h e late s o u n d occurs after 80 msec. Acceptable e a r l y - t o 4 a t e s o u n d ratio c r i t e r i a f o r classical music generally ranges betrween 0 and 3 d B .

Architectural Design ParametersSmall

Rooms

I n rectangular r o o m s w i t h v o l u m e s o f less t h a n 283 m ^ (10,000 c u . f t . ) , r o o m dimensions that are equal o r exact multiples o f one another s h o u l d be avoided t o prevent axial standing-wave frequencies f r o m c o i n c i d i n g . W h e n standing waves c o i n c i d e , the s o u n d pressures b e c o m e additive, overemphasizing a particular l o w f r e q u e n c y bass note. A design o b j e c t i v e is t o p i c k a r o o m aspect ratio o f l e n g t h , t o w i d t h , t o h e i g h t (i.e., p r o p o r t i o n s ) , that evenly distributes standing waves t h r o u g h the l o w f r e q u e n c y range. T w o o f the most even d i s t r i b u t i o n s are theoreticaUy o b t a i n e d w i t h aspect ratios 1.9:1.4:1 and 1.44:1.19:1.^

Architectural Design ParametersLarge

Volume/seat R o o m type m-^/seat (cu. ft./seat)

Rooms

W h e n p l a n n i n g n e w theaters and music haUs, a check o f t o t a l r o o m v o l u m e is desirable. Table 6.1 depicts t y p i c a l v o l u m e requirements f o r d i f f e r ent types o f p e r f o r m a n c e spaces. C e i l i n g h e i g h t also plays an i m p o r t a n t role i n d e l i v e r i n g early r e f l e c -

L e c t u r e hall & cinema

4.3-5.7

(150-200)

Multi-purpose hall

5.7-7.1

(200-250)

tions i n music halls.Typical c e i h n g heights y i e l d i n g an adequate density o f early s o u n d are: (1) 500 seats: 9 - 1 1 m ( 2 8 - 3 4 ft.); (2)1,500 seats: 1 3 , 5 - 1 6 m

Opera

8-10

(280-350)

( 4 2 - 5 0 ft.); (3) 2,500 seats: 1 8 - 2 1 m ( 5 5 - 6 5 ft.) TypicaUy, the m a x i m u m c e i l i n g h e i g h t (h) can be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m :

Music and recital halls

1 O-I 1.4

(350-400)

Table

6.1 V o l u m e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

v a r i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e spaces.

h = 0.85
T500

W h e r e V is the r o o m v o l u m e m-^ (cu. ft.), andTggo is the desired reverbera t i o n t i m e at 500 H z .

C e i l i n g heights can v a r y f r o m these guidelines, p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n the r o o m shape o r reflectors address the r e q u i r e d early reflections. C e i h n g reflectors p o s i t i o n e d over an orchestra s h o u l d be 5 to 10 m (16 t o 32 f t . ) above the p l a t f o r m i n order to be considered a benefit.'^ Generahy, the smaller the ensemble, the l o w e r the reflectors m a y be. Desirable m a x i m u m stage w i d t h is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 18 m (55 ft.) and stage d e p t h is 12 m (36 f t . ) . T h e acoustical literature h i g h l i g h t s the benefits o f early lateral r e f l e c tions, w h i c h o r i g i n a t e fl'om side walls. I t is i m p o r t a n t , however, t o r e c o g nize that n o t all lateral reflections are delivered exclusively by side waUs; m a n y acousticians recognize that the c e i l i n g and the c e i l i n g t o s i d e - w a l l reflections are also critical.'* T h e shape and angle o f t h e c e f l i n g and o f t h e

Room

Acoustics

75

Reflections

Path

W a l l , ceiling, listener

Ceiling, listener

D, E & F

Ceiling, wall, listener

Figure

6.3 V e r t i c a l cross-section o f

m u s i c hall l o o k i n g at t h e stage. T h e r o o m s h a p i n g is used t o d e l i v e r early r e f l e c t i o n s evenly over t h e a u d i e n c e and to m a x i m i z e " e n v e l o p i n g sound."

side walls can aid the delivery o f early reflections t o every seateven i n cases w h e r e the haU is relatively w i d e . Figure 6.3 illustrates the i m p o r t a n c e the c e i l i n g has i n d e l i v e r i n g early s o u n d to the audience. T h e ceiling

reflects s o u n d directly; i t propagates to and f r o m the waUs and d o w n to the audience. C o n c e r t halls r e l y i n g solely o n natural acoustics are generally r e c o m m e n d e d to have capacities b e l o w 2,500 seats and hall v o l u m e s less t h a n 28,300 m ^ (1,000,000 c u . f t . ) . I n greater sizes, i t is nearly impossible to supply adequate early reflections and perceived loudness levels, unless large suspended s o u n d - r e f l e c t i n g panels a n d / o r active electro-acoustics are e m p l o y e d to enhance the reflected sound.

Seating

I n t i m a c y , so v i t a l t o live performances, is related i n part to the audience b e i n g close to the p e r f o r m a n c e . H i s t o r i c a l l y , deep balconies and w i d e f a n seating plans have b e e n used to b r i n g audiences closer to the stage. D e e p balconies reduce the q u a l i t y o f musical acoustics by shading the audience u n d e r n e a t h f r o m c e f l i n g reflections. O f t e n the t o p balcony offers the best s o u n d due to the r e c e p t i o n o f reverberation and intense early reflections f r o m the c e i h n g and l i t t l e possibility o f echoes due t o the near p r o x i m i t y o f t h e rear w a l l . W i d e f a n seating plans, w h i l e generally w o r k a b l e f o r drama a n d o t h e r speech-oriented events, b e c o m e a d e t r i m e n t f o r musical p e r f o r mances i n theaters seating over 500 occupants because the angled side walls send most o f the acoustic reflections to the rear waU, rather t h a n to the audience or to the c e i l i n g (see Figure 6 . 4 ) . T h o s e w i t h the best sight lines i n the center suffer the m o s t f r o m a lack o f early reflections. T h i s lack o f early reflections has p r o v e n to be the nemesis o f m a n y c o n c e r t facflities.

Figure

6.4 (top) T y p i c a l reverse-fan

shaped r o o m w a l l r e f l e c t i o n s . {bottom) T y p i c a l f a n - s h a p e d r o o m w a l l r e f l e c t i o n s . {Note: most reflect i o n s are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e rear w a l l n o t the c e n t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e audience.)

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Terraced

Seating

Visual i n t i m a c y can also be accomplished b y creating sections o f audience (approximately 300 viewers seated i n 10 rows o f seats) that are terraced separately f r o m o t h e r sections. B y elevating some sections, the f u r t h e r sections o b t a i n u n o b s t r u c t e d sight and s o u n d lines. T h i s can help to reduce bass loss due to seat-dip caused b y sound grazing over m a n y rows o f seats. T h e a r c h i tect Hans Scharoun p i o n e e r e d this approach to seating i n Berhn's P h h a r m o n i e . O t h e r terraced halls i n c l u d e the L e i p z i g Gewandhaus, the T o k y o S u n t o r y H a U and the proposed Los Angeles W a l t D i s n e y C o n c e r t H a U . (See p h o t o at left.) E v e n a smaU p e r f o r m a n c e hall such as Aspens Harris

C o n c e r t H a U benefits b y stepping up the rear section o f seats. Acoustics b e n e f i t f u r t h e r i n larger c o n c e r t halls w h e n additional s o u n d - r e f l e c t i n g waU surfaces are p r o v i d e d at the edges o f t h e seating sections. These suifaces can help increase the density o f early reflected sound, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r the c e n C o n c e r t h a l l scale m o d e l w i t h terraced seating (see t e x t at r i g h t ) .

ter seats, w h i c h are farthest f r o m the r o o m boundaries and c o u l d have the greatest gap i n t i m e b e t w e e n the direct sound and the early reflections, o r I n i t i a l T i m e Gap ( I T G ) . I n a c o n c e r t haU, the I T G s h o u l d n o t exceed 20 to 25 msec.^ W h i l e aisle seating is the most c o n v e n i e n t f o r egress, o f t e n the aisles o c c u p y the space w h e r e some o f t h e best seats w o u l d be. C o n t i n e n t a l seati n g , w h i c h has side aisles, has a distinct acoustical advantage: n o seats are n e x t to the w a U s . T h e acoustic response is always p o o r e r n e x t to walls. I n this zone, the listeners' ears o f t e n receive dramaticaUy d i f f e r e n t signals! I n theaters a n d music haUs c o n t a i n i n g a large audience that covers a m a j o r i t y o f the floor, i t s h o u l d be kept i n m i n d that the audience can be the most significant absorptive suiface i n the r o o m .

11. T h e B a s i c P r i n c i p l e s o f R o o m

Acoustics

Reflected

Sound

T h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n i n d o o r and o u t d o o r s o u n d p r o p a g a t i o n is i n the level o f reflected sound. I n d o o r e n v i r o n m e n t s naturaUy create m o r e r e f l e c t e d s o u n d t h a n do o u t d o o r e n v i r o n m e n t s . R e f l e c t e d s o u n d can be d i v i d e d i n t o three distinct categories: (1) early and m i d d l e - r e f l e c t e d sound; (2) reverberation (late-reflected sound); (3) standing waves. T h e corre-

s p o n d i n g b e h a v i o r o f reflected s o u n d is analyzed i n three domains: (1) g e o m e t r i c ; (2) statistical; (3) m o d a l (the wave nature o f sound). Early reflections c o n t r i b u t e m o r e to the subjective p e r c e p t i o n o f reverberance, o r "liveness" o f a space. Early and m i d d l e reflections occur w i t h i n the first quarter o f a second after arrival o f the direct sound. Early s o u n d is considered t o be 40 msec after arrival o f t h e direct sound f o r speech w h U e f o r music 80 msec is m o r e appropriate. T h e n u m b e r and q u a n t i t y o f early and m i d d l e reflections dehvered to any particular listening l o c a t i o n depends largely o n the room's shape. For this reason, g e o m e t r i c analysis,
Figiive 6.5 Paths o f s o u n d p r o p a g a -

w h i c h involves the study o f reflected s o u n d propagation paths m o d e l e d as rays radiating f r o m the source o f sound, is particularly useful f o r t r a c i n g echo paths a n d f o r s t u d y i n g the u n i f o r m i t y o f early reflected sound i n m e d i u m -

t i o n : ijrom top) d i r e c t s o u n d ; first order reflections; second order reflections; t h i r d order reflections.

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and large-sized spaces. I t is also particularly i m p o r t a n t i n spaces larger than 300 seats and 2,830 m ^ (100,000 cu. f t . ) m v o l u m e (see Figure 6.5). I t is these early reflections that are so critical f o r spectacular u n a m p l i f i e d music acoustics.To a large degree, they f o r m the signature sound o f t h e space. O n c e s o u n d reflections have b u i l t u p to a p o i n t w h e r e they are n o t discernible as discrete events, the late r e v e r b e r a t i o n process takes over. I n most w e l l - d e s i g n e d spaces, reverberation is a statistical p h e n o m e n o n , n o l o n g e r r e l y i n g o n specific r o o m shape and s o u n d p r o p a g a t i o n paths. For this reason, the statistical study o f r o o m acoustics, w h i c h ignores the p a t h o f specific reflections b u t considers reflected s o u n d as an aggregate p r o b a bility, is e m p l o y e d w i t h respect to reverberation. Statistical analysis m e t h ods are applicable to rooms w i t h relatively u n i f o r m s o u n d absorbing m a t e r i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and reasonable aspect ratios. I n spaces h a v i n g a diffuse sound field, w h e r e s o u n d is u n i f o r m l y distributed throughout the space, r e v e r b e r a t i o n decays logarithmically,

a l t h o u g h the decay sounds even and consistent to the h u m a n listener. T h e reverberation t i m e is d e f i n e d as " t h e t i m e f o r reflected s o u n d to decay 60 d B . " Generally, i t is necessary to avoid assessing e a r l y - s o u n d reflections as part o f reverberation since the reflections c o n t r i b u t e to s o u n d b u i l d - u p , rather t h a n to s o u n d decay. T h e first 10 d B o f decaying s o u n d reflections are generally n o t used to d e t e r m i n e the reverberation t i m e , w h i c h is determ i n e d f r o m the r e m a i n i n g decay. T h e wave nature o f acoustics is best iUustrated b y standing waves ( r o o m modes), w h i c h o c c u r bet:\veen waU surfaces (see Figure 6.6). T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t to bass response i n relatively smaU r o o m s less t h a n 283 m-' (10,000 c u . f t . ) i n w h i c h there are f e w e r standing waves per f r e q u e n c y b a n d w i d t h , thereby exaggerating those standing waves that do exist.
2nd mode wavelength = d

Figure

6 . 6 V e r t i c a l section t h r o u g h

r o o m d e p i c t i n g f o u r axial r o o m modes (standing waves).

1st mode (fundamental) V2 vvavelength = d

\ / \
' \ \ / d nth mode

= 2d/n

Specular

Reflections

T h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h s o u n d reflects depends o n the shape, texture, and m a t e r i a l o f the r o o m b o u n d a r y . Specular reflections, those reflections c o n -

Acoustics

f o r m i n g t o Lambert's l a w o f r e f l e c t i o n , w h e r e the angle o f i n c i d e n c e equals the angle o f r e f l e c t i o n (see Figure 6.7), t y p i c a l l y o c c u r at s m o o t h , hard, and relatively flat suifaces. F o r a suiface to be a g o o d r e f l e c t o r o f sound, its dimensions s h o u l d be at least one w a v e l e n g t h or larger t h a n the lowest f r e q u e n c y b e i n g reflected. F o r instance, the w a v e l e n g t h o f the musical n o t e m i d d l e C (256 H z ) is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.35 m (4V2 ft.) l o n g . T w o octaves higher, a l i t t i e above 1 k H z , the w a v e l e n g t h measures j u s t over 0.345 m (13 i n . ) . I n order to adequately reflect l o w - f r e q u e n c y sounds, w h i c h have larger wavelengths, the reflectors must be relatively large.

Diffusion

S o u n d can also reflect i n a diffuse m a n n e r . T h e r e f l e c t i o n is f r a g m e n t e d i n t o e angle ^'^le m a n y reflections h a v i n g less intensity, w h i c h are scattered over a w i d e angle creating a u n i f o r m s o u n d field. D i f f u s i o n can be created i n a v a r i e t y o f ways, most o f t e n b y i n t r o d u c i n g suifaces h a v i n g irregularities i n the f o r m o f angled planes or convex suifaces sized at least as large as the wavelength being diffused. Three-dimensional suiface ornamentations, columns and

statuary serve as d i f f u s i n g elements and were integral to the acoustics o f 17th, 18th, a n d 1 9 t h c e n t u r y p e r f o r m a n c e spaces. T h e d e p t h o f t h e d i f f u s i n g undulations must be at least o n e - t e n t h the wavelength b e i n g d i f f u s e d (Figure 6.8). H o w e v e r , i t is possible, i f a t t e m p t i n g to create a relatively l o w frequency diffuser, f o r example the octave b e l o w m i d d l e C, w h i c h has a

w a v e l e n g t h o f 2.7 m (9 ft.), to have specular reflections at h i g h e r f r e q u e n cies. For this reason, i n some c o n c e i t halls, there are macro as weU as m i c r o diffusive elements to accommodate d i f f u s i o n i n d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c y (and

therefore wavelength) ranges. Fractal mathematics c o u l d help create suifaces that diffuse s o u n d over a greater f r e q u e n c y b a n d w i d t h . T h i s is accomplished by d u p l i c a t i n g the shape o f the macro element at micro-scale o n the surface o f the macro element. M o s t c o m m o n diffusers w o r k w e l l between

800 H z and 4 k H z . R e f l e c t i o n s are usually c o m p r i s e d o f b o t h diffuse and specular c o m p o n e n t s . I n the case o f specular reflections, most o f t h e acoustic energy travels i n the specific d i r e c t i o n dictated by Lambert's law. H o w e v e r , some energy is d i f f u s e d . Similarly, m a n y diffusers have a strong l o b e o f direct i o n a l energy directed along the specular r e f l e c t i o n path. I t IS c o m m o n to t h i n k o f r o o m acoustics geometricaUy i n terms o f a r e f l e c t e d ray d i a g r a m analysis, b u t this assumes total specularity, w h i c h is an idealization. A f t e r three o r f o u r consecutive reflections o f a ray, the analysis is n o l o n g e r accurate due t o d i f f u s i o n . R a y d i a g r a m analysis has p r o v e n t o be m o s t u s e f u l f o r t i m e and sound-level d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e early reflections and echoes, w h i c h are most l i k e l y to be specular. W h e r e n u m e r ous l i s t e n i n g locations are i n v o l v e d (such as at 1,000 seats), i t can b e c o m e a laborious task to calculate the g e o m e t r i c path f o r each r e f l e c t i o n and is s e l d o m done. H o w e v e r , r o o m acoustics software packages are available that can calculate s o u n d paths f o r a large n u m b e r o f l i s t e n i n g locations. U s i n g such a software p r o g r a m , early reflected s o u n d response f o r three t y p i c a l r o o m shapes were analyzed a n d c o m p a r e d . T h e shapes are the shoe b o x w i t h sloped floor, the f a n f o r i m p r o v e d sight lines, and the m o d i f i e d reverse

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79

f a n w i t h i m p r o v e d early s o u n d response. R e f e r to the A p p e n d i x f o l l o w i n g this chapter f o r the diagrams w h i c h illustrate these c o m m o n shapes o f p e r f o r m a n c e spaces.

1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Fignye

6.8 (top) P r i m e r o o t difFusing its m e a -

( P R D ) p a n e l a n d {bottom)

sured response i n d i c a t i n g that r e f l e c t e d s o u n d is dispersed at a fair ly u n i f o r m level t h r o u g h a w i d e range o f angles.

Cross-section

Sound diffusing panel

30

50

70

90

110

130

Relative microphone position (deg)

Echoes

Echoes are reflections that can be heard distinctly and separately f r o m the early reflected and reverberant sound. D e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r echo d e t e c t i o n d e p e n d o n the type o f space b e i n g constructed. F o r most general purposes i n v o l v i n g speech c o m m u n i c a t i o n , echoes are n o r m a U y heard due to intense reflections a r r i v i n g 40 nasec a n d later after the direct s o u n d signal has reached the listener. I n o t h e r words, the difference i n path l e n g t h b e t w e e n the direct s o u n d and the reflected s o u n d is at least 13.8 m (46 f t . ) , c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a propagation t i m e o f 40 msec or greater. T h e r e f l e c t i o n f o r m i n g the echo must be intense e n o u g h t o d o m i n a t e those s u r r o u n d i n g

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Acoustics

i t . Ironically, echoes are m o s t c o m m o n l y detected i n the f r o n t rows o f an a u d i t o r i u m and o n stage.This results f r o m the f r o n t r o w b e i n g farthest from

the rear w a l l , thus generating the largest p a t h l e n g t h difference b e t w e e n the direct s o u n d and the s o u n d reflected f r o m the rear w a l l o r the c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e c e i l i n g and the rear w a l l (see Figure 6.9). Sometimes, o n l y a perf o r m e r o r lecturer is able to perceive an echo. A c o n m i o n example o f this p h e n o m e n o n is a h o t e l b a l l r o o m w h e r e a d i r e c t i o n a l sound system radiates s o u n d o n t o the w a l l b e h i n d the audience and returns a strong echo to the l e c t e r n . T h e echo is n o t apparent to the audience because o f the strong direct sound signal delivered b y the loudspeakers. T h e lecturer, w h o is n o t i n the direct s o r m d field p r o d u c e d b y the loudspeakers (because o f t h e need to c o n t r o l feedback i n t o the m i c r o p h o n e ) , perceives the echo. TypicaUy, such echoes can be suppressed using sound-absorbing or s o u n d - d i f f u s i n g materials. E v e n surfaces as smaU as 10 m ^ (100 sq. f t . ) can require treatment to suppress an echo. GeneraUy, v e r y absorptive rooms must be designed w i t h extreme care i n regard to the placement o f reflective materials.

Figure

6.9 C r o s s - s e c t i o n o f a u d i t o -

r i u m (top) a n d s o u n d pressure level response at listener {bottoiu): t | is the travel t i m e f o r the d i r e c t s o u n d d ; t j is t h e travel t i m e f o r the r e f l e c t e d s o u n d n R e f l e c t i o n r is m o r e intense t h a n o t h e r r e f l e c t i o n s a r r i v i n g at the same t i m e a n d is p e r ceived as an echo. S o u n d a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l o n the rear w a l l w o u l d reduce r's i n t e n s i t ) ' a n d e l m i i n a t e the echo. Auditorium cross-section

t|

20

40

80

100

t j 120

140

160

Time (msec) >

Flutter E c h o e s

A flutter echo results w h e n s o u n d travels back and f o r t h b e t w e e n t w o parallel surfaces and is attenuated m o r e s l o w l y t h a n reflections f r o m o t h e r surfaces. T h u s , relatively m o r e intense reflections are radiated fi-om the r e f l e c tive and parallel surfaces (see Figure 6.10). F l u t t e r echoes, w h i c h are u s u aUy perceivable at frequencies o f 250 H z and greater, largely rely o n parallel r o o m boundaries to be sustained. A n g l i n g r o o m boundaries, therefore, can help e l i n f l n a t e h i g h f r e q u e n c y flutter echoes.

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Acoustics

Focusing

T h e cardinal r u l e i n d i e design o f r o o m s is to a v o i d s o u n d reflectors that focus i n the plane o f listening. A f o c u s i n g surface concentrates s o u n d energy, w h i c h m a y t h e n be intense e n o u g h to be perceived as an echo. Surfaces such as domes, b a r r e l - v a u l t e d ceilings, and concave rear walls can cause s o u n d f o c u s i n g and are n o t o r i o u s f o r generating strong echoes. Such a r c h i T i m e (sec.)

tectural elements s h o u l d be designed w i t h extreme care to a v o i d acoustical defects. I t is necessary to design the radius o f the c u r v e d surface so that the f o c a l p o i n t is w e l l above the l i s t e n i n g plane or w e l l outside o f the r o o m boundaries (Figure 6.11). I t is o f t e n possible to create the visual effect o f a d o m e o r barrel vault using l i g h t i n g and a m u c h larger radius, w h i c h places the f o c a l p o i n t w e l l outside the r o o m . T h e exact f o c a l p o i n t depends o n the l o c a t i o n o f the source. I n fact, i f the f o c a l p o i n t is k e p t h i g h e n o u g h above the l i s t e n i n g plane and closer t o the concave surface than to the audience, c u r v e d surfaces can help diffuse sound. A f t e r the s o u n d "rays" pass t h r o u g h the focal p o i n t , the rays diverge, d i f f u s i n g sound.
" T i m e (sec.) '

Figure

6.10 {top) R e v e r b e r a t i o n {bottom)

decay o f s o u n d pressure l e v e l i n d i c a tive o f adequate d i f f u s i o n , R e v e r b e r a t i o n decay o f s o u n d pressure level i n d i c a t i v e o f f l u t t e r echo.

Reverberation

R e v e r b e r a t i o n is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to r o o m v o l u m e , inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l to the surface area, and inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l to the a m o u n t o f s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l . Excess reverberation results i n a b l u r r i n g o f sounds and can reduce speech inteUigibility. I t is possible t o reduce reverb e r a t i o n b y the f o l l o w i n g means: (1) a d d i n g s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l ; (2)
Source Receiver

r e d u c i n g r o o m v o l u m e ; (3) increasing surface area. R e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e is the measure used to q u a n t i f y reverberation and is the t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r sound reflections to decay 60 d B , o n e m i l l i o n t h o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l a m p l i t u d e . A 3 - d i m e n s i o n a l " w a t e r f a U " reverberation decay is s h o w n i n Figure 6.12. T h e Sabine reverberation f o r m u l a presented below, n a m e d f o r the physicist w h o first recognized this relationship, applies to rooms that have a relatively diffuse ( u n i f o r m ) s o u n d field. \i
Source

/ \ Y

R e c 2iv,er

z
O

Focal Point

Sa

W h e r e T is the reverberation t i m e (sec); K is a constant equal to 0.16 f o r m e t r i c units and 0.05 f o r EngUsh units at r o o m temperature;V is the r o o m v o l u m e m-^ (cu. f t . ) ; S is the r o o m surface area m ^ (cu. f t . ) ; a is the average absorption coefficient.
Figure 6.11 {top) U n d e s i r a b l e f o c u s a i n g i n t h e Hstening plane; {middle)
Source Receiver

larger radius (r) o f c u r v a t u r e places

( N o t e that Sa is the a b s o r p t i o n i n units o f square meters o r square feet, hence the descriptors, m e t r i c sabins and E n g l i s h sabins.) M o s t acoustical measurements and t h e o r y are based o n the d i f f u s e s o u n d f i e l d , w h i c h assumes spaces o f reasonable p r o p o r t i o n s (length, w i d t h , and h e i g h t aspect

the f o c a l p o i n t w e l l o u t s i d e o f the r o o m ; {bottom) a small radius o f c u r vature places t h e f o c a l p o i n t w e l l above the Hstening plane, r e s u l t i n g i n a d i f f u s e s o u n d at the listener.

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Acoustics

Figure

6.12

R e v e r b e r a t i o n decay

p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f f r e q u e n c y and time.

Eyring derived another equation for the reverberation time, which is compared to Sabine's equation theoretically more correct. In practice, however, Sabine's equation is used more often because it very often comes closer to measured values. Eyring's equation is T=-0.161V/(S ln(1-))

ratio) and evenly d i s t r i b u t e d s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l F o r example, t y p i cal o p e n p l a n offices have an unusual aspect ratio w i t h v e r y l o w ceilings c o m p a r e d to the h o r i z o n t a l dimensions. A diffuse sound field c a n n o t be expected i n the o p e n o f f i c e space. A diffuse s o u n d field i m p l i e s u n i f o r m s o u n d levels t h r o u g h o u t the hstening area. I f s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e n a l is c o n c e n t r a t e d o n a single surface such as a g y n m a s i u m c e i l i n g , t h e n , using Sabine's f o r m u l a , the reverberation t i m e can depart v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m that calculated. A n alternative e q u a t i o n was developed b y Fitzroy to h a n dle the special case o f disparate r o o m dimensions o r s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l c o n c e n t r a t e d o n a single pair o f surfaces, as foUows.

V A. A A.

W h e r e T f is the r e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e (sees.); K is a constant equal to 0.16 f o r m e t r i c units and 0.05 f o r E n g l i s h u n i t s ; V is the r o o m v o l u m e m ^ (cu. f t . ) ; S is the total r o o m surface area m ^ (sq. f t . ) ; x , y, and z are the areas o f paraUel rectangular r o o m suiface pairs m ^ (sq. f t . ) ; A j , , A y _ and A^ are the total a b s o r p t i o n i n sabins c o r r e s p o n d i n g to x , y, and z.

W h i l e there are other reverberation t i m e equations, such as those described by N o r r i s - E y r i n g and Fitzroy, f o r example, the Sabine e q u a t i o n was the first

Room

Acoustics

developed, and i t remains valid i n most cases. I n order to d e t e r m i n e the reverberation t i m e i n a diffuse r o o m , i t is necessary to sum u p all o f the room's sound absorption due t o each surface material's c o n t r i b u t i o n . T h i s can be accomplished i n each f r e q u e n c y range by m u l t i p l y i n g the suiface area by the s o u n d - a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r a particular fi-equency range, and t h e n s u m m i n g i n that f r e q u e n c y range f o r aU materials located w i t h i n the space (see A p p e n d i x 2 f o r m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n ) . Just as reflections are n o t entirely specular or diffuse, n o material is e n t i r e l y sound-absorbing or

sound-reflecting. Rather, a m a t e r i a l can have b o t h absorptive and reflective properties, sometimes b e i n g reflective i n the m i d - and h i g h - f r e q u e n c y

ranges and absorptive i n the l o w . ( A m o r e c o m p l e t e discussion o f s o u n d absorbing material occurs i n Part I I I o f this chapter.) As a general guide, i t is n o t advisable to concentrate large amounts o f sound-absorbing material o n one surface only, particularly w h e r e that surface is distant fi-om a g r o u p o f Hsteners. For example, i t is n o t advisable i n larger spaces (such as a gymnasium) to concentrate sound-absorbing material o i f l y o n the cefling; this concentration w o u l d dramaticaUy reduce the e f f i ciency o f the sound absorption. I n order f o r a diffuse s o u n d field to exist, sound-absorbing material needs to be distributed over b o t h the w a l l and cefling suifaces. I n a rectangular space, f o r example, i t is n o t g o o d design practice to concentrate sound-absorbing m a t e r i a l o n t w o paraUel suifaces or o n t w o pairs o f paraUel suifaces. T l i i s simply reduces reflections c o m i n g fi-om the absorptive suifaces and may result i n an echo b y enhancing the a u d i b f l ity o f t h e reflected sound f r o m the r e m a i n i n g pair (or pairs) o f r o o m suifaces. T h e reflections fl-om the absorptive suifaces are decreased i n amplitude, resulting i n a relative increase i n the a m p l i t u d e o f the r e m a i n i n g reflections.

standing

Waves

S t a n d i n g waves are also k n o w n as room modes. R o o m modes are most easi l y perceived w h e n l i s t e n i n g t o l o w - f r e q u e n c y tones i n smaU r o o m s h a v i n g h a r d surfaces, f o r example, a t r a n s f o r m e r i n a concrete vault, w h i c h o f t e n produces the m a x i m u m s o u n d level at a f r e q u e n c y o f 120 H z . I f the r o o m dimensions are c o i n c i d e n t w i t h the w a v e l e n g t h o f 120 H z ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.9 m ) , the s o u n d pressure level o f t h e 120 H z t o n e is a m a x i m u m at the w a l l and i n t e g r a l m u l t i p l e s o f a V2 v/avelength away f r o m the waU. M i n i m u m s o u n d pressures are also at i n t e g r a l m u l t i p l e s o f a V2 w a v e l e n g t h , starting ^ 4 w a v e l e n g t h f r o m the w a U . T h i s is heard as a v a r i a t i o n i n loudness, w i t h differences o f u p to 20 d B (a perceived q u a d r u p l i n g i n loudness) b e i n g observable t o a listener m o v i n g about the r o o m . T h i s acoustic p h e n o m e n o n can be observed i n a shower staU, i n w h i c h one o r t w o mid-bass frequencies are a m p l i f i e d causing strong resonance, w h i c h results f r o m single standing waves. W h i l e i t is f u n to sing i n the shower f o r this reason, i t adds c o l o r a t i o n , o f t e n called "boominess." Professional

r e c o r d i n g artists and engineers usuaUy consider this " b o o m i n e s s " t o be undesirable. S t a n d i n g waves usually o c c u r b e t w e e n h a r d paraUel w a l l surfaces a n d are o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n i n relatively smaU r o o m s , such as music p r a c -

Acoustics

tice r o o m s , v o i c e r e c o r d i n g b o o t h s , small a u d i o - c o n t r o l r o o m s , a n d o t h e r spaces used f o r r e c o r d i n g o r f o r m o n i t o r i n g recordings. I n an ideahzed case, i t can be assumed that walls are i n f i n i t e l y r i g i d and stiff, so that m i n imum sound absorption occurs, and there is l i t t l e phase d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n the i n c i d e n t s o u n d a n d the r e f l e c t e d s o u n d at the p o i n t o f r e f l e c t i o n . R o o m s i n w h i c h t w o o r m o r e m a j o r dimensions ( f o r example, l e n g t h , w i d t h , a n d h e i g h t ) are equivalent t o m u l t i p l e s o f h a l f wavelengths are n o t o r i o u s f o r causing additive standing waves and undesirable resonances. T h e f r e q u e n c y o f resonance is h i g h e r i n smafl r o o m s due to the smaUer dimensions and shorter wavelengths. For this reason, standing waves are a m o r e i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n small r o o m s w h e r e the f r e q u e n c y o f interest lies w i t h i n the n o r m a l speech range o f 100 H z t o 5 k H z . I t is n o t e w o r t h y that standards require acoustical laboratories to have the lowest u s e f u l o n e - t h i r d octave f r e q u e n c y b a n d c o n t a i n at least ten modes (standing waves) to assure reasonably accurate measurements.

T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t results i n a s m o o t h e r f r e q u e n c y response (less a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f a single f r e q u e n c y ) , due to o v e r l a p p i n g modes. T h e l o w e r - l i m i t i n g f r e q u e n c y is usually 100 H z . F o r this reason, laboratories d o n o t u s u ally measure b e l o w this frequency, i n spite o f t h e f a c t that there is a g r o w i n g n e e d f o r data b e l o w 100 H z . I n order t o have statisticaUy reliable data at l o w frequencies, there needs to be a s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r o f o v e r l a p p i n g modes (standing waves); othei-wise, severe variations i n the s o u n d pressure level result f r o m one l o c a t i o n to another, d e p e n d i n g u p o n w h e r e the wave m a x i m u m o r m i n i m u m occurs and w h e r e the measurement is taken.

U s i n g l o n g e r measurement p e r i o d s w i t h a m o v i n g m i c r o p h o n e can help t o average these differences. I n order to decrease the l o w e r - l i m i t i n g f r e q u e n c y (aUowing l o w e r frequencies to be tested) and reduce these v a r i a tions, i t is necessary t o increase the r o o m v o l u m e . T h e Schroeder f r e q u e n c y (f,) is the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m single m o d a l resonances, w h e r e standing waves are a c o n c e r n , to o v e r l a p p i n g n o r m a l modes. A b o v e this frequency, single r o o m modes are n o r m a l l y n o t a c o n c e r n .

<

W h e r e T is the r e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e (sec.);V is the r o o m v o l u m e m-^.

I n studios used f o r the p r o d u c t i o n o r r e p r o d u c t i o n o f audio m a t e r i a l , sufficient l o w - f r e q u e n c y a b s o r p t i o n is i m p o r t a n t . T h e s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n i n

this case acts as d a m p i n g , r e d u c i n g the a m p h t u d e and b r o a d e n i n g the f r e q u e n c y range o f the resonance. I n the idealized case o f massive and r i g i d r o o m boundaries, the s o u n d pressure m a x i m u m o f the sound wave occurs at the surface b o u n d a i y A pressure i r d n i m u m occurs '4 w a v e l e n g t h away f r o m the boundary. C o n v e r -

Room

Acoustics

86

sely, the acoustic v e l o c i t y ( o f v i b r a t i n g air molecules) must be zero at the r i g i d b o u n d a r y (i.e., n o m o t i o n ) . T h e r e f o r e , the acoustic v e l o c i t y is a m a x i m u m '4 wavelength away f r o m the w a l l (Figure 6 . 1 3 ) . T h i s is generally a g o o d l o c a t i o n f o r an absorber, to damp d o m i n a n t r o o m modes (i.e., resonances). A t r o o m corners all r o o m modes achieve a pressure m a x i m u m and a v e l o c i t y m i n i m u m (assuming massive r i g i d boundaries). R o o m modes exist w h e t h e r o r n o t the walls o f the space are angled o r are paraUel. T h e c r i t e r i a f o r acoustical design w i t h respect t o m o d a l resonances is to p r o v i d e adequate l o w f r e q u e n c y d a m p i n g i n the f o r m o f a b s o r p t i o n and to have as m a n y r o o m modes per o n e - t h i r d octave b a n d as possible. Usually, those r o o m modes that propagate axiaUy and are parallel to the room's l e n g t h , w i d t h , and h e i g h t are d o m i n a n t . H o w e v e r , the m o d e f i e l d is three d i m e n s i o n a l ! UsuaUy, the axial modes are the most p o o r l y d a m p e d , due to the p e r p e n d i c u l a r i n c i d e n c e w i t h the r o o m boundaries, effectively m a k i n g the s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l appear to be the thinnest. W h e n s o u n d strikes the waU at an angle, the s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l is effectively thicker. T w o o t h e r types o f r o o m modes exist (Figure 6.14): (1) those i n v o l v i n g t w o pairs o f surfaces, such as all f o u r walls o r a pair o f waUs and the floor/ceiling, k n o w n as tangential room modes; (2) those i n v o l v modes.
Axial - one dimensional Figure 6.13 R o o m mode sound
\ pressureX ' " ^ ^ v e locity A

pressure m a x i m u m at t h e w a l l . A c o u s t i c m o l e c u l a r v e l o c i t y is a m a x i m u m '4 w a v e l e n g t h f r o m w a l l .

i n g all three pairs o f surfaces, k n o w n as oblique room

I f reverberation is e x a m i n e d as a statistical decay o f r o o m modes, the o b l i q u e modes generally decay m o r e rapidly, f o U o w e d by the tangential modes. T h e axial modes, b e i n g m o s t p o o r l y damped, are n o r m a l l y the slowest to decay. W h e r e there is n o t an adequate density o f modes, i t is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t f o r the axial modes t o be adequately damped.

O t h e r w i s e , l o n g extensions o f r e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e can o c c u r i n a n a r r o w fi-equency range, resulting i n a perceptible resonance. A n g l i n g room

Tangential two dimensional

boundaries does n o t ehnUnate standing waves, b u t does redistribute t h e m b y slightly a l t e r i n g t h e i r frequency. T h i s , however, is n o t a substitute f o r adequate d a m p i n g .

III. S o u n d L e v e l s & S o u n d

Absorption

S o u n d L e v e l s in

Rooms Oblique - three dimensional

T h e r e are f o u r categories o f sound fields that c o n t r i b u t e to the s o u n d level. T h e y are the near field, the far field, the direct field, and the reverberant field. F r o m the listener's perspective, there are the direct and the reflected
Figure 6.14 Types o f r o o m m o d e s

(standnig waves).

s o u n d levels. A s o u n d source has a near and a far field (refer t o F i g u r e 6.15). T h e near field distance usuaUy relates to the source dimensions, as discussed i n C h a p t e r 20. T h e larger the source, therefore, the larger the near s o u n d field. T h e n , w h e n m o v i n g away f r o m the source, direct field a t t e n u a t i o n takes over u n t i l the listener has m o v e d far e n o u g h back to enter the reverberant field. T h e r e are t w o p r i m a r y ways t o have a larger direct p r o v i d e a m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l s o u n d source or add m o r e m a t e r i a l (thereby r e d u c i n g reverberation). D i r e c t s o u n d radiated f r o m the source i n the far field attenuates p r o p o r t i o n a l l y to the inverse square o f the distance away f r o m the source field:

sound-absorbing

86

Acoustics

(6 d B per d o u b l i n g o f distance). S o u n d usually attenuates v e r y l i t d e i n the near field. S o u n d levels can be p r e d i c t e d u s i n g the f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :

L,v+10

1og,

47tr

Sa

(mett.)

L p = L^^,+ 10 l o g

Anr

Sa

+ 10

(Eng.)

Near - H Far Field

Reverberant Field

W h e r e Lp is the s o u n d pressure level (dB re: 20 |aPa) at distance r ( m , f t . ) L^^ is the s o u n d p o w e r level o f t h e s o u n d source (dB re: 1 p W ) ; Q is the
Increasing reverberation time

d i r e c t i v i t y o f the source; S is the surface area o f t h e r o o m ( m ^ , sq. f t . the average s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t .

IS

Distance f r o m sound source

T h e first t e r m o f the e q u a t i o n c o n t a i n i n g r^ relates to the attenuaFigure 6.i5 S o u n d pressure level r e d u c t i o n as a f u n c t i o n o f distance f r o m the source.

t i o n o f the direct s o u n d field Avhich is 6 d B per d o u b l i n g o f distance, and the second t e r m c o n t a i n i n g Soc t o the reverberant field. T h e above equat i o n is applicable to e m p t y r o o m s h a v i n g diffuse s o u n d fields w i t h u n i -

More precisely, equation 6.5 should read Lp=Lw+10log[Q/(4r2)+4(1-)/A] This equation follows the so-called Sabine-Franklin-Jaeger theory. It predicts that the sound pressure level of the reverberant field is constant meaning that the sound pressure level from a certain distance from the source becomes constant. Obsevrations in practice have however shown that this is not the case. The sound pressure level far from the source keeps decreasing as a function of distance. Michael Barron therefore introduced a correction to equation 6.5 reflecting this continued decrease.Hisa equation reads Lp=Lw+10log[Q/(4r2) +4(1-)^(r/mfp)/A] with mfp the mean free path of the room equal to mfp = 4V/S.

f o r m l y distributed sound-absorbing material. T h e d i r e c t i v i t y ( Q ) is equal to 1 f o r a spherical o m n i - d i r e c t i o n a l source. Q equals 2 f o r a h e m i s p h e r i c a l source. Q o f the h u m a n v o i c e a p p r o x i m a t e l y equals 4, and a loudspeaker typically used i n c i n e m a sound r e p r o d u c t i o n w i t h a dispersion p a t t e r n o f 90 degrees w i d e b y 40 degrees h i g h has a Q o f shghdy greater t h a n 10. (Dispersion patterns are n o r m a U y q u o t e d at the m a x i m u m i n c l u d e d angle 6 d B b e l o w the on-axis response.) Recently, a n e w t h e o i y has been proposed f o r theaters and concert haUs, i n w h i c h s o u n d propagates over a diffuse sound-absorbing plane, namely the seats and audience.*" T h e reverberant sound field does n o t result i n virtuaUy constant s o u n d levels as i n the case o f an e m p t y r o o m . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n becomes i m p o r t a n t w h e n evaluating direct-to-reverberant sound level ratios f o r speech and music i n larger spaces. ( R e f e r to this chapter's A p p e n d i x , and the early-to-late s o u n d i n d e x discussed later.) A parameter o f t e n used to evaluate the "liveness" o f a r o o m is the critical distance, also k n o w n as the reverberation or room radius. R e v e r b e r a t i o n radius is "the distance f r o m the source o f s o u n d w h e r e the direct s o u n d field and reverberant s o u n d field have the same sound level." T h i s is n o t

o n l y a p r o p e r t y o f the r o o m , b u t also o f the sound source's directivity. I n c o n c e r t haUs, this distance is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 n i (15 f t . ) , whereas i n a film-

screening theater, the r o o m radius may be 20 m (62 f t . ) . T h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n may be used to calculate the reverberation radius.

Equation 6.6 can with a small modification according to above more QL -p , equation A precise (SFJ theory) also be written as r=[QA/(16(1-))]^0.5

r = 0.057

QV T

Room

Acoustics

W h e r e r is reverberation radius ( m ) ; Q is the d i r e c t i v i t y o f the V the r o o m v o h i m e ( m 3 ) ; T is the reverberation t i m e (sec).

source;

z o

H a

0.141

[QA]'^2

T h i s is an alternate f o r m o f E q u a t i o n 6.6, w h e r e A is the t o t a l r o o m a b s o r p t i o n ( m e t r i c sabins).

I n c o n c e r t halls, almost ah o f the listeners are f a r t h e r f r o m the

orchestra

t h a n the r o o m radius; the audience is largely i n the reverberant field. I n a cinema, however, w h e r e reverberation w o u l d i m p a i r speech i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y , most o f the listeners s h o u l d be i n the direct s o u n d field. I t is n o t e w o r t h y that i n the case o f film s o u n d r e p r o d u c t i o n , all o f t h e s o u n d effects, i n c l u d i n g reverberation, are r e c o r d e d as part o f the film s o u n d track and do n o t generally require assistance fi'om the r o o m reflections. I n a f a c t o r y w h e r e there are n u m e r o u s noise-pi-oducing machines

and hard floor, w a l l , and c e i l i n g surfaces, the reverberant s o u n d field can add significantly to the overaU s o u n d level. A sinular s i t u a t i o n occurs i n a c r o w d ed restaurant or at a party w h e r e n u m e r o u s conversations o c c u r simultaneously. T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y true w h e r e the b a c k g r o u n d noise is n o t c o n t r o h e d by noise emissions f r o m a single source, b u t rather by an ensemble. I n this case, the a d d i t i o n o f sound-absorbing material is b e n e f i c i a l t o the r e d u c t i o n o f noise. T h e noise levels can typicaUy be reduced i n the reverberant field

up t o a m a x i m u m o f 10 d B (perceived as a h a l v i n g o f loudness). M o r e t y p icaUy, however, the noise levels are reduced b y about 6 d B . T h e f o U o w i n g e q u a t i o n can be used to estimate the r e d u c t i o n i n noise levels i n the reverberant far field.

L R = 10 l o g .

Ai

W h e r e L R is the r e d u c t i o n i n s o u n d level (dB); A j is the i n i t i a l t o t a l r o o m a b s o r p t i o n (sabins);A2 is the final t o t a l r o o m a b s o r p t i o n (sabins).

I n m a n y cases, s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l is added t o the facility's c e i l i n g . T h e c e i h n g is c o m m o n l y closest to the sources o f sound, w h i c h are dist r i b u t e d evenly i n a r o o m w i t h a l o w c e f l i n g . I n this way, each s o u n d source has equal access t o the a b s o r p t i o n , so n o i n d i v i d u a l s o u n d becomes d o m i n a n t b y n o t b e i n g absorbed. W h e r e the c e i h n g is h i g h , s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l s h o u l d be evenly d i s t r i b u t e d o n the ceilings and waUs.

Sound Transparent Surfaces

I n cases w h e r e visual and acousdc aesthetics cannot be a c c o m m o d a t e d b y a c o m m o n r o o m shape or by the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f materials, acousticaUy transparent surfaces can play a h e l p f u l role. S o u n d transparent materials are used to conceal acoustical treatments and t o avoid w h a t c o u l d other-wise be considered a c o n f l i c t i n g design appearance. W i t h p r o p e r selection, a w i d e range o f materials can w o r k as acousticaUy transparent finishes. These i n c l u d e f a b r i c , w o v e n w i r e mesh, p e r f o r a t e d metal, and spaced w o o d slats (Figure 6.16). The most common acoustically transparent m a t e r i a l is loosely fire-retardant cloth,

w o v e n f a b r i c , such as a l i g h t - w e i g h t m u s l i n o r other

o f t e n seen c o v e r i n g f i b r o u s , sound-absorbent materials such as acoustical waU panels (Figure 6.17). M o s t fabrics used as transparent materials also have a s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g quality, w h i c h can b e c o m e an issue i n spaces

designed to be reverberant. T h e excess a b s o r p t i o n comes fi'om r e s t r i c t i n g the air flow t h r o u g h the f a b r i c , resulting i n v i b r a t i o n o f the f a b r i c fibers and therefore dissipating acoustic energy as heat.

I n the case o f r i g i d peidbrated m a t e r i a l , sheet m e t a l is the m o s t c o m m o n l y used (Figure 6.18). I n general, r i g i d , p e r f o r a t e d materials are relatively transparent except at h i g h frequencies w h e r e increasingly m o r e

s o u n d is reflected. A n o t h e r drawback o f p e r f o r a t e d m e t a l is that i t is relatively expensive and p r o n e to rattles and resonances, i f n o t p r o p e r l y

attached. T h e m o s t c o m m o n mistake w h e n u s i n g peidbrated materials is to examine o n l y the percentage o f o p e n area and assume that transnhssivity (acoustical transparency) is directly p r o p o r t i o n a l to the o p e n area alone. I n fact, the transmissivity o f p e r f o r a t e d m a t e r i a l is g o v e r n e d b y three parameters: p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e size, m a t e r i a l thickness, and percentage o f o p e n area.^ T h e h i g h - f r e q u e n c y transnhssivity can be increased b y u s i n g the thinnest possible m a t e r i a l , the smallest h o l e diameter, and the greatest o p e n area (the greatest n u m b e r o f holes). GeneraUy, the most acousticaUy transparent sheet m e t a l materials have the smaUest h o l e diameter and the greatest o p e n area. T h e smaUest available h o l e diameter is a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal to the m a t e r i al thickness, due to m a n u f a c t u r i n g constraints. O n e c o m m o n transnhssive element is the m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen, w h i c h is p e r f o r a t e d to aUow the m a i n channel loudspeakers b e h i n d the screen to be heard t h r o u g h the screen. I n 1980, i t was r e c o g n i z e d that a large percentage o f h i g h - f r e q u e n c y sound was b e i n g re-reflected b e h i n d the screen dtte to the relatively p o o r e r h i g h -

90

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frequency

transmissivity o f this p e r f o r a t e d m a t e r i a l I n order to prevent

sounds from l e a k i n g back i n t o the theater and r e d u c i n g c l a r i t y the practice o f p l a c i n g s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l b e h i n d the screen was developed.

Sound Absorbing Materials

materials have some s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g properties. I n c i d e n t s o u n d ener-

gy that is n o t absorbed must be reflected, transmitted, o r dissipated. A m a t e rial's sound-absoi-bing properties can be described as a s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n c o e f i i c i e n t i n a particular f r e q u e n c y range. T h e c o e f f i c i e n t can be v i e w e d as a percentage o f s o u n d b e i n g absorbed, w h e r e 1.00 is c o m p l e t e absorpt i o n (100%), and 0.01 is m i m m a l ( l % ) . T o d e t e r m m e the a m o u n t o f sound a b s o r p t i o n a r o o m surface has, the surface area is m u l t i p h e d by the absorpt i o n c o e f f i c i e n t t o y i e l d a result i n sabins (units o f area m ^ or sq. f t . ) . T h e total s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n w i t h i n a r o o m can be o b t a i n e d by a d d i n g the a m o u n t o f a b s o r p t i o n i n sabins a t t r i b u t e d t o aU surfaces i n each f r e q u e n c y range. ( R e f e r to A p p e n d i x 2.) I n c i d e n t s o u n d s t r i k i n g a r o o m suiface yields s o u n d energy c o m p r i s i n g r e f l e c t e d sound, absorbed sound, and t r a n s m i t t e d sound. M o s t g o o d

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s o u n d reflectors prevent s o u n d transmission b y f o r m i n g a solid i m p e r v i o u s barrier. Conversely, most g o o d s o u n d absorbers readily transmit sound. S o u n d reflectors t e n d t o be i m p e r v i o u s and massive, w h i l e s o u n d absorbers are generally porous, l i g h t - w e i g h t m a t e r i a l . I t is f o r this reason that s o u n d t r a n s m i t t e d bet:ween r o o m s is l i t t l e affected b y a d d i n g s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n to the waU surface. T h e r e are three basic categories o f s o u n d absorbers: porous m a t e r i als c o m m o n l y f o r m e d o f m a t t e d o r spun fibers, panel (membrane) absorbers h a v i n g an i m p e r v i o u s surface m o u n t e d over an airspace, and resonators created by holes o r slots c o n n e c t e d to an enclosed v o l u m e o f trapped air. I n some cases, the a b s o r p t i v i t y o f each t y p e o f s o u n d absorber can be dramaticaUy i n f l u e n c e d b y the m o u n t i n g m e t h o d e m p l o y e d .

Porous Absorbers

C o m m o n porous absorbers i n c l u d e carpet, draperies, spray-applied c e l l u lose, aerated plaster, f i b r o u s m i n e r a l w o o l and glass fiber, open-ceU f o a m .

92

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air to f l o w i n t o a cellular structure w h e r e s o u n d energy is c o n v e r t e d to heat. Porous absorbers are the most c o m m o n l y used sound-absorbing

materials.Thickness plays an i m p o r t a n t role i n s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n b y porous materials. Fabric a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y to a hard massive substrate such as plaster o r g y p s u m b o a r d does n o t make an e f f i c i e n t s o u n d absorber due to the v e r y t h i n layer o f fiber. GeneraUy, better s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y t h i c k e r porous materials. T h i c k e r materials generaUy p r o v i d e m o r e bass s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n , o r d a m p i n g . S o u n d - a b s o r b i n g materials are rated u s m g the noise r e d u c t i o n c o e f i i c i e n t ( N R C ) , a .single figure-of-merit rating

averaging f o u r - o c t a v e b a n d sound absoi-ption coefficients fi-om 250 H z to 2 k H z , the p r i m a r y speech f r e q u e n c y range. T h i c k cut pUe c a r p e t i n g o n a hair j u t e pad can have an N R C o f 0.35, w h e a g l u e - d o w n carpet tile m a y oiUy have an N R C o f 0.10. Typical 15 m m {%m.) t h i c k c e i h n g tUes have

an N R C r a t i n g o f 0.50 w h e n m o u n t e d i n a l a y - i n g r i d ceihng. A 25 m m (1 i n . ) t h i c k glass-fiber-based c e i l i n g the t y p i c a l l y has an N R C r a t i n g o f 0.80 o r greater (Figure 6.19). P r o v i d i n g an air cavity b e h i n d porous

absorbers, such as the air p l e n u m above c e i l i n g tile, n o r m a l l y increases the low-frequency sound absorption. O p e n - c e U f o a m panels are effective sound absorbers because they o f f e r increased surface area due to the c o n t o u r e d surface o f the f o a m (Figure 6.20). L i k e f o a m panels, suspended baffles y i e l d m o r e sabins per u n i t area o f material. Baffles are absorbent because b o t h the fi-ont a n d back sides o f each baffle is exposed to the s o u n d field (Figure 6.21), Baffles are t y p i cally used i n spaces that require h i g h levels o f sound absorption such as r a f l way stations and i n d u s t r i a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g plants. W h e r e thicker, m o r e abuse-resistant finishes are required, porous sound-absorbing materials are concealed b e h i n d protective material that is perforated or slotted. WaU car-

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pet that is f u r r e d over sound-absorbing fibrous b o a r d (Figure 6.22) is also used. T h i s type o f carpet is c o m m o n l y applied to the rear and side waUs o f m o v i e cinemas. Q u i l t e d sound-absorbing material is also v e r y abuse-resistant (Figure 6.23). I t is available w i t h a massive septum to help reduce sound transmission. T h i s material is used i n a w i d e range o f situations. For e x a m ple, bafiles are fi-equently h u n g a r o u n d n o i s y m a c h i n e r y and larger arrays o f baffles are suspended o n the waUs o f s o u n d stages and r e c o r d i n g studios. TypicaUy, a substance that prevents air flow i n t o the porous material w i U result i n its decreased s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n . F o r example, a p p l y i n g b r i d g i n g paint o r f a b r i c backed with a non-porous (impervious) material

reduces s o u n d a b s o r p t i o n . Frequently, acoustical plasters, w h e n repainted, lose t h e i r s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g properties. I n any case, acoustic plasters and other spray-applied s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g treatments rely o n proper a p p l i c a t i o n i n m u l t i p l e coats i n order to create porous cavities (Figure 6.24). W h e n these treatments greatly reduced. L a b o r a t o r y test reports p r o v i d i n g s o u n d - a b s o r p t i o n coefficients are based o n m e a s u r i n g the s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g materials i n a d i f f u s e field w i t h are i m p r o p e r l y applied, t h e i r absorptive properties are

Acoustics

s o u n d s t r i k i n g the m a t e r i a l b e i n g tested at aU angles o f i n c i d e n c e ( r a n d o m i n c i d e n c e ) . T h i s is rarely the case i n actual f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s , since n o r m a l l y there is a p r i m a r y d i r e c t i o n f o r s o u n d s t r i k i n g a surface r a d i a t i n g f r o m a stationary s o u r c e . W h e r e s o u n d i n c i d e n c e is p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the m a t e r i a l , a sound-absorption c o e f f i c i e n t less t h a n that r e p o r t e d may o f t e n be

observed. T h e s o u n d - a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t at p e r p e n d i c u l a r i n c i d e n c e is best measured using an i m p e d a n c e tube. S o u n d - a b s o r b i n g materials can be d e f i c i e n t i n absorbing p o w e r at p e r p e n d i c u l a r i n c i d e n c e i n a n a r r o w f r e q u e n c y range, r e s u l t i n g i n a flutter echo. Occasionally, laboratories r e p o r t sound-absorption coefficients exceedi n g 1.00. T h i s anomaly is created b y edge defraction and the fact that o i f l y the h o r i z o n t a l suiface area o f the material is considered, and the increase o f surface area (due to the edges associated w i t h the thickness) is i g n o r e d .

Panel Absorbers

T y p i c a l l y panel absorbers are n o n - r i g i d , n o n - p o r o u s materials w h i c h are placed over an airspace that vibrates i n a flexural m o d e i n response t o

s o u n d pressure exerted b y adjacent air molecules. C o m m o n panel ( m e m brane) absorbers i n c l u d e t h i n w o o d p a n e l i n g over f r a m i n g , l i g h t w e i g h t i m p e r v i o u s ceilings and floors, glazing, and o t h e r large surfaces capable o f

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resonating i n response to s o u n d . Panel absorbers are usually most e f f i c i e n t at absorbing l o w frequencies. T h i s fact has b e e n learned repeatedly o n orchestra p l a t f o r m s w h e r e t h i n w o o d p a n e l i n g absorbs m o s t o f the bass sound, r o b b i n g the r o o m o f a quality described as " w a r m t h . " TypicaUy, the m a x i m u m s o u n d - a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t that can be p r o v i d e d by panel absorbers is 0.5 i n a relatively n a r r o w - f r e q u e n c y range. M e m b r a n e panel absorbers can be t u n e d to a particular frequency. I t is possible t o b r o a d e n the f r e q u e n c y range b e i n g absorbed by a d d i n g porous m a t e r i a l i n the airspace b e h i n d the panel absorber, also caUed cavity damping. fi-equency The resonant

o f a panel absorber is typicaUy the f r e q u e n c y at w h i c h m a x i -

m u m a b s o r p t i o n w i U occur. T h e resonant f r e q u e n c y can be calculated u s i n g the e q u a t i o n below.

S
3

[md]'/2

[md]'2

In equation 6.9 the depth of the air space behind the panel absorber is taken in cm. If this air space is only filled with air and if this depth is taken in m, equation 6.9 should be written as f=60/[md]^0.5

W h e r e f is the resonant f r e q u e n c y ( H z ) ; m is the sui-face density, k g / m ^ (psf); d is the d e p t h o f t h e airspace b e h i n d the panel absorber, c m ( i n . ) .

Typically, the resonant f r e q u e n c y o f panel absorbers lies b e l o w ^ 0 0 H z . T h e greater the airspace b e h i n d the m e m b r a n e and the h i g h e r its surface d e n sity, the l o w e r the resonant f r e q u e n c y w U l be. M e m b r a n e absorbers can be useful f o r h e l p i n g d a m p standing waves b e t w e e n 100 and 200 H z . A t y p i -

cal m e m b r a n e absorber is 6 m m (V4 i n . ) t e m p e r e d hardboard over a 37 m m (1 V2 m . ) airspace c o n t a i n i n g 25 m m (1 in.) t h i c k glass fiber. I t is possible to c o m b i n e the attributes o f a porous absorber w i t h those o f a m e m b r a n e absorber. For instance, a porous absorptive layer c o u l d be surface-applied over a m e m b r a n e absorber. Specialized porous absorbers have b e e n developed f o r use i n locations w h e r e cleaning is necessary such as i n kitchens and o p e r a t i n g rooms. I n these cases a t h i n plastic film is applied over the glass fiber. UsuaUy, the l o w - f i ' e q u e n c y a b s o r p t i o n is

enhanced b y the m e m b r a n o u s characteristics o f the film. H o w e v e r , w h e n the t w o absorbers are c o m b i n e d , the h i g h - f r e q u e n c y a b s o r p t i o n is somewhat compromised.

Resonators

Resonators typically act to absorb s o u n d i n a n a r r o w - f r e q u e n c y range; they i n c l u d e some p e r f o r a t e d materials and materials that have openings (holes a n d slots). T h e classic example o f a resonator is the H e l m h o l t z resonator, w h i c h has the shape o f a b o t t l e . T h e resonant f r e q u e n c y (f^) is g o v e r n e d b y

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the size o f the o p e n i n g , the l e n g t h o f the neck, and the v o l u m e o f air trapped i n the chamber.

z o

A V(l+nd)

Equation 6.10 is valid for pure Helmholz resonators. These contain one neck and one air volume. If a series of these resonators are combined to form a perforated panel, the resonance frequency can be determined from f=54[e/(t d)]^0.5 with e the perforation rate [-], d the depth of the (filled) air space behind the resonator [m] and t the thickness of perforated plate [m].

W h e r e c is the speed o f sound; A is the n e c k cross-sectional area; / is the l e n g t h o f neck; d is the d i a m e t e r o f the n e c k o p e n i n g ; n typicaUy varies b e t w e e n 0.85 f o r a smaU n e c k diameter and 0.60 f o r a resonator w i t h o u t a n e c k ; V is the c h a m b e r v o l u m e .

S l o t t e d concrete m a s o n r y units ( C M U ) are b u i l d i n g materials that are based o n the use o f resonators. Slots o p e n the h o l l o w core (or chamber) to the r o o m (Figure 6.25). O f t e n , these resonators are t u n e d t o relatively l o w frequencies. F o r such a resonator to be an efEcient absorber, i t is necessaiy

Figure units.

6.25 A c o u s t i c a l m a s o n r y

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to locate the m o u t h o f t h e o p e n i n g near an area o f high-acoustic velocity. UsuaUy, such resonators have f a i r l y n a r r o w tunings and are ideal f o r d a m p i n g standing waves o r absorbing s o u n d e m i t t e d b y a t o n a l source, such as a transformer. TypicaUy, p e r f o r a t e d materials o n l y absorb the m i d - f r e q u e n c y range unless special care is taken i n designing the f a c i n g to be as acousticaUy transparent as possible. (See the discussion o f transparent surfaces earlier i n this chapter.) Slats usuaUy have a similar acoustic response. T h e a m o u n t o f h i g h - f r e q u e n c y a b s o r p t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d b y the d i m e n s i o n o f the slat and its abUity to reflect a particular w a v e l e n g t h , and the space b e t w e e n slats exposing a h i g h e r percentage o f absorptive m a t e r i a l (Figure 6.26). N o r maUy, w o o d griUes w i t h v e r y n a r r o w slats c o m e closest to h a v i n g the same a b s o r p t i o n characteristic as the sound-absorbing m a t e r i a l b e i n g covered. L o n g , n a r r o w slots can be used to absorb l o w frequencies. For this reason, l o n g , n a r r o w air d i s t r i b u t i o n slots i n r o o m s f o r music p r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d be v i e w e d w i t h suspicion since the slots may absorb valuable l o w firequency energy. For example, i n a music r e c o r d i n g stage specificaUy

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designed to have variable reverberation times b y using s l i d i n g s o u n d absorptive panels, an i n t e r e s t i n g s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g p h e n o m e n o n occurred

(Figure 6.27). W h e n the s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g panels w e r e p u l l e d o u t o f t h e slots a n d exposed i n the r o o m , the r e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e was reduced, except at frequencies b e l o w 80 H z . W h e n the absorptive panels were i n the slots, the r o o m r e v e r b e r a t i o n increased except at frequencies b e l o w 80 H z . W h y d i d the l o w frequencies behave differently? A 19 m m (^4 i n . ) gap, 10 m (31 f t . ) l o n g , was created w h e n the panels were i n the slots. T h e slots were filled w i t h the concealed 100 m m (4 i n . ) t h i c k s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l .

N o r m a U y , w i t h s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l concealed i n the slots, a l o n g e r reverberation t i m e is expected. T h i s reversal can be a t t r i b u t e d to the

a b s o r p t i o n sitting i n the unsealed slots, w h i c h absorb m o r e s o u n d b e l o w 80 H z t h a n w h e n the absorptive panels are o u t o f t h e slots and exposed i n the r o o m . T o e l i m i n a t e the l o w - f r e q u e n c y paradox, the slots m u s t be sealed w h e n the s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e r i a l is concealed i n the slot.

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Acoustics

Air Absorption

S o u n d a b s o r p d o n i n air can be significant i n rooms larger t h a n 2,800 m ^ (100,000 c u . f t . ) i n a f r e q u e n c y range above 1 k H z . A i r a b s o r p t i o n becomes m u c h m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t at relative h u m i d i t i e s b e l o w 30 percent. I n music halls h a v i n g large i n t e r i o r v o l u m e s , air a b s o r p t i o n is o f t e n responsible f o r the r e d u c e d reverberation t i m e at h i g h frequencies w h e n c o m p a r e d t o the mid-fi"equency range. A i r a b s o r p t i o n i n a r o o m is directly p r o p o r t i o n a l to the distance traveled b y the r e f l e c t e d s o u n d p r i o r to reaching the listener; a b s o r p t i o n is therefore greater i n larger r o o m s .

IV. M u s i c H a l l E v a l u a t i o n a n d A c t i v e

Acoustics

T H E final assessment o f t h e suitability o f a room's acoustics is subjective and entirely dependent upon human perceptions and preferences. W h i l e

acousticians have h a d the ability t o measure s o u n d pressure level and reverb e r a t i o n t i m e f o r decades, the subjective impression o f reverberance has

n o t always correlated w e l l w i t h the objective measurement. I n a d d i t i o n , the t e r m i n o l o g y d e s c r i b i n g the subjective impressions has been p o o r l y standardized u n t i l recently. I n order to have a m e a n i n g f u l discussion, i t is n e c essary to standardize the t e r m i n o l o g y , as i n d i c a t e d i n Table 6. 2.

Table

6.2 Standard t e r m i n o l o g y .

Subjective term Loudness

Description of precept Strength or loudness of a sound

Proposed objective measure Total sound (pressure) level (Source strength) G (A-weighted) Early-to-late sound r a t i o C ^ q , Cgo (level adjusted)

Clarity

Articulationthe ability to hear definition and detail, often relating to speech o r faster tempo music

Intimacy Reverberance

Apparent closeness of sound Perception of reflected sound and liveness

I T G or "Initial time gap" Early sound reflections, E D T (125 H z to 4 k H z S E G ratio, ISE -T5)

Envelopment

Immersion in a sound field, the sense of being surrounded

Late lateral sound level (after 80 msec) 2 to 4 k H z sound level and reverberation time

Brightness

Relative loudness of treble or high frequency sounds compared to mid-frequency sound

Bass warmth

T h e relative loudness of bass or low frequency sounds compared to the mid-frequency sounds

Early low frequency sound level125 to 500 H z values of G in the first 50 msec

T h e n e x t section contains d e f i n i t i o n s f o r the o b j e c t i v e l y measurable parameters that are t h e n related to subjective impressions i n the section that foUows. F o U o w i n g these t w o sections, the field o f active acoustics is b r i e f l y discussed.

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Objective

Parameters

Reverberation

time

( T ) is the t i m e i t takes the reflected s o u n d t o decay

60 d B subsequent to the a b r u p t cessation o f the s o u n d source. Source strength (G) is the ratio o f s o u n d pressure level c o m p a r e d to

the reference level o f the direct s o u n d field w i t h o u t reflections measured at 10 m (33 f t . ) f r o m the same source. I n c o n c e r t hahs, the values t y p i c a l l y range b e t w e e n 0 and + 1 0 d B , d e m o n s t r a t i n g the a m p l i f i c a t i o n p r o v i d e d by r o o m reflections. The early-to-late sound ratio ( C l a r i t y (C40, Cgg)) is the s o u n d pressure

level i n c l u d i n g the d i r e c t - and early-reflected s o u n d (up to 40 msec f o r speech and up to 80 msec f o r m u s i c ) , d i v i d e d b y the total s o u n d energy a r r i v i n g after 40 and 80 msec respectively. C^ can be estimated f r o m the f o l l o w i n g equation:

z
c

TT

(0.04i-+13.82t)/T ^ g(13.82t/T) _ ^

C , = 10 l o g

1 0

312Tr2

W h e r e C^ is clarity; t is the t i m e (sec), d e f i n i n g the extent o f t h e early sound field (usuaUy 0.04 o r 0.08); r is the distance fi-om the sound source m ( f t . ) ; T is the reverberation t i m e . (See A p p e n d i x 1 f o r predicted values o f C j f o r a 12,000 m3 (39, 372 cu. ft.) haU at v a r y i n g distances and reverberation times.) C40 values o f + 5 d B are considered g o o d f o r speech inteUigibility, w h i l e those less t h a n 0 d B are p o o r . Cgg values considered desirable are + 5 d B f o r electronicaUy a m p l i f i e d music, 0 d B f o r classical music, and - 2 d B f o r r o m a n t i c classical music. Lateral energy fraction compares the s o u n d energy a r r i v i n g lateraUy

w i t h the s o u n d energy a r r i v i n g f r o m aU directions. I t has b e e n s h o w n that this measurement does n o t account f o r aU spatial effects heard b y listeners, and that n o parameter yet measures the subjective diffuseness o f a reverberant sound.^ T h e acceptable range o f v a r i a t i o n i n early ( 0 - 8 0 msec) lateral energy f r a c t i o n is 0.1 to 0.35 f o r u n o c c u p i e d music haUs w i t h the l a r g er value b e i n g p r e f e r r e d . Interaural cross-correlation ( l A C C ) is the degree o f c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n signals a r r i v i n g at a listener's ears. l A C C rates o n a scale o f 0 to 1. Early decay time ( E D T ) is the i n i t i a l reflected s o u n d decay d e f i n e d as "the slope o f t h e early s o u n d decay o c c u r r i n g i n the first 10 d B o f decay n o r m a l i z e d to 60 d B , m a k i n g i t comparable to r e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e . " I n a p e r f e c t l y diffuse s o u n d field, the early-decay t i m e w o u l d be equal to the reverberation t i m e . T h i s is the case i n m a n y c o n c e r t halls. H o w e v e r , i n some haUs, w h e r e reverberance is less apparent, the early-decay t i m e is less t h a n the reverberation t i m e due to a lack o f early-reflected sound. Sound energy growth (SEG) curve is a n e w parameter d e p i c t i n g the

g r o w t h i n sound energy d u r i n g the first 200 to 300 msec (Early and M i d d l e ) . Instantaneous sound envelope (ISE) is a n e w parameter y i e l d i n g the

Acoustics

sound a m p l i t u d e and a r r i v a l t i m e o f i n d i v i d u a l reflections. ISE is especiall y useful f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h calculated reflectograms generated i n c o m puter models. ISE shows i n d i v i d u a l reflections c o n t r i b u t i o n to the S E G (See Figure 6.36 i n A p p e n d i x 3 ) . T h e author's i n t e n t i o n i n i n t r o d u c i n g these t w o n e w terms is to p r o v i d e a better c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n measurements (ISE), calculations ( f r o m ray o r image c o m p u t e r models), and subj e c t i v e impressions (SEG) based o n energy parameters. Initial time gap ( I T G ) is the t i m e b e t w e e n the direct s o u n d arrival at

a Hstener and the first reflections. F o r g o o d concert acoustics, the I T G s h o u l d n o t exceed 20 msec.

Subjective

impressions

I t is weU k n o w n that the subjective impression o f reverberance is n o t solel y a f u n c t i o n o f the reverberation t i m e , b u t rather a relationship b e t w e e n sound-energy g r o w t h , early-decay t i m e , e a i i y - t o - l a t e s o u n d ratio, and the specific type o f p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l b e i n g transmitted. R e v e r b e r a n c e is m u c h m o r e apparent w h e n l i s t e n i n g to speech than to classical music, due t o the n e e d f o r greater a r t i c u l a t i o n . Simflarly, fast t e m p o percussive music, such as jazz, is m o r e easily " m u d d i e d " b y reverberation t h a n is classical music. Classical music o f the r o m a n t i c p e r i o d can tolerate stiU l o n g e r reverberat i o n times. B a r o q u e o r g a n music can t h r i v e o n l o n g reverberation times o f 3 to 6 seconds. I t is possible f o r a hstener t o perceive the same level o f reverberance i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t spaces. For instance, similar impressions o f reverberance can be had m a 5,700 m-^ (200,000 c u . ft.) r o o m h a v i n g a reverberation time o f 2 seconds as i n a 57 m ^ (2,000 c u . f t . ) space w i t h a reverberation t i m e o f 0.5 seconds! O n e interesting study, w h i c h is based o n subjective impressions, i n d i cates that c o n c e r t hsteners m a y f a f l i n t o t w o preference groups: those w h o prefer reverberance and those w h o prefer i n t i m a c y . T h i s same study also revealed parameters strongly correlated t o overaU acoustic impression as i n d i c a t e d graphicaUy i n Figure 6.28. The link between the subjective impression parameters a n d the

o b j e c t i v e measurement parameters is c u r r e n t l y an area o f intense study. Recently, the v a h d f r e q u e n c y ranges f o r certain parameters were i d e n t i f i e d as foUows: (1) early-decay t i m e : 125 f i z t o 4 k H z ; (2) early-to-late s o u n d ratio: 500 H z to 2 k H z ; (3) s o u n d strength: 125 H z t o 4 k H z ; (4) lateral energy f r a c t i o n : 125 H z to 1 k H z . O t h e r research results indicate h i g h levels o f c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n loudness and A - w e i g h t e d source strength. Reverberance was f o u n d to be h i g h l y correlated w i t h early-decay t i m e . C l a r i t y was f o u n d t o h i g h l y c o r relate w i t h the early-to-late s o u n d ratio averaged over the 500 H z and 1 k H z bands. Brightness (treble) was f o u n d to h i g h l y correlate w i t h late s o u n d strength (after 80 msec) subtracting the 1 and 2 k H z average value fiom the 4 k H z value.

Room

Acoustics

Figure

6.28 R e l a t i o n s h i p o f a c o u s t i -

cal terms based o n subjective impressions.

Active

Acoustics

A c t i v e acoustics is the e m e r g i n g field o f e n h a n c i n g natural acoustics w i t h an electroacoustic system e m p l o y i n g a d i g i t a l reverberation processor.

W h i l e the concept o f a d d i n g electronicaUy generated reflections t o those p r o v i d e d b y the r o o m is n o t new, recently, the ability to synthesize elec-

t r o n i c reflections, w h i c h cannot be distinguished f r o m those o c c u r r i n g naturaUy, has b e c o m e easier. T h i s field has a b r i g h t f u t u r e ; its applications i n c l u d e b o t h n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n and r e t r o f i t i n e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s . T h i s f o r m o f active acoustics adds the electrorucaUy generated s o u n d field to that p r o v i d e d b y the r o o m , u i f l i k e active noise c o n t r o l , w h i c h seeks to reduce the s o u n d level t h r o u g h s o u n d field canceUation. A c t i v e acoustics potentiaUy aUows f o r the design o f m u l t i u s e facUities based o n speech. F o r music, the space can be made m o r e reverberant w i t h m o r e early reflections b y using an active s o u n d field. A c t i v e acoustics can p o t e n t i a l l y be implemented

using as f e w as t w o a p p r o p r i a t e l y placed m i c r o p h o n e s and a d i g i t a l reverb e r a t i o n processor h a v i n g t w o i n p u t s and f o u r outputs. R e c e n t l y , such systems have been i m p l e m e n t e d successfuUy i n the E l g i n T h e a t e r i n T o r o n t o , the L u t h e r B u r b a n k C o m m u n i t y A r t s C e n t e r i n Santa Rosa, and the Tsai
12

C e n t e r at B o s t o n U n i v e r s i t y . U n t f l now, the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f such systems has been slow due to the lack o f enthusiasm f o r electronics and electroacoustics i n the apphcation w h e r e t h e i r benefits w o u l d be most feltclassical music. T h i s , however, is changing, i n large part due t o the active role electronics are p l a y i n g i n o u r dafly lives. I f electronicaUy enhanced reverberance cannot be distinguished f r o m natural reverberance p r o d u c e d i n the best haUs, t h e n w i d e acceptance f o r electronicaUy assisted reverberance s h o u l d foUow. O n e m a j o r advantage o f synthesized reverberation is that i t can be adjusted to suit a particular p e r formance or performance-venue c o n f i g u r a t i o n , particularly those w h e r e

seating plans are variable. F r o m the architectural standpoint, provisions need to be made f o r an array o f loudspeakers concealed w i t h i n the waUs and c e f l -

1 04

Acoustics

i n g o f a reverberance-enhanced

space. C o n c e a l i n g loudspeakers remains a

challenge w h e r e s m o o t h w a l l and ceiling suifaces occur.

Conclusion

Is r o o m acoustics an art or a science? T h i s chapter has e x p l o r e d that quest i o n b y iUustrating the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n newer sound-measurement

techniques and aural impressions f o r m e d b y listeners' preferences. R e c e n t t e c h n o l o g y has r e f i n e d the acoustician's abihty t o p r e d i c t a room's acoustical requirements. I t is n o w possible, f o r example, to p r o v i d e active acoustical e n h a n c e m e n t b y i n t r o d u c i n g synthesized s o u n d reflections t h r o u g h an array o f loudspeakers, thus i m p r o v i n g the quality o f the t r a n s m i t t e d sound dramaticaUy. M o r e specific design c r i t e r i a are also e v o l v i n g to suit d i f f e r e n t uses. A c k n o w l e d g i n g the uniqueness o f t h e design c r i t e r i a r e q u i r e d f o r each space is v i t a l to the success o f the facility, especiahy i f i t is m u l t i p u r p o s e . A r t imphes i n t u i t i o n and mastery. Science can aid i n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o t h . B u t w h a t role does l u c k play? W e r e the g r a n d masters s i m p l y lucky? Is i t l u c k o r skiU that aUows an artist to appeal to a b r o a d a u d i ence? I t is i n fact a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h . Today's r o o m acoustics, like m a n y arts, is an o p i n i o n - d o n f i n a t e d field, one that is i n f l u e n c e d as m u c h b y h i s t o r y as i t is b y technology.

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105

References

10. D . G r i e s i n g e r , " S u b j e c t i v e Loudness o f R u n n i n g R e v e r b e r -

1. F l o y d T o o l , "Speakers a n d R o o m s for Stereophonic Sound R e p r o d u c t i o n . " (proceeding o f A u d i o E n g i n e e r i n g Society E i g h t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e , 1990)

a t i o n i n H a l l s a n d Stages" ( p r o c e e d ings o f W C . Sabme C e n t e n n i a l Symposium,June 1994), pp. 8 9 - 9 2 .

1 1 . G . S o u l o d v e a n d J. B r a d l e y "Subjective Evaluation o f N e w R o o m A c o u s t i c Measures." Jowrna/ of Acoustical Society of America, v o l . 98, n o . 1 (July 1995) pp. 2 9 4 - 3 0 1 .

2. J o s e p h M i l n e r a n d R o b e r t Bernhard, " A n Investigation o f the M o d a l Characteristics o f Noiirectangular Reverberation Rooms."_//Yr/7/ of the Society of America, (February 1989). Acoustical

12. D . G r i e s i n g e r , pp. 8 9 - 9 2 .

v o l . 85, no. 2

3. T J . S h u l t z , " R o o m A c o u s t i c s i n the D e s i g n a n d U s e o f Large C o n t e m p o r a r y C o n c e r t Halls." ( p r o ceedings o f t h e 1 2 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o n A c o u s t i c s , 1 9 8 6 ) .

4. Y . T o y o t a a n d M . N a g a t a et a l . , " A S t u d y o f R o o m Shape o f C o n c e r t Halls" (technical paper G A A presented at 1 2 0 t h A c o u s t i c a l S o c i e t y o f A m e r i c a , N o v e m b e r 1996).

5. L e o L . B e r a n e k , Concert HaUs: How They Sound Society o f A m e r i c a , 1996).

and

Opera

(Acoustical

6. M . B a r o n a n d L . Lee, " E n e r g y Relations in Concert A u d i t o r i u m s . " Journal America, of the Acoustical Society of v o l . 8 4 , n o . 2 ( A u g u s t 1988)

pp. 6 1 8 - 6 2 8 .

7. T J . S h u l t z , " A c o u s t i c a l Uses f o r Perforated Materials: Principles and A p p l i c a t i o n s " (Industnal Perforators A s s o c i a t i o n , 1986)

8 M . B a r o n a n d L . Lee, p p . 6 1 8 - 6 2 8 .

9 D . S c h w i n d and A . N a s h , et a l , " T h e Early S o u n d Field i n Performance Halls" (Audio Engineering Society Preprint 4108. 99th C o n v e n t i o n , O c t o b e r 1995).

106

Acoustics

V.

Appendices

T h i s section is f o r the reader w h o seeks m o r e technical i n f o r m a t i o n about detailed calculations and measurements o f r o o m acoustics. T h e techniques o u t l i n e d i n this a p p e n d i x demonstrate that the gap is closing b e t w e e n

acoustical calculadons and results measured i n real spaces. F o r example, the reader is i n v i t e d to compare the calculated data o f A p p e n d i x 1 w i t h the measured results presented i n A p p e n d i x 3. A l t h o u g h i t s h o u l d be k e p t i n m i n d that the hall dimensions vary, and, as i n d i c a t e d i n Table 6.5, trends i n the data are readily apparent.

A p p e n d i x 1: E a r l y S o u n d F i e l d C a l c u l a t i o n s

C o m p a r i s o n of T h r e e M u s i c P e r f o r m a n c e Hall

Shapes

T h r e e d i f f e r e n t c o n c e r t hall shapes are c o m p a r e d using a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m based o n a r a y - t r a c i n g a l g o r i t h m called " O d e o n " Version 2 . 6 D . T h e three hall shapes c o m p a r e d are the shoebox, the f a n , and the reverse f a n . N o n e o f the halls have balconies. T h e s o u n d source (sl) has b e e n placed i n c o m p a rable positions and receivers (listeners) are located 10, 20, and 30 meters f r o m the stage lip. T h e 3 0 - m e t e r p o s i t i o n o n l y apphes to the reverse-fan shape, due to its greater l e n g t h . T h e haU volumes are ah 12,000 cubic meters c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o audience capacities o f approximately 1,200. T h e stage

sizes are aU similar, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to 200 square meters. T h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l views o f t h e halls, s h o w n as w i r e f r a m e models, are depicted i n Figures 6.29, a, b, and c, and show receiver positions near the center and sides.

Figure

6.29 C o n c e r t H a l l W i r e

Figures 6.30 a, b, and c ah depict the halls w i t h the source (sl) o n the l e f t a n d receiver (r2) o n the r i g h t , located 20 meters f r o m the stage l i p . Paths o f s o u n d p r o p a g a t i o n s h o w n as rays emanating f r o m the source are o n l y d e p i c t e d f o r those reaching the receiver. O n l y first and second-order

f r a m e m o d e l s : (a) shoebox; (b) w i d e f a n ; (c) reverse f a n .

reflections are s h o w n . Figures 6.30 a, b, and c also depict polar plots o f i n c i dent s o u n d at the receiver i n the h o r i z o n t a l - p l a n v i e w and p o l a r plots o f the i n c i d e n t s o u n d i n the vertical view. I n b o t h cases, the listener is f a c i n g the stage o n the l e f t side o f the page. These polar plots c o r r e s p o n d t o the three haU shapes and the relative source-receiver positions i n d i c a t e d . Polar plots s h o w the d i r e c t i o n and i n t e n s i t y o f s o u n d received by the hstener. I n

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Acoustics

c o m p a r i n g the h o r i z o n t a l polar responses, n o t e that the i n c i d e n t s o u n d from the front d i r e c t i o n is n a r r o w e r fox the f a n and w i d e r f o r the reverse
Figures 6.30 a, b, and c {top to (a) s h o e b o x r e f l e c t i o n s ; (b)

f a n t h a n f o r the shoebox. These data indicate the reverse f a n s h o u l d create a greater sense o f spaciousness and e n v e l o p m e n t . Figures 6.31 a, b, and c are cross-sectional end views w h i c h face the stage and s h o w b o t h source and receiver (r4) locations. N o t e that the
hottoin)

f a n r e f l e c t i o n s ; (c) reverse f a n r e f l e c tions. Reflections received by the hstener are i n d i c a t e d i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l planes.

receivers are at a h i g h e r elevation, due t o the f l o o r slope. F i g u r e 6.31a f o r

1 08

Acoustics

the shoebox clearly shows the receiver o b t a i n i n g reflections

from

both

sidewalls v i a the c e i l i n g . Figure 6.31c indicates numerous such reflections. T h e f a n shape i n Figure 6.31b shows the s o u n d - r e f l e c t i n g canopy over the stage a i d i n g the r e c e p t i o n o f o n l y one r e f l e c t i o n fr'om the house r i g h t waU. N o t e the relative w i d t h o f the three proposed hall shapes, the f a n b e i n g widest a n d the shoebox narrowest. Figures 6.32 a, b, and c c o r r e s p o n d t o the three hah shapes and iUustrate the t e m p o r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f early reflections and t h e i r relative a m p l i tude a l o n g w i t h the i n i t i a l t i m e delay gap. R e f l e c t i o n s up to the t h i r d order are s h o w n .

Figure 6.31 a, b, e C o m p a r i s o n o f sidewall a n d c e i l i n g r e f l e c t i o n s : (a) shoebox; (b) f a n ; (c) reverse f a n .

jhe

shoe b o x has an I T G

( I n i t i a l T i m e Gap) o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y

20 milliseconds, whereas the o t h e r t w o shapes have I T G s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 miUiseconds f o r a listener at r 2 , w h o is located approximately 20 meters f r o m the stage.The I T G o f t h e f a n and reverse fan-shaped haUs c o u l d be reduced b y l o w e r i n g o r stepping the c e f l i n g d o w n at the stage e n d o f t h e h a U . T h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n , however, c o u l d have an adverse i m p a c t o n r o o m v o l u m e and overaU reverberation t i m e . A n alternative to l o w e r i n g the ceiling, is t o suspend large s o u n d - r e f l e c t i n g panels, w h i c h w o u l d n o t affect r o o m v o l u m e . N o t e the relative density and n u m b e r o f early reflections s h o w n o n the l e f t side o f Figures 6.32 a, b, and c. T h e reverse f a n o f Figure 6.32c is superior i n this regard. T h e r i g h t sides o f Figures 6.32 a, b, and c show estimates o f the reverberant decay. T h e u p p e r hne is s m o o t h and represents the reversei n t e g r a t e d decay and the l o w e r l i n e is t y p i c a l o f a single decay due to an impulse w i t h o u t averaging. Large positive peaks w e l l above the adjacent data are indicative o f p o t e n t i a l echoes. T h i s is o f particular c o n c e r n f o r the fan-shaped haU. A l s o n o t e the l o n g e r p e r i o d the s o u n d level is sustained equivalent to the direct s o u n d f o r the reverse f a n ; the decay does n o t b e g i n i m m e d i a t e l y , b u t instead aUows the reverberance to " b l o o m . " T h i s accounts f o r a l o n g e r early-decay t i m e , w h i c h corresponds to haU "liveness." Table 6.3 compares the three haU shapes by listener l o c a t i o n . N o t e that the n u m b e r o f early reflections increases near the waUs a n d t o w a r d the rear o f the halls i n all cases. A l s o n o t e that i n aU cases, the reverse f a n has a h i g h e r t o t a l n u m b e r o f reflections f o U o w e d b y the shoebox and the f a n . N o t e that the early decay times at 500 H z f o r aU listener locations i n the reverse f a n haU are t y p i c a l l y l o n g e r t h a n the o t h e r shapes. Table 6.3 also

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1 09

80

70 60 50 40 30 20 0 -50 0 50 100 Reverberation decay 80 Seconds (re. direct sound)

compares the L E F (Lateral E n e r g y F r a c t i o n ) , w h i c h is most consistent i n the shoebox b u t rises to h i g h e r levels i n the reverse f a n . Figure 6.33 compares the listener locations 10 and 30 meters ( r l and r5) f r o m the stage. N o t e the h i g h e r density o f early reflections i n the m o r e distant seat. T h i s t r e n d can also be seen w h e n c o m p a r i n g receiver l o c a t i o n r2 to r5 i n Table 6.3.

Figure

6.32 a,b, and c Calculateid sound

early (left) a n d late {right)

r e f l e c t i o n s f o r t h e situations d e p i c t ed i n F i g u r e 6 . 3 1 : (a) s h o e b o x ; (b) f a n ; (c) reverse f a n .

1 10

Acoustics

Narrow Fan Reflection Orders 1st 2nd 3rd Total Reflections LEF @ 500Hz E D T (T=l.7)

Listener locations Rl 7 12 16 35 0,03 1.7 R2 7 19 28 54 R3 7 14 24 45 R4 7 19 28 54 0.16 1.7

Shoe Box Reflection Orders 1st 2nd 3rd Total Reflections LEF @ 500 Hz E D T (T= 1.8)

Listener locations Rl 5 13 27 45 R2 7 19 33 59 R3 5 15 29 49 R4 7 20 25 63 0.19 1.9

Reverse Fan Reflection Orders 1st 2nd 3i-d Total Reflections LEF @ 500Hz E D T (T=l.7)

Listener locations Rl 8 21 24 51 0.06 1.9 R2 8 22 36 66 R3 8 20 28 56 R4 8 24 33 65 R5 8 29 46 83 0.28 1.9 R6 8 29 49 86 0.31 2.0

0.11 0.26 1.8 1.6

0.16 0.17 0.27 1.9 1.8 1.8

0.26 0,18 0.34 2.4 2.2 2.3

Table

6.3

C o m p a r i s o n o f hall

70

shapes at v a r i o u s listener l o c a t i o n s . T h e n u m b e r o f r e f l e c t i o n s are hsted b y r e f l e c t i o n order. C a l c u l a t e d Lateral-Energy fractions (LEF) and E a r l y - D e c a y T i m e s ( E D T ) are l i s t e d b y listener l o c a t i o n . -30 : 20
10

m 60 > 50 5 40 Horizontal

10

20

30

40

50

Vertical

Seconds (re. direct sound) 70 ~60 3 ^ SO 3 40 30 Figure 6.33 R e v e r s e f a n data f r o m 20 10 -50 0 SO 100 150 200 Vertical Seconds (re. direct sound) Horizontal

listener l o c a t i o n s 10 a n d 3 0 m e t e r s f r o m t h e stage.

Early-to-Late S o u n d Index Calculations

The

results

o f early-to-late

sound

index

(clarity)

calculations

using

E q u a t i o n 6.11 are presented f o r 40 m i l l i s e c o n d (Figure 6.34) and 80 naillisecond (Figure 6.35) i n t e g r a t i o n times i n the halls h a v i n g a v o l u m e o f 12,000 cubic rneters.The 40 milliseconds i n t e g r a t i o n t i m e is norrnaUy used to assess speech and 80 milliseconds is used f o r classical m u s i c . T h e results are displayed i n a three d i m e n s i o n p l o t as a f u n c t i o n o f listener distance from

the s o u n d source and the haU's reverberation t i m e . I n b o t h cases, note the h i g h e r levels o f clarity at reduced reverberation times and near the source.

Room

Acoustics

11 1

Figure

6.35 E a r l y - t o - l a t e s o u n d

i n d e x CgQ for a h a l l v o l u m e o f 12,000 m 2 .

10.00- i2,00 8 . 0 0 - 10.00 6.004.002.000.00-2.00 8,00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0,00

-4.00 - -2.00

^""^sto .

"

"

23

Appendix

2: R e v e r b e r a t i o n T i m e C a l c u l a t i o n U s i n g S a b i n e ' s

Equations

Table 6.4 is an example o f a typical reverberation t i m e calculation m o s t c o m m o n l y used b y acoustical engineers f o r the last n i n e t y years. A b s o r p t i o n coefficients are m u l t i p l i e d b y the surface area to o b t a i n a total n u m b e r o f sabins f o r each surface and material. T h e total absorption is s u m m e d i n each octave b a n d f o r use w i t h Sabine's equation ( E q u a t i o n 6.2). These

reverberation times are based o n statistical p r o b a b i l i t y and may d i f f e r f r o m the results obtained using ray-tracing algorithms. T h i s difference is m o r e evident f o r the case o f unevenly d i s t r i b u t e d sound-absorbing m a t e r i a l i n spaces h a v i n g large aspect ratios such as very l o n g and n a r r o w spaces. I n this example, a reverberation t i m e o f 2.2 seconds at 500 H z agrees reasonably w i t h the ray-tracing results.

112

Acoustics

Absorption Coefficients Surface Ceiling Walls Rear wall Stage Main floor 125 0.10 0.20 0.09 0.15 0.72 250 0.05 0.14 0.32 0.1 1 0.79 500 0.04 0.12 0.76 0.10 0.86 1,000 0.03 0.1 1 0.95 0.07 0.88 2,000 0.03 0.10 0.99 0.06 0.88 4,000 0.03 0.09 0.99 0.07 0.88

Material 60 mm plaster 2 layers of gypsum board 25 mm sound absorbing panel W o o d over space Audience

Sabins (m^) Area (m^) 812 1409 265 300 514 125 81 282 24 45 370 0 250 41 197 85 33 406 0 500 32 169 201 30 442 0 1000 24 155 252 21 453 0 2000 24 141 262 18 453 24 4000 24 127 262 21 453 96

Surface Plaster Ceiling Gypsum board v/alls Sound absorbing panel rear wall W o o d stage Audience Air absorption (sabins)

Totals Octave band reverberation time (sec.)

3300

802 2.4

762 2.5

874 2.2

905 2.1

922 2.1

983 2.0

Table lation.

6.4 R e v e r b e r a t i o n t i m e c a l c u -

A p p e n d i x 3:

Early S o u n d Field

Measurements

Introduction

I n a p e r f o r m a n c e haU, the early s o u n d f i e l d estabhshes its "signature s o u n d " and is responsible f o r m a n y o f t h e haU's subjective attributes. T h e t e m p o r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s o u n d a r r i v i n g w i t h i n the first quarter second seems to be largely responsible f o r the perceived "liveness" o f the haU. U s e f u l t e c h niques f o r e x a m i n i n g the early s o u n d field are the measured s o u n d energy g r o w t h (SEG) curve and instantaneous s o u n d envelope (ISE).These t e c h niques e x a m i n e s o u n d g r o w t h rather t h a n decay. I n a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g a clear, easy-to-interpret data presentation, t r a d i t i o n a l parameters such as early-to-late s o u n d i n d e x (Cgo), rise t i m e , and the i n i t i a l - t i m e - d e l a y gap can be extracted o r read d i r e c t l y f r o m these curves (Figure 6.36). T h i s alternative data presentation is i n t e n d e d t o help correlate i n t e g r a t e d s o u n d energy parameters to the overall response o f t h e haU as weU as to subjective response. T h e r e f l e c t i o n energy c u m u l a t i v e curve ( R E C C ) is another descriptor i n v o l v i n g the g r o w t h o f early s o u n d reflections. T h e R E C C , however, does n o t i n c l u d e the direct sound. M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l reflections (ISE) to the g r o w t h o f s o u n d energy (SEG) can readily be seen.

Room

Acoustics

113

Measurements

A n u m b e r o f r e c o r d e d impulses i n p e r f o r m a n c e spaces have been c o l l e c t ed. T h e acoustical e x c i t a t i o n f o r these measurements is generated u s i n g

either a baUoon burst o r b y firing a starter's pistol. B o t h m e t h o d s p r o v i d e suitable test spectra. A b a l l o o n burst results i n a relatively " p i n k " s p e c t r u m (equal s o u n d energy i n any constant percentage b a n d w i d t h ) . T h e p i s t o l produces m o r e o f a " w h i t e " s p e c t r u m (equal s o u n d energy i n any constant b a n d w i d t h ) . T h e pistol also produces a h i g h e r o u t p u t level, w h i c h improves the signal-to-noise ratio i n larger spaces. T h e b a n d w i d t h o f these test signals spans the f o u r octave bands f r o m 2 5 0 H z to 2 k H z . Since these sources have relatively constant s o u n d p o w e r f r o m i m p u l s e to i m p u l s e , i t is possible to make m e a n i n g f u l i n t e r - and intra-haU comparisons f o r the purpose o f evaluating loudness. These r e c o r d e d signals were processed w i t h the H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m to o b t a i n a m a g n i t u d e , o r " e n v e l o p e " f u n c t i o n r e f e r r e d to as the instantaneous s o u n d envelope or ISE (see Figure 6.36). T h e ISE depicts the arrival o f the direct and reflected s o u n d at the measurement m i c r o p h o n e subsequent to a test impulse. T h e advantages o f this presentation are: (1) the m a g n i t u d e can be displayed o n a l o g a r i t h n n c a m p l i t u d e scale, and (2) the delay b e t w e e n arrivals is easier to discern t h a n o n a t r a d i t i o n a l osciUoscope display. T h e first peak i n the ISE is s o u n d a r r i v i n g d i r e c t l y f r o m the source. Later peaks represent r o o m reflections. ISE is simflar i n data presentation f o r m a t to the energy time curve ( E T C ) ; the d i f f e r e n c e is that the E T C is derived f r o m an electric (stimulus-response) measurement, whereas the ISE is the result o f a measured acoustical impulse.

20

/
15

Direct Sound

First Reflections

10

-25

200

I n a d d i t i o n to the ISE, the r e c o r d e d signal was squared and i n t e g r a t ed over t i m e . T h i s f u n c t i o n is referred to as s o u n d energy g r o w t h , or SEG, also s h o w n i n Figure 6.36. T h e S E G depicts the b u f l d - u p o f s o u n d energy d u r i n g the first 200 msec. W h e n the S E G a n d ISE are p l o t t e d o n the same t i m e axis, the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l reflections t o the g r o w t h o f s o u n d energy can be seen. For example, significant time delays b e t w e e n arrivals i n the ISE result i n plateaus i n the S E G .

Figure

6.36 Instantaneous S o u n d

E n v e l o p e (ISE) a n d S o u n d E n e r g y G r o w t h ( S E G ) . ISE represents the m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s o u n d pressure at the m i c r o p h o n e as a result o f an acoustical h n p u l s e . T h e S E G depicts the b u i l d - u p o f early s o u n d energy.

1 14

Acoustics

Discussion

Figure 6.37 a t h r o u g h d contains comparative data f o r t w o music pei-form a n c e haUs, a s c o r i n g stage, and a f i l m screening r o o m . A h data were anal y z e d using the ISE a n d S E G techniques. These figures ah appear o n the same relative a m p l i t u d e scale f o r c o m p a r i s o n . Several o f these facilities have received h i g h c r i t i c a l acclaim f r o m musicians, audiences, and the media. Three o f these facilities are discussed as case studies i n C h a p t e r 17.

Table 6.5 presents the physical characteristics and reverberation times f o r these facilities. T h e Screening R o o m is designed f o r f i l m a n d l e c t u r e s . T h e relativel y smah size, short reverberation t i m e (and resulting h i g h speech i n t e U i g i b i l i t y ) i n this r o o m make i t u n i q u e i n this study. H e r e , the s o u n d energy g r o w t h reaches its f i n a l value w i t h i n 60 msec. T h e M u s i c R e c i t a l H a U has a reverse-fan-shape p l a n w i t h a stepped c e d i n g and is used p r i m a r y f o r music recitals. I t has adjustable 50 n m i (2 i n . ) t h i c k s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g panels that shde o n ras that can cover u p to h a l f o f each side waU. W i t h the s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g panels w i t h d r a w n , reflections b e t w e e n 20 msec and 80 msec have greater amplitudes t h a n the direct s o u n d (see Figure 6.37b). I n this h i g h l y acclaimed space, i t is n o t e w o r t h y that, f o r the first 190 msec, r e f l e c t i o n amplitudes are w i t h i n 5 d B o f the direct sound. T h e S y m p h o n y HaU measurements were p e r f o r m e d i n the Loge p r i o r to its recent r e n o v a t i o n (1993). T h i s haU has retractable f a b r i c barmers

e x t e n d i n g along the j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n the waU and cefling. W i t h the banners retracted, there are several reflections w i t h i n 5 d B o f the direct sound level. S c o r i n g stages are used to make orchestral recordings f o r m o t i o n pictures. Based o n l i m i t e d comparative studies, there does n o t seem to be a consensus a m o n g r e c o r d i n g engineers as to o p t i m a l perceived "reverberance." H o w e v e r , the reduced i n t e n s i t y o f the early reflections w h e n c o m pared to the direct s o u n d is l i k e l y a significant factor. O n e i n d i c a t o r o f perceived hveness is the density and d u r a t i o n o f sigm f i c a n t early reflections (i.e., reflections w i t h i n 5 d B o f the direct s o u n d l e v e U T j ) . Based o n the investigations c o n d u c t e d thus far, the spaces w i t h the most perceived hveness appear to have significant reflections sustained f o r at least 50 msec ( T j i n Table 6.6). T h e best listening spaces are also relatively free o f l o n g plateaus d u r i n g the i n i t i a l rise o f t h e s o u n d energy g r o w t h .

Tiid/e . 5 Characteristics o f sp,ices studied. Facility Dolby Screening Room San Francisco, C A Harris Music Recital Hall Aspen, C O Symphony Hall San Francisco, C A T o d d - A O Scoring Stage Studio City, C A

Volume (m') 800

No. of Seats 49

Floor A r e a (m^)

T [s]

0.3

4800

500

1.8

28000

3200

2.1

5600

630

2.2

Room

Acoustics

1 1 6

Figiii-es

6.37 a-d

(from lop): (a) ISE

S E G i n a 49-seat screening r o o m w h e r e T = ( ) . 3 s ; (b) ISE & S E G m a 500-seat m u s i c a l r e c i t a l hall w h e r e T = 1.8s; (c) ISE c^ S E G m a 3 , 0 0 0 seat c o n c e r t hall w h e r e T 2.1s; (d) ISE & S E G m a 5,600 n P s c o r i n g stage w h e r e T = 2.2s.

20

-25 C

25

50

75 Time (msec)

100

125

150

175

S 10

Time (msec)

Symphony Hall banners retracted banners extended 90 50 9.8 6.2

A n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n o f perceived hveness is the ratio o f the S E G at

^

<

^
50 7.8

Scoring Stage

200 msec to the S E G at 10 msec. T h e hahs w i t h the most perceived h v e ness i n this study have a ratio b e t w e e n 8 and 12 d B (see Table 6.6).
Table 6.6 D u r a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t r e f l e c t i o n s ( T j ) a n d s o u n d energy g r o w t h ratio.