Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161 www.elsevier.

com/locate/jfoodeng

Crust and crumb characteristics of gluten free breads

E. Gallagher
b

a,*

, T.R. Gormley a, E.K. Arendt

Received 21 October 2001

a Teagasc, The National Food Centre, Dunsinea Castleknock, Dublin 15, Ireland Department of Food Science Technology and Nutrition, National University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland

Abstract Gluten free breads often have poor crust and crumb characteristics and the current study was conducted to help alleviate this problem. A commercial wheat starch (Codex Alimentarius) gluten free our was supplemented with seven dairy powders (0%, 3%, 6%, 9% inclusion rates based on our weight). Initially a xed water level was used (trial 1) and the resulting batters were proofed and baked. The breads were tested 24 h after baking. Powder addition reduced loaf volume by circa 6% (P < 0:001). Increasing the inclusion levels of the powders decreased loaf volume (P < 0:001) with a decrease of 8% for the highest level. Powder addition generally decreased the crumb L =b (white/yellow) ratio. Crust L values were signicantly reduced. All of the powders increased crumb hardness (P < 0:001) with the exception of demineralised whey powder. Ten and 20% additional water (trial 2) was added to the formulation and the resulting breads had higher volume, and a much softer crust and crumb texture. Sensory analysis revealed a preference for breads containing skim milk replacer, sodium caseinate and milk protein isolate. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Gluten free; Bread; Dairy powder

1. Introduction Coeliac disease aects the small intestine and is due to a sensitivity to gluten (Anonymous, 1982). An acceptable treatment is strict adherence to a 100% gluten-free diet for life. This can prevent almost all complications caused by the disease. Gluten is the main structure-forming protein in our, responsible for the elastic and extensible properties needed to produce good quality bread. To ensure the acceptability of gluten free bread, the loaves must have quality characteristics similar to those of wheat our bread. (Paulus, 1986; Ylimaki, Hawrysh, Hardin, & Thomson, 1991). Currently, many gluten free breads available on the market are of a low quality, exhibiting a dry crumbling crumb, resulting in poor mouthfeel and a poor avour (Gallagher & Gormley, 2002). Consequently, trial 1 in the current study was conducted to alleviate this problem. However, the removal of gluten

Corresponding author. Tel.: +353-1-805-9500; fax: +353-1-8059550. E-mail address: e.gallagher@nfc.teagasc.ie (E. Gallagher).

from bakery products negates bread quality and so the use of polymeric substances that mimic the viscoelastic properties of gluten is often required, (Christianson & Gardner, 1974; Kent & Evers, 1994; Toufeili et al., 1994). The incorporation of dairy ingredients has long been established in the baking industry (Stahel, 1983; Zadow & Hardham, 1981). Dairy proteins are highly functional ingredients and due to their versatility can be readily incorporated into many food products. They may be used in bread for both nutritional and functional benets including avour and texture enhancement, and storage improvement (Cocup & Sanderson, 1987; Kenny, Wehrle, Auty, & Arendt, 2001; Mannie & Asp, 1989). Dairy products may be used in gluten free bread formulas to increase water absorption and, therefore, enhance the handling properties of the batter. In a second trial, the eects of adding dierent levels of water on the volume, crumb and crust characteristics of the breads was investigated. In their studies, Platt and Powers (1940) found a strong correlation between the staling rate of bread and moisture content. Also Bechtel and Meisner (1954) concluded that bread with a higher moisture content was signicantly fresher than bread with a lower content.

0260-8774/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 2 6 0 - 8 7 7 4 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 4 4 - 3

154

E. Gallagher et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161

The aim of the current study was to incorporate a range of dairy powders into a gluten free bread formulation; to investigate their eects on the baking characteristics, crumb properties and protein and dietary bre contents of the breads; and also to study the eects of increasing the moisture content on the crust and crumb characteristics of the gluten free breads. Little work has  cs, been published in the area of gluten free breads (A Kovacs, & Matuz, 1996) and for this reason the data from the current study are often compared with results from studies involving wheat breads.

(Henry Simon, UK). The loaves were cooled to room temperature and placed in polyethylene bags until tested. 2.2. Tests on the loaves All loaves were measured 24 h after baking. For each analysis, three loaves from each batch were used. Specic volume was measured using rapeseed displacement. Crust and crumb colour was measured using a Minolta Chromameter (Minolta CR-100, Osaka, Japan). L , a , b and L =b , were recorded, each value being the average of six measurements. Crust (penetration, cylindrical probe; 6 mm diameter) and crumb (texture prole analysis (TPA), cylindrical probe; 20 mm diameter) characteristics were assessed using a texture analyser (TAXT2i, Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK). Protein content of the breads supplemented at the 6% level was measured by the Leco method (AOAC 968.06) and dietary bre content by the AOAC procedure (Fibertec System E). 2.3. Image acquisition and analysis Images of the sliced breads (at the 6% level of supplementation) were captured using a atbed scanner (Sharp, JX-330, Japan). Images were scanned full scale at 300 dots per inch and analysed in grey scale (0255). Image analysis was performed using the UTHSCSA ImageTool program (Version 2.0, University of Texas Health Science Centre, San Antonio, Texas, available by anonymous FTP from maxrad6.uthscsa.edu). A threshold method was used for dierentiating gas cells and non-cells. The threshold was determined by the method described by Crowley, Grau, and Arendt (2000). Analysis was carried out on two subimages of 500 500 pixels selected from within the bread slice. Two slices were analysed per treatment. Gas cell to total area ratio was recorded. 2.4. Sensory analysis Sensory analysis was conducted on trial 1 samples only and the level of powder incorporation was 6%. As there were eight products for testing, the sensory analysis took place over two sittings. The rst (20 tasters) involved the control gluten free bread and four breads containing dairy powders (demineralised whey powder (dwp), skim milk replacer (smr), skim milk powder (smp), mpi). The second (20 tasters) session embraced the same control bread and three breads with dairy powders (mlk, klc, sodium caseinate (nac)). Panellists were asked to assess the breads for acceptability, and to mark a 5 cm line (0 unacceptable, 5 very acceptable) in accordance with their opinion. Results for the two sessions were analysed separately.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials The control gluten free formulation contained commercial wheat starch (Codex Alimentarius) gluten free our (Odlum Group, Dublin, Ireland), fresh yeast (Yeast Products, Dublin, Ireland), vegetable oil (Crest Foods Ltd., Dublin, Ireland) and DATEM (Quest ingredients, Holland). In the trials this was supplemented with dairy powders obtained from Kerry Ingredients (Listowel, Co. Kerry, Ireland). The names (the abbreviated names are used in the following text) and protein content of the powders are given in Table 1. The batter recipe (based on our weight) was 100% gluten free our, 87% water 35 C, 2.7% fresh yeast, 1% oil and 0.5% DATEM. In trial 1, the dairy powders were added at 3%, 6% and 9% of our weight. In trial 2, 10% and 20% additional moisture was added to breads containing 6% inclusions of molkin (mlk), kerrylac (klc) and milk protein isolate (mpi). Breads for both trials were prepared by blending the liquid ingredients together. These were then added to the dry ingredients and mixed for a total of 3.5 min in a 3 speed mixer, (Model A120, Hobart, UK); 450 g of batter was scaled into 1lb tins and placed in a proofer for 45 min (40 C, 80% RH). The batter was baked at 230 C for 25 min in a reel oven
Table 1 Name, type and protein content of the dairy powders Name Molkin (mlk) Demineralised whey powder (dwp)a Kerrylac (klc)a Skim milk replacer (smr)a Skim milk powder (smp)a Sodium caseinate (nac)a Milk protein isolate (mpi)a
a
a

Type Sweet whey Demineralised whey Fresh milk solids Spray dried milk solids Spray dried skim milk Casein Protein isolate

Protein content (%) 6.5 11.0 18.0 26.0 35.0 89.0 90.0

Abbreviated names used in the text.

E. Gallagher et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161

155

2.5. Statistical analysis Results were analysed using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS (Version 6.12, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) as 7 powders 4 inclusion levels (0%, 3%, 6%, 9% powder addition) 3 replicates (trial 1) and as 3 powders 3 water levels 3 replicates. The taste panel tests were analysed (ANOVA) as two separate sets, i.e. 5 samples 20 tasters, and 4 samples 20 tasters.

have a high water holding capacity. With increasing levels of addition of these powders, the resulting batters became visibly more viscous, i.e. less like a batter and more like a dough. These breads had an appealing shape and were more similar in appearance to wheaten breads. 3.2. Crust and crumb colour The lightness of the gluten free bread crust varied widely with L values ranging from 62 (3% smp inclusion) to 36 (9% nac inclusion) (P < 0:001). Breads containing the dairy powders were generally darker when compared to their gluten free controls (Fig. 2). The lower L values were expected were due to Maillard browning and carmelisation which are inuenced by the distribution of water and the reaction of reducing sugars and amino acids (Kent & Evers, 1994). L values continued to decrease with increasing levels of powder incorporation but the eect was generally small except for the high protein-containing powders smr, nac and mpi where incorporation beyond 6% may be impractical. Guy (1984) encountered similar darkening eects in wheaten breads. The darkening of the crust colour due to the inclusion of dairy powders is desirable as gluten free breads tend to have a lighter crust colour than white wheaten breads (L 38) (Gallagher & Gormley, 2002). Crumb colour L =b (white/yellow ratio) was inuenced both by powder type (P < 0:001) and by level of addition (P < 0:001) (Fig. 3). Molkin, klc, smr (with the exception of the lowest inclusion level) and smp resulted in crumb darkening compared with the control gluten free bread, while nac resulted in a whiter crumb; mpi inclusion had no eect. These results are a reection of the L =b ratios for the control gluten free our L =b 13:3 and of the neat dairy powders i.e. mlk (5.3), dwp (6.1), klc (4.9), smr (6.9), smp (7.6), nac (9.3) and mpi (13.9).

3. Results and discussion Data for the eects of dairy powders and levels of inclusion on gluten free bread quality are presented in Figs. 111 together with probability (F-test) and standard error of the dierence (s.e.d.) values. Many of the eects were statistically signicant as were interactions between powder type and inclusion levels. The powders are in the order lowest to highest protein content (and vice versa for lactose) reading from left to right in each gure. 3.1. Loaf volume Inclusion of dairy powders had a variable eect on loaf volume (Fig. 1) and there were dierences (P < 0:001) both between the powders and between the inclusion levels. Overall, inclusions of dairy powders reduced loaf volume by about 6%. This is similar to the ndings of Erdogdu-Arnoczky, Czuchzjowska, and Pomeranz (1996), Gelinas, Audet, Lachance, and Vachon (1995) and Kadharmestan, Baik, and Czuchajowska (1998). However, increasing inclusions gave a recovery in loaf volume in the case of mlk, nac and mpi, whereas the opposite was the case for dwp, klc and to a lesser extent smp (Fig. 1). Sodium caseinate and mpi

Fig. 1. Inuence of dairy powders and their level of inclusion, on the loaf volume of gluten free breads. F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 9.8); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 7.4); interaction P L (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 19.5).

156

E. Gallagher et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161

Fig. 2. Inuence of dairy powders and their level of inclusion, on the crust colour of gluten free breads (low values indicate darker crust). F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 1.2); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 0.9); interaction P L (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 2.4).

Fig. 3. Inuence of dairy powders and their level of inclusion, on the crumb colour of gluten free breads (higher values indicate the whiter crumb). F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 0.05); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 0.04); interaction P L (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 0.09).

Fig. 4. Inuence of dairy powders and their level of inclusion, on the crust hardness (penetration value) of gluten free breads. F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 46.8); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:005; s.e.d. 35.4); interaction P L (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 93.7).

3.3. Crust and crumb softness The inclusion of mlk, dwp, klc and smr (i.e. the lower protein-content powders) in gluten free breads resulted in a much softer (P < 0:001) crust than the control

gluten free loaves (Fig. 4). This is due to moisture migration from the crumb. The moisture contents of the gluten free breads with the dairy powders were fairly similar and were in the range 3942%. The inclusion of smp increased crust hardness but the control gluten free

E. Gallagher et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161

157

Fig. 5. Inuence of dairy powders and their level of inclusion, on the crumb TPA of gluten free breads. F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 31.0); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 23.5); interaction P L (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 62.1).

Fig. 6. Inuence of dairy powders (6% inclusion level) on taste panel acceptability score (0 unacceptable; 5 very acceptable) of gluten free breads. F-test: Session 1; (P < 0:05, s.e.d. 0.33). Session 2; (P NS, s.e.d. 0.32).

Fig. 7. Inuence of dairy powders plus additional water (10% or 20%) on the loaf moisture content of gluten free breads. F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:05; s.e.d. 1.69); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:005; s.e.d. 0.68); interaction P L (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 2.32).

bread from this set had a much softer crust than the controls for the other sets (Fig. 4) and so this result may be atypical. Both nac and mpi had a minimal eect on

crust hardness, due, presumably to their high protein content which is strongly water-binding, and thus minimised moisture migration to the crust.

158

E. Gallagher et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161

Fig. 8. Inuence of dairy powders plus additional water (10% or 20%) on the loaf volume of gluten free breads. F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:005; s.e.d. 6.5); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:005; s.e.d. 4.2); interaction P L (P < 0:005; s.e.d. 16.5).

Fig. 9. Inuence of dairy powders plus additional water (10% or 20%) on the crust hardness (penetration value) of gluten free breads. F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 48.4); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 36.8); interaction P L (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 96.8).

Fig. 10. Inuence of dairy powders plus additional water (10% or 20%) on the crumb TPA (rmness) of gluten free breads. F-test: powders (P) (P < 0:005; s.e.d. 34.1); inclusion level (L) (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 26.8); interaction P L (P < 0:001; s.e.d. 70.4).

E. Gallagher et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161

159

Fig. 11. Protein content of gluten free breads supplemented (6% inclusion) with dairy powders.

In contrast, all the powders reduced crumb softness (P < 0:001) of the gluten free breads as indicated by higher crumb hardness values (Fig. 5). The extent of the eect varied with the level of inclusions, and from powder to powder. However, breads with the higher protein-content powder tended to have the rmest (least soft) crumb compared to the control (0% inclusion). Molkin was an exception in that it is a low protein-high lactose powder but still gave a rm crumb (Fig. 5). Dairy proteins contain strong water absorptive properties, which may, in turn, lead to ner, denser crumb structures in the baked product Stahel (1983). This was particularly evident for the breads containing smp and mpi (P < 0:001). A strong positive correlation was obtained in the current study between crumb hardness and loaf volume (r 0:86, P < 0:001). Kadharmestan et al. (1998) found similar increased crumb hardness properties in studies involving whey protein concentrate in wheat bread. Such rming may be attributed to the retrogradation of the wheat starch fraction as described by Schoch and French (1947). Also, it must be noted that gluten present in wheat-containing bread slows the movement of water (Roach & Hoseney, 1995) by forming an extensible protein network, thus keeping the crumb structure softer. Therefore, the absence of gluten will increase the movement of the water from bread crumb to crust, thereby resulting in a rmer crumb and a softer crust. However, although the crumb was rmer for those breads containing the dairy powders in the current study, it was more similar both physically and texture-wise to that of ordinary wheatcontaining bread than to the cake-like appearance of gluten some free breads. 3.4. Image analysis There was considerable variation in the gas cell to total area ratio depending on the additive (P < 0:001). The overall mean (38%) was comparable to previously reported values (33%, Crowley et al., 2000; 46%, Sa-

Table 2 Gas cell to total area ratio (%) for the gluten-free breads Control 43 mlk 64 dwp 31 klc 53 smr 33 smp 20 nac 28 mpi 33

pirstein, Roller, & Bushuk, 1994). There was a progression in the data with the low protein-containing powders giving the largest gas cells (Table 2). The dwp was the exception to this trend as it has a low protein content but gave a smaller number of gas cells. The addition of mlk was the only treatment that resulted in a larger gas cell to total area ratio compared to the control (P < 0:001). There was an inverse rank correlation coecient of 0.56 between gas cell size and loaf volume; ie greater numbers of small gas cells gave a higher loaf volume. 3.5. Sensory analysis In the rst session, three out of the four gluten free breads were given a higher acceptability score than the gluten free control (Fig. 6). Bread containing smp was judged to be signicantly more acceptable than the other samples (P < 0:05). In the second session, a similar trend was observed, i.e. all breads containing the dairy received higher acceptability scores than the control but the eect was not statistically signicant (Fig. 6). 3.6. Eect of additional water The moisture content of the breads in trial 2 proved to be a major factor regulating the loaf volume and crumb and crust texture (Fig. 7). Increasing water addition in the batter by 10% and 20% resulted in loaf volumes being increased in the breads containing all three powder types with volumes peaking at the 10% extra level of inclusion (Fig. 8). Both crust (Fig. 9) and crumb (Fig. 10) hardness were reduced (P < 0:001) with increasing water addition. However, the level of water

160

E. Gallagher et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161

reduction was excessive and resulted in loaves that were too soft for easy slicing. Starch retrogradation is strongly inuenced by the moisture content of the product (Maleki, Hoseney, & Mattern, 1980; Morad & Wakeil, 1976) and the texture results in trial 2 may be attributed to a reduction in starch retrogradation due to the presence of extra water, resulting in a softer crumb overall. These results agree with previous work by Rogers, Zeleznak, Lai, and Hoseney (1988). 3.7. Nutritional aspects Gluten free breads supplemented at the 6% level with the high protein-content powders had double the protein content of the control, i.e. 4.9% (nac) and 5.0% (mpi) vs 2.4% (control) (Fig. 11). Inclusion of the dairy powders had no eect on the dietary bre content of the gluten free breads and the mean value of 1.4% was much lower than that (3.7%) found in white wheat breads (Ranhorta & Gelroth, 1988). Supplementation of the gluten free breads with the high lactose-content powders is not suitable for coeliacs who have signicant damage to their intestinal villi as they may be intolerant of lactose due to the absence of the lactase enzyme which is generated by the villi (Ortolani & Pastorello, 1997).

References
 cs, E., Kovacs, Zs., & Matuz, J. (1996). Bread from corn starch for A dietetic purposes. I. Structure formation. Cereal Research Communications, 24(4), 441449. Anonymous (1982). The bread that helps save lives. Bakers Review (May), pp. 1214. Bechtel, W. G., & Meisner, D. F. (1954). Staling studies of bread made with our fractions. III. Eect of crumb moisture and starch. Cereal Chemistry, 31, 176. Christianson, D. D., & Gardner, H. W. (1974). Xanthan gum in protein fortied starch bread. Food Technology, 6, 2329. Cocup, R. O., & Sanderson, W. B. (1987). Functionality of dairy ingredients in bakery products. Food Technology, 41(10), 102 104. Crowley, P., Grau, H., & Arendt, E. K. (2000). Inuence of additives and mixing time on crumb grain characteristics of wheat bread. Cereal Chemistry, 77(3), 370375. Erdogdu-Arnoczky, N., Czuchzjowska, Z., & Pomeranz, Y. (1996). Functionality of whey and casein in breadmaking by xed and optimized procedures. Cereal Chemistry, 73(3), 309316. Gallagher, E., & Gormley, T.R. (2002). The quality of gluten free breads produced at retail outlets. Research Report, Teagasc, The National Food Centre, Dublin 15, Republic of Ireland, in press. Gelinas, P., Audet, J., Lachance, O., & Vachon, M. (1995). Fermented dairy ingredients for bread: eects on dough rheology and bread characteristics. Cereal Chemistry, 72(2), 151154. Guy, E. J. (1984). Evaluation of the bread-baking quality and storage stability of 12% soy fortied wheat our containing sweet cheese whey solids. Cereal Chemistry, 61(2), 8388. Kadharmestan, C., Baik, B. K., & Czuchajowska, Z. (1998). Whey protein concentrated with high heat or hydrostatic pressure in wheat-based products. Cereal Chemistry, 75(5), 762766. Kenny, S., Wehrle, K., Auty, M., & Arendt, E. K. (2001). Inuence of sodium caseinate and whey protein on baking properties and rheology of frozen dough. Cereal Chemistry, 78(4), 458 463. Kent, N. L., & Evers, A. D. (1994). Bread made with gluten substitutes. Technology of cereals (pp. 215). Oxford: Pergamon Press. Maleki, M., Hoseney, R. C., & Mattern, P. J. (1980). Eects of loaf volume, moisture content, and protein quality on the softness and staling rate of bread. Cereal Chemistry, 57(2), 138140. Mannie, E., & Asp, E. H. (1989). Dairy ingredients in baking. Cereal Foods World, 44(3), 143146. Morad, M. M., & Wakeil, F. A. (1976). Eect of wheat starch, protein and moisture content on staling of bread. Getreide, Mehl und Brot, 30(4), 106107. Ortolani, C., & Pastorello, E. A. (1997). Symptoms of food allergy and food intolerance. Study of nutritional factors in food allergies and food intolerance. Luxembourg: CEC, pp. 2645. Paulus, K. (1986). Quality of dietetic foodsignicance for human nutrition. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 19(2), 147. Platt, W., & Powers, R. (1940). Compressibility of bread crumb. Cereal Chemistry, 17, 601. Ranhorta, G., & Gelroth, J. (1988). Soluble and dietary bre in white bread. Cereal Chemistry, 65(2), 155156. Roach, R. R., & Hoseney, R. C. (1995). Eects of certain surfactants on the starch in bread. Cereal Chemistry, 72(6), 578582. Rogers, D. E., Zeleznak, K. J., Lai, C. S., & Hoseney, R. C. (1988). Eect of native lipids, shortening, and bread moisture on bread rming. Cereal Chemistry, 65(5), 398. Sapirstein, H. D., Roller, R., & Bushuk, W. (1994). Instrumental measurement of bread crumb grain by digital image-analysis. Cereal Chemistry, 71(4), 383391.

4. Conclusions The seven dairy powders tested had variable eects on the quality parameters of the gluten free breads. In general, powders with a high protein (smp, nac, mpi) content gave breads with a lower loaf volume but with an increased crumb and crust hardness. However, these breads had an appealing dark crust and white crumb appearance, and received good acceptability scores in sensory tests. When additional water was added to the gluten free formulation supplemented with mlk, klc and mpi (6% inclusion), the resulting breads exhibited increased volume and a much softer crust and crumb texture than the controls. Supplementing the gluten free formulation with high protein-content dairy powders doubled the protein content of the breads. The dietary bre content of the loaves was low but this issue will be addressed in future trials where the gluten free formulation will be supplemented with inulin.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Aidan Morrissey and Francis Butler for their assistance in this study. This study is funded by the FIRM Programme as part of the Irish National Development Plan.

E. Gallagher et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 56 (2003) 153161 Schoch, T. J., & French, D. (1947). Studies on bread staling. I. The role of starch. Cereal Chemistry, 24, 231249. Stahel, N. (1983). Dairy proteins for the cereal food industry: Functions, selection and usage. Cereal Foods World, 28(8), 453454. Toufeili, I., Dagher, S., Sadarevian, S., Noureddine, A., Sarakbi, M., & Farran, M. T. (1994). Formulation of gluten-free pocket-type at breads: Optimization of methylcellulose, gum arabic and egg

161

albumen levels by response surface methodology. Cereal Chemistry, 71(6), 594601. Ylimaki, G., Hawrysh, Z. J., Hardin, R. T., & Thomson, A. B. R. (1991). Journal of Food Science, 56(3), 751759. Zadow, J. G., & Hardham, J. F. (1981). Studies on the use of whey protein concentrates in bread. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 36, 6063.