NASA TT F-622

WAYS TO SPACEFLIGHT By Hermann Oberth

Translation of 'Wege zur Raumschiff ahrt ," R. Oldenbourg Verlag , Munich- Berlin, 1929

N A T I O N A L AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal scientific and Technical Information Springfield, Virginia 22151 - CFSTl price $10.00

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The National Aeronautics and Space Administration gratefully acknowledges the permission granted by Dr. Hermann Oberth and the R. Oldenbourg Verlag to translate and publish an English version of the book W e g e zur Raumschiffahrt.

T r a n s l a t , e d f o r t"l Vat,ional Scierlce F o u n d a t i o n and t h e 1 7 a t i o n a l rleronnl Lies ar,c: Space i , d m i n i s t ; ~ a t i o n , I s ' a s i ~ l n ~ t o n , 3 , C . ily t h e ilgertce T u n i s j e n r e d e Pub1 ic-!ielrt,ions, T u n i s , T u n i s i a , 137C

iii

Gratefully Dedicated to

Foreword

In a r e l a t i v e l y r h o r t time, it already became necessary t o prepare

a t h i r d e d i t i o n of my book, "The Rocket t o I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Space".

I t r i e d t o make t h i s e d i t i o n somewhat more e a s i l y comprehensible. Hence I explained t h i n g s which, i n t h e f i r s t two e d i t i o n s , I s i n p l y

presupposed a s known. -- I a l r o omitted h a i r - e p l i t t i n g and confusing d e t a i l 8 where they did n o t appear r e q u i s i t e f o r t h e proof of t h e whole. For t h e rame reaeon I arranged t h e m a t e r i a l i n a somewhat-diff e r e n t sequence. Whereas, formerly, I f i r s t derived a rocket theory and only then diacuaaed c e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r s of construction i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l almort only t o i l l u a t r a t e t h e theory, h e r e I would l i k e t o f i r s t g i v e t h e r e a d e r a c l e a r p i c t u r e of t h e & o l e matter.

- Finally,

I marked everything with a marginal l i n e t h a t i s intended only f o r

s p e o i a l i a t a and wrote t h e r e e t s o as a l s o t o b e understendable by itr e l f , I chose t h i s somewhat popular version 1) i n order t o b r i n g my book c l o s e r t o tale underetsnding of a wider c i r c l e of readers. When
I wrote t h e first e d i t i o n I d i d n o t b e l i e v e that t h e m ~ t e r i a lwould

f i n d i n t e r e s t i n 8uch wide c i r c l e s , 2) I a l s o f e e l induced t o prepare t h i s earily-underatood version by t h e circumstance t h a t , a s I w i l l y e t ahow, even t h e t r a d e p u b l i c a t i o n s have l a r g e l y misunderstood my book, Originally, I h d t h e i n t e n t i o n of w r i t i n g a two-volume work, The first volume was rupporred t o develop t h e t h e o r e t i c a l bases of apace-flight and t h e t e c h n i c s of r o c k e t s f o r l i q u i d f u e l s ; t h e uecond volume was t o contain t h e h i s t o r y of t h e rocket, t h e area8 of applicut i o n of r o c k e t s h i t h e r t o , t h e experiments and reeearch of other author6 publicieed s o f a r , t h e r e a u l t a of my own experimental work,

a s a r v q of t h e moat important novels about space-flight and relaseti

vii

t e c h n i c a l f u t n r i s t i c novels, a p a t e n t d i a p l a y , t h e r e c e p t i o n of t h e Upor i d e a of a p a e e - f l i g \ t by v a r i o u s p r o f e s s i o n s , aod t h e l i k e .

t h e advice of t h e p u b l i s h i n g holise I t h e n decided t o w r i t e a onevolume work t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a self-contained whole. I achieved t h a t

by t a k i n g over from t h e seoond volume what was needed f o r rounding

o f f w d , f o r t h e r e s t , r e s t r i c t i n g myself t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e s c i e n c e of space-flight. self-contained whole.

- Nevertheless,

Hence, i n i t s s t y l e , t h e book i s a
I a l s o intend t o publish t h e

second book some time, and a t p l a c e s which d i d n o t appear important enough t o be included h e r e i n v i e r of t h e t o p i c of t h i s book I have, v f o r tile sake of completeness, a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o t h e second book rhichT : have denignated a s Volume I1 f o r s h o r t . By t h e r a y , a l l t h e r e r p e c t i v e m a t t e r s have a l r e a d y been published somewhere by t h e c i t e d a u t h o r s themselves and do n o t concern t h e b a s i c problems of spac e-f 1i g h t

For t h e r e s t , how o f t e n I q u o t e from t h e work of o t h e r s is n o i n d i c a t i o n of t h e v a l u e o r non-value of t h a t work. I t j u s t s o happened t h a t one work contained more, t h e o t h e r fewor pasaages by which

I could i l l u s t r a t e t h e t h e o r y developed here. Thuri, f o r ersmpl e, I

c o n s i d e r t h e book by ROBERT ESNAULT-PELTERIE, '%'exploration p a r f u s 6 e s de l a t r h s h a u t e atmoaph&re e t l a p o s s i b i l i t 6 d e s voyages i n t e r p l a n 4 t a i r e s f 1 , t o b e one of t h e most important books on t h e techn i c s of s p a c e - f l i g h t , although I had n o o p p o r t u n i t y t o d i s c u s s it i n t h e volume i n hand. J u s t a s l i t t l e i s one j u s t i f i e d i n concluding t h a t I r a n u n a b l e t o r e f u t e a number of o b j e c t i o n s , because I r e s e r v e d a n a r e r i n g s e v e r a l l e s s s e r i o u s o b j e c t i o n s f o r Volume 11, *ere
I will

d i r c u s s them i n connection with t h e work8 i n which t h e y occur. For exsmple : It i a very u n c e r t a i n whether a p a r a c h u t e i n a space-ahip w i l l open

- (actually,

b e f o r e t h e space-ship e n t e r s t h e attaoaphere,

l a c k of counter-pressure p r e v a i l 8 and t h e passengers can move t h e

parachute i n t o t h e p o s i t i o n they w i l l r e q u i r e l a t e r ) o r r A spaces h i p r e p r e s e n t s j u s t a a a g r e a t a danger t o

it3

surroundings a s

powder magazine i n which one handles open f i r e (we a c t u a l l y have no esploaives h e r e a t a l l but simply inflsmnable l i q u i d 8 t h a t a r e being taken d o n g i n s e p a r a t e c o n t a i n e r r ; but even i f they did mix, t h a t would s t i l l n o t be dangerous. A mixture of g a s o l i n e and l i q u i d a i r , f o r example, does n o t burn a t all i n open a i r ) ; o r again t The rearward t h r u s t cannot work i n a i r - f r e e apace because here t h e out-flowing gaser become i n f i n i t e l y t h i n and, a s a r e s u l t , l o s e t h e i r mass, and the like.
I had t o extend t h i e e d i t i o n somewhat. Meaalhile, n o t a b l e l i t e r -

a t u r e on t h e theory of rocketry appeared ubich I d i d n o t want t o l e a v e unconsidered. I a l s o included something on t h e prospects of

on t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of my work, aad on t h e ob;jections t o rqp plane. Moreover, I a l s o wish t o mention t h a t none of t h e b a s i c p r e s u p p o ~ i t i o n eof t h i e book t t h e rearward t h r u s t p r i n c i p l e , t h e y rocket can t a k e on l e v e l of t h e exhaust velocity, t h e f a c t t h a t m c o m i c v e l o c i t i e e , the p o s s i b i l i t y of t r e a t i n g l i q u i f i e d gases i n t h e way indicated, and t h e l i k e , have n o t already been aonfirtred a s c o r r e c t by some scholar. S i n c e t h e book haa been e s s e n t i a l l y remodell e d , t h e publishing house advised me t o give it another name. I g l a d l y followed t h i s advice and c a l l e d t h e new e d i t i o n "bye t o SpeceFlightn.
space-flight, Finally, i n t h i s p l a c e I would l i k e t o thank all those r e a d e r s who have a s e i s t e d me i n my work by word and deed. I w i l l r e t u r n t o t h i a i n Volume 11. This time again I owe high thanks t o t h e ~ l d e n b o u r i Publishing House. Only t h e extensive obligingness of nrg p n b l i s h e r hns made it p o s s i b l e f o r me t o publish t h i a edition. I thank Alexander

n.

Scherachevsky, Berl jn, f o r reading t h e proofs. Llr. Scherecheveky pointad out a number of obscure paasages t o me and en-

h a s kindly

riched t h e book by several additions. Medins, September, 1928 Prof. H. Oberth

Eroerpt from t h e Foreward t o t h e Second Edition

I considered it necesrary t o draw t h e a t t e n t i o n of r i d e c i r c l e s t o uy work, f o r only in t h i r ray could I hope t o g e t t h e means and t h e opportunity f o r f u r t h e r work. I n t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n of q w r i t i n g I mske f a n t a s t i c claims which, although they cannot be s c i e n t i f i c a l l y r e f u t e d today, a r e otherwise seldom found in s c i e n t i f i c rorkr. I
would ask t h e reader t o remember t h a t unusual circumstances a r e i n question in t h e mentioned t h i r d section.
I ask t o be permitted, i n t h i s place, to p o i n t out t h e d i d a c t i c

value of f h e rocketry problem. I consider t h e questions posed h e r e a s s u i t e d t o have a r t M s t i n g e f f e c t i n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s a l s o , and n o t only on t h e accomplished engineer, aetronomer, phyeiologist, and psychologist, but, above a l l , on t h e ~ t u d y i n gperson. As a whole, t h e s u b j e c t i s b u i l t on simple p r i n c i p l e s which r e a c t u a l l y meet d a i l y but f o r e x a c t l y t h a t reason do n o t t a k e n o t e of. Through t h e p e c u l i a r connection of these things, e n t i r e l y new and, f o r t h e young acsdemician, i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s come about. The "tamadzein" of A r i a t o t l e comes t o mind. I f a teacher, f o r example, poses c e r t a i n problems r e s u l t i n g from h i s work, he can d i r e c t t h e a t t e n t i o n of h i s a u d i t o r e t o these i n themselves eleuentary things m d induce t h e m t o c l a r i f y t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c knowledge on various topics. I n coi~clusion, it is a p l e a s a n t duty t o express my thanks t o
the R.

Oldenbourg Publishing House f o r being s o obliging, t o a

measure f a r exceedinp what an author can expect from h i s p u b l i ~ h e r , Medias, Hay, 1925 Hemann Oberth

Table o f Contents P a r t I, P r e l i a i n az-t~&r&

Chapter

1.
2.
3.

4.

. . . . . . . . . . . . Tlie jteurward T h r u ~ t Principle . . . . . . General D e s c r i p t i o n . . . . . . . . . . Improvements and Conpletio!i.s . . . . . . .

Introduction Part 1 1 .

5,

The Speed of Out-flow The I d e a l Propulsion The PIass R a t i o

6.

7,
8.

Thehiost Advantaxeous V e l o c i t y Counter-Pressure

9.

1) Explanation

2) C a l c u l a t i o n of Counter-Pressure
3) Phenomena of Counter-Pressure

..... . . ..... . .. . . . . . .. ..... ... ........ .. .. ...

. .

. . . . . .

. . . ... ... . . .

4) X.:ants Pevction t o I n c r e a s e d Counter-Pressure

a) P h y s i c a l E f f e c t of High Counter-Pressure

.
,

b ) P a y c h o l o g i r a l E f f e c t s of Abnormal Condit i o n s of Counter-Pressure , 5 ) L a c k o f Counter-Prenwre

.....

..
*

Chapter 6) The Effect. on tian. of llinor o r E n t i r e l y Lacking Coun ter-Pr sur e . . . . . . . . . . . . a ) Physical E f f e c t
b ) Paychic E f f e c t

.~

10

.
.

7) C r i t i c a l Remarks

Range. Overcomirz Gravitation

Furtlier Ascent Calculations

11

.... .... ..... . ..

....... ....... ....... ....... .......

. . . . . .

1) Verticsl &cent of a manned r o c k e t

2) E f f e c t of a i r r e ~ i e t a n c e r i t l i f r e e - f l y i n g meteoron . : .di stance rockets 1ogicel aud 1a

3) D e t a i l 8 concerning t h e oblique f l i g h t of j e t propelled a i r c r a f t within t h e atnoephere

4) The oblique. s t r a i g h t - l i n e ancent of node1 E

12

13

. . . Impulse Work 8)TheSynergyProblern . . .. 3) The Synergy Curve . Queetions of Control . . 1) S t a b i l i t y of a e Arrow . S t a b i l i t y of t h e Rocket 3) Active S t e e r i n g . . . 4) Gas Fins .....
Corsiderationa of Energy
1)
and

8)

5) Other S t e e r i n g P o s s i b i l i t i e s

6) Control of t h e Velocity
7 ) The Rocket P r o j e c t i l e

8) Orientation of the Etber S h i p i n Space

9) Automatic Observance of t h e Moat Mventageous Velocity 14

... . .
.....

The Landing

...... .... .. ......... . . . . . . . . . ......... ......... ......... ....... ....... ......* ....... ...... ....... ....... .. ....... .........

xii

Chapter

1 1 Part 1

. ........ .........
. . . . ..... ..... ..... .....

Page

p e s t i o n s of Construction
15

. .

The Model B Alcohol Rocket

1) P r e l iminary Remarks
%) The Alcohol Rocket

315 317 831 338

16

The Model B Hydrogen Rocket

1) General

2) D e s c r i p t i o n

17

........ D i s c u s s i o ~of ~ t h e Operatiol and Performing Capacity 536 of Rockets with L i q u i d F u e l s . The A u x i l i a r y Rocket of Model .....
3) P r e c i s i o n Inst. ruments
.

... . ....... ......

338
334

336

1)

2 ) The Ascent of tlodel C

3) S i z e and A i r R e e i s t a n c e

........ ........

337

338 339

4) Comparison of t h e Alcohol Rocket and t h e Hydro-

gen 'locket

. . . . . . . . . .

5) I n s i d e P r e s s u r e i n t h e Oven and Combustion

6) F o m of t h e Atomizer

7 ) Importance o f tlie Pumps

R) Divisior. of t h e Nozzle

9) Launching Manned Rocket 10) Docket Space-Ships 12) S t a r t i n g Model 8 13) Height of Ascent

11) F i l l i n g t h e Hydrogen Rocket

. . . .. ... ...

.. .........

546
345

14) Evaluation of t h e F u e l s

15) S i m p l i f i c a t i o n s i n Model. B
17) D i v i s i o n of t h e Rocket

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

16) The Adventaces of L i q u i d F b e l s

........

.. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. ..

... . ... ... ... ... ... . . . ... ...

346
346
347

3-48
349 349

350
350 351

338
350 360

xiii

Chapter

Part IV

P o s e i b i l i t i e s of Use
18

P o s s i b i l i t i e s of Using t h e Rocket Nozzle f o r Liquid F u e l s on E a r t h

1) TheVertically~AscendingRocket

a ) The Meteorological Bocket

........... ....... .......

. . . . . .

b) The Reconnaissance Rocket

2) The Long-Distance Rocket

b ) The M a i l Rocket

a ) The Geographical Rocket c) The Rocket P r o j e c t i l e

19
90

. .

3) The Rocket A i r p l a n e

The E &Sodel

. ... . ... .......

....... ....... ....... ....... . . . . . . . ....... ........

S t a t i o n s i n I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Space T r i p s t o S t r a n g e C e l e s t i a l Fodies
1)

23

. . . . The bloon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The A s t e r o i d s 3) h a . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4) Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . The remain in^ Bodies of Our S o l a r System . . The E l e c t r i c Space-Ship . . . . . . .
2)

.......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5)

. . . . . . .

xiv

P a r t I. P r e l iminary Remarks. Chapter I.

f.

With t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of s c i e n t i f i c knowledge and t h e s c i e n c e of technology, it i s p o s s i b l e t o b u i l d machines. t h s t can r i s e higher than t h e l i m i t of t h e atmosphere.

2.

I f p e r f e c t e d f u r t h e r , t h e s e machines can a t t a i n speeds by v i r t u e of which

- if

l e f t t o themselves i n e t h e r space

- t h e y do n o t

have t o f a l l back t o t h e e a r t h ' e s u r f a c e again and a r e even a b l e t o l e a v e t h e sphere of a t t r a c t i o n of t h e e a r t h .

3.

Such machines can be b u i l t s o t h a t human beings ( a p p a r e n t l y witho u t danger t o h e a l t h ) can go up w i t h them.

4.

Under t o d a y ' s economic c o n d i t i o n s , i t w i l l pay t o b u i l d such machines.

I n t h e p r e s e n t book, I would l i k e t o prove t h e s e f o u r statements. F i r s t , I w i l l r e p o r t mainly on W p r i n c i p l e of t h e r o c k e t w i t h l i q u i d f u e l s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s ( p a r t 11) and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n ( p a r t 111). I n P a r t IV, I rill d i s c u s s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n poas i b i l i t i e s of m y r o c k e t s , t h e more i m e d i a t e ones i n Chapter 18; t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e r o c k e t a s space-ship and f u r n i s h proof of t h e f o u r c l a i m s s e t up a t t h e beginning. Then, a seaond, more popular book ( ~ o l . 11) w i l l r e p o r t on t h e h i s t o r y of space f l i g h t , on t h e works i n t h e t e c h n i c a l a r e a of r o c k e t s t o d a t e , and on t h e p r e s e n t a t a t e of q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g space f E i g h t . I n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r s , I w i l l t h e o r e t i c a l l y examine t h e method of o p e r a t i o n and performance of t h e s e machines. I n s o doing, I am following t h e p r i n c i p l e of f i r s t d e s c r i b i n g models t h a t a r e e a s i l y understood and f i g u r e d out. With t h e s e as a b a s i s , I w i l l

g r a d u a l l y come t o deal w i t h a machine t h a t i s s u i t a b l e f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n b u t whose o p e r a t i o n i s n o t so e a s i l y understood, I considered t h i e procedure n e c e s s a r y s i n c e most of t h e r e a d e r s could be u n f a m i l i a r with t h e m a t e r i a l . N a t u r a l l y , it i s n o t my i n t e n t i o n t o a c t u a l i z e a l l t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s u g g e s t i o n s enumerated h e r e o r t o b u i l d all t h e models described. E s p e c i a l l y t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of my B model i s merely f o r demonstration purposes. I w i l l b u i l d only model C and p o s s i b l y model A, i f t h a t i s r e q u e s t e d of me. The spece-ships I hope t o b u i l d l a t e r w i l l perhaps resemble model E b u t w i l l l i k e l y n o t b e e x a c t l y l i k e it; they w i l l perhaps be wide and f l a t and be equipped w i t h l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s ( c f . p. 393), although t h e machine p a r t s w i l l e s s e n t i a l l y be t h e same.
I c o n s i d e r i t premature, however, a l r e a d y t o s k e t c h a space-ship

in

every d e t a i l . I would l i k e t o w a i t and s e e what t h e experience w i l l be w i t h unmrtnned r o c k e t s and w i t h r o c k e t a i r c r a f t . N a t u r a l l y , i n t h e two decades during which I have occupied myself w i t h t h e m a t t e r I have r e f l e c t e d much on how a space-ship should l o o k i f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y trials t u r n e d o u t one wey and how i f t h e y turned o u t d i f f e r e n t l y ; I c o n s i d e r

it f r u i t l e m r and t e d i o u s t o w r i t e about it alreedy. Hence I a h a l l l i m i t

myaelf t o showing only t h e e s a e n t i a l a .
I =st a l e 0 keep some t h i n g e t o u y s e l f , e s p e c i a l l y what appear t o

be f o r t u n a t g t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s , because I am h e r e n o t d e a l i n g w i t h guarded i n t e l l ectxlal p r o p e r t y , I t was my purpose t o be b r i e f . I was o f t e n a b l e t o s i m p l i f y t h e mathematical d e r i v a t i o n s and formulas c o n s i d e r a b l y by u s i n g approximate v a l u e s f o r c e r t a i n q u a n t i t i e s , whieh were e a s i l y t r e a t e d mathematically.
I a p p l i e d t h i s method e s p e c i a l l y i f it s e r v e d t o c l a r i f y a m a t t e r when d i s c u a s i n g t h e f or.xlas. ( a y t h e way, b e s i d e t h a t I have o f t e n

a l e o s t a t e d t h e r e s u l t i n g f i g u r e o r a t l e a s t shorn how it can be

determined from the approximate value by i n d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n ; sometimes I have a l s o simply estimated t h e e r r o r ) . Technical problems, whose s o l u t i o n no one doubts, I have only touched on b r i e f l y . Where t h e numerical values of the q u a n t i t i e s of t h e equation a r e
s t i l l uncertain, I always cal c u l a t e d under unfavorable assumptions.

y rockets perform a s required under t h e s e unfavorable By proving t h a t m

conditions I have proved t h a t they w i l l s u r e l y measure up i n r e a l i t y . Chapter 8 The Rearrani Thrust P r i n c i p l e
I w i l l here designate a s a r o c k e t any apparatus t h a t i s driven

forward

b, the

rearward t h r u s t of discharged gases. The rearward

t h r u s t p r i n c i p l e i s b e e t explained a s follows t Every a c t i o n i s opposed by an equal r e a c t i o n . It can a l s o be expreseed i n this way : Every mechanical f o r c e a t once a c t s a t two d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s on which it seeks t o produce t h e opposing b u t equal on it, t o which it opposes a r e a c t i o n a s g r e a t a s t h e f o r c e i t s e l f . I f I h i t effect
t

no body s e t s i t s e l f i n motion, a f o r c e l m s t a c t

a stone, I employ a f o r c e and t h e stone i n r e t u r n pressea q hand with the same force. I f , a t t h e same time, I stand i n a boat, I am s e t i n motion together with t h e boat by t h i s opposing pressure. I f

I p l a c e an e l a s t i c s p r i n g between two b a l l s , they a r e forced a p a r t by t h e same f o r c e on each. I f I l e a p from a boat, t h e boat i s t h r u s t

backward. I t i e impossible t o push a c a r forward i f one stands i n it, even i f one e x e r t s a f o r c e considerably g r e a t e r than would be required t o move t h e c a r , f o r the 1egs p r e s s it back with t h e same f o r c e with which t h e arms push i t forward, so t h a t t h e t o t a l e f f e c t equal zero.

Fig. 1 The g a s which i s f o m e d i n t h e r o c k e t (cf. Fig. 1) e r c a p e r w i t h s c o n s i d e r a b l e speed s i n c e j u s t as much gaa a r i d formed must a l s o flow out. But it does n o t a t t a i n t h i s speed "by i t s e l f w , t h a t i s without a f o r c e a c t i n g upon it. I f no f o r c e a c t e d on t h e g a s molecules, t h e y would j u s t remain in t h e chamber. I t i a a though e l a s t i c s p r i n g s
were i:rterpo.;sli

betveeu Eas ar.J c h w l ~ e r .;l..ic!: r e c L

t c

a~r.,;-~<.a -3-r

g a s end chanber from each o t h e r ; i n s o doing, t h e r o c k e t i s n a t u r a l l y a1 s o propel1 ed forward. O n t h i s occasion, I would a l s o l i k e t o c o m e n t on one of t h e most f r e q u e n t o b j e c t i o n s t h a t h a s been r a i s e d a g a i n s t mg i d e a (among o t h e r s , even by such o u t s t a u d i n g s c h o l a r s a s f o r example, P r o f , Dr. RIH\! i n "Umschau"). Ue s t a t e s x Rearward t h r u s t cannot a c t i n a vacuum because g a s e r con s u p p o r t themselves. t h e r e is no a i r on which t h e out-flowing

But no o u t s i d e a i r is r e q u i r e d here. The rearward t h r u s t "supports" i t s e l f on t h e outflowing gas. The f o r c e which e x p e l s t h e g a s a t t h e b o t t a n i s supported toward t h e i n s i d e by t h e g a s r t i l l i n t h e chamber and i s t r a n s m i t t e d from g a s molecule t o g a s molecule up t o t h e r o c k e t w a l l w i t h t h e n a t u r a l r e s u l t t h a t (even i n a vacuum) t h e r o c k e t i e pressed upward w i t h t h e same f o r c e w i t h which t h e g a s streams downward. The American p h y s i c i s t , GODDUD ( c f . Vol. 11; I h e r e r e f e r , i n p a r t , t o u a t e r i a l t h a t follows l a t e r , b u t it is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o l o o k it up t o understand t h e t e x t ) , h a s by meaningful experiments d i r e c t l y measured t h e rearward t h r u s t i n a vacuum and found t h a t it i s a c t u a l l y a s g r e a t a s r a a expected according t o t h i s theory. (Cf. GODDBRD
t

method of r e a c h i n g extreme a l t i t u d e s , Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n , washington).

&om t h i a follows a remarkable advantage t o the r o c k e t space-ships t h e r o c k e t can be s t e e r e d e t h e r apace. I f , f o r example, gas i s diacharged toward the f r o n t , t h e speed i s retarded; i f gas is discharged backward, t h e space-ahip speeds up; when t h e gases stream out t o one s i d e , t h e d i r e c t i o n of t r a v e l bends toward t h e other side. This s t e e r i n g p o s s i b i l i t y i s n o t g r e a t . I t already takes very much f u e l f o r t h e r o c k e t t o reach cosmic speed, and every a d d i t i o n a l s t e s r i n g i e connected with a l o s s of f u e l , so t h a t t h e r o c k e t soon reaches t h e
l i m i t of performance. I n t h i s respect, t h e r o c k e t space-ship i s l e s a

l i k e an earth-bound vehicle than a p r o j e c t i l e which when once s h o t off must observe i ts t r a j e c t o r y . Fortunately, t h i s s t e e r i n g p o s s i b i l i t y

l a s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e purposes of space f l i g h t . Thereby, 1) unavoidable mistakes i n r e s p e c t of magnitude and d i r e c t i o n of motion made a t launching can l a t e r be corrected. I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e r o c k e t spaces h i p i s l i k e a b u l l e t which can s t i l l h i t t h e t a r g e t even though it w a s n o t aimed c o r r e c t l y . L) The r o c k e t can be p u t i n t o paths which s p r o j e c t i l e c a h p u l ted from t h e e a r t h cannot describe, e.g. an o k b i t
around t h e e a r t h o r t h e moon, among others. Chapter 3 Omera1 Description h e usual fireworks r o c k e t (cf. Fig. 8) c o n a i s t s of a s o l i d s h e l l loaded with any kind of explosive ( t h e charge B) t h a t does n o t burn too f a s t . 'When it burns, t h e gaaes stream out a t t h e bottom, s o t h a t t h e rearward t h r u a t s e t s t h e whole i n motion. A t F t h e r e i a a r a p i d l y burning powder, t h e detonator composition, st I the a r t i f i c i a l composit i o & ; t h e s e a r e all r o c k e t s o r other o b j e c t r which t h e r o c k e t must c a r r y up with it. Stave W s e r v e s a r rudder; when it i s missing the r o c k e t d e s c r i b e s my i r r e g u l a r zigzag curve without f l y i n g upward a longer period of time.

Fig. 2 I n q r o c k e t s , gun-powder i s n o t employed b u t a combination of oxygen and any k i n d of l i q u i d f u e l . I n t h e s i m p l e s t model, the oxygen v a p o r i z e s and t h e vapor i s brought t o a temperature h i g h e r than t h e i g n i t i o n temperature of t h e f u e l , about t o 700-900e C, by any kind of g a s flame that burns i n t h e orygen. I n t o t h i s h o t gas, s t i l l high i n o q g e n content, t h e f u e l i s sprayed by means of s p e c i a l s p r a y d i f f u s e r s (I c e l l them "poresn, i n contrast t o the rocket jeta). a p p a r a t u s i s d r i v e n forward. I n t h e more complicated modela, I, f i r s t , i n a s i m i l a r wey, i n j e c t l i q u i d oxygen i n t o a f l a n e c o n t a i n i n g much excess vapor of t h e f u e l ; The f u e l burns up completely and t h u s f u r n i s h e s t h e d i s c h a r g i n g gaa by whoee rearward t h r u s t t h e whole

it burns up as d i d t h e f u e l i n t h e h o t oxygen (whether t h e f u e l burns up i n t h e orygen g a s o r t h e oxygen i n t h e vapor of t h e f u e l i s basica l l y t h e same thing). I n t o t h i s h o t g a s w i t h oxygen content, I again i n j e c t l i q u i d f u e l . I n s t i l l l a r g e r machines, f u e l and oxygen can in t h i a ray be i n j e c t e d a l t e r n a t e l y a number of timee i n succession.

Fig. 9
I n i t s simplest form, t h e apparatus would look armenhat as follows

(cf. Fig. 3). The whole i s made of r h e e t metal; a t S t h e r e i s orggen t h a t has been l i q u i f i e d by low temperature. B i s any inflaonnable l i q u i d such a m gasoline, alcohol, l i q u i d n a t u r a l gas, l i q u i d ethylene, l i q u i d hydrogen o r t h e l i k e . Now t h e oxygen in S i a aomehow vaporized. It would already vaporize i f k e p t in containers t h a t conduct h e a t well, but t h a t would be too slow a proceea f o r our purposes; it must be promoted a r t i f i c i a l l y by injectgng f u e l i n t o t h e l i q u i d oxygen and aomehow i g n i t i n g it by means of a red-hot platinum g r i d and a d d i t i o n a l u s e of diatomite o r Otfmann a r t i f i c i a l pumice. As i s well h o r n , combustion i e very vigorous i n l i q u i d oqygen. The combustion gaaea then r i s e i n t h e l i q u i d oaygen and g s r i q it on t h e nay. The t r a n s f e r of h e a t from t h e s e amall g a r bubbles t o t h e rurrounding l i q u i d i s s u f f i c i e n t l y good. The gaseoua oxygen then e n t e r s pipe A, where fuel vapor from pipee n i s a l s o added. A guard p l a t e v prevents l a r g e r drops of oxygen from being swept along and a t Q the f u e l vapore burn up, heating t h e gaseous ozygen t o 700-900e.
A t Z ( i n t h e atomizer)

the f u e l i a then sprayed i n t o t h i s h o t g a s of high o x ~ g e ncontent through f i n e j e t s (pores) i n t h e w a l l . Fig. 4 ahons t h i a p a r t of t h e wall from t h e outside somewhat enlarged and i n cross-section a t b, d.

Fig. 4 Under circumstances, screw-type guide bol t e m a t be b u i l t i n t o t h e s e pores, b u t t h i s question can only be decided a f t e r comprehensive preliminary t e s t s (see Vol. 11).

Fig. 5 Fig. 5 shows t h e atomizer i n cross-section a t b . The f u e l i e i g n i t e d

where it comes i n t o contact with t h e 800a hot orggen. The width of t h e pipe a t Z and the d i f f e r e n c e i n pressure between B and Z a s well a s the s i z e of t h e pores must be c a l c u l a t e d s o t h a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s of l i q u i d coming from B j u s t burn up before reaching the middle of pipe 2. What is achieved thereby i s t h a t the combustion gas streaming from t h e rocket has f a i r l y well t h e same composition everywhere. On t h e wall of t h e a t o a i z e r t h e drops of l i q u i d a r e r e l a t i v e l y f a r apart. None of

it i s burnt up yet. Here, however, combustion i s stronger 1) because

t h e same drops a r e t h i c k e r , 2) because they s t i l l have a high r e l a t i v e speed compared t o the surrounding oqggen. By c o n t r a s t , i n t h e middle, t h e drops a r e small and have almost the speed of t h e surrounding oxygen, b u t here they a r e c l o s e r together so t h a t t h e two circumstances even

each o t h e r out. The only exception i s a narrow l a y e r of g a s on t h e edge. That i s a s it should be, s o t h a t it remains r e l a t i v e l y cool. While (because of compression) temperatures of 4000' a r e reached i n tPls midd l e , no danger e x i s t s f o r t h e w a l l s . Experiments i n t h i s r e g a r d have shown t h a t normally t h e r e i s no t u r b u l e n c e on t h e w a l l of LAVAL j e t s . Thus t h e g a s which sweeps along t h e edge remains on t h e edge. Perhaps

it i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e g a s on t h e edge t o be somewhat c o o l e r , b u t t h e
g a s i n t h e c e n t r e should be j u s t a s h o t a s p o s s i b l e . That can be achieved by d i r e c t i n g t h e combustion more toward t h e c e n t r e . L a t e r we
w i l l g e t t o know b e t t e r means of p r o t e c t i n g t h e wall fr*

t h e heat,

This p r o t e c t i n g wall of g a s can be t h i n . I t remains i n t h e chamber l e s s than 2 eeconds, s o t h a t i t escapes b e f o r e t h e h e a t h a s p e n e t r a t e d it.

I would l i k e t o c a l l t h i s p r i n c i p l e t h e " p r i n c i p l e of dynamic h e a t

protectionv1. I c a l l it wdynamic!l because t h e r o c k e t (while working) i s guarded a g a i n s t heat. The oven 0 i s s i h a t e d below t h e atomizer. Here combustion i s t h e s t r o n g e s t . Next f o l l o w s a narrowing down, t h e neck Fm. Thio appeara n e c e s s a r y t o e f f e c t a c e r t a i n damning up i n t h e oven. Thereby I a c h i e v e
1) 2)

t h e following r

t h e f u e l 8 remain i n t h e oven l o n g e r ; h i g h e r p r e s s u r e (i.e, h i g h e r temperature; g r e a t e r o q g e n density) ;

3)

a l l i n a l l more thorough combustion. The j e t i s connected t o Fm. It i a b u i l t according t o t h e LAVAL t y p e of j e t s and widens up t o a p e r t u r e Fd under an a n g l e of 7-S0. I w i l l g i v e a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n l a t e r 1)

a r e intended f o r The passage. marked w i t h a marginal l i n e s t u d y t h e m a t e r i a l more thoroughly and t h e r e a d e r who wishes t o posseaees t h e n e c e s s a r y t e c h n i c a l know1 edge. Other r e a d e r s can s k i p them w i t h o u t 1oss.

I n May, 1928, Lt. Col, FU3IlZER disputed t h e assumption t h a t a rocket can burn i n a rupted, i.e.
V B C U ~

a t a l l . He thought t h e f i r e j e t would be i n t e r -

t h e gas would stream o u t s o f a r t t h a t t h e flame would n o t have time t o i g n i t e t h e new f u e l t h a t followr. This i s n o t p o s s i b l e with mg r o c k e t once it burna. Due t o i n e r t i a , t h e gas stream cannot immediately escape through j e t F, considerable pressure w i l l alwaya be needed i n chamber 0 t o f o r c e o u t t h e t o t a l gaa t h a t has developed
(5-20 atmospheres).

Hence, only t h e following question remains

I f the rocket rtopr

burning i n t h e vacuum (nay, becauee we have turned off t h e f u e l mpply) and all t h e g a r escapes from chambers Z and 0 , w i l l we be a b l e t o l i g h t t h e r o c k e t w a i n i n caee t h a t i a necessary? This can be d i r e c t l y accomplished with t h e gas flame i n p i p e G. W e only need t o l e t t h i s flame burn i n a closed tank i n t o which we conduct

a a u i t a b l e q u a n t i t y of g a s and allow a correspondingly m l l e r q u a n t i t y of gaa t o escape ( n a t u r a l l y , t h i s i n only one p o s s i b l e r o l u t i o n , t h e r e are o t i l l o t h e r r ) . W e thus h a r e a gaa of high oxygen c a n t e n t i n t h i a tank. But what happens t o t h e excesr gas wbich ercaper i n t o t h e vacuum apace 21
One often reada t h a t t h e temperature of a mass of g a r muat drop t o a b r o l u t e zero i f t h e gas m a s s i s allowed t o expand f r e e l y . Thin i r only c o n d i t i o n a l l y c o r r e c t , f o r temperature i s here purely a m a t t e r of d e f i n i t i o n , I t a l l depends whether we hold t h e thermometer a t i l l o r move i f with t h e j e t of gaa. l o i n well known, t h e temperature of an encloaed q u a n t i t y of g a r i a bared on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s i n g l e gem moleculer whirr about. I f a thermometer i a held i n t o it, t'he g a r molec u l e r r t r i k e it@ moleculer end j a r thean, and t h i n v i b r a t i o n cauaea t h e thermometer t o g e t ram. The h e a t of a g a r ie t h e r e f o r e bored on t h e i r r e g u l a r motion of i t s molecules. I f a l l t h e moleuulen flew i n t h e

same d i r e c t i o n a t t h e same speed, we would n o t speak of h e a t b u t of velocity.

When t h e s e g a s molecules suddenly have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of u n l i m i t e d expansion, every g a s molecule c o n t i n u e s t o f l y i n a s t r a i g h t 1i n e a t t h e apeed t h a t it j u s t had. The f a s t e s t moving molecules w i l l f l y ahead and t h e 81owest+noving one8 w i l l n a t u r a l l y f a l l behind. I f , i n a d d i t i o n , t h e space over which t h e g a s mass has spread i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e , t h e e f f e c t i s almost as i f a l l t h e g a s molecules came from one p o i n t and a l l t h e molecules f l y i n g s i d e by s i d e had t h e same speed. Therefore, we can s o c a r r y along a thermometer t h a t it r e c e i v e s no impact and i n d i c a t e s a very low temperature. I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, we k e p t t h e thermometer s t i l l , t h e g a s moleculer would n a t u r a l l y s t r i k e i t a t t h e i r o r i g i n a l apeed and, a s a r e s u l t , i t would r e g i s t e r t h e o r i g i n a l temperature. example, t h e b u i l d e r of g a s t u r b i n e s knows t o h i s chagrin t h a t , i n s p i t e of t h e a d i a b a t i o expansion of t h e g a s e s i n t h e t u r b i n e j e t , t h e t u r b i n e p l a t e s h e a t up as though they were i n t h e combustion chsmber i t s e l f ) . Now, a t 2 t h e s t r e a m s of l i q u i d do n o t s h a r e i n t h e motion of t h e oxygen stream, which h a s t h e e f f e c t ss though t h i s oxygen s t i l l had i t s o r i g i n a l temperature of 800' C. I n s p i t e of t h e s t r o n g r a r e f a c t i o n of t h e air, vigorous o x i d a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , f o r t h e number of oxygen molecules h a s n o t decreased. Hence we have vigorous development of gas, t h e p r e s s u r e i n 0 r i s e s and a f t e r a few seconds, a t t h e l a t e s t , the n o w a l s t a t e i s reached.

or

I f , t o prove h i e p o i n t , REIMER s t a t e s t h a t , w i t h a q u a n t i t y of powder i n a v a c u w , it i s impoesible t o s t a r t combustion by a s i n g l e i g n i t i o n , I c o u n t e r w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t we a r e h e r e n o t d e a l i n g

with a s i n g l e i g n i t i o n . Rather, t h e s i t u a t i o n i s as though r e

continuoutily p r e s s e d h o t u e t a l a g a i n s t t h e powder u n t i l it i s b u r n t up, o r , even b e t t e r , as though we had p i l e d t h e powder on a meteor which a1ready burns up i n t h i n n e s t upper l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere ( c f . a l s o Chapter 14). Someone e l s e o b j e c t e d and s a i d t h a t t h e o q g e n stream r u s h i n g by a t almost 100 m/sec must normally blow o u t t h e flame even when t h e f u e l h a s a c t u a l l y caught f i r e .

- This would happen only i f

i t s temper-

a t u r e were below t h e i g n i t i o n p o i n t ; i f , however, it i s above t h e i g n i t i o n p o i n t , it can only burn t h e m a t t e r , and t h a t t h e more, t h e s t r o n g e r it blows. What t a k e s p l a c e h e r e is t h a t t h e oxygen v a p o r i z e s t h e o u t e r l a y e r of t h e drop and carries it away, while t h e drop, due t o i t s i n e r t i a , s t a y s behind snd i a c o n s t a n t l y i n touch w i t h new orggen. The vapor t h a t i s c a r r i e d along i s s e t on f i r e by t h e oxygen, a t which, because of t h e r h o r t d i s t a n c e s , t h e g a s c u r r e n t s caused by t h e drop a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o e f f e c t a mixture. W e w i l l l a t e r see the significance of t h e f a c t t h a t we h e r e have n o t u r b u l e n c e worth mentioning. Atomizer and oven a r e f u r t h e r enclosed i n a p i p e t i n which t h e f u e l r i s e s , s o t h a t atomizer and oven a r e c o n s t a n t l y surrounded by

liquid.

Namely, i n f u e l t a n k B, vapor develops which f o r c e s t h e f u e l

( t h e same p r o c e s s as i n a pop b o t t l e ) i n t o p i p e t, open a t t h e bottom, which conducts it t o t h e atomizer and t h e b u r n e r s h. The vapor forming
'.

around t h e h o t oven i e conducted t o burner G by p i p e t, How t o c r e a t e t h e vapor f o r t h e space above t h e f u e l i n B need n o t worry u s a t p r e s e n t . A c a r t r i d g e could be i n s e r t e d i n B which burns f o r s o and s o long. (1n s o doing, t h e r a t i o of f u e l t o orygen would r e g u l a t e i t s e l f a u t o m a t i c a l l y . The g r e a t e r t h e p r e s s u r e i n B, t h e more f u e l s p u r t s from t h e atomizer b u t t h e s t r o n g e r w i l l t h e flames a t b burn a l s o , s o t h a t a corresponding g r e a t e r aclount of oxygen vayorize#. )!

Fig. 6 Another p o s s i b l e e o l u t i o n would be t o conduct p a r t of t h e vapor ( c f . Fig.

a), i n s t e a d of t o G, through p i p e

x t o t h e f u e l tank.

Fig. 7 Again, a n o t h e r s o l u t i o n ( c f . Fig. 7 ) would be t o l e t p i p e t begin h i g h e r up s o t h a t p a r t of t h e f u e l vapor would n o t go t o B b u t t o t.

L, L a r e epacee f i l l e d w i t h a i r , f o r w i t h t h i s c o n a t m c t i o n f u e l a t L

would only be dead weight.

I f t h e r o c k e t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g and tlie f u e l i s very l i g h t compared t o oxygen, which would f o r example be t h e c a s e i f l i q u i d hydrogen i s used a s f u e l (spec. weight of l i q u i d hydrogen, 0 . 0 6 ) , a p i p e i, s u f f i c i e n t l y i n s u l a t e d a g a i n s t conducting h e a t , could eimply be l e d from t h e o ~ p g e n tank t o k ( c f . Fig. 8 ) , where tlie orggen i s allowed t o burn up ( n a t u r a l l y , oxygen burns i n hydrogen j u s t a s well a s hydrogen i n o q g e n ) and t h e h e a t produced would then i n p a r t vaporize t h e hydrogen and have t h e d e s i r e d effect.

- If

t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e s s u r e a r e n o t adequate t o b r i n g t h i e

about, a pump m m e t be i n s t a l l e d . I t has been o b j e c t e d t h a t a pump would n o t work i n l i q u i d oxygen and it would be impossible t o s e a l it here.

I
I
I
The answer i a
I

ether or

Fig. 8
1) L u b r i c a t i o n could be done with petrol-

l i q u i d coal g a s ( a s G. CLAUDE attemps t o do w i t h h i s a i r l i q u i f y i n g apparatus; c f . KOLBS r Liquid A i r ) . 2 ) Not even t h a t i s necessary. Thia pump does n o t have t o work by f a r wit11 t h e p r e c i s i o n r e q u i r e d , f o r example, of a pump i n an a i r l i q u i f y i n g apparatus. I t doea n o t m a t t e r i f even a t h i r d of t h e l i q u i d cornea through again and f r i c t i o n h e a t s

t h e whole by a few degrees,

I f one f i x e s cocks t o t h e b u r n e r s h and

t h e p i p e s i, t h e com\lustion p r o c e s s can be r e g u l a t e d i n f l i g h t . The w a l l s of s h e e t i n g should be as t h i n as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o i n c l u d e l i t t l e dead m a t e r i a l . S i n c e t h e propulsion a p p a r a t u s ( t h a t i s p i p e A, t h e atomizer, t h e oven, and t h e j e t ) i s under l e a s p r e s s u r e than t h e surrounding l i q u i d , it and t o a l e s s e r degree a l s o p i p e t a r e i n danger of c o l l a p s i n g under t h e o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e . That can be prevented ( a s i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 35, p, 71) by a t t a c h i n g b r a c e s of s h e e t i n g which, on t h e i n s i d e , a r e s o l d e r e d t o t h e p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s and, an t h e of t h e propulsion a p p a r a t u s does At p i p e A, p i p e t, and o u t s i d e , a r e b o l t e d o r otherwise connected t o t h e r o c k e t w a l l ( j a c k e t s u r f a c e ) . Then, t h e cross-section

n o t appear round b u t polygonal o r star-shaped.

t h e j e t , p r e s s u r e i s no problem. The atomizer can be r e i n f o r c e d by connecting it t o p i p e t w i t h a number of metal b r a c e s , as can be Been i n Fig. 36. These b r a c e s must be p e r f o r a t e d , s e r r a t e d t o p r e v e n t t h e 1 i q u i d from flooding.
1) i n o r d e r t o save

m a t e r i a l ; 8) t o allow t h e l i q u i d t o p a s s through. The opening8 m a t be

By t h e u s e of t h e s e b r a c e s of s h e e t i n g we achieve two t h i n g s t 1) t h e only demand on t h e m a t e r i a l i s t r a c t i o n ; e v e r y t h i n g can be t h i n n e r

and l i g h t e r . 2) These bracea a c t l i k e r a d i a t o r s . Thereby t h e danger from t h e L e i d e n f r o s t s t a t e i s reduced. of t h e oven a r e t h i n . )

at he

more so, s i n c e t h e w a l l s

I f , i n a d d i t i o n , t h e propulsion a p p a r a t u s i s

surrounded by l i q u i d hydrogen o r oqygen, t h e h e a t c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e metal i n c r e a s e s because of t h e low temperature. For example, it i s impossible w i t h our s t r o n g e s t h e a t s o u r c e s t o m e l t a t h i n l e a d c o n t a i n e r K i t h l i q u i d hydrogen i n it because t h e metal i m e d i a t e l y p a s s e s on a l l t h e h e a t t o t h e l~ydrogen( c f . a l s o p. 4 0 and Fig. 24).

The o u t e r w a l l s can l i k e w i s e be t h i n without t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e o r

t h e t o r q u e produced by t h e f i n s causing t h e a p p a r a t u s t o c o l l a p s e . The s t r e s s on them i s l i k e w i a e only t r a c t i o n . S i n c e t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e is a t l e a s t 5 atmospheres b u t tlie o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e of a i r r e s i s t a n c e is,

a t t h e most, supposed t o equal t h e weight of t h e r o c k e t d i v i d e d by i t s

bottoin s u r f a c e , t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e keeps t h e whole t h i n g r i g i d a s a n o n r i g i d a i r - s h i p o r a pumped-up c a r t i r e i s s o l i d thanks t o i n s i d e pressure.

Fig. 9 According t o KOLBE

t

Fig. 10 "Liquid Airyt1 Leipzig, 1980.

Concerning t h e question of m a t e r i a l , I would only l i k e t o s a y t h a t high requireclents a r e mainly placed on t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of t h e m a t e r i a l . Requirenente of f l e x i b i l i t y a r e l e s s s t r i n g e n t , f o r t h e whole c o n s i s t s of t h i n t i n p l a t e s which bend f a r even i f made of r e l a t i v e l y b r i t t l e material. This i s of value e s p e c i a l l y f o r apparatus which work
w i t h l i q u i d hydrogen and l i q u i d o q g e n s i n c e moat m a t e r i a l s become

very hard but a l s o very b r i t t l e when i n c o n t a c t with t h e s e c o l d l i q u i d s .

Nga. 9

- I t ahor experiments on t h e t e n a i l e a t r e n g t h and b r i t t l e n e s s of

a kg weight. When t h e nitrogen evaporate8
Fig. 11 showa a corrmon

metal8 a t l o r temperatures. The small g l a a r tube i n Fig. Q is f i l l e d

w i t h l i q u i d n i t r o g e n end surrounds a t h i n l e a d wire. That makea t h e wire

s o firm t h a t it c a r r i e r t h e end t h e l e a d wire warm8 up, it breakr (fig.10).

..

Fig. 11 o i l can made of iron rheeting which was f i l l e d w i t h l i q u i d oxggen. I t became so b r i t t l e t h a t it could be mashed x i t h a haamer. (dccording t o

KOLBE t %Liquid Air.") In s p i t e of t h a t , I do n o t wish t o diapenae with f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e

m a t e r i a l , a t l e a s t n o t when b u i l d i n g t h e f i r s t model. So I would make t h e p a r t e t h a t come i n t o c o n t a c t with t h e oxygen of copper, t o which I could add aome zinc, i r o n , n i c k e l , o r menganeae t o achieve g r e a t e r
18go, copper har a t e n a i l e t e n a i l e atrength. At a temperature of mtrangth of 30 kg/&. By a wire of 1 mmf2 cross-aection, 3.3 dm3 of

t h e rubrtance can be rurpended t a f a c t r e r a a t t o t a k e n o t e of. By adding einc, t h i s f i g u r e could be r a i s e d coneiderably. The machine p a r t r which come i n t o c o n t a c t with t h e l i q u i d hydrogen I would make of lead, t o which nome copper could be added (up t o 40 pure l e a d haa a u n i t r t r e a a of 3

8). At

?253',

4 dm3/1m12 end a f l e x i b i l i t y some-

where between t h a t of copper o r i r o n a t t h e usual temperature. I f copper i n added, i t r t e n s i l e r t r e n g t h (indeed 8180 i t a hardneoa) increaaea
80

far a8 t o become l i k e a t e e l .

As m a t e r i a l f o r machine p a r t s only coming i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h g a s o l i n e , a l c o h o l , e t c . , I would s u g g e s t i r o n w i t h .8 .4 8 carbon c o n t e n t 1)

The i d e a l m a t e r i a l f o r t h e atomizer p i p e would be s i l v e r s i n c e it does n o t oxgdize, does n o t m e l t e a s i l y , and remains f l e x i b l e a t low teutperatures. I t should b e mentioned h e r e t h a t , w i t h a hydrogen r o c k e t , no o q d a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e d u r i n g f l i g h t i n s p i t e of t h e proximity of t h e oven because of t h e low temperature of t h e w a l l ; y e t t h e m a t e r i a l could e a s i l y d e t e r i o r a t e i n t h e time between launchings, whereas a r o c k e t w i t h a s i l v e r atomizer r i n g could be s e n t a l o f t many hundreds of times i f handled properly. I t would n o t be t o o expensive. I t should be remembered t h a t t h e whole of model A i s only 2-3
J

long. According-

l y , t h e atomizer s e c t i o n i s 10-30 cm l o n g end 10-16 a n r i d e , end t h e s h e e t i n g i s s c a r c e l y 1 mm t h i c k . With l a r g e a l c o h o l r o c k e t a , t h e atomizer nay be made of copper, p o s s i b l y w i t h a d d i t i o n of eome tin. The s o l d e r e d j o i n t s between f l e x i b l e and b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l my n o t b e s i t u a t e d a t t h e edges of t h e two t a n k s b u t must be over t h e h o t t e r m a t e r i a l s . Up t o j o i n t a , t h e s o f t m a t e r i a l on t h e h o t t e r tank muat be b u i l t t h i c k e r corresponding t o i t s d e c r e a s i n g t e n s i l e a t r e n g t h ( c f . Fig. 1 2 ) .

Fig. 18 As a m a t t e r of f a s t , i t i s through t h e a m i a b i l i t y of Mr. A.B. SC-CWKY t h a t I b o w of a m a t e r i a l , one aquare m i l l i m e t e r of which csn s a f e l y be weighted with 9-12 dm3 a t t h e u s u a l temperatare ar w e l l an

a t t h e temperature of l i q u i d oxygen, and which, besides, i s n o t i n f e r i o r t o copper i n f l e x i b i l i t y a t low temperatures. What t h a t means w i l l be understood when reading t h e f o l l o u i n g chapters. I have no i n c l i n a t i o n t o pub1 i c i z e t h e material. Whoever wants t o b u i l t liquid-fuel r o c k e t s would do re11 anyway t o c o n t a c t t h e people who have done t h e preliminary work uuder g r e a t personal s a c r i f i c e .

With l a r g e r rockets, some s o r t of i n e u l a t i o n , aebestos or wool, would have t o be a t t a c h e d a t b, ao t h a t the h e a t i s n o t transmitted too suddenly. I would l i k e t o mention here t h a t no r o c k e t with l i q u i d f u e l
i s s h o t from a cannon; t h e s e r o c k e t s a r e only l i g h t and then they r i s e
by t h e i r own power.

Chapter 4 Improvements and C a p 1 e t i o n a Disadvantages ( e s p e c i a l l y with hydrogen rocketo) a r i s i n g fram uneven heating of t h e metal p a r t s can be l a r g e l y o f f s e t i f c a r e i s taken t o have a l l more expanded metal p a r t s i n contact with the l i q u i d o r vaporized hydrogen. lYith t h e model shorn i n Fig. 13, t h e hydrogen i s k e p t i n a ring-shaped container which f l o a t s f r e e l y within t h e hydrogen tank. Here "free" neans held only by t h e metal braces g. By m i t a b l e choice of material f o r the hydrogen rocket, it i a p o s s i b l e t o make t h e braces c o n t r a c t by t h e same amount a t t h e temperature of the oxygen aa the jacket surface a t 253O.

Between t h i s r i n g and the s h e l l t h e r e i s a f r e e space c f i l l e d only with f u e l vapor. Here t h e vapor r i s e s and flows i n t o t h e propulsion apparatus a t A. By the expreaeion "propulsion apparatusw I designate t h e pipes t, p i p e A, t h e atomizer, t h e oven, and t h e j e t . The w a l l s of t h e o q g e n r i n g m a t be a s t h i n a s p o s s i b l e (namely, t h e pressure i n the oqygen chamber i s e x a c t l y a s g r e a t a s i n the hydrogen chamber). I n addition, they must be of porous m a t e r i a l (say asbestos);

t h e b u r n e r s h must extend along t h e wall h i g h e r than w i t h model A. The aim i a t o make t h e vaporized hydrogen p e n e t r a t e t h e a s b e s t o s , and t h e combustion between hydrogen and oqygen on t h e i n n e r edge i a t o c o n t i n u e along t h e whole wall. Thus t h e oxygen on the edge i s heated
by t h e r i s i n g f u e l vapor and does n o t s o l i d i f y , otherwise it would

only r e p r e s e n t dead weight.

Fig.

13

The adventages of % h i s arrangement, e x c e p t f o r t h e atomizer pipe, which must b e made of f l e x i b l e m a t e r i a l anyway, and t h e cross-braces q, which a r e h e r e s u b j e c t e d t o l i t t l e s t r e s s and can t a p e r o f f a s w i r e s toward t h e s h e l l , a l l remaining metal p a r t s have a uniform heat. Thus t e n s i o n s a r e e l i m i n a t e d which can e a s i l y a r i s e w i t h unevenly heated m a t e r i a l o r t h e cooling-off of soldered j o i n t s .

I t i a hoped t h a t t h e

model can a l s o be b u i l t out of b r i t t l e material (say, out of i r o n o r aluminum). Nothing can happen t o it during f l i g h t aince t h e r e i e l i t t l e vibration. The landing i s planned t o be i n water. After landing, t h e r e is no danger t o the model. I f it s t i l l contains l i q u i d hydrogen, it
w i l l be quickly coated with a l a y e r of i c e which p r o t e c t s it a g a i n s t

pounding by t h e waves, etc. ; i f i t contains no more hydrogen, t h e t h i n sheeting w i l l presumably soon be f l e x i b l e again. C r i t i c a l rill be only the moment when the apparatus, although weighing s c a r c e l y 10 kg when empty, touches the s u r f a c e of the water while suspended from t h e parachute. Whether it w i l l stand the f i r s t impact, only t h e trial w i l l show. F i l l i n g an i r o n hydrogen r o c k e t would n a t u r a l l y be involved. I t would f i r s t have t o be c a r e f u l l y cooled down t o 253O by means of

vaporized orygen. Then t h e l i q u i d hydrogen could be p u t in. With t h i e i n s i d e and p a r t i a l s t a r t i n g of t h e burnera h, t h e l i q u i d oxygen could be f i l l e d in. Fastening t h e propulsion apparatus and i t s braces t o t h e s h e l l would n o t be simple. Copper could nowhere be soldered t o iron. The gap between the j e t wall and the s h e l l a t Fd (cf. Figs. 3, 6 , 13) could only be s e a l e d with s o l i d i f y i n g coal gas s h o r t l y before f i l l i n g . The advantage of i r o n construction would be trenendoualy improved t e n s i l e strength. A t the temperature of b o i l i n g hydrogen, s o f t i r o n has a t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of 150 150 k g / & . S i n c e t h e s p e c i f i c weight i s about 8, i t s s p e c i f i c t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h i s around 85 dm3/mm2. What t h a t means we w i l l s e e l a t e r . I would only l i k e t o say i n advance t h a t , b u i l t of lead, the same model r i s e s about 30 km, whereas manufactured out of i r o n i t r i s e s 1500 km under otherwise equal conditionr. The question i s only whether landing i s possible. Only i n a s i n g l e case would the matter be c e r t a i n l y possible, namely i f s long-distance p r o j e c t i l e were b u i l t according t o t h i s p r i n c i p l e which i s t o make f l i g h t an3 reach i t s t a r g e t ( c f . p, 276 f f on t h i s ) .

one

With t h e model of Fig. 13, a f u r t h e r improvement c o n s i s t s of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e oxygen is, i n p a r t , a l s o sprayed i n t o t h e atomizer pipe (at

z~) as

a l i q u i d . Advantages : 1) t h e b o i l i n g i n t h e orygen chamber

8 ) The combustion gases flowing through the l i q u i d

need n o t be as v i o l e n t , which reduces t h e danger of sweeping along drops of l i q u i d . o g g e n change t o snow, p a r t of which i s c a r r i e d t o t h e propulsion apparatus through t h e b o i l i n g gas and p a r t of which i s only dead weight. With t h e arrangement of t h e model i n Fig. 13, the q u a n t i t y of deadweight m o w i s reduced t o about 1/10.
A f u r t h e r considerable improventent would be t h a t only t h e propulsion

apparatus and i t s imnediate surroundingo are p u t under pressure, wherea s t h e f u e l tanks a r e under a s l i t t l e excess pressure as possible.

Even with t h e f u e l tanks we cannot g e t along without i n a i d e pressure

a l t o g e t h e r , f o r t h e whole machine i s only made of t h i n s h e e t i n g snd would c o l l a p s e under t h e preaeure of t h e f r o n t a i r i f t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e did n o t keep it t a u t l i k e
6

nonrigid balloon.

Nevertheless, i t would be a very considerable saving i n weight i f , a s a burning l i q u i d , we d i d n o t u s e a l i q u i d which vaporizes and burna a s e a s i l y a s l i q u i d hydrogen b u t g a s o l i n e o r kerosene, which must be sprayed i n under an excess pressure of a t l e a s t 40 atmospheres i f they a r e t o burn up properly. ( ~ e c a u e eof i t s low spec. weight and low v i s c o s i t y , it seems t o me with hydrogen an excess pressure of 1 4 atmospheres i s s u f f i c i e n t . Unfortunately, I have n o t y e t been a b l e t o experiment with l i q u i d hydrogen.) O n the o t h e r hand, with t h e l i q u i d tanke (depending on the form of t h e tank) a pressure of 1/3 u s e of the pump chambers invented by me (cf. Fig. 14). The apparatus (I c a l l i t model D) ie i n t h e main s i m i l a r t o t h e model of Fig. 13. The only d i f f e r e n c e i s t h e pump chembers p i , pa, pa, pq.

- 4 ataro-

rpheree i s s u f f i c i e n t t o keep then r i g i d . This can be achieved by t h e

Theee a r e thick-walled,

ring-shaped

b o i l e r e . Eig. 15 shove one (pa) by

i t s e l f . I f it i s f i l l e d w i t h l i q u i d , t h e l i q u i d i s vaporized according t o one of t h e methods we l e a r n e d t o know on page 12 ( i n t h i s connection a l s o cf. pp. 326, 337 ).

F i g . 14 The vapor f o r c e s t h e l i q u i d below it through p i p e s ol i n t o p i p e t.

From t h e r e on, e v e r y t h i n g e l s e i s as rrith t h e clodele d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r .

A f t e r t h e l i q u i d has l e f t pg, a vulve c l o s e s a g a i n s t 01 ( n o t shown i n Fig. 14). The rime og and o1 i n Pig. 15 a r e connected t o p i . Here the

l i q u i d now flowe from p l t o tg. A t t h e same time, a valve opens and a l l o w s t h e gae t o escape t o t h e open through t h e e x h a u s t K. (somewhat echematieed i n Figs. 14 and 15.) Thereupon, t h e p r e s s u r e p r e v a i l i n g i n t h e f i e 1 tank &gain f o r c e s l i q u i d i n t o &e c i r c u l a r b o i l e r through val ve og.

I cannot avoid showing j u s t what k i n d of a r p e n t e opponents of I ~ V i d e a s homefirnee advance. For example, Dr. WEBER @ e i p z i g ~ b s e r v a t o r g )
m i t e a mong o t h e r t h i n g s : "Imagine t h e a c t i o n of pumps which a r e rupposed t o have t h e c a p a c i t y t o f o r c e such q u a n t i t i e s of l i q u i d f u e l i n t o &e oven (when a very l a r g e r o c k e t , 3000 kg i n t h e f i r s t second"). Tiell, it is t h e hundredth p a r t of t h e weight of the r o c k e t . Whoever i s n o t acquainted w i t h ny book w i l l n a t u r a l l y t h i n k of p i s t o n o r vane-type pump6 and t h e l i k e when r e a d i n g t h i s a r t i c l e , which do n o t have the

capacity. Actually, t h e s e 'lpurnps" a r e n o t h i n g more than f u e l t a n k s w i t h aonewhat t h i c k e r walls. I b e l i e v e it i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o imagine vapor * r e a h r e from a b o i l e r of 10 rn3 c o n t e n t f o r c i n g 3 n3 through a s c r e e n
o r auufficiently l a r g e opening i n one second,

Fig. 15 h r t h e r m o r e , t h e p r e a e u r e of 20-30 atmospheres i n t h e oven of l a r g e r r o c k e t s makes !KEBEl wonder when h e t h i n k s of our steamships whose b o i l e r s have a p r e s s u r e of only 16 ct~nospheres. The answer i s t h a t
fhe p r e s s u r e could e a s i l y be lowered t o 10 atnospheres i f a p r e s s u r e

of 20 atmoepberes should cause suapicione. Now, t h e p a r t s of t h e b o i l e r

t h a t a r e t o s t a n d 20 atmospheres a r e n o t a s l a r g e a s marine b o i l e r s , a t t h e most a s l a r g e a s locomotive b o i l e r s . And t h e a n a l l e r t h e b o i l e r , t h e g r e a t e r t h e p r e s s u r e i t can endure.

- Besides,

mother thing

should be noted. The main d i f f i c u l t y with t h e s t e m b o i l e r i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e h e a t ~ u u s tbe t r a n s m i t t e d froin t h e oven, which i s

not

under

p r e s s u r e , t o t h e water, which i s under p r e s e u r e . I f , w i t h high i n s i d e p r e s s u r e , t h e w a l l s a r e uade t o o t h i n , they b r e d r ; i f they a r e nade t o o t h i c k , n o t enough h e a t p a s s e s through. Besides, t h e f i r e a f f e c t s t h e w a l l s more s t r o n g l y , s o t h u t t h e machine cannot be used f o r long. For t h i s reason, l a r g e s t e m b o i l e r s a r e n o t s u b j e c t e d t o p r e s s u r e above 15-16 atuospheres.

I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e g a s enclosed i n

a machine does n o t need t o be heated from o u t s i d e , t h e p r e s s u r e can

n a t u r a l l y be r a i s e d m c h higher. The p i s t o n s of d i e s e l n o t o r s and g a s motors, f o r example, s t a n d a p r e s s u r e of 30-50 atmospheres, cannon b a r r e l s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o s e v e r a l 100 atmospheres d u r i n g f i r i n g , and

NATTEBER'S a i r l i q u i f y i n g a p p a r a t u s b u i l t i n 1854 stood a p r e s s u r e of

28CO atmospheres.

With m y rockets, t h e condition8 a r e s i u i l a r t o

t h o s e with t h e last-naned machines, s i n c e t h e oven i s under t h e same p r e s s u r e a s t h e surrounding 1iquid.

Fig.

16

I n model D, t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e f u e l t a n k s i s s t i l l almost a s g r e a t a s i n t h e oven, I t can be lowered s t i l l f a r t h e r i f t h e p i p e

i s c l o s e d on t o p (model A).

Fig. 16 shows t h e upper p a r t of t h i n

machine. The s k e t c h i s schematized; a c t u a l l y , f o r reasons of e q u i l i b r i u m , a l l p i p e s a r e a t l e a s t i n p a i r s . I u s u a l l y drew only one i n o r d e r n o t fo oonfuse t h e p i c t u r e . The p i p e s d s e r v e . t o p r e s s t h e f u e l a g a i n s t t h e t i p , s i n c e t h e l a t t e r would h e a t t o o s t r o n g l y a t h i g h e r speeds. Space c i s under g r e a t e r p r e a s u r e than t h e f u e l tanks. The vaporized l i q u i d p a s s e s t o t h e propulsion a p p a r a t u s through a p i p e ( i n o r d e r t o u t i l i z e t h e compression h e a t t h a t h a s developed i n f r o n t of t h e t i p f o r propulsion). The remaining l i q u i d flows back i n t o t h e t a n k again.

I have been t o l d t h a t t h e r o c k e t must burn up l i k e a meteor

when c u t t i n g through t h e upper l a y e r s of t h e atnosphere. I would l i k e t o answer t \%at i s c r u c i a l i n t h e a s c e n t i a n o t only t h e temperature of t h e a i r i n f r o n t of t h e t i p b u t also
it8

heat

c o n t e n t , f o r only where t h e r e i s high h e a t c o n t e n t can g r e a t t r a n s f e r of h e a t t a k e place. But t h e a i r is dense only a t t h e bottom where t h e r o c k e t f l i e s r e l a t i v e l y slowly, s o t h a t t h e a i r i n f r o n t of t h e r o c k e t h e a t a up l i t t l e . Above, where we a r e faced with high speeds and t h e r e f o r e h i g h temperatures, t h e a i r i e s o t h i n due t o t h e low barometric p r e s s u r e t h a t it c o n t a i n s

but l i t t l e h e a t due i t s low mass even a t t h e h i g h e s t temperatures. The h e a t i s e a s i l y absorbed by t h e l i q u i d which s p r a y s o u t a t d.

I n t h i s connection, a l s o compare Chapter 14.

I would a l s o l i k e t o mention h e r e t h a t , w i t h models B, C, U end

E, t h e f i n s mat a l s o be cooled by Liquid.
I n t h e f u e l space a r e p i p e s t h e open a i r a t K ( c f . Fig. 14).

kl which l e a d t o s a f e t y v a l v e s and

Fig. 17

I p r o d d e d t h e s e ecrfety valves f o r a11 cases, although they a r e

n o t absolutely necesrary. The supply l i n e s t o t h e pumps can be f i t t e d with cocks which c l o s e by meaas of presaure gauges i f t h e pressure i n t h e tank r i s e s too high.
I w i l l n o t f u r t h e r d e s c r i b l e how t o go shout preventing t h e

snow t h a t f l o a t s on top of t h e oxygen from plugging t h e porer of G and how t o remove t h e mow l y i n g a t t h e bottom of t h e hydrogen

tank. Those a r e problems t h a t any c o n s t r u c t o r of average a b i l i t y can solve.

I f well-built and powered with l i q u i d nitrogen, model A cen d m o s t a t t a i n c o m i c speed. Model C (cf. Fig. 17) r The b a s i c ideae a r e t h e same a s w i t h model A. The designations i n Fig. 17 l i k e w i r e have t h e same meaning

as before. Attached t o t h i s , however; i s n o t only s propulsion apparatue b u t a whole r i m i n t h e c e n t r e of which t h e p r o p e l l a n t containers hang down Like a tail. The r e s t of t h e rocket I w i l l c a l l t h e head. Naturally, a l l a v a i l a b l e space i n t h e head i s a l s o f i l l e d with f u e l . Here, t h e pump chambers do n o t have t h e form of r i n g s b u t t h e form of spheres o r e l l i p e o i d s . The p r e e m r e i n t h e
t a i l i s only a s high as i s necessary t o keep i t e form and f o r c e t h e f u e l s t o t h e head through pipee x and y e A t s t a r t of t h e f l i g h t , even t h e pump chambers a r e f i l l e d , s i n c e a l l a v a i l a b l e space must be u t i l i z e d f o r carrying a1 ong f u e l . A s with model A, t h e p u p a work a1 t e r n a t e l y , so t h a t one i s always f i l l i n g t h e high pressure tank *il e t h e other i s being f i l l e d from the low pressure tank

Fig. 18

blodel B ( i n t h i s connection, compare model B, P l a t e s I and 11, and model

E, P l a t e I V ) r

Here, t h e pump chambers a r e s i t u a t e d above t h e a p p a r a t u s and t h e f u e l t a n k s above t h e punps. This can only be accomplished with l a r g e apparatus. Here i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o d i v i d e t h e atomizer and, w i t h very l a r g e machines, t h e n o z z l e a l s o . Fig. 18 shows a n o z z l e d i v i d e d i n t o seven p a r t s seen from below. Thus, with l a r g e machines, a number of atomizer p i p e s empty i n t o a comon oven, from which a number of n o z z l e s l e a d o u t again. (Cf. P l a t e IV)

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e n o z z l e s and t h e a t o n i z e r p i p e s nay n o t be too small n o r t o o s h o r t , otherwise t h e f r i c t i o n i n t h e propulsion a p p a r a t u s i s t o o g r e a t and t h e f u e l does n o t s t a y i n t h e a p p a r a t u s

1ong enough f o r cospl e t e combustion. This type of c o n s t r u c t i o n i s

only s u i t a b l e f o r a p p a r a t u s of c o n s i d e r a b l e a b s o l u t e l e n g t h , and t h e y must n o t only be long b u t t h i c k a s well, f o r t h e f o r c e of t h e rearward t h r u s t P must be regarded as a c t i n g on t h e a r e a somewhat above t h e c m b u s t i o n chamber. of the
t ~ i ? balance i ~

The components of t h e i n s i d e t e n s i o n

each o t h e r , s o t h a t t h e s e t a n k s can be regarded

ab a c l o s e d system. Now, t h e p r e s s u r e s p.dF a c t on t h i e system

19). W e can f i n d t h e i r p o i n t of a t t a c k by imagining a h o r i z o n t a l

plane drawn through t h e combustion chcuuber and drawing l i n e s upward p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s . The p l a c e whore they f i r s t s t r i k e metal i s

Fig. 19

t h e p o i n t from wilere t h e metal t r a n s m i t s t h e s t r e s s t o t h e s h e l l V e can thus c o n s i d e r t h e p r e s s u r e s po.dF as a c t i n g i n t h e surface. \ same plane as t h e atomizer and on t h e s i d e of it. There i s a l s o upward p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t t h e wall of t h e n o z z l e between , F bulge W. and Fd, b u t it i s obviously l e s s than t h e downward p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t t h e

Fig. 80 Now, t h e air r e s i e t a n c e , t h a t i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t a c c e l e r a -

i n t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y , a c t s on t h e t i p and f o r c e P a t t h e bottom. In a d d i t i o n , t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e h a s t h e u n d e s i r a b l e s i d e - e f f e c t of tending t o inmediately s e t t h e r o c k e t h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h t h e s l i g h t e s t motion sideways and causing continuous o s c i l l a t i o n . This can only be remedied by a f f i x i n g s u i t a b l e t a i l f i n s w. These
tion s e r v e t o s t e a d y t h e back end while t h e a i r resistance bends t h e f r o n t end, s o t h a t t h e o c c u r r i n g f o r c e s c o n s t a n t l y have the tendency

- (R + G)

Fig. 21

t o b u c k l e t h e r o c k e t a s Fig. P1 shows. To p r e v e n t t h i s i n a long, t h i n r o c k e t , e i t h e r the ercess pressuiae would have t o b e verg high, which v o u l d cause much dead weight, o r t h e r o c k e t would have t o be braced w i t h p i e c e s of metal which, i n our case, nould make t h e dead weight much t o o g r e a t . To keep t h e dead weight a t a mini-, l a r g e s o t h a t t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e i s reduced. Compared t o t h e p r e v i o u s models, models B and C a r e q u i t e c o n p l i c a t e d machines, Keeping t h e v a r i o u s v a l v e s , pumps, cocks, and t h e i g n i t i o n o p e r a t i n g would b e b e s t a c c w p l i s h e d by c l e c t r i c a l means.
A f u r t h e r very c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p r o v c ~ e n tc o n s i s t s of c a r r y i n g t h e

nothiug i s l e f t

b u t t o make t h e diameter, t h a t i s t h e mass of t h e r o c k e t , a p l ~ r o p r i a t e l y

f u e l i n a number of t a n k s and promptly c a s t i n g off t h e e c ~ p t yt a n k s i n o r d e r t o reduce t h e dead weight. I w i l l d i s c u s s t h e theory of t h e s e a p p a r a t u s i n d e t a i l l a t e r and show why we n u a t s t r i v e t o reduce t h e dead weight. V i t h model C t h a t is r e l a t i v e l y easy t o achieve. The t a i l must c o n s i s t of a number of tanka (tape~rumr o c k e t , Fig. 8 9 ) , a t which t h e l o w e s t ones a r e e u p t i e d f i r s t and c a s t off (!?iE. 23). I'Jith nodel B y t h a t can be achieved by p l a c i n g a a w z l ~ e rof r o c k e t s above o r i n s i d e one another, c f . P l a t e s I and IV, a t whicli i t i s always t h e l o w e s t one which s u p p l i e s t h e power ant1 i s c a s t o f f a s sooil a s i t s f u e l i s used up. Zere t h e hydrogen r o c I ~ e t a(I d e s i p i a t e the:n
I1.R.

i n a b b r e v i a t i o n ) a r e shown i n r e d and t h e a l c o h o l rocItets (A.R.)

i n black,
Coth itlode1 B and riodel C can h e b u i l t s o t h n t they a r e a b l e t o f l y t o beyond tlie e a r t h ' s f i e l d of g r a v i t a t i o n . Actually, I would only b u i l d mcleorol o g i c a l rocIrets s i i l i l a r t o model C and long-dist. rocrcets s i n i l a r t o model A ( c f . p.
2 and p.
356 f f )
:

ce

rocTrets

sliich

r e ~ ~ a i n t h e spliere of a t t r a c t i o n of t h e e a r t h .

Fig.

83

Fig. 28

What I d i d n o t mention i n t h i s chapter a r e arrangements t o guard a g a i n s t sudden p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s r e s u l t i n g from uneven combustion.

1 -

Namely, i f f o r any reason t h e preesure i n the oven r i s e s , i t causes more rapid combustion and development of more gas, s o t h a t pressure and combustion f o r c e each other up. Large "balanced pressure" j e t s of gas t u r b i n e s sometimes e m i t a treuendous howl which can cause such s t r o n g v i b r a t i o n aa t o make t h e oven explode o r a t 1e a s t become u s e l e s s i n a s h o r t time. So f a r , attempts have been made t o combat t h i s condition with l a r g e surge tanks; b u t t h a t way i s out of the question f o r u s , a s we s h a l l see. Attempts were a l s o made t o bring i n cooling water o r water vapor t o o f f s e t explosive shocks, b u t t h a t has n o t been very successful t o date, s i n c e a l l such arrangeiaents r e a c t too slowly. For my p a r t , I b e l i e v e I have solved t h e problem. A t 20 atmospheres of pressure, my gas j e t has n o t howled, and tile s o l u t i o n i s s u r p r i s i n g l y simple. Since the matter i s n o t y e t patented, I must be s i l e n t about i t f o r t h e present. Other d e t a i l s of construction again I can only d i s c u s s l a t e r , s i n c e they can only be understood i n connection with the r o c k e t theory.

P a r t 11. Technical a e s t i o n s of Physicta Chapter 5 The Speed of Out-Flow

-Forwrla q u a n t i t i e s of Chapter 5 t
C a epeed of out-flow

Cd r
C P
t

epeed of o u t f l o n a t end of nozzle. In t h e succeeding chaptere,

I w r i t e t h i s aimply a s c.

s p e c i f i c h e a t of the g a s a t c o n s t a n t p r e e a u r e t h e gas a t c o n s t a n t volume

Cv

, s p e c i f i c h e a t of

p : a b e o l u t e p r e s s u r e of t h e outflowing g a s e s a t t h e p l a c e e x w i n e d , 1ikewi se i n kg/m2

pd : p r e s s u r e a t end of n o z z l e
po r a b s o l u t e p r e a s u r e i n t h e oven i n kg/n
8

F r cross-aection of t h e n o z z l e st t h e p l a t e examined
Fd r l a r g e s t cross-section of n o z z l e (end of n o z z l e )

FPI a a a a l l e s t crosa-section of n o z z l e (neck of n o z z l e )

t weight of hydrogen

N t weight of n i t r o g e n

q u a n t i t y of h e a t weight of oxygen

'

T t a b s o l u t e temperature

Td : temperature a t end of n o z z l e
To : temperatare of oven

mlone of I

of g a s i n m3

Vo r volume of 1 kg of gas i n m3 i n t h e oven

I

p r e a m r e of o u t s i d e atmosphere P

Of t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e layman could n o t e only t h e following Gases flow b e s t from funnel-shaped

n o z z l e s ( c f . i n t h i s connection,

Figs, 3, 6, 7) s i n c e w i t h then t h e h i g h e s t speeds of out-flow can b e achieved, That w i l l s u r p r i s e t h e layman, f o r i t i s observed t h a t water, f o r example, streams f a s t e s t from t h e uouthpiece of a s p r a y t h a t is tapered toward t h e f r o n t . One can l i k e w i s e blow w i t h t h e nouth more s t r o n g l y through p i p e e t a p e r e d toward t h e f r o n t tltcm through a funnel w i t h t h e small eud t o t h e mouth. The d e v i a t i n g behavior of t h e r o c k e t g a s e s i s explained by t h e f a c t t h a t they a r e h i g h l y compressed i n t h e oven and can t h e r e f o r e expand s t r o n g l y , while t h e a i r i n our l u n g s i e as coup1 e t e l y inconprosaibl e. Namely, a l i q u i d , i n c a p a b l e of expollding, i n a c o n t a i n e r open campressed b u t l i t t l e and s o can only expand l i t t l e , Vater, f i n a l l y , i s a s good

a t t h e top t h a t flows tlrrough a h o l e i n t h e bottom, flows ( a p a r t from f r i c t i o n ) a t t h e s a n e speed t h a t a body would a c q u i r e when f a l l i n g f r o = t h e l e v e l of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e l i q u i d t o t h e l e v e l
of t h e hole1). If t h i s l i q u i d i s under p r e m u r e i n sn otherwise e n t i r e l y c l o s e d c o n t a i n e r , t h e speed of outflow i s obviously found ') Thi. apeed i . a l r e a d y reached w i t h r e l a t i v e 1y w a l l opeuings, as i s found by d i r e c t and r e a r n a r d t h r u s t messureilents. One can, however, be deceived i f one only measures t h e q u a n t i t y of l i q u i d t h a t flowed o u t and d i v i d e s it by t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n of t h e opening and t h e t i a o . The water does n o t a t t a i n i t s speed nocientarily b u t i s s t i l l a c c e l e r a t e d w h i l e flowing out, Ilence, t h e stream of water b e f o r e t h e h o l e i s t h i n n e r than t h e h o l e i t s e l f (according t o e x p e r i e ~ ~ c e a,b o u t 2 j 3 ) .

by asking r Bow high above t h e opening would t h e s u r f a c e of the l i q u i d

i n a container open on top have t o be f o r t h e ground pressure t o be

as g r e a t a s t h e i n s i d e excess pressure (pressure h e i g h t of t h e l i q u i d )

i s here. The speed of out-flow w i l l be a s g r e a t a s t h e f a l l i n g speed

of a body from t h i s height. Since, i n order t o e r e r c i e e a c e r t a i n ground preasure, a l i q u i d must n a t u r a l l y stand t h e higher, t h e l i g h t e r

it is, t h e r e f o r e t h e e w e excess pressure of a l i g h t e r l i q u i d imparts a higher speed of out-flow.

So f a r f o r incompressible l i q u i d s , With e l a s t i c gases something
-

e l s e cen be observed a :hen they pass through a h o l e i n the wall, they n a t u r a l l y flow out approxi~uatelyj u s t a s f a s t a s if they were incwpressible. Xhile flowing out, however, t h e pressure t o which they a r e subjected decrease8 and gases a t l o ~ r e rpressure a r e specif i c a l l y l i g h t e r . With the u s e of funnel-shaped nozzele we have t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of l e t t i n g the gas g e t s t i l l l i g h t e r s p e c i f i c a l l y while

i t flows out, which n a t u r a l l y i n c r e a s e s i t s speed of out-flow somewhat, I f , during out-flow, we conduct the gas through a funnel-shaped nozzle, t h e cross-section and t h e speed of t h e gas stream i n c r e a s e a i m 1 tcmeously. Thereby (depending on what one wants t o c a l l it), we e i t h e r cause the out-flowing gas stream t o be s p e c i f i c a l l y l i g h t e r a t the end of the period of a c c e l e r a t i o n o r we cause t h e same a c c e l e r a t i n g pressure drop t o a c t on a l a r g e r surface. Hence, t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g f o r c e a c t i n g on t h e gas e t r e w i s g r e a t e r . pr he two clauses mean approximately the same thing.) T h e o r e t i c d l y , an i n f i n i t e i n c r e a s e i n speed could be achieved
1) i f t h e gas could expand t o zero pressure, 2) i f the gas renained

gaseous a t any expansion, 3) i f t h e r e were no f r i c t i o n between i t and the s i d e of t h e nozzle. Naturally, requireuent 1 cannot be f u l f i l l e d a t t h e bottom of our atmosphere, although it could almost be

r e a l i z e d i n p l a n e t a r y space. On p o i n t 2 we have t o s a y t h a t g a s e s cool off w i t h expansion and, t h e r e f o r e , i n a vacuum, t h e out-flowing g a s would f i n a l l y condense t o f i n e d r o p s of m i s t , i f t h e funnel

i s made s u f f i c i e n t l y long and vide.

T h i s i s s e l f - e v i d e n t i f considered from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of energy, f o r t h e g a s a t t a i n s i t s speed of o u t f l o w a t t h e expense of i t s own p r e s s u r e and h e a t energy, and t h i s can n a t u r a l l y n o t be i n f i n i t e . The f r i c t i o n on t h e s i d e of t h e n o z z l e even makes it appear a d v i s a b l e n o t t o l e t t h e g a s expand u n t i l i t becomes a l i q u i d ( o r s o l i d ) . Ntmely, w i t h h i g h l y r a r e f i e d g a s e s , t h e f r i c t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t ( a s i s e v i d e n t , f o r example, w i t h GAEDEtSmolecular air pump), and t h i s f r i c t i o n would f i n a l l y even lower t h e speed of outflow. 'IVithin c e r t a i n l i m i t s , t h e exhaust speed only depends on t h e form of t h e n o z z l e , t h e n a t u r e of t h e f u e l , and t h e temperature i n t h e oven; h a r d l y , however, on t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e o u t s i d e a i r and t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e oven.
A t f i r s t s i g h t , t h i s i s l i k e w i s e a s t o n i s h i n g . The independence

of t h e atmospheric p r e s s u r e r e s u l t s from t h e form of t h e n o z z l e , which c o n d i t i o n s a very d e f i n i t e nozzle-end p r e s s u r e , p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e oven p r e s s u r e , on which ( a s l o n g as i t i s g r e a t e r than one atmosphere) t h e o u t s i d e a i r p r e s s u r e h a s no i n f l u e n c e . The independence of t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e sounds s t i l l more i n c r e d i b l e . IYater, f o r example, s p u r t s t h e f a s t e r from t h e mouth p i e c e of o s p r a y t h e higher t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e hose; l i k e w i s e , a stream of a i r blown by u s lnoves t h e E a s t e r , t h e s t r o n g e r we blow. I n o r d e r t o understand t h e devious behavior of t h e r o c k e t g a s e s , we mst again v i s u a l i z e t h e i r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y . Namely, w i t h t h e r o c k e t oven, t h e d e n s i t y of t h e gaa i s c e t e r i s p a r i b u s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p r e s s u r e , s o t h a t t h e g a s opposes t h e g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e w i t h an i n e r t i a r e s i s t a n c e

j u s t as much g r e a t e r . ( ~ o t e r Taken p r e c i s e l y , t h i s n a t u r a l l y only apn t h e o t h e r hand, w i t h t h e s u e f u e l p l i e s t o equal temperature#. O

compoeition, r a i s i n g t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e can i n c r e a s e t h e speed of o u t flow. Here t h e i n s i d e temperature grows w i t h t h e p r e a s u r e under which t h e g a s e s form. I t i e t h e same t h i n g a s a t f i r s t l e t t i n g t h e p r o c e s s go on under low p r e s s u r e and l a t e r h e a t i n g t h e g a s by compression. That g a s e s h e a t up when compressed i a a phenomenon t h a t could b e f a n i l i a r

t o most b i c y c l e and c a r d r i v e r s from pumping t i r e s .

The a b s o l u t e f o r c e of t h e rearward t h r u r t n a t u r a l l y grows w i t h t h e oven p r e s s u r e . I w i l l r e p o r t on t h e p r i n c i p l e s f o r u s i n g f u e l s on p.
331 f f and p. 351 f f . Here, I w i l l only w r i t e concerning t h e speed

of o u t f l o w . At t h e bottom of our atmosphere ( t h a t i s , w i t h a nozzle-end p r e s s u r e of one atmosphere) and w i t h an i n s i d e p r e s s u r e of SO a t a o s p h e r e s , of t h e f u e l compoeitions known t o me, a composition of 1 p s r t (by weight) of hydrogen and 2 p a r t s of oxygen produces t h e h i g h e s t exhaust speed, namely 4000 m/sec. Now, t h i s w i l l again s u r p r i s e a c h e n i s t . Namely, w i t h t h i s mixture,
a l a r g e p a r t of t h e hydrogen remains unburned sad a c t s as b a l l a s t , f o r

2 kg of olygen can only absorb 1/4 & of hydrogen. Thus, a m i x t u r e of one p a r t by weight of hydrogen end 8 p a r t s by weight of o ~ y g e nc o n t a i n s t h e h i g h e s t thennochemical energy p e r kg, i f we can achieve complete combustion. co he so-called a t o i c h i o t n e t r i c p r o p o r t i o n )
The f a c t t h a t , w i t h an o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e of one atmosphere, t h e f i r s t m e n t i o n e d mixture proves t o be b e t t e r i s due t o d i s s o c i a t i o n . As
i s well h o r n , t h e h i g h e r t h e temperature, t h e f a s t e r t h e molecules

w h i r l about, and a t very high temperatures they s t r i k e each o t h e r s o v i o l e n t l y t h a t t h e cohesive f o r c e s between t h e e i n g l e atoms a r e no
1onger s u f f i c i e n t t o h o l d t h e no1 ecul e s together. A p a r t i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n

of t h e molecules occurs, t h e so-called d i s s o c i a t i o n (an expression which would be 1i f e r a l l y t r a n s l a t e d somewhat as tldesociali z a t i o n " ) example, above 2500, water vapor HsO b r e a k s down i n t o H

For

OH; above 4000e, it f u r t h e r d i s i n t e g r a t e s i n t o monoatonic hydrogen and oxygen.

With t h i s d i s s o c i a t i o n , a l a r g e p a r t of t h e developing h e a t i s a g a i n destroyed, s i n c e t h e t e a r i n g a p a r t of t h e atoms is n a t u r a l l y connected w i t h a l o s s of energy. This h e a t i s again s e t f r e e only when we cool t h e g a s s o far t h a t t h e atoms c l i n g t o g e t h e r again. D i s s o c i a t e d g a s

i s r e l a t i v e l y heavy and cold (indeed, it c o o l s l i t t l e with expansion).

But i f it i s s t i l l d i s s o c i a t e d a t t h e o u t l e t , i t only flows o u t slowly. There i s l e s s d i s s o c i a t i o n , however, i f one gas i s M e n i n s u r p l u s
(e.g.

hydrogen). When flowing o u t of a funnel-ahaped nozzle, t h e g a s c o o l s o f f and

t h e d i s s o c i a t i o n r e c e d e s again. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , e x a c t l y water vapor would have t o expend and cool very s t r o n g l y i f it were n o l o n g e r t o be d i s s o c i a t e d a t t h e n o z z l e o u t l e t . Therewith, t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e would have t o be one-hundred times g r e a t e r than t h e p r e s s u r e a t t h e o u t l e t , which can n a t u r a l l y n o t be achieved w i t h an o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e of one atmosphere; we cannot work w i t h an oven p r e s s u r e of 200 atmospheres. O n t h e o t h e r hand, w i t h a r o c k e t o p e r a t i n g above t h e e a r t h ' s atnosphere, we can assume any low o u t l e t p r e s s u r e and n o t h i n g p r e v e n t s u s from using t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c a l l y c o r r e c t r a t i o of H2 r 0 . E s p e c i a l l y one o t h e r circumstance s t a n d s u s i n good s t e a d h e r e r The cross-section of t h e o u t l e t must be very l a r g e i n r e l a t i o n t o

t h e weight of t h e rocket. ? ? i t h i n t h e ataosphere, t h e r o c k e t i s heavy and t h i n , b u t by t h e t i n e i t has reached p l a n e t a r y space i t lras l o s t

a l a r g e p a r t of i t s f u e l , eo t h a t now t h e weight i s small enough i n

r e l a t i o n t o t h e l a r g e s t cross-section. Beside t h e advantage of a h i g h e r

exhaust speed ( t h e o r e t i c a l l y up t o 5000 m/sec, 4500 m/eec),

i n p r a c t i c e presumably

t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c composition a l s o h a s t h e advantage of

a h i g h e r s p e c i f i c weight; more f u e l can be taken along i n t h e same t a n k ( t h e s p e c i f i c weight of l i q u i d hydrogen i s .06; b u t 1 l i t e r of l i q u i d o g g e n weighs 1.19 k g ) . What f o l l o w s from t h i s i s r e w i l l only o p e r a t e t h e r o c k e t on hydrogen above t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t s of t h e atmosphere, w h i l e f o r t h e s t a r t of t h e f l i g h t we w i l l l o o k f o r o t h e r f u e l s .

F i g , 24 The second-best composition t h a t I know c o n s i s t s of 9 p a r t s of e t h y l alcohol and 20 p a r t s of o w e n . With t h i s mixture a t 20 a h o s p h e r e e , t h e g a s e s would t h e o r e t i c a l l y flow o u t a t 2700 m/sec. one should reach 8000 n/sec. and some n a s c e n t o q g e n . A f t e r what waa s a i d on pp. 8 , 16, t h e high oven temperatures need n o t worry us. For example, i t i s impossible t o me1 t a t h i n l e a d d i s h c o n t a i n i n g l i q u i d hydrogen over an e l e c t r i c a r c . Another i n s t r u c t i v e experiment i s t h e f o l l o w i n g r A s e n t i c i r c u l a r copper p i p e approaches a flame a t A, a s i s shorn i n Fig. 84. I f water In practice, They c o n s i s t of carbon d i o x i d e and water

flows through i t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e arrow, it i s impossible t o

burn t h e p i p e w i t h t h e f l m e of an owhydrogen blowpipe c a r r i n g e x c e r r hydrogen, The misgivings of D r . \YEB?l'R of t h e L e i p z i g Cbservatory concerning t h e high degrees of h e a t i n t h e oven a r e t h u s unfounded.
I n s p i t e of t h a t , i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n lower oven temperatures f o r model B d e s c r i b e d on p.
315 f f , I provided weaker compositions. For

t h e alcohol r o c k e t , i n s t e a d of r e c t i f i e d a l c o h o l , I provided 13.4 and an e x h a u s t speed of roughly 1700 m/sec.

d i l u t e a l c o h o l which only g i v e s an oven temperature of about 1400 C The l a s t f i g u r e I only r e p r e s e n t e d by 1400 m/sec i n t h o e q u a t i o n s ( i n o r d e r t o meet p o s r i b l e o b j e c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g i m p e r f e c t combustion, f r i c t i o n i n t h e n o z z l e , etc.).
An a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e of models B and E i s t h e i n s u l a t i o n of t h e

wall by t h e vapor of t h e c o o l a n t i n t ( c f . P l a t e I I ) ,

s o t h a t burning

of t h e oven w a l l i s c o n p l e t e l y excluded. With t h e o t h e r models, we

a t l e a s t saw t h a t combustion i s l e s s vigorous n e a r t h e wall. Thus

thorough p r e c a u t i o n s have been taken a g a i n s t burning of t h e w a l l s . With models B and E, t h i s dynamic c o o l i n g can f i n a l l y be made very e f f e c t i v e by l ' e t t i n g g a s of t h e e r n e composition a s t h e forming gae flow down a1 ong t h e w a l l s of t h e oven. According t o KIlZClIIlOF, t h i s almost completely absorbs t h e r a d i a t i o n cotlling from t h e i n s i d e of t h e o v a . For t h e hydrogen r o c k e t , I provided a composition of 1 p a r t by weight of hydrogen and 1.43 p a r t s by weight of oxygen, which l i k e w i s e produces a temperature of a b o u t 1400 C. The exhaust speed would b e roughly 3700 m/rec, which I s e t a t 3400 m/sec i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n f o r t h e reason s t a t e d above. I f then I can show t h a t , even under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , c e r t a i n l y assumed t o be t o o unfavorable, a p p a r a t u s can s t i l l be b u i l t which a d v w c e i n t o p l e a e t a r y space, I hope I have

proved t h a t sending a r o c k e t i n t o p l a n e t a r y space i s a c t u a l l y n o chimera.

I chose t h e s e u n f a v o r a b l e f u e l m i x t u r e s mainly on account of some

c r i t i c s . I myself G o w t h a t t h e r o c k e t oven can endure a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r temperature, b u t perhaps c r i t i c s who only r e d t h e book superf i c i a l l y do n o t know t h a t and I would l i k e t o avoid g i v i n g t h e appearance of i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t y as f a r as p o s s i b l e . For t h a t m a t t e r , a f t e r d e s c r i b y opinion, an a p p a r a t u s b u i l t i n g model E, I w i l l s t a t e what, i n m

l i k e it b u t p r o p e l l e d w i t h good f u e l s i s capable of. The following i s only intended f o r s p e c i a l i s t s who would l i k e t o check my f i g u r e s .
r

The out-flow speed of g a s e s from such l a r g e n o z z l e s ( F ~ = 705 cm2) h a s n o t y e t been measured d i r e c t l y . On t h e b a s i s of t h e performance which examinationn t o d a t e show, t h e following can b e assumed ( i n agreement w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n s )
t

The more n e a r l y p e r f e c t t h e form -of t h e nozzle, t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e n s i t y of t h e gasea, and t h e wider t h e n o z z l e , t h e more w i l l t h e d i s t u r b i n g i n f l u e n c e s ( f r i c t i o n and t h e l i k e ) be minimized and t h e speed of o u t flow n o r e and more approaches t h e f i g u r e a l r e a d y c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s of thermodynamic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e foregoing century.

Z a E R (~~rbines p., 261 f f ) giites a c l e a r d e r i v a t i o n of t h e

o u t f l o w theory. The r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h m y r o c k e t approach h i s formulas by s o f a r t h a t I can u s e them a s t h e b a s i s of my d i s c u s s i o n . According

r t o Z%NZR ( ~ u r b i n e s , 155), f o r every p l a c e of t h e j e t r.

I as long as p L/?.

Yo is t h e volume i n m3 of 1 kg of exhaust g a s e s w i t h t h e condition. i n t h e oven. I f t h e temperature i n t h e combustion chamber i s n o t t o exceed a c e r t a i n maxixmlm value, po. Vo aimply depends on t h e composit i o n of t h e gases. With r e f e r e n c e t o po and p, it can be remarked r According t o ZEUNER, when

p7p

, the

connection between n o z z l e crons-

s e c t i o n Fp and t h e p r e s s u r e p f o r every p l a c e i s given by t h e formula r

From t h a t we r e a d off : -

The r a t i o

d --i s

( a c t u a l l y only approximated) c o n s t a n t , when

p0
and x ( t h a t is, t h e campoeition of t h e

--Fd

i s constant. Now, according

t o ( I ) , w i t h a c e r t a i n g a s a t a c e r t a i n temperature, cd depends only

i s c o n s t a n t , t h e exhaust speed a l s o becomes (almost) Po c o n s t a n t and independent of t h e i n s i d e pressure.
If

on

-.

d -Po

The named f o n n u l a s a r e approximate formulas. They i g n o r e t h e f r i c t i o n ; y e t , even f o r an i d e a l g a s , they would a t b e s t be c o r r e c t i f t h e o u t l e t p r e s s u r e e q u a l l e d atmospheric p r e s s u r e , i.e.

if pd

=p .

Proof : According t o t h e law of rearward t h r u s t t h i s e x a c t l y

s t h e a b s o l u t e temperaNow, according t o (2), w i t h po and To ( T i~ t u r e i n t h e combustion chember) c o n s t a n t , pd and w i t h t h a t a l s o s p e c i f i c volume@ V d of t h e exhaust g a s e s a t t h e o u t l e t would be c o n s t a n t ;

I
'

according t o ( I ) , t h e exhaust speed c, t h e m a s 8 second, and i t s mamentun r cd. more, according t o (1) and ( 2 ) )

Cd*Fd e j e c t e d in one
J ' ,

cd*Fd would a1 s o be constant. Fbrther-

vd

sj

p.JP would a l s o be c o n s t a n t and

t h e rearward t h r u s t would b e by/*F g r e a t e r i n a vacuum than i n a space x i t h an atmospheric p r e s s u r e of

Thur, o p p o s i t e t o an equal momentun of t h e exhaust g a s would be an unequal impulse d e a l t t o t h e r o c k e t , which cannot be r e c o n c i l e d x i t h NEI"0N'S t h i r d p r i n c i p l e ( t h e c l a u s e concerning p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e ; e n t r e of g r a v i t y ) . A c t u a l l y , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s a s follows r 1) Aa a p p a r e n t l y p and, as a r e s u l t , a l s o decreases, p a r t i a l

f r e e i n g of t h e g e e stream from t h e n o z z l e w a l l occurs; therewith,

55

p.dF become smaller.

8 ) At t h e same time, s t a r t i n g from Fm i n t h e n o z z l e , t h e g a s must

undergo g r e a t e r a c c e l e r a t i o n ( c flows through Fm.

3) F i n a l l y , more g a s a l s o

With t h e alcohol r o c k e t of model B, which I w i l l d e s c r i b e l a t e r , s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e launching, c t h e o r e t i c a l l y grows by 6 between 1530 and 1700 m/sec.

5.

According t o my e s t i m a t i o n , t h e l o w e s t value t h a t c can have i s

his

u n c e r t a i n t y i s g r e a t e r than t h e

whole amount by which c can vary. I t i s s o g r e a t because I have u n t i l now only been a b l e t o compute t h e atomizer t h e o r e t i c a l l y and have n o t been i n a p o s i t i o n t o e x m i n e i t s o p e r a t i o n experimentally.
If p (and w i t h it
, according t o ( 2 1 ,

becoiies so small t h a t from t h e r a t i o follow, c d e c r e a s e s r a p i d l y and,

Fd Fm

Pd<-p would

'

i n t h e sequel, we want t o f i g u r e w i t h t h e h i g h e s t value of c a t t a i n a b l e w i t h certainty1). I f I c a l l po

9= ii t h e e x c e s s p r e s s u r e ,
0

t h e follow-

i n g i s eupposed t o r e s u l t :
-

O t h e m i s e , according t o

(I), i t i e d e s i r a b l e t h a t Pd
I(

be a s small Po
soon r e a c h e s

a s p o s s i b l e . For t e c l m i c a l reasons,

(and w i t h i t

an upper l i m i t and, w i t h a f l u c t u a t i n g pd, we would have t o b u i l d

our r o c k e t t a k i n g i n t o account t h e l a r g e s t value of pd. That would, i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , g e n e r a l l y lower c, and a f u r t h e r drawback would be t h a t po f l u c t u a t e s and i s t h e r e f o r e i n g e n e r a l lower than i t might be w i t h a s t a t i o n a r y nozzle.

I would l i k e t o mention h e r e t h a t Prof. D r . PilOLL of fIanover h a s suggested t o me t o b u i l d t h e r o c k e t n o z z l e a s a d i f f u s e r , t h a t i s t o widen it o u t and p o s s i b l y equip it w i t h s i d e c a n a l s f o r t h e i n g e s t i o n of a i r (so-called Venturi tubea). That i s supposed t o reduce t h e e x h a u s t speed, b u t t h e exhaust g a s e s d r a g along a g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y of a i r on which they s u p p o r t themselves, eo t h a t t h e r e p e r c u s s i o n of t h e d r i v e n a i r mass i s added t o t h e rearward t h r u s t e f f e c t of t h e r o c k e t gases.
I have, u n t i l today, n o t t e s t e d t h e m a t t e r experimentally. A number of important s c h o l a r s doubt whether t h e rearward t h r u s t can be i n c r e a s e d i n t h i s way f o r t h e o r e t i c a l reasons. Therefore, following m y principle s e t up i n t h e i n t r o d k c t i o n , u n t i l f u r t h e r n o t i c e , I h e r e a l s o b a s e m y c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e most unfavorbble value of t h e rearward t h r u s t t h i n k a b l e , t h a t i s t h e one f o r a vacuum, i n o r d e r t o prove t h a t my i d e a s a r e e x e c u t a b l e under t h e most u n f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s thinkable.
The r o c k e t t h e o r y derived h e r e would n o t be overthrown j e t s , b u t , i n s t e a d of t h e a c t u a l out-flow speed, we would an " e f f e c t i v e " out-flow speed i n p l a c e of c, based on t h e w i t h t h e same l o s s of mass, t h e same rearward t h r u s t u u s t n o t t a k i n g t h e sir i n t o account.

by t h e d i f f u s e r have t o s e t f a c t that, be produced

The following arrangement might be s u i t a b l e f o r making po independent of the rearward t h r u s t P. One could ( c f . Fig. 85) a t F make t h e nozzle c y l i n d r i c a l o r s l i g h t l y converging f o r a longer d i a t a n c e and, from t h e combustion chamber, p r o j e c t a r e g u l a t i n g pin e ( a s i n the PELTON r a t e r t u r b i n e s ) i n t o the nozzle a s needed. Models A f o r t h e alcohol r o c k e t i s well-nigh conetant. The hydrogen r o c k e t cannot a t t a i n t h e v e l o c i t y a t all, f o r technical reaeona (which, aa we s h a l l see, p. 333, doer n o t matter much). Here, the rearward t h r u s t i e completely constant. Hence, po and c can a c t u a l l y be s e t aa constant.

-D

do n o t need t h e r e g u l a t i n g pin f o r here t h e required reqrnsard t h r u s t

Fig. 25

'

With t h e alcohol rocket, t h e s i z e of o u t l e t Fd i s determined by t h e f a c t t h a t a t the place where and t h e absolute temperature
I

P/Pi s t h e m a l l e s t ,
x-1

with

t h e exhaust gas must f i l l t h e space c.Fd i n one second. The q u a n t i t y of heat produced by oxidation equals t h e quantity of heat which t h e coolent and t h e combustion products m a t absorb, f o r the h e a t which the oven g i v e s off t o i t s environment can be

ignored, w i t h models B sad D because of t h e s i z e of t h e oven and t h e speed of t h e flow, w i t h t h e o t h e r models because t h e r e a l l t h e h e a t r a d i a t e d t o t h e f u e l i s again u t i l i z e d i n combustion. With t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , only t h a t h e a t i a l o s t which t h e alcohol g i v e s off through t h e s h e l l s u r f a c e , b u t t h a t i a o f f s e t by an e q u a l l y l a r g e q u a n t i t y of h e a t which t h e oxygen absorba through t h e s h e l l s u r f a c e , The hydrogen r o c k e t s g i v e o f f n o h e a t a t a l l t o t h e environment, b u t only absorb h e a t from it. The thermochemical t a b l e a u s u a l l y g i v e t h e h e a t of combustion f o r t h e c a s e i n which combustion t a k e s p l a c e

a t a p r e s s u r e of 1 a t u o s p h e r e and a l l m a t t e r involved i s brought t o

15. C. \Ye must t h e r e f o r e c a l c u l a t e as f 011ows :

The q u a n t i t y of h e a t produced by t h e o x i d a t i o n e q u a l s t h e q u a n t i t y of h e a t r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g t h e f u e l and t h e orygen t o l S O C p l u s t h e q u a n t i t y of h e a t r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g t h e combustion products t o t h e temperature reduced t o i atmosphere by means of t h e POISSON formula. W e c a l c u l a t e t h e reduced temperature s e p a r a t e 1y f o r t h e diatomic and t r i a t o m i c g a s e s r

a t which, i n t h e f i r s t case, x i s s e t equal t o t.406 and, i n t h e

second case, equal t o 1.30; T1 and To a r e r a t e d a s a b s o l u t e . From t h i s , T1 ~ u s be t calcul.ated. I n t h e foregoing r e l a t i o n , t h e r a t i o between f u e l and oxygen i s given by +he chemical connections, For example, 46 g of e t h y l alcohol absorb I6 g of oxygen, o r 8 g of oxygen absorb 1 g of n i t r o g e n . Thus, a f t e r having c a l c u l a t e d TI,
we could d e t e r n i n e t h e r e l a t i o n between f u e l and c o o l a n t by t h e u s e

of t h i s formula.

I n o r d e r t o v a p o r i z e H kz o f l i q u i d hydrogen a t

253O C and b r i n g

it t o t h e reduced a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e TI,
8.3.400 must b e a p p l i e d t,o it ( i f T

( T + ~ 12) c a l .
1
l i e s h i g h above t h e b o i l i n g p o i n t ) ,

This f i g u r e i s o b t a i n e 6 a s f o l l o w s r

W e hall l e t T 5 e t h e teniperature a t which t h e .spec? f i c h e a t of t h e

gas c

P of t h e h e n t i s determined t h a t i s r e q v i r e d t o b r i n g 1 kg from t h e b o i l i n g

becomes const.a?t a t a p r e e s u r e of 1 s t n o s p h e r e . Now t h e q u a ~ t i t y

e w i l l c a l l t , h i s Qg. From Tg t o Ti, p o i n t t o T2. W

1 kg a b s o r b s t,he h e a t :

Q1 = (Ti
therefore, i n all

-T~)*c~,
5% -C
P

Ql

; l , = ( T ~ +

T%)*C~.

With hydrogen, c

= 3.400 cnl/kL: and

Q2 Ta 7
P

= l g O . Therefore,

1 kg

of hydrozen a b s o r b s : 3400 ( T + ~ 12) c a l . R kc ahsorh A-time. To v a p o r i z e S kg of l i q u i d oxyzen a t requires

as much heat.
djs.

- 183O C nnd b r i n g it t o Tlg

~*0.%18* ( T + ~ 144) c a l .
I f l i q i i i d @is i s used i n s t e a d o f orygen, t h e r:itr-pel
+PJ?R

which i4. con-

~ct,s e a a cool m + . l ' ; t o T,:

N k~ of l i r y - i d ? ? i t . r o ~ e u at

195.7.

mrl atriloepheri c preeqvrre renr~!re t

It would l e a d

Its

fotr par t o zo i : ~ t o f u r t h e r d e t n i l s of c t d c u l a t i o n .

da ~t a i n Whoever wisliea t o checIr my fi,o;urea can b e s t f i n d t h e l a c k i : ~ t h e physico-chemical t a b 1 e s of LANDOLT ~ n d P~~STEIF.

I f t h e conpos.ition of t h e ,?as and T

i s Icnnwn, po*Vo i s e a s i l y

calcnl ated.

Before a p p l y i n g t h e formulas ( 1 ) and c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e exhaust g a s as

( a ) , x must once more be

whole. With t h e alcohol r o c k e t ,

water vapor and hydrogen flow out. Here r d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g water vapor c o n t e n t . The f o l l o w i n g a r e i t s v a l u e s f o r d i f f e r e n t r a t i o s of oxygen t o hydrogen (by weight) r

\"ght* of O q @ ! % =- 0.8 tVght. of hydrogen

- -------

I
1 1
0.9

I
I I
I

I
1.0

I
I

1.1

I I 1.2

1
1

1.3

I I

---- Of OgeL'ght*
Wght. of hydrogen

1.4

1.5

1.6

1 1.7

1.8

1.9

I I

I
1

I 1

I
1

I 1

For 3 p a r t s of hydrogen and 16 p a r t s of oxygen, x = 1.33, f i g u r e . By how much, only experience can show.

although,

w i t h my r o c k e t s , t h e s t r o n g d i s s o c i a t i o n w i l l l i k e l y change t h i s

I do n o t wish t o conceal t h e f a c t t h a t Prof. D r . KARL WOLF of

t h e Vienna Technical U n i v e r s i t y h a s n i t t e n i n an a r t i c l e t h a t it i s impossible t o r e a c h out-flow speeds above 2000 m/sec. He bases h i s s t a t e m e n t s on t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . He reasoned somewhat as f o l l o w s a Wdrogen burning i n orggen produces w a t e r vapor. Water vapor cannot be h o t t e r than 3000 (on account of d i s s o c i a t i o n ) . Therewith, t h e average speed a t which t h e molecules whirl about i s somewhat over 2000 m/sec. T h i s speed i s t h e maxiinurn we can e x p e c t

a t a l l . -- W O L F has f o r g o t t e n only one t h i n g , t h a t we h e r e have a l a r g e q u a n t i t y of s u r p l u s hydrogen. Hence, what we have h e r e i s n o t d i s s o c i a t e d wator vapor b u t a 4 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 0 ~h o t m i x t u r e of u n d i s s o c i a t e d g a s e s , t l l e l a r g e s t , ~ a r t of which i s l i g h t hydrogen. If one make t h e s a n e c a l c u l a t i o n f o r t h i s , one o b t a i n s an upper l i m i t
4 1/8 h / a e c ,

of approximately a f i g u r e which could be reduced by 3 0 0 4 0 0 m/sec because

of l o s s through f r i c t i o n and o t h e r i m p e r f e c t i o n s of t h e machine. A c t u a l l y , I was a b l e t o a c h i e v e 3800-4000 m/sec w i t h a machine f a r from p e r f e c t . The r e l a t i o n between rearward t h r u s t and l o s s i n substance was a t l e a s t a s g r e a t as it should have been a t 4000 m/sec ( t o be s u r e , t h e r e was a c e r t a i n t r i c k involved which I c a n n o t d i v u l g e here). That
i s a h i g h e r f i g u r e than on what I based t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h i a

book and, as I a l r e a d y s a i d , t h e r e i s hope, w i t h a good experimental method t h a t i e more expensive, of reaching over 4000 m/sec.

I wish t o remark a l s o t h a t GODDARD, by u s i n g n i t r o c e l l u l o s e

powder, h a s reached 2400 m/sec and, w i t h t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , t h e r i s i n g g a s i s s t i l l l i g h t e r . Lloreover, i t must be considered t h a t a LAVAL n o z z l e i s n o t a s e f f i c i e n t when i t opekates i n t e r m i t t e n t l y , a s in GODDAD'S experiment, as m y r o c k e t n o z z l e i n which t h e g a s flows o u t uniformly. This f a c t i s r a t h e r u n p l e a s a n t l y n o t i c e a b l e , f o r example, w i t h t h e H O L Z T Y A R T H turbine. Admittedly, my experimental a p p a r a t u s was a g a s burner, n o t a r o c k e t i n t o p l a n e t a r y space. I f i t should n o t be p o s s i b l e w i t h a t o n i z a t i o n i n t h e l i q u i d s t a t e , I would somehow t r y it w i t h g a s i f i c a t i o n . (TO be s u r e , n o t by h e a t i n g from t h e o u t e i d e , b u t by h e a t i n g by means of r i s i n g g a s bubbles.) q u i t e good e x p e c t a t i o n s . For t h a t m a t t e r , t h e atomization and conbustion experiments I have conducted t o d a t e l i k e w i s e j u s t i f y
tin

stomizer; b u t liere I only wish t o prove t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o send

DOPP ( ~ o u r n a lof t h e Union of German l h g i n e e r s , 1899, p. 752,

and EYEIUIANNSCENLZ, Gas Turbines, &d e d i t i o n , 1990, Ei1. Krayn Publ. Hse., Eerlin

w), s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e petroleum e n t e r s t h e n i x i n g

and canbustion chamber, transformed every s i n g 1 e charge of p e t r o l e m , d e l i v e r e d by a pump, i n t o h i g h l y over-heated vapor p e r f e c t a vacuun a s p o s s i b l e f i n e , rw-shaped

-,

- under

as

which was then d i v i d e d i n t o s i n g l e , openings.

streams by means of screen-type

Readers have suggested t h a t I a l s o u s e t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n m y rocket. I b e l i e v e DOPPtS atomizer would be t o o heavy f o r our purposes.

It should n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t t h e p r o p e l l a n t which, w i t h unuanned r o c k e t s , escapes d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d of propulsion and, with

manned r o c k e t s , a t l e a s t d u r i n g t h e f i r s t second amounts t o 1.2 $ of t h e t o t a l weight of t h e r o c k e t . Such l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of g a s would r e q u i r e t o o wide p i p e s , which again would unfavorably i n f l u e n c e t h e s p e c i f i c weight and thereby t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e a s well a s t h e mass r a t i o . Cf. p, 76 and p.
93

I n a d d i t i o n , w i t h t h e high v e l o c i t y

which the stream of g a s m a t n e c e s s a r i l y take on i n t h e n e v e r t h e l e s s slnall oven, a sweeping o u t of t h e flame (cf. p, 11) i s a c t u a l l y t o be f e a r e d w i t h gas mixtures. Therefore, I w i l l r a t h e r t r y my l u c k w i t h atomization of t h e f u e l s i n a l i q u i d s t a t e , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e , i n s t e a d of t h e viscous hydrocarbons, we a r e d e a l i n g w i t h e a s i l y movable and m,)re r a p i d l y inflamnable l i q u i d s and, i n s t e a d of t h e atmospheric air, I tun u s i n g highly-concentrated a1though t h e r e i s n o t much t o r e p o r t about the^. Beside t h a t , a l l s o r t s of t h i n g s have been suggested t o me by r e a d e r s , For example, t o simply u s e atomizers i n which t h e l i q u i d i s drawn i n and d i f f u s e d by a s t r e a m of g a s ; t h e n e c e s s a r y experience can be d e r i v e d from c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e g a s o l i n e motor. Many r e a d e r s h o t oxygen.

L l y f i r s t e x p e r i n e n t s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n were c e r t a i n l y encouraging,

have doubts concerning t h e r a p i d i t y w i t h which t h e g a s l e a v e e t h e ovens t h e gaa h a r d l y remains i n t h e oven f o r 1/50 of a second,
biy answer t o t h i s i s t h a t t h e drops of f l u i d themselves remain

i n t h e oven c o n s i d e r a b l y l o n g e r due t o t h e i r i n e r t i a , t h e more no t h e l a r g e r t h e y a r e . Besides, t h e speed of t h e g a s stream i n c r e a s e s s t e a d i l y from Z t o , F due t o t h e s t r o n g development of gae, s o a c c o r d i n g l y remains i n t h e oven longer. s t a y i n t h e oven 1/80 of a second. One means i f an inflammable body of t h e s i z e
1/a0 of a second, exposed t o a stream of

t h a t t h e drop i s n o t s t r u c k by t h e f u l l speed of t h e g a s stream

a t t h e very beginning and Larger dropa w i l l perhaps should c o n s i d e r what t h a t of a drop of m i s t is, f o r

oIrggen of 80 atmoepheres d e u s i t y and 800. h o t w i t h a r e l a t i v e epeed of many metres p e r second. I n a d d i t i o n , I c o n s i d e r it a very f o r t u n a t e c i r c u n s t a u c e t h a t t h e p e r i o d of combustion and t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y This advantage would b e a r e t h e g r e a t e r , t h e l a r g e r t h e drop. l o s t i f I used an atomizer i n which t h e l i q u i d f l i e s along w i t h t h e g a s stream. And i f I blew t h e n i s t produced by such an atomizer i n t o a h o t strewn of o q g e n from t h e s i d e , t h e combustion procesu would be d i s t u r b e d because of t h e low r a d i a l v e l o c i t y and t h e cold g a s t h a t i s being c a r r i e d along. ( I n s p i t e of t h a t , I need n a t u r a l l y n o t emphasize t h a t I am very thankful f o r every suggestion from readers. W e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h an e n t i r e l y new a r e a of technology, and e v e r y t h i n g must n a t u r a l l y be c a r e f u l l y r e f l e c t e d on. I n s o doing, it i s only t o o easy t o f o r g e t some important a s p e c t . )

Chapter 6 The I d e a l P r o p u l s i o n Formula q u a n t i t i e s r c : speed of out-flow e r base of n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h m s

m : mass of r o c k e t
m 0 : i n i t i a l mass of r o c k e t
m
1

: f i n a l mass

s : diatance

t r time
v : velocity vx : i d e a l propulaion
P : f o r c e of t h e b a c h a r d t h r u s t

S r distance
V : velocity
C) : f i n i t e l y small p a r t : mass of an a r r a n g e a e n t t o i n c r e a s e t h e v e l o c i t y

7 :=At
Of t h i a c h a p t e r , t h e l a p a n could note only t h i s much
t

I n higher

nathematics, t h e r e i s a number d e s i g n a t e d a s e. I t e q u a l s 5.71888.. By burning, t h e r o c k e t r e c e i v e s propul s i o n ( i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y ) v

x and n a t u r a l l y becomes l i g h t e r a t t h e s u e time. I f t h i s propulsioil v i u t o b e as g r e a t as t h e e x h a u s t speed of t h e r o c k e t g a s e s x (I d e s i w a t e it as c ) , t h e mass a t launching t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f u e l s

n u s t be e t i r e s a s g r e a t a s a f t e r t h e burning1).

Ve d e s i g n a t e t h e

i n i t i a l mass a s mo and t h e f i n a l mass a s ml, and w r i t e r

I f t h e p r o p u l s i o n i s t o become twice a s g r e a t a s t h e exhaust speed (we w r i t e v = 2.c), t h e f i n a l mass must d e c r e a s e by t h e x e-th p a r t once n o r e , and t h e i n i t i a l mass n u s t be e.e = e8 times
t
s

as g r e a t a s t h e f i n a l mass. I f we want vx
m
0

3c, then

= m .e 3

( a s i s well b o r n , e 3 = e8.e). For v = 4c, mo = m .e 1 x

4

, etc.

If t h e propulsion i s t o be 8.5 times a s g r e a t a s t h e exhaust

speed, then

3 which is g r e a t e r than e0 and 1e s s than e 8 t h e e x a c t f i g u r e i s found

by t h e use of higher matl~eiaatics. I n t h e t a b l e given below, t h e t o p l i n e of f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e s t h e r e q u i r e d f i n a l speed. The e x h a u s t speeds a r e given on t h e l e f t . The numbers i n t h e t a b l e i n d i c a t e by

how nany times, with t h e exhaust speed given l e f t of t h e nuuber,

t h e i n i t i a l mass of t h e r o c k e t must be g r e a t e r than i t s f i n a l mass i f t h e r o c k e t i s t o r e c e i v e t h e propulsion i n d i c a t e d a t t h e t o p of t h e column
t

I n t h e succeeding c a l c u l o t i o n s , I a l r a j s r e l a t e t h e exhaust speed c t o t h e rocket. I j u s t do n o t understand how BBETZ, f o r example, could t h i n k t h a t by c I had meant t h e a b s o l u t e speed of t h e propell i n g g a s e s a f t e r they a r e e j e c t e d .

Table for Basic Equation ( 6 ) :

= , ml

ddc = e

Taken p r e c i s e l y , t h e s e f i g u r e s only a p p l y t o a vacuum and gravitation-free space. I n r e a l i t y , a i r and g r a v i t a t i o n hamper t h e call this r i s e and, K i t h u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e same f u e l , t h e f i n a l speed i s lower t h a n i t should be according t o t h e t a b l e . I t h e r e f o r e f i g u r e t h e " i d e a l propulsion".

HOEFET, FUCHS, and ULINSICY d e s i g n a t e it a s " v i r t u a l speed"; r e c e n t l y , HOEFIT l i k e w i s e c a l l s i t " i d e a l speed" o r " i d e a l p r o p u l s i o n w . NOORDUNG c a l l s i t " i d e a l speedtt.
For exaclple, w i t h model C, t h e f i n a l speed i s only 1/8

- 3/4

times

a s g r e a t a s t h e i d e a l p r o p u l s i o n , depending on t h e s i z e of t h e machine. With node1 E, it becomes 0.95 t i m e s as g r e a t . I t w i l l be t h e t a s k of t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s t o show how a i r r e s i s t a n c e and g r a v i t a t i o n must be r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n and how t h e i r u n f a v o r a b l e i n f l u e n c e can p o s s i b l y be avoided. W e l e a r n f r o u t h e above t a b l e t h a t a r o c k e t a t t a i n s h i g h e r f i n a l speeds by n e m a of rrliich, l i k e a thrown s t o n e , i t can n a t u r a l l y f l y h i g h e r and f a r t h e r t h e g r e a t e r t h e r a t i o of i n i t i a l t o f i n a l u a s s ( t h a t i s , t h e l i g h t e r t h e enpty weight of t h e r o c k e t i s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f u e l s c a r r i e d a l o n g ) and t h e g r e a t e r t h e exhaust speed c. IYh8t a p p e a r s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o me i s t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t rockett y p e a i r c r a f t cau r e a c h speeds g r e a t e r than t h e exhaust speeds of the propellants i f the r a t i o

i s only e u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e .

The f o l l o w i n g i s only i n t e n t e d f o r t h e s p e c i a l i s t :

I r e f e r back t o p. 3 . There wc saw ~ I l u ta f o r c e P a c t i n g between two f r e e l y - m o v i ~ t gmasses m mid 4 nr moves both, aud t h e motion
i s i n opposite directions.
I f f o r c e P a c t s f o r a p e r i o d of time, l e t u s say f o r ' r seconds,

it i n p a r t s v e l o c i t y A v t o mass m and v e l o c i t y c t o masaA m. \Ye now

1ea.m t h a t t h e s e v e l o c i t i e s a r e i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e masses,

therefore r Im]:l A m ] = l c l : l A v l or l m . A v l = ic.drn(. (3)

This theorem i s c a l l e d t h e ''Law of t h e P r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e Centre of Gravity". I f , a t a c e r t a i n n o a e n t of motion, t h e masses were h a l t e d and f a s t e n e d t o a w e i g h t l e s s rod (cf. Fig. 26) we would o b t a i n a form resembling a d u b - b e l l whose c e n t r e of g r a v i t y S would l i e between m a n d A m. I f D snd d were t h e d i s t a n c e s of t h e

Fig. 26 two masses from t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y , according t o t h e r u l e s of mechanics

During a c e r t a i n p e r i o d of time t, m must t r a v e r s e d i s t a n c e

S = A v . t a n d A m d i s t a n c e s = c . t . L h l t i p l y i n g equation ( 3 ) through by t, we o b t a i n

Comparing ( a ) and ( b ) , we l e a r n t h a t d and D can s e r v e a s v a l u e s of s and S, and v i c e versa; i.e. d u r i n g any t i n e t, t h e i n i t i a l p o i n t of t h e masses r w a i n s t h e coinmon c e n t r e of g r a v i t y . If m and

b m a r e placed a t t h e c e n t r e of a balance beam and a f o r c e i s allowed

t o a c t between them, t h e beam remains h o r i z o n t a l a s l o n g a s m and

A m both run on t o p of it, f o r t h e common c e n t r e of g r a v i t y does n o t

move from i t s p l a c e a t t h e fulcrum of t h e balance beam.

I f , by g i v i n g c and 4 v o p p o s i t e signo, one wishes t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e two s a s s e s run t o o p p o e i t e s i d e s , e q u a t i o n (3) i s m i t t e n

Here, I would a s t h e s p e c i a l i s t t o t a k e s p e c i a l n o t e of a circumstance, s i n c e t h e r e i s danger t h a t a misunderstanding may a r i s e . I n t h e u s u a l textbooks on mechanics, t h e "Law of t h e P r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e Centre of Gravity" i a w r i t t e n i n o t h e r s p b o l s . There, one mass i s d e s i g n a t e d as ml and t h e o t h e r ma, t h e a b s o l u t e v e l o c i t y of t h e w l ~ o l esystem b e f o r e a c t i n g of t h e f o r c e ( t h a t is, b e f o r e t h e impact)
88

v3, t h e v e l o c i t y of mi a f t e r t h e impact as vl,

end t h e

v e l o c i t y of ma a f t e r t h e impact a s vg, end one w i t e s r

Nor, a number of r e a d e r s of t h e f i r a t e d i t i o n of my book understood me ao having s a i d r mievl

m8*vB = 0,

and thereupon d e c l a r e d a l l m y c a l c u l a t i o n s fundamentally i n c o r r e c t . (Which they would have been had I based them on t h i s premise.) But t h e two masses d e s i g n a t e d as ml and ma i n formula (40) I have a c t u a l l y deeignated as m andAm. O n t h e o t h e r hand, c and A v a r e the velocities v and va themselves b u t only t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between 1 them and t h e connnon i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y , Therefore we n u a t a e t

and what I have w r i t t e n a s formula (4) w i t h my symbols would 1ook ao

followa when w r i t t e n w i t h t h e u s u a l onea r

This i s a c t u a l l y a t r a n s f o r n a t i o n of ( 4 ) , of which one i s e a s i l y convinced i f one opens up t h e brackets i n (4b) and (4a). The advantage of m y s c r i p t l i e s in t h e f a c t t h a t thereby I become independent of absolute v e l o c i t y and can a t every moment regard t h e
'

rocket a s s t a t i o n a r y and everything e l s e a s in motion.

If b m i s i n f i n i t e l y small beside m, somewhat a s a gas molecule beside the whole rocket, then 6 v w i l l likewise be very small beside
t h e exhaust speed c. A s i e well known, such m a l l q u a n t i t i e s which, because of t h e i r g r e a t number, can n e v e r t h e l e s s n o t be ignored a r e designated by a preceding m a l l Latin d, and s o t h e equation can be w r i t t e n

The i d e a l case would be where t h e r o c k e t advances i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e i n a vacuum and g r a v i t a t i o n - f r e e space, i n which case we could add up a l l dv, t h a t is i n t e g r a t e over dv. Over dm we c m i n t e g r a t e
a n y w w s i n c e m i s a e c a l a r quantity. W e would then g e t r
c. (ln m,

- I n 1,1.,)

o,

iYL

Mo = ev*/.
m 1

I d e a l propulsion i s an important q u a n t i t y i n r o c k e t theory, f o r

it i s a measure of c e r t a i n r e q u i r e a e n t s demanded of the r o c k e t a s

well a s of t h e perforuance of t h e rocket and the value of technical improveuenta. Here i e an example r m 0 A t high speeds, I n i s approximately i n v e r s e l y proportional

*l

i s a l e o l a r g e , u s u a l l y much more i s 1 m_ 0 gained if r e can e n l a r g e c than i f r e e n l a r g c

t o exhaust speed c. S i n c e I n

-=0

-.

m,

Now, when does a device, which i n c r e a s e s t h e maes of t h e empty r o c k e t and c , i n c r e a s e t h e r i s i n g f o r c e and when does it n o t increase it ?

We w i l l l e t kl 0 be t h e maas of t h e loaded r o c k e t , Ail t h e mass of

t h e empty o n e , p t h e mass of t h e d e v i c e which i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e speed of t h e out-flow,

C t h e h i g h e r exhaust speed, c t h e lower e x h a u s t

speed. The i d e a l propulsion i n t h e c a s e of C I d e s i g n a t e as Vx, i n t h e c a s e of c a s v Bow, if Vi,

x.
c.(ln nbo -- In lo,\
C jln (in,
{I)

l , then T) F.
=: v Z ,

+ - 111 inl, 1-

V.

c.(ln

nlo

- In 11x3 < e.[ln (m,

+ ,c)

log (% PI - Q,b._+log nl, - log rlr

- In jna, -!- p ) ] ; > .

With a small mass r a t i o and equal exhaust speeds, v i s approxix ruately p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f u e l c a r r i e d along. Namely, according

That i s approximately

x 7 , when vx(< c.

Be a r u l e , t h e r e f o r e , n o r e

i s gained h e r e by a s p e c i f i c l y heavy loading, eveu though t h e

exhaust speed i s somewhat reduced thereby. IIOKLV(N

he

Reachibil i t y of t h e Cel e s t i s l Bodies", Oldenbourg,

19251, i n s t e a d of g i v i n g t h e i d e a l propulsion, p r e f e r s t o a t a t e t h e

mass r a t i o required t o reach i t with c = 2600 n/sec.

I t seens t o me,

t h e advantage of m y representation l i e s 1 ) i n the f a c t t h a t the ideal propulsions a r e being added, whereas the mass r a t i o s must be mu1 t i p l i e d 1)
and 2) i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e requirement s e t f o r c i s n o t y e t included

i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n and we can t h e r e f o r e ( a s i n Chapter 12), conveni e n t l y compare s i n g l e performances with one another.
LON32 of Danzig has objected t h a t the equation

i s n a t u r a l l y c o r r e c t b u t t h a t i t i s inadequate f o r i n t e g r a t i o n because i t contains t h e two v a r i a b l e s m and v. Here I could s i n p l y answer t h a t one already l e a r n s i n t h e 3rd t o 5 t h s e u e s t e r of u n i v e r s i t y t h a t the equations between two v a r i a b l e s and t h e i r d i f f e r e n t i a l s a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r i n t e g r a t i o n . Iiere, dm i s a c t u a l l y t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l of m, and dv t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l of v. That the two v a r i a b l e s a r e f u n c t i o n a l l y connected i s seen when f o r m l a (5) i s divided through by rn.

I I

If r e designate the speed i n c r e a s e s i n succession a s dul, dv2,

dvg, dv*, etc.,
dm4, etc.,

t h e l o s s e s i n mass causing them a s dml, dm2, dma, t h e mass

and f i n a l l y the mass belonging t o dvi a s ml, then obviously

belonging t o dv2 a s ma, etc., dvl

--

C S -

; dv2 =
1

c,--

dm2

; dvg =

mg

C --

m3

I$

I f , however, the s i n g l e dv a r e added together, the r e s u l t i s

I

dv = vx, which n a t u r a l l y i s

for

- c-

Clm

is n o t h i n g o t h e r than dv. From t h a t , (6) f o l l o ~ r sd i r e c t l y .

As i s well h o r n , t h e e f f e c t i v e f o r c e of t h e rearward t h r u s t a l s o f o l l o w s frow t h e p r i n c i p a l inpulae. \Ye w i l l l e t P b e t h e f o r c e ,

dm --dt

t h e mass flowing o u t i n t h e u n i t of time ( d t must be s o s h o r t

t h a t we can r e g a r d t h mass of t h e r o c k e t and t h e stream of g a s as c o n s t a n t ) , and c t h e exhaust speed. Then / ~ . d t / = /c.dm/ Theref o r e
P

or

P =

dm
c.--

dt

(7)

dv dt

-.-=-I

bx

I w i l l c a l l bx t h e i d e a l a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n which
t h e rearward t h r u s t imparts t o t h e r o c k e t i n a vacuun and g r a v i t a t i o n f r e e space. I f a f o r c e Q opposes t h e i d e a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s t r a i g h t on and t h e s i t u a t i o n i s s t i l l t h a t i n which a l l s i n g l e i n u l s e s occur i n t h e stme d i r e c t i o n , then t h e d e c e l e r a t i n g e f f e c t of f o r c e will be i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e mase of t h e rocket. I w i l l d e s i g n a t e

t h i e d e c e l e r a t i o n as

3-; t h e r e f o r e

= bx

- -9- 3
dt

b.dt = bx.dt

- dq; - f r e e space

Here, b.dt i a t h e a c t u a l i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y d u r i n g t h e element of of time d t . From now on I w i l l d e s i g n a t e it as dv. The i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y i n a vacuun and g r a v i t a t i o n would be bx.dt;

henceforth it rill be c a l l e d d l . Therefore

Addition of t h e s i n g l e v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s dv w i l l obviously g i v e u s t h e a c t u a l v e l o c i t y v, provided a l l dv a r e i n tile same d i r e c t i o n .

By i n t e g r a t i o n , we then obtain

u m of a l l s i n g l e d e c e l e r a t i o n s , o r the Here q i s obviously t h e s

amount by which v remains behind vX. A s i s well known, i f v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e dv makes an angle with t h e d i r e c t i o n of v, then only component dv. coe serves t o change t h e velocity, t h e p a r t dv. s i n only has a direction-changing e f f e c t . I f we a r e i n t e r e s t e d only i n

E.

Fig. 27 t h e v e l o c i t y and n o t t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion, we obtain t h e v e l o c i t y from t h e f o r n u l a r

A special case which we w i l l use i n c a l c u l a t i n g the "synergy

curve" i s t h a t i n which dvx a c t s i n the d i r e c t i o n of

and q makes

an angle (61) with t h i s d i r e c t i o n . I f I determine t h a t

<i s

to

equal 0 when dq and dvx a c t i n t h e a w e d i r e c t i o n , then :

Chapter 7 The Mass R a t i o ( 1 f n e c e s s a r y , t h e layman can s k i p t h i s c h a p t e r ) Formula q u a n t i t i e s of Chapter 7 d : t h i c k n e s s of wall ( i n cm) 1 r l e n g t h of a c y l i n d r i c a l d i s c o r p i p e p

t

i n s i d e p r e s s u r e i n atmospheree

r : radius
v
t

c a p a c i t y of a c o n t a i n e r
8

z r t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h i n kg/cm

F : s e c t i o n a l a r e a o r p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n
S r s p e c i f i c weight of t h e b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l
V : r a t i o o f r e i g h t of c o n t e n t s t o weight of empty c o n t a i n e r

Z : specific tensile strength Z

: 3, 14, 15 e t c .

- -.
z

d r s p e c i f i c weight of t h e f i l l i n g

I ask t h e eugineer t o excuse me i f I h e r e e x p r e s s myself i n some d e t a i l ; I would a l s o l i k e t h e non-engineer t o understand t h i s m a t e r i a l .

I t i s i n c r e d i b l e how h e l p l e s s even p h y e i c i s t s a r e when confronted

with m y c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e mass r a t i o .

Fig. $8

L e t u s assune t h a t we have c u t a d i s c 8 c m i n diameter and 1 cm t h i c k (Fig. 23) through i n t h e middle. Then each of t h e two c y l i n d e r h a l v e s i s 2 cm wide, 1 c n high, and 1 cm thick. The c-on surface of c o n t a c t i s a r e c t a n g l e 2 cm long, 1 cm wide, and 2 cn2 i n area. I f , between t h e two piecee, we p l a c e a rubber b a l l o o n which e x a c t l y f i t s t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e and p u p water under a p r e s s u r e of 10 atmo sphere8 i n t o it, t h e water w i l l aeek t o f o r c e t h e two p i e c e e a p a r t w i t h a f o r c e of D cmO.10 kg/crP = 90 kg. W e s h a l l t r y t o prevent

it by holding t h e p i e c e s t o g e t h e r by metal s t r i p s a t A and B (I?ig.

89). Then t h e a t r i p s n u r t t o g e t h e r hold 80 kg, and 10 kg f a l l t o

each. I f t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e were n o t 10 b u t p afmospheres, p kg r o u l d f a l l t o each a t r i p . 1Pe s h a l l i g n o r e t h e l e n g t h of t h e s t r i p s b u t aaauine t h a t t h e y a r e a s wide a s t h e d i s c was t h i c k (here, 1 cm).

Fig. a9

Fig. 30

If t h e radium of t h e d i s c were n o t 1 ~m b u t r cm, t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e would be r-times a s g r e a t and each @ t r i p would have t o hold
r e p kg. I f t h i s d i a c were n o t 1 m b u t 1 cm t h i c k , t h e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e would be 1-timer as g r e a t , and t h e s t r e a a on each of t h e two s t r i p s r o u l d be 1.r.p
kg.

S t r i p s A and B would have t o hold t h e saue amount i f t h e two c y l i n d e r h e l v e s were n o t s o l i d b u t h v l l owed o u t l i k e a trough (~ig.
M), a t l e a s * as l o n g as t h e y were t h i c k enough n o t t o bend under

t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e . But how t h i c k would they have t o be f o r t h e purpose? Well, no t h i c k e r than t o p r e v e n t tliem from breaking. They would by f o r c e t a k e on t h e form of a c y l i n d e r under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e ; t h a t can be observed on every i n f l a t e d rubber tube. Therefore, they need only be as s t r o n g a s bands A and B, and t h e whole would t l ~ u sbe a p i p e of uniform t h i c k n e s s . I f t h e water i n a p i p e 2.r cm wide has a p r e s s u r e of p atmospheres, t h e wall a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p i p e i s under s o much s t r e s s a s t o r e q u i r e a f o r c e of 1.r.p kg t o hold it t o g e t h e r along an l-cm-long c u t made a t A o r B.

I n t h i s case, t h e s e c t i o n a l a r e a would have t h e form of a r e c t a n g l e whose 1ength would equal t h e l e n g t h of t h e c u t and whose h e i g h t would equal t h e t h i c b e s s of t h e pipe; t h e r e f o r e F = I d (d measured i n cm). I f z i s t h e weight i n kg which a w i r e of 1 cm2 t h i c k n e s s made of t h e m a t e r i a l of t h e p i p e can j u s t c a r r y w i t h o u t breaking, then a w i r e of F cn

a t h i c h e s s would c a r r y F e z kg. I n o r d e r t o b u r s t

t h e pipe, t h e f o r c e a c t i n g f r m i n s i d e would have t o be g r e a t e r than F.z = 1.d.z

kg. Therefore, t h e p i p e would endure t h e excess

i n s i d e p r e a s u r e a s long a s lrp The symbol

< -

lzd.

means "at most equal1',

2 -

means t l a t l e a s t equalt1.

Dividing both s i d e s of t h i s equation by 1.z, we g e t d

- ----Z

r 'I

Hence, t h e p i p e rill hold t o g e t h e r a s l o n g as t h e wall i s s t r o n g e r

t h a n i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e r i g h t s i d e of t h e equation. The s t r e n g t h of t h e w a l l i s independent of i t s l e n g t h .

NOW, what i s t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e weight of a c y l i n d r i c a l p i p e

t o t h e weight of t h e water it c o n t a i n s ?

h he

word '%eightu i s h e r e

always t o be understood i n i t a customary n o t i t s a s t r o n o n i c sense.)

An 1-cm-long

and 8.r-cm-wide

P p i p e can hold v = r4.W.1

g of water.

The s h e l l s u r f a c e of t h e p i p e would be 2.rT.1

cm8 and, i f S i s t h e

s p e c i f i c weight of a cubic c e n t i m e t r e of t h e raw m a t e r i a l , t h e s h e l l g , a t l e a s t a s l o n g d i s only s m a l l b e s i d e r. weighs 2.r.q.d.S The p r o p o r t i o n of water c o n t e n t t o p i p e weight i s a s

V = r .T.1 : 2 rV.1.d.S
2

o r i f we s u b s t i t u t e t h e value of d from (12)

The volume i s measured i n cm i n &/c&

, t h e wall

weight i n kg, t h e p r e s s u r e When c o n v e r t i n g

and t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h l i k e w i s e i n kg/cm3.

t o o t h e r eysteols of measurement, an a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r x must o f t e n be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Here, z i n d i c a t e s how many kg can j u s t be suspended f r w a w i r e

1 cm i n cross-section,

S i s a l s o t h e number of kg which one cubic

d e c i n e t r e of t h e p i p e wall weighs, and

i s t h e r e f o r e t h e number S
2

of cubic d e c i n e t r e s rrhich can be suspended from a square centicletre. i7e c a l l i t t h e s p e c i f i c t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and d e s i g n a t e it a s 2. Theref o r e

The r e l a t i o n s h i p e a r e very similar i f , i n s t e a d of t h e p i p e open

a t both ends, we have a c l o s e d c y l i n d e r , a s l o n g as t h e l a t t e r i a only s o l o n g t h a t we can i g n o r e t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e two b a s a l

s u r f a c e s i n comparison t o t h o s e a t t h e s h e l l s u r f a c e . Here, t h e r e i s an a d d i t i o n a l t e n s i l e s t r e a r d i r e c t e d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y s i n c e t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e s e e k s t o f o r c e o u t t h e two b a s a l s u r f a c e s and s i n c e t h i s s t r e a e c o n t i n u e s throughout t h e whole c y l i n d e r j a c k e t from one b a s a l s u r f a c e t o t h e o t l ~ e r . This s t r e a s i s h a l f a s g r e a t a s t h e s t r e s s a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e exis. I f t h e b a s a l s u r f a c e

i t i s pushed o u t w i t h a f o r c e of ra.vp kg. T h i s f o r c e is evenly d i s t r i b u t e d along t h e whole j a c k e t , Therefore, 1 c m

equals r2.?rod, of t h e j a c k e t must carry

whereas, a s we saw, t h e c r o s e - s t r e s s atnounts t o

As i s w e l l Imom, i n metal s h e e t i n g , two t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s a c t i n g a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o each o t h e r i n f l u e n c e each o t h e r b u t l i t t l e , and i f t h e s h e e t i n g i s s t r o n g enough t o stand t h e s t r e s s of t h e s t r o n g e r f o r c e i t can a l s o absorb t h e s t r e s s of t h e wedcer f o r c e .

I n otlier words, t h e s h e e t i n g need only be s o t h i c k a s t o send t h e

s t r e s s a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e c y l i n d e r a x i s , which i s a s s t r o n g a s

i s i n d i c a t e d by formula ( l a ) , Forrllula (13) a p p l i e s likewise. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e l e n g t h and t h e diameter of t h e c y l i n d e r cancel out. The r a t i o of c o n t e n t t o wall weight (with s u f f i c i e n t
l e n g t h ) only depends on t h e m a t e r i a l and t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e , being d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s p e c i f i c t e n s i l e s t r e s s and i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i n s i d e pressure.

Similar c o n s i d e r a t i o n e can be undertaken f o r s p h e r i c a l c o n t a i n e r s . I f we pump w a t e r i n t o a rubber b a l l o o n between two s o l i d hemispheres

( c f , Figs, 89, 30), t h e y a r e l i k e w i s e f o r c e d a p a r t j u s t a s t h e c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e s e a r l i e r , by a f o r c e n m e l y of r . T . p a f o r c e of B.r.v.d

2
kg.

I f a bollow sphere i s t o be s p l i t along i t s l o n g e s t circumference,

kg i s r e q u i r e d . The sphere will hold t o g e t h e r

as l o n g as

The s p h e r e rill hold

4 -.rftg

of r a t e r and t h e hollow sphere

i t s e l f weighs 4 , r L . ' l t ; d . ~ g. Accordingly

Theref o r e

So, with t h e s p h e r e a l s o , t h i s r a t i o i s independent of the s i z e of t h e c o n t a i n e r and i s only d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s p e c i f i c t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e .

It i s b e t t e r than w i t h t h e c y l i n d e r because h e r e t h e wall need be only h a l f a'; t h i c k .

This w i l l s u r p r i s e t h o s e who have never heard of c u r v a t u r e o r

1 normal

p r e s s u r e . A t f i r s t s i g h t ( c f . Figs. 29 and 31), a s p h e r i c a l

zone A B appears t o have t h e s w e p r o p e r t i e s a s the jacket of a c y l i n d r i c a l disc. I n order t o f o r c e out a p i e c e of the s p h e r i c a l wall, s h a l l we say, a t E, n o t only mst t h e r e s i s t a n c e of zone A B . be overcome, a s with a cylinder, b u t a l s o t h a t of zone C D The two s t r e s s e s csre perpendicular one above t h e other! therefore, t h e sheeting a t E need be only a s strong a s a s i n g l e one of theoe s t r e s s e s would require. These s t r e s s e s a c t a s t~voropes slung about a bundle a t r i g h t angles t o one another ( c f . L+ig. 38). The c y l i n d r i c a l surface, by c o n t r a s t , a c t s only a s a s i n g l e rope (cf. Fig. 33). The s t r a i n on i t i s n a t u r a l l y twice a s g r e a t a s t h a t on one of two ropes.

Fig. 31

Fig. 33

Fig. 33

I f , on t h e other hand, Ire were dealing with a saddle surface, and the other down. i t would be a s though one rope were p u l l i n g up

Therefore, the carrying rope would have t o be s t r o n g e r than i f t h e other were completely missing (E'ig,
34). I f , f i n a l l y , we have

s u r f a c e s which a r e arched toward t h e s i d e of pressure, 'these a r e held e n t i r e l y only by the s t i f f n e s s of the n a t e r i a l and can t h e r e f o r e n o t be made of t h i n sheeting. Saddle s u r f a c e s and recesses should be avoided, i f possible. A very special advantage of model C is t h e Fig. . 17) can be b u i l t almost f a c t t h a t i t s pump chambers ~ ~ , , ~ ( c f spherical.

Fig. 34 T i t h a c y l i n d e r c l o s e d by 2 heuispheres, t h e c o n t e n t r a t i o (provided, n a t u r a l l y , t h a t t h e wall i s a s t h i n a s p o s s i b l e ) i s e a s i l y c a l c u l a t e d and w i l l , i n g e n e r a l , be between t h a t of t h e c y l i n d e r and t h a t of t h e sphere. C a l c u l a t i n g t h e c o n t e n t r a t i o f o r c o n i c a l c o n t a i n e r s o r c o n t a i n e r s of t h e form of an oval r o t a t i n g body i s l e s s e a s i l y , although i t l i k e w i s e l i e s between t h e f i g u r e a f o r t h e c y l i n d e r and t h e sphere; t h e l i m i t i n g c a s e of t h e oval i s r e p r e s e n t e d , on t h e one hand, by t h e c y l i n d e r end, on t h e o t h e r , by t h e sphere.
A cone can be thought of a s composed of zones of ovals.

(For t e c h n i c a l

reasons, i t w i l l admittedly n o t be p o s s i b l e t o ndce t h e wall ( ~ i g . 35) as t h i n a s p o s s i b l e everywhere w i t h my t y p e of m a t e r i a l . F o r t u n a t e l y , however, it i s r e 1 a t i v e l y easy e x a c t l y with copper mcl

Fig. 35

Fig. 36

Containers of t h e fona shorn i n Figs. 35 end 36 and schematized i n Fig. 37 tuld 38 a s well a13 r e l a t e d forms r t i l l occur i n my rockets. Here, trougha a and b, joined t o each other would r e s u l t i n complete cylinders. For these, we have already c a l c u l a t e d V. I f they a r e t o be shallower a s i n F i ~ s .35, 36, and 39, they must n a t u r a l l y be p u t under g r e a t e r tension and n e c e s s a r i l y be made t h i c k e r and heavier, Each of t h e metal braces c mst stand t h e tension exerted by t h e i n s i d e pressure p on a r e c t a n g l e which i s aa long as t h e would be 2.r, troughs and a s wide aa t h e d i s t a n c e between trough axes. I n Fig. 38 t h a t

and t h e whole f o r c e would be 2.r.L.p.

I f z i a the

t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of t h e material per cma and s i t e s p e c i f i c weight, then a cross-brace of l e n g t h c weighs t

Fig. 37

Fig. 38

O f the l i q u i d n o t contained i n the troughs, each cross-brace must bear a parallelepipedon-ahaped volune which = 2. r.1. c. Here the r e l a t i o n s h i p between volune and weight of material i s

That i s l e s s than with a sphere, b u t we a r e here n o t d e a l i n g with a closed form. I f we wanted t o c l o s e off the tank we would have t o a t t a c h wires o r p l a t e s d a t r i g h t angles t o these braces ( a s i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 40) o r we would have t o p u t the w a l l s under so g r e a t a tension ( c f . Fig. 39), a s I have done, t h a t the whole thing i s held together thereby. I n the f i r s t case, t h e r a t i o of content t o mass would be h a l f a s g r e a t a s with a cylinder. I n t h e second case, t h e r a d i u s of curvature of the trough axes grows; hence i t s w a l l s becone t h i c k e r and the wall weight becomes j u s t a s g r e a t a s with a cylinder. The exact c a l c u l a t i o n i s done with the u s e of normal pressure and t h e consideration t h a t , a t b e s t , t h e curvature axes of t h e troughs l i e i n the c e n t r a l plane. I cannot go i n t o g r e a t e r d e t a i l here. The layman can well-nigh grasp t h e s i t u a t i o n i f he v i s u a l i z e s t h e following : t h e cross-wall and b f o r reinforcement.
d of Fig. 40 has been c u t i n t o 2 l e a v e s

and such a l e a f has been welded on top of each of the side-walls a

Fig. 39

Fig. 4 0

F i n a l l y , i n Fig. 37, the r a t i o i s j u s t a s g r e a t a s with a simple cylinder f o r t h e f 011owing reason. The outer wall l i e s on a l a r g e r c i r c l e and t h e r e f o r e has a g r e a t e r surface. I t muat endure g r e a t e r pressure and mat be made correspondingly stronger. The layman w i l l understand t h a t i f he imagines t h a t t h e cross-wall d i n Fig. 40 has been removed and placed around t h e outer wall of pipe t a s reinforcement.

With t h e t o r o i d ( e S g . r i t h t h e c i r c u l a r pump chamber of models

A and B, cf. Fig. 15), t h e r a t i o i s a l s o j u s t a s g r e a t as w i t h a

c y l i n d e r . The layman w i l l understand t h a t i f he imagines t h e crossbaces c i n Fig. 37 t o have been c u t through and one
1ower we11

h a l f l a i d over

t h e upper w a l l of p i p e t f o r reinforcement and t h e o t h e r over t h e

What should e s p e c i a l l y be avoided i s p u t t i n g a s h e a r i n g o r bending s t r a i n on t h e m a t e r i a l . ( B contract, ~ compare VALIERiS rocIcet oven, Volune 8.) N t h mg forms of c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e s t r e s s on t h e m a t e r i a l

i s w e l l - n i g h only t h a t of t r a c t i o n (except w i t h model 3, which, a s I a l r e a d y n o t e , I a c t u a l l y do n o t want t o b u i l d ) .

mat

w i l l s u r p r i s e t h e layman most i n t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s i s t h e

f a c t t h a t , i n t h e r a t i o of c o n t e n t t o w a l l weight, a l l a b s o l u t e measurements ( 1 ength, breadth, h e i g h t , wall t h i c k n e s s , e t c . ) cancel out. Beside t h e s p e c i f i c t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h Z and t h e i n s i d e excess p r e s s u r e p, t h i s r a t i o V only depends on t h e form of t h e c o n t a i n e r .

I t can be expressed by t h e formula

a t trhich k i s a d e f i n i t e f o m f a c t o r . The most f a v o r a b l e form i s

t h e sphere, followed by t h e oval and conic forms, and then t h e c y l i n d e r , t o r o i d , and m a t t r e s s forms. I f p o s s i b l e , o t h e r forms should be avoided i f a s liluch l i q u i d a s p o s e i b l e under a given p r e s s u r e i s t o be p u t i n t o a l i g h t tank. M 1 t h i s a p p l i e s only i f the wall i s nowhere t h i c k e r than necessary, which i s e s p e c i a l l y hard t o achieve with a toroid. I n teclmology, t h e m a t e r i a l may never be s t r a i n e d t o t h e breaking p o i n t . For example, w i t h i r o n b r i d g e s , t h e m a t e r i a l i s taxed a t t h e moat t o 115 of what it i s j u s t expected t o be a b l e t o carry. Even w i t h a i r c r a f t and w i r e conductors, 1/3 of t h e a c t u a l l i m i t of

r e s i s t a n c e i s seldom exceeded. The t h i n n e r t h e p i e c e , t h e c l o s e r one can approach t h e l i m i t of r e s i s t a n c e ; f o r example, t h e b a r r e l of hunting r i f l e s i s sometimes s t r a i n e d t o h a l f of i t s t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h ,

s i m i l a r l y h e a t i n g p i p e s and telephone wires.

I n my unmanned r o c k e t s , I would s t r a i n t h e m a t e r i a l up t o ha1 f of i t s t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , w i t h t h e manned r o c k e t s up t o 1/3. With model B, I have s t r a i n e d i t up t o 1/3, i n o r d e r n o t t o e s t i m a t e t o o favorably. T h a t w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t , f o r 1) i n t h e main, we a r e only d e a l i n g w i t h t h i n metal s h e e t i n g and 2) t h e r o c k e t i s only working f o r a few minutes. Therefore, w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l p i p e s and c y l i n d r i c a l
f o m s of c o n s t r u c t i o n

V =

---6~
2. 8

up t o

z -4P

V i t h s p h e r i c a l c o n t a i n e r s i t would be

. ---9. P

up t o

--Z

3.p

This shows how important it i s t o have Z a s l a r g e a s p o s s i b l e and p as small a s p o s s i b l e . A s s t a t e d , t h i s r a t i o i s observed f o r

a l l t a n k s of my r o c k e t s , n o m a t t e r how l a r g e t h e i r a b s o l u t e s i z e

may be; I hope I w i l l no l o n g e r be reproached f o r n o t lisving c a l c u l a t e d t h e r a t i o f o r a l l tanks. The f a c t i s : i f I have c a l c u l a t e d i t f o r one c o n t a i n e r , I can d i r e c t l y s u b s t i t u t e t h e r e s p e c t i v e f i g u r e i n t h e calculation8 f o r a l l similar containers. Here, I would a l s o l i k e t o , i a y something r e g a r d i n g t h e r a t i o between t h e weight of t h e c o n t e n t s a d t h e wall. I f t h e s p e c i f i c weight of t h e c o n t e n t s i s

, then

Z V , = I<.---.6 P

I I good

Naturally,

m0 7becomes l a r g e r , t h e l a r g e r V6 ; t h e r e f o r e it i s

1
t o u s e s p e c i f i c a l l y heavy p r o p e l l a n t s .
t I n g e n e r a l , they nhould b e

A few words about g a s - f i l l e d t a n k s avoided i n a r o c k e t , f o r t h e i r c o n t e n t circumstances being equal, w i t h a g a s c o n s t a n t f i g u r e . Therefore R a=and P

i s s p e c i f i c a l l y l i g h t . Other P = R, a t which R i s 8

Z
k

P z * =k.-. ~

Taken p r e c i s e l y , t h i s formula n a t u r a l l y only a p p l i e s i f t h e r e

i s no atmospheric p r e s s u r e o u t s i d e , f o r , under normal c o n d i t i o n e ,

t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e a l a o s p h e r e h e l p s t o hold t h e g a s t o g e t h e r . I f e i t h e r t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e i s very high o r t h e o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e above t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere e q u a l s 0 , it can a c t u a l l y be ignored

and then V i s e n t i r e l y independent of t h e i n a i d e p r e s s u r e p; then

it only depends on t h e temperature and t h e c h e u i c a l composition of t h e gas.- I f r e q u e n t l y r e c e i v e l e t t e r s a d v i s i n g me t o take gaseous hydrogen i n s t e a d of l i q u i d hydrogen; I should compreas it thoroughly, then i t would become s p e c i f i c a l l y h e a v i e r and t h e w a l l r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t e r because i t would no l o n g e r have t o cover s o l a r g e a volume. I n r e a l i t y , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s r a t h e r worse w i t h high p r e s s u r e , f o r then t h e compressing f o r c e of a t n o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i s n o t a s e f f e c t i v e . I t i n t h e r e f o r e b e s t t o l i q u i f y t h e f u e l s ( i f necessary, by means of low t e ~ ~ e r a t u r e and, ) a t launching, ncrke it a p o i n t I t o l e a v e l i t t l e space u n f i l l e d w i t h l i q u i d .
The f i r m n e s s of my machine i s mainly based on t h e excess i n s i d e p r e s s u r e , s i m i l a r t o t h e f i r m n e s s of a t h i g h t l y - f i l l e d balloon. I based i t s c a l c u l a t i o n w t h e f o r m l a s t h e o r e t i c a l l y s e t up f o r r i g i d f i l l i n g and checked my c a l c u l a t i o n e e x p e r i n e n t a l l y by encasing thin-walled rubber b a l l o o n s i n canvas s a c s of a c e r t a i n form and

t e s t i n g t h e whole on the apparatus shown i n Fig. 41. A was a 1-cm-wide g l a s s t u b e which a l s o served a s a pressure gauge. B i s a funnel and

C a r u l e suspended v e r t i c a l l y by cord D t o i n d i c a t e the water l e v e l .

Fig. 41

E i s a perforated cork stopper. F i s t h e sac. The r i m of E i s sealed

with tallow o r vaseline, F i s i n v e r t e d and f i l l e d with water. Then i3 i s stuck i n t o F and bound t i g h t . Thc whole i s turned over, p r e s s i n g together % s o a s t o f i l l A with water. Then water i s poured through

B t o give t h e whole t h e necessary tension, H i s a g l a s s pipe with

a squeeze tube through which water can be drained f r o u F o r a i r b l o m in. G i s a p i e c e of d r i e d c l a y which f i t s t h e p o i n t of F.
A board I i s glued on top of t h a t , on which a d d i t i o n a l weights IC can

be l a i d .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e firmness of t h e apparatus and with i t t h e

i n s i d e pressure p must be t h e g r e a t e r , t h e higher t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e . This i s mainly t h e case i n t h e lower a i r s t r a t a , a s I w i l l show l a t e r . I f , however, it i s p o s s i b l e t o l i f t an apparatus (say, i n s i d e

an a i r - t i g h t p r o t e c t i v e jacket) high enough before it i s made t o

operate, t h e i n s i d e pressure i n t h e apparatus i t s e l f can n a t u r a l l y be 1ower and t h e r a t i o between mass and content can be l a r g e r .

Chapter 8 The BIost Advan t a ~ e o u s Vel o c i t y

h his

Chapter i s intended only f o r t h e s p e c i a l i s t , w i t h t h e exception

of a few passages.) F o r a u l a & a n t i t i e s of Chapter 8

b : actual acceleration

b,

: ideal acceleration

c t speed of out-flow

e : b a s e of t h e n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h m s
g : a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y w i t h a1 t i t u d e s

go : a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y a t e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . h r a1 ti t u d e above e a r t h ' s s u r f ace

m : r e s p e c t i v e mase of r o c k e t
mo r i n i t i a l mass of r o c k e t

mi : f i n a l mass of r o c k e t
q : l o s s i n propulsion

r : l o s s i n acceleration

ro : r a d i u s of e a r t h

s-so r d i s t a n c e covered
v : actual velocity

vg r most advantageous v e l o c i t y

v,

i d e a l propulsion

: n o s t advantageous v e l o c i t y f o r s and d s

vo r most advantageous v e l o c i t y a t sfart of

I

flight

v1
F
G
HI

most advantageous v e l o c i t y a t end of f l i g h t

r l a r g e s t c r o s s - s e c t i o n of r o c k e t
t

f o r c e ( i n kg) by which t h e weight opposes a c c e l e r a t i o n constant

P ) - - (-;r - 1

H
L

a l t i t u d e a t which t h e b s r o n e t r i c p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s t o t h e e-th p a r t t o t s l a i r r e s i s t a n c e ( i n kg) masses of two-stage r o c k e t s t o t s l f o r c e of rearward t h r u s t P

Q

bl,?'Qt

+R

Q r propulsion-obstructing f o r c e Q = P

-R

R
S

t h e p a r t of t h e rearward t h r u s t s e r v i n g t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e rocket I t = P
I

-Q

H .cosecg(rdistance r i s e HI kilometres

the rocket n u s t t r a v e r s e i n order t o

a n g l e a t which t h e r o c k e t r i s e s a i r density a i r d e n s i t y a t place of ascent

Po r
)A
t

)J r r e s i s t a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t

mass of t o p p a r t of a s e r i e s of r o c k e t s

T V e a r e c o n s i d e r i n g a r o c k e t t h a t i s ascending w i t h i n t h e atnosphere. Here a i r r e s i s t a n c e and t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y oppose upward a c c e l e r a t i o n . Theref o r e dv,)

dv, l e t u s s a y

and /v/
= /vx/

- /d

/cf* (8)/*

I f t h e f o r c e t h a t opposes t h e a s c e n t i s d e s i g n a t e d a s obviously

9,

tben

and i f we n o t t h a t 9 a c t s i n a backward d i r e c t i o n , it must be given a negative sign,

For every r o c k e t t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e v e l o c i t y ( I w i l l d e s i g n a t e i t a s 7) a t which q becones a ninimum. N m e l y , i f t h e r o c k e t f l i e s t o o slowly, i t n u s t overcone t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y f o r t o o long. For example, i f we l e t t h e r o c k e t burn f a s t enough t o j u s t keep i t suspended, then i t would e j e c t g a s e s down~vard f o r a few minutes and, a f t e r i t s f u e l s were used up, would f a l l t o t h e ground a t t h e sane p l a c e . Thus it would have e f f e c t e d nothing. The f a s t e r

it f l i e s , however, t h e n o r e advantageous t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of f u e l
b e c o ~ e sf r o n t h i s view-point. The f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n of a r o c k e t depends only on how l o n g aud how f a s t i t h a s b u r n t , wilereas t h e work perforiled on t h e r o c k e t by t h e rearward t h r u s t obviously depends on t h e d i s t a n c e t h e roclret t r a v e r s e s during t h e burning, f o r work e q u a l s f o r c e t i n e s d i s t a n c e . I t follitrvs f r o n t h i s t h a t tile saue q u a n t i t y of f u e l w i l l obviously perform t h e g r e a t e r work on t h e r o c k e t , t h e f a s t e r i t f l i e s even wllile burning. I w i l l g i v e f u r t h e r d e t a i l s i n Chapter 12. Again, i f r e f l y too f a s t , t h e a i r soon opposes t h e r o c k e t a s an

inpenetrable ?fall. The a i r r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s as t h e square of t h e velocity, while t h e operation e f f i c i e n c y of t h e f u e l s only i n c r e a s e s a s tlie f i r s t power of t h e velocity. Yith regard t o the a i r r e s i s t a n c e

it vrould be b e s t t o f l y s l o ~ r l y ;with regard t o t l ~ eforce of g r a v i t y it would be b e s t t o f l y f a s t . A conproxise between t h e trro requiredents

i s possible; t h e r e i s a v e l o c i t y a t which t h e W e can f i n d it by tlie f o l l o ~ r i n gmethod a W e imagine a rocket t r a v e r s i n g a l a y e r of a i r of s t r e n g t h dh i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e a t any v e l o c i t y v a t an a1 t i t u d e h above t h e e a r t h ' s surface. I n so doing, t h e moment of the rocket i s t o i n c r e a s e by a prescribed u o u n t /n.dv/. Naturally, it s u f f e r s a l o s s i n substance dm. of the r e t a r d a t i o n s

q becomes a minimum, which i s the a o s t advantageous v e l o c i t y

6.

A s soon a s t h e rocket has passed through, we f e t c h it back i n

thought, r e p l a c e the fuel dm and again l e t i t t r a v e r s e the l a y e r of a i r dh a t a somewhat varied speed v + a v . I n so doing, t h e f u e l u t i l i z a t i o n w i l l obviously be somewhat d i f f i r e n t , i f t h e angle of a s c e n t d , dh, and /m.dv/ minimum. Frrm (8) and (20) follows
t

a r e t o remain constant. I n thought, we now

vary v s t i l l more and look f o r t h e v e l o c i t y a t which dm becomes a

- mdv,
and s i n c e according t o (4)

+ m.dr + Q

d t = 0,

we g e t cdm

+ mdv + Q

d t = 0.

NOW

dh dt
P
. . I L .

v. s i n 4 und from (21) and (22) f o l l o w s : cdm

mdv

Q ---.---dh

0.

sin*

c i s now constant. ~ c c o r d i n to ~ our c o n d i t i o n s , dh, s i n e & /m.dv/ ~msl t i k e w i s e n o t vary. Therefore

and

Obviouely, dm becomes a minimum i f

a dm ----

0.

3 v

I n t h i s c a s e , t h e following must a l s o apply r

Now, Q c o n s i s t s of two f o r c e s , t h e m o u n t L, by which t h e harmful a i r r e s i s t a n c e s e e k s t o s t o p t h e r o c k e t and t h e anount G, by which t h e weight oppoees a c c e l e r a t i o n . If g i e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y which, f o r t h e sake of convenience, we rill r e g a r d a8 c o n s t a n t w i t h i n t h e atnosphere (one can c a l c u l a t e more e x a c t l y , b u t t h a t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y under p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s ; cf. pp. 101-107), weight of t h e r o c k e t i s m.g. then t h e the at I f t h e r o c k e t r i s e 8 a t an angle*,

weight, l i k e a l o a d on aa i n c l i n e d plane, b r e a k s up i n t o t h e two components, m.g. s i n d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of a s c e n t and m.g.cosd r i g h t a n g l e s t o it.

f i r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n w i l l depend on what we assume c o n c e r n i n g 4

As we s h a l l s e e i n Chapter 11, c e r t a i n t y of r e a c h i n g t h e mark

i s g r e a t e s t w i t h automatic c o n t r o l if t h e r o c k e t observes a s t r a i g h t l i n e course, t h a t i s i f d r e m a i n s constant. I n t h i s case, t h e component m.g.coagCmust be compensated f o r by making t h e axis of t h e r o c k e t
p o i n t upwarde more e t e e p l y than would correspond t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t ; we w i l l c a l l t h e a n g l e between r o c k e t a x i s and f l i g h t direction&.

- S e t t i n g t h e r o c k e t on a s l a n t i n t h i s wqy causes a

l o s s i n p r o p u l s i o n , f o r now t h e rearward t h r u s t w i l l no l o n g e r a c t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t w i t h t h e impulse c.dm b u t only w i t h c.dm.cos&. S i n c e , however, c o s d i s very n e a r l y 1 and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n determining c i s g r e a t e r than 1

cosd

, we can i g n o r e t h i s

l o s s , t h e more s o s i n c e t h e r e i s a g a i n sin& .c.dm/dt

o p p o s i t e t o it.

For t h e r e s t , s e t t i n g t h e a x i s on a s l a n t w i l l b r i n g about an aerodynamic l i f t which i s supposed t o j u s t cancel o u t t h e component m . g . c o s d s i n & .c,dm/dt a d r a g k.m.g.cos&.

w i t h f l i g h t i n a s t r a i g h t line,connected w i t h t h i s i s J u s t nos, t h e Aerodynamic I n s t i t u t e i n Gattingen

i s conducting s y s t e m a t i c experiments concerning t h e r a t i o k between d r a g and u p l i f t w i t h supersonic speeds. 1Jr. SCIF%I1SCL'%VSW w i l l soon begin a n o t h e r t y p e of experiment i n B e r l i n . On t h e b a s i s of observat i o n s on p r o j e c t i l e s , however, we can a l r e a d y say t h a t k w i l l b e approximately 1/3 t o 1/6. Therefore

G = m.g ( s i n d

k coed).

(as)

The harmful a i r r e s i s t a n c e i s given by t h e f o r n u l a t

Therein F i s t h e l a r g e s t cross-section b a l l i s t i c resistance coefficient.

of t h e r o c k e t , y i s t h e

The form of t h e r o c k e t , e s p e c i a l l y t h e t i p , r e s e u b l e s t h a t of t h e Geman S - p r o j e c t i l e , f o r w h i c h 7 (according t o CLWTZ and B E )

h a s t h e following curve r

The a b s o l u t e magnitude of 300 m/sec,

7does n o t

i n t e r e s t u s a s y e t . Up t o

i s approximatcl y c o n s t a n t ; a s t h e speed of sound i s

reached i t r i s e s r a p i d l y t o a maximum of 415 m/sec ( c a 2.6 t i n e s t h e f i y r e f o r subsonic speeds) and then a s y m p t o t i c a l l y approaches a f i y r e about 1 1/2 t i n e s a s g r e a t a s t h e f i g u r e f o r subsonic speeds. ROTHE, KTPP, and 0.v.
EBERHARDT, among o t h e r s , o b t a i n s i m i l a r

c u r v e s f o r a r t i l l e r y m i s s i l e s , SIACCI a s average f o r v a r i o u s p r o j e c t i l e s . Other a u t h o r s a r r i v e a t t h i s curve on t h e b a s i s of t h e o r e t i c considerations.

I I

Nor, why does

f i r s t i n c r e a s e and then decrease?

The i n c r e a s e between 300 and 400 m/sec i s simply e q l a i n e d . If t h e p r o j e c t i l e moves slower than sound, t h e compression of a i r i n f r o n t of t h e t i p can be e q u a l i z e d r
1) by t h e a i r flowing o f f on t h e s i d e ;

2) by an e q u a l i z a t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e toward t h e f r o n t by v i r t u e of
t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e a i r . I f v i s g r e a t e r than t h e speed of sound, only a flowing off on t h e s i d e i s p o s s i b l e , a t which compression of a i r i n f r o n t of t h e p r o j e c ti1 e n a t u r a l l y i n c r e a s e s . The e f f e c t of a i r coupression, t h e p r e s s u r e , i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e square of t h e v e l o c i t y w i t h subsonic speeds, on t h e one hand, a s well a s w i t h supersonic speeds, on t h e other.

Dehind the p r o j e c t i l e , a r a r e f i e d a i r space i s created, I t s e f f e c t s ( t h e undertow) a t f i r s t a l s o i n c r e a s e s a s the square of t h e v e l o c i t y , but a t the speed of sound1) it reaches a l i i ~ i t , for the a i r behind t h e p r o j e c t i l e cannot be r a r i f i e d f a r t h e r than t o an absolute vacuum nor can it s t r i k e together behind t h e p r o j e c t i l e f a s t e r than with the speed of sound. Therefore, a t high v e l o c i t i e s , t h e undertow a s a constant r e t r e a t s more and nore behind t h e pressure, a s a r e s u l t of which t h e expression pressure

utidertow

asymptotically approaches t h e value pressure ---------

F.p .v2
)/
takes a

With the burning rocket, t h e r e i s no undertow a t a l l , s i n c e t h e space behind t h e rocket i s f i l l e d by the exhaust gases. course s i m i l a r t o t h a t indicated by the curve i n Fig. 43.

A t f i r s t it i s constant, r i s e s between 300 and 400 m/sec,

and

above t h i s v e l o c i t y becomes almost constant again. Below 300 m/sec and above 460 m/sec i t can be replaced by a c o n s t a n t f i g u r e , and i n t h e i n t e r v a l i t can be i n t e r p o l a t e d by the c e n t r a l s e c t i o n of a Llore exactly, somewhat above it, about a t 400 m / ~ e c , Namely, t h e a i r beside t h e p r o j e c t i l e i s t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t propelled forward, with reference t o which v appears smaller. That i s why t h e r e i s a steady and d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , n o t a sudden t r a n s i t i o n .

parabola of . t h e t h i r d degree. Now, with good rockets, vo fsgure.

> 500 m/sec

mst b e t r u e (cf. p. 112). Henceforth we can c o n s i d e r v a s a c o n s t a n t

1
I

is t h e a i r d e n s i t y
Since

V
I

taking (IS) and (17) i n t o account, t h i s follows from it

muet n o t vary (we a r e d e a l i n g According t o our conditions, with a comparieon of various values of v on the spot. Hence, i n t h i s conrideration, t h e a i r d e n s i t y dependent on a1 t i t u d e n u a t remain conatant). Theref o r e

80. (r

-[-IQ
a,

- ~ ~ ~ - ~ ( is koora), i n a
0 if

I an

expre~~io which n obviously equal.

I In t h i s caae
it has often been suggested (vALIER, GAIL, and o t h e r s ) I t h a tLately, a rocket would r i s e higher i f it were provided with l i f t i n g
m r f a c e s and made t o ascend under a m a l l angle 4 oountered by awing
t

I n s o doing,

O becomer .mall and hence L could a l s o be small. That can be

According t o (SO), t h e l o s s i n propulsion i s

now, t h e u o s t advantageous v e l o c i t y f o r every a n g l e

i s y. Tfith o t h e r v e l o c i t i e s t h e r o c k e t only f a r e s worse. Therefore, i f , according t o (a), Q i s r e p l a c e d by 8 G and v from (31) i s sube t i t u t e d we have :

This expression obviously i n d i c a t e s how g r e a t a r e t h e l o s s e s

i n v e l o c i t y dq d u r i n g p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e l a y e r dh, and it shows t h a t , w i t h t h e n o s t advantageous v e l o c i t y , i t i s s m a l l e s t when d = 90,

f o r then

)'smock= -

sin u

= I,

whereas othertvise
Gina kcosa, . sin u

E- , ,
nn x

I.

(1t c a s t s an odd l i g h t on t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of VALIER, who i s t h e

i n t e l l e c t u a l o r i g i n a t o r of t h i s i d e a , t h a t h e s t i l l has n o t grasped t h i s even today, a1 though I a l r e a d y d e r i v e d it f o r him i n t h i s way t w o y e a r s ago. )

A r o c k e t c u t s o f f somewhat b e t t e r i f it s t a r t s t o ascend s t e e p l y

and i s g r a d u a l l y drawn more i n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n by t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y , b u t , considered only froin t h e s t a n d p o i n t of penetrat i o n of t h e atmosphere, t h i s a s c e n t i s n o t a s advantageous a s t h e v e r t i c a l one. I n t h e s e c t i o n on t h e "synergy curve", I w i l l d i s c u s s t h i s i n d e t a i l . Namely, t h e n t h e term a t G, k.m.g.cos&, drops, which i s c o n d i t i o n e d only by f l i g h t i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , and

Q = F ~ ~ V rngsina $ +
and

A mathematical a n a l y s i s of t h i s formula shows t h a t h e r e a l s o

Q = BOG, b u t i t i s s m a l l e r than w i t h s t r a i g h t - l i n e f l i g h t because

h e r e G i s smaller. Besides, i t i s an advantage n o t t o be undere s t i m a t e d t h a t e x a c t l y a t t h e beginning, i n t h e a i r of g r e a t e s t d e n s i t y , t h e r o c k e t ascends much n o r e s t e e p l y than i t i s supposed t o f l y a f t e r t h e burning h a s stopped. Considered f r o u t h e s t a n d p o i n t of range, t h i s Qrpe of a s c e n t would be by f a r p r e f e r a b l e and it i s presumed t h a t i t w i l l g e n e r a l l y f i n d a p p l i c a t i o n with l a r g e lilachines.

As was s a i d , f o r small a p p a r a t u s i t r e q u i r e s t o o complicated means

of c o n t r o l . Note r % i s t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y a t l o c a t i o n s when

i t i s s i n p l y a m a t t e r of c u t t i n g off w e l l a t t h i s l o c a t i o n ; b u t
need n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y when t h e a s c e n t as a whole i s being considered. \Ye s h a l l l e t

Go

be t h e value of

7 a t t h e s t a r t of a s c e n t a t

a1 t i t u d e a. The r o c k e t i s t o o b t a i n t h i s p r o p u l s i o n through a f o r e i g n force. v must be s o g r e a t and t h e 1o s s i n s u b s t a n c e so small t h a t the outside a i r pressure t h e weight of

ad, w i t h i t , L d e c r e a s e f a s t e r t h a n B t h e r o c k e t ; then w i l l i n c r e a s e , l e t u s say, u n t i l

t h e rocket reaches v e l o c i t y t o s1 and m/sec.

f1 a t a l t i t u d e a. I f t h e f u e l s j u s t reach

il, it

can be shown by i n d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n t h a t the e a r l i e r , t h e g r e a t e r a i r r e s i s t o n c e below

61

r o c k e t w i l l r i s e t h e highest, l e t u s say t o 82, i f a t s1 i t f l i e e a t I f i t reaches r e t a r d s it t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t it no longer has v e l o c i t y

Gl a t sl and

a s a r e s u l t cannot reach sl. I f i t does n o t a t t a i n v e l o c i t y n o t g e t t o sa.

a t sl, it must overcome i t s own weight f o r so long t h a t it likewise does

5, , sl , and between Fo and F1 i s

If

a r e given, t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y v defined by t h e f a c t t h a t (cf. p. 80)

n u s t b e c w e a minimum. I n so doing, R = P by which P i s g r e a t e r than Q. No, Q.dt i s a minim-

- g i s t o designate t h e
? s i n c e then a l l 2.dt

f o r c e which s u p p l i e s a c c e l e r a t i o n t o t h e rocket, t h a t i s t h e p o r t i o n

with v e l o c i t j

become uiinimum /cf.

(23) and (iI5)/j

on the other hand, m.dv i s a

minimum when t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i s zero t o begin with and only makes up f o r the d e f a u l t a f t e r s good p a r t of t h e f u e l e have been used up i n overcoming g r a v i t y and a i r r e s i s t a n c e . The e f f e c t of t h i a i s t h a t , i n t h e lower p a r t of the way, v
g

s t a y e behind 7, then keeps t h e

d i f f e r e n c e constant, and a t ei suddenly reaches i n t h e case

can g be found by i n d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n as_ a function of a. For e x w p l e , again. v

--v

yo

= 500 n/sec and atmospheric conditions, the maximum

= 2000 m/sec).

d i f f e r e n c e i s 200 o/sec ( f o r

I t becomes t h e smaller, for

t h e l a r g e r c becomes. I f v increases, it decreases r e l a t i v e l y and i n c r e a s e s a b s o l u t e l y ( f o r example, i n t h e above example, = 10,000 m/sec, i t would be 250 m/sec).
VI

y c a l c u l a t i o n a r e considerably g r e a t e r Now, t h e discepancies i n m

(main17 Lucause I have n o t taIcen c a c c u r a t e l y enough, and could n o t have done s o a t a l l i n t h a t r a y ) . A f u r t h e r d e v i a t i o n from v
than ? c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e t e c h n i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . That i s l i k e w i s e g r e a t e r
8

is

-v

theoretic pert.

' although

it does liot i n t e r e s t u s i n t h e p u r e l y

Therefore, I base everyrhere

e q ~ o l cv,

~ i y

d e r i v a t i o n s on t h e c a s e i n vhich t h e v e l o c i t y

f o r then t h e f o n i u l a a S e c o ~ ce e p e c i a l l y 8 i r p l e .
T : C

F i t h s t r a i g h t - l i u e e s c e n t , frml (21)

get

The a i r d c n r i t y p ( n f t e r t h e atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s such oa t e c r p e r ~ t u r e , wett.her, and t h e l i k e ere given) i a s i n p l y

c? 6 C:

f~fctiori

r.Iti-L~rs s

= 5.dt). j

re do n o t b o w e x a c t l y , n o r do r e nee& t o know i t e x a c t l y , as I w i l l show l a t e r . For t h e 1 el:-er cir s-tl-c.tc, c r u be c a l c u l a t e d q u i t e a c c u r a t e l y from barometric alt.i<~c!e formulas given i n textbooks on, meteorology. Be f i n d , ho~rever, t h a t
we ~ o u l d g c t u n s o l v a b l e i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n s i f .r;e w e d t h e s e f o r c u l n o
dil-cctty. Hence,
Ire

Foi- She u;rper r;ir s t r ; t a

r u s t relo1.t t o i ~ d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n . K'e a e t

Therewith, e i s t h e base of the n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h m s and' H a d i s t a n c e which, a t f i r s t spprc:;imation,

we can s e t as colistcnt c s d

equal t o 7.5 k n ; . S = H c o ec ~ A . Therefore

or

[byd i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
I

of ( B J ) ~

I
II

Furthermore, from ($3) followa r

-

dn;

m'ic'3;lh' Now, according t o (33) and according t o (a6)

c

-----dt

dh

Q = a g (sh'a+ k cos a)
rn
end from (36),

(os), and (360) it followo that

o r i f we n o t e t h a t

and t h a t H t s i n & = S i s n o t h i n g e l s e b u t t h e d i r k D e e U.t m a t be covered f o r t h e a t a o e p h e r i c prenaure t o drop fa f b e 0-tJb par$ of

itrp

o r i g i n a l amount, and i f , f i n a l l y , ' r e o d l #a

t h e r o c k e t i e r e t a r d e d i n one aecand by sir r e a i o k a e a ( t h e y a r e equal) t h e f o l l o n i n g t

g ( s i n & + IC c o s

ar by p a d *

a)

= r,

then t h i s formula can be w r i t t e n

From t h a t , by i n t e g r a t i o n , we can f i n d t h e connection between

t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y and t h e time t r

r When c a l c u l a t i n g with t h e a l i d e r u l e , It o cNote onstruct :

2rS.

C ". __4_-; log--.logZ ~ S 2 r * ~' V o - -V @- -

B-- 2rS

.-2rS
0

one i. advised

Ithen

I f i n (38) we s e t

and i f

v # ; ~
7

then t becones i n f i n i t e . For

GO

, t becomes

indeterninate. That

ncans the following : The a i r density decreases t o the e x t e n t t h a t t h e rocket advances upward. But the weight of the rocket 1iIfewise decreases a s a r e s u l t of l o s s i n mass. Three cases a r e p o s s i b l e :
1) \%en vo.c = 2.r.S,

the weight decreases j u s t a s f a s t a s the

sir density. Now,

To

i s given by t h e r a t i o of the b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t

t o t h e a i r density L c f . fornula (12)j .a a1 s o remnins constant.

2) '&en
G,.c

But here t h i s r a t i o remains

constant and t h e r e f o r e t h e f i g u r e f o r t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y

( 2.r.S,

t can be p o s i t i v e only i f

( vo.

I n the f i r s t case, the rocket cannot advculce beyond the e a r t h ' s

atmosphere because f o r !
= 0 t h e s a s s of the rocket would a l s o equal 0 .

I n the second case, it can do so s t i l l l e s s because then the v e l o c i t y even decreases with the t i u e . (For t h i s reason, Vi%ImlS rocket a i r c r a f t , f o r example, w i l l n o t f l y t o Auerica a t an a l t i t u d e of
50 Im, a s he hopes, b u t w i l l n o t eve11 r i s e 5 Im and, a f t e r t h e i r

filels a r e exhausted, w i l l have t o land 20-30 km from t h e p o i n t of ascent.) Only

3) When vo.c

> d.r.S,

can

- yo and t be p o s i t i v e a t t h e same time.

-

I n t h i s case, t h e amount f o r t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y grows with t h e time. The reason why t h e r o c k e t s b u i l t u n t i l now fared so badly l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t t h i s circumst,ulce was unknown among e x p e r t s aud t h a t , i n a l l these machines, v.c was much too small. A machine t h a t

i s t o advance beyond t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t of the eart'n's atnosphere ( c a 5 0 kn) must be a t l e a s t 5 m long. Besides, with these apparatus,
too l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n was paid t o t h e forin. There was too nuch a i r resistance.

I have included these t h e o r e t i c considerations mainly i n order

t o d i s p e r s e t h e b i a s t h a t t h e s e f a i l u r e s have caused among e x p e r t s , Furthernore, I r a n t e d t o give tlie examining expert a few n a t h e n a t i c a l c l u e s so t h a t he n i g h t more e a s i l y evaluate uhat I have t o say i n t h e sequel. Since we now have formula (38), c a l c u l a t i n g t h e remaining formula q u a n t i t i e s p r e s e n t s no more d i f f i c u l t i e s ,

The i d e a l propulsion of an automatically-guided

rocket f l y i n g

i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e a t t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y amounts t o r

According t o ( 6 ) , the r a t i o between the f u l l and the empty rocket i s

cram which f o l l o w s r

Fran formulas (38) t o (39b), one a l s o f i n d a t h e s a s s t h a t i e used up with t h i s form of a s c e n t .

NOW, according t o Chapter 7,

m --1
0

cannot i n c r e a s e i n d e f i n i t e l y .

Hence, n i t h a kerosene o r alcohol r o c k e t , vx w i l l a t t h e moat equal

4 h/sec,

n i t h a hydrogen r o c k e t a t t h e moat 7 b / s e c .
t

W e can r e s o l v e

t h e problem i n t h e following way

A f t e r a r o c k e t h a s b u r n t , it f l i e s 4 7 k~ p e r eecond f a s t e r than

it f l e w b e f o r e t h e burning. On

c,.

larger rocket, i n s t e a d of t h e pay-

l o a d , I now p l a c e one t h a t i s t e n t i t l e s smaller. \ h e n t h e f u e l s of

Fig, 44a. t h e l a r g e r r o c k e t a r e used up, t h e whole could have a v e l o c i t y of

4 km/sec.

I f I now drop t h i s r o c k e t and l e t t h e upper one c o n t i n u e

working, i t s own v e l o c i t y i s obviously added t o t h e v e l o c i t y t o which

i t waa brought by t h e lower rocket. Thus, by p l a c i n g r o c k e t s one on t o p of t h e o t h e r , we can a c h i e v e high f i n a l v e l o c i t i e s without,

i n a mingle rocket, having t o c a r r y f u e l s 16 o r even 1000 times i t s empty weight. I n t h i s case we can speak of an i d e a l mass r a t i o ,

Fig. 44b. m e equal t o t h e mass r a t i o t h a t a s i n ~ l e apparatus would have t o

Fig. 44c. have i n order t o a t t a i n t h e sane i d e a l v e l o c i t y a s t h i s s e r i e s of

rockets. W ' e f i n d it i n t h e following manner.

From (6) and from (39) we obtain r mo1 In- -C .[F - Go+ 2 r ( t m If I now s e t a number of r o c k e t s one on top of the other ( c f . Fig. 45) so t h a t it i s always the bottom one t h a t i s working snd i s e j e c t e d a s soon as i t s f u e l s a r e exhausted, then t h e speed l i m i t s add up1). If

M m ,

a r e t h e masses of the s i n g l e rockets, then t h e

speed l i m i t s r e s u l t i n g i n success5on a r e

and the t o t a l i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y i s obtained by s u b s t i t u t i n g

for

ml

i n (40).

Fig. 45

L O ~ T Z ,f o r example, sl~ouldh a r e thought t h a t over1

Nenely, according t o (40),

By adding t h e s e equations, we o b t a i n t

I f a s i n g l e r o c k e t were t o have tlie stme performance, according t o (40) t h e following would have t o be t r u e of i t r
.

A comparison of (42) and (43) shows t h a t

no ---is a s large as 1'

the

p r o d u c t of a l l t h e s i n g l e mass r a t i o s . I n t h i s connection, a l s o compare p.

61.

F r m (41), t h i s follows :

i. e. t h e p r o p u l s i o n v

- vo becomes t h e g r e a t e r ,
- to)becomes.

the greater c or

mo ----, or m
1

t h e smaller (tl

Now, c i s l i m i t e d and t h e mass r a t i o i n a r o c k e t can l i k e w i s e n o t exceed V6 ( c f . p. 76). The p r o d u c t of t h e mass r a t i o s , however,

a ~ . b o au u large u

$8

d e s i r e d and with i t

(GI

- To)

also,

Pot t l e~ u a i n wbich 5 i r n o t observed, t h e advantage of p a r t i t i o n i r d e o obdmm i f it i r reumbered t h a t l e s s dead material i s t o t e d V1 can become a s l a r g e a s desired. dag tiut + q . NaWrally, here too, 7

W e e a a r & d . r a t i o l r r w p l 7 t o t h e i d e a l propulsion vx and t h e r e f o r e t o rq 4JP. of u e a t .

It m a t k r a a a b e r o d , however, t h a t

+ --Lil +
H0

*
0..

W O+

----+

..*
0.0

&o+...
0---7

Pi+
- V

... -0

m --m 1
0

a d tbat a i r u p r e r r i o a already grows with reference t o

dW t h e
~UMV of

the exponential curve. I f t h e loost advantageous

Velm10. I8 met q+rr obrerved, t h e l o s s in substance i s n a t u r a l l y still groaa d n wan oape t o q u i t e impossible figures. There i s a l i n i t , fh.llyt far ra. W i t h p a r t i t i o n , it would be advisable t o maice each
r ~ k 8 lt u g u
-l8#

hen

ell t h o r e above it together, otherwise t h e a u x i l i a r y amd8 r a a e 8 r u y l q t h e p a r t i t i o n would weigh too much. For titb madele B and E, each rocket m e t , among other things, n p m k p r o p e l l i n g apparatus,
8wCi.g of t h 8 eupt~rfuel tirnks with model C works i n a very

For 1 1 , m n u a t here s u b s t i t u t e t h e mass of t h e whole mbirra i . tbe f i l l e d r h k . U1 is t h e machine with the f i r a t f u e l tank #a a p p w a t u r without the f i r a t f u e l tank f i l l e d ; B l i s t h e WiCL UIe moaa~dh e 1 tank emptied, eto. Aa I already said, nodel C La f u rrui-8 rewarm the i d e a l meteorological rocket, b u t t h i s mUIe i o mat n i W s l a f o r cmveying pereons. There is, namely, only vapOl!b# q p r p r t a m l u r r e n u l t t h e rearward t h r u s t i s alnayn of U . 8aaa mmgb4We9 . ~ fha d r a a e l e r a t i o n n a t u r a l l y becomes g r e a t e r and g W e a & a W rc, the w r e doareeeer. If pereons a r e t o be c a r r i e d along, t h e
8Mlu

wrdrrrlir w e t h mom m i f o m .

Kor i s t h i s model s u i t a b l e a s a long-distance r o c k e t , s i n c e it can only ascend v e r t i c a l l y . According t o (37),

'

the acceleration is :

d; b=-= dt The i d e a l a c c e l e r a t i o n bx g r a v i t a t i o n - f r e e space, i s

t

---------*

(3c (G

- BrS)
+
ec) (44)

, that

is the acceleration t h e rocket

would undergo w h i l e burning t h e sane q u a n t i t y of f u e l i n vacuum and

The f o r c e of t h e rearward t h r u s t P we f i n d t o be :

I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e mass i t s e l f o f t e n does n o t i n t e r e s t u s

very much, f o r 7 does a c t u a l l y n o t depend on t h e mass i t s e l f b u t on P t h e form and t h e b a l l i s t i c c o e i f i c i e n t ; hence t h e s i z e of is

more u s e f u l f o r t h e general d i s c u s s i o n . mo

--

a c t u a l l y i n d i c a t e s t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n which t h e o'= rearward t h r u s t r e q u i r e d f o r observing t h e luost advantageous velo-ci t y would impart t o t h e i n i t i a l mass of t h e rocket. Here, t h e r i g h t m it only depends s i d e i s independent of t h e a b s o l u t e n a s s ; l i k e mo on v. Bence, t h e values c a l c u l a t e d by means of t h i s formula i n t h e

The q u a n t i t y

--- ,

1 same

way apply t o every meteorological and long-distance rocket.

They a r e

s measure

of t h e r i s e and f a l l of t h e rearward t h r u s t , f o r

T h i s formula f i n a l l y t e a c h e s u s t h a t t h e f l u c t u a t i o n of t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e i n t h e oven r e s u l t i n g from t h e r i s e and f a l l of t h e r e a r u a r d t h r u s t only depends on f and c and n o t on t h e a b s o l u t e s i z e of t h e rocket.

I t i a f o r t u n a t e t h a t 6 t h rockets propelled with gasoline o r kerosene t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s approximately t o t h e same e x t e n t as t h e mass decreases. I n f l i g h t a t t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y , P i a well-nigh c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e whole burning p e r i o d , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e r o c k e t i s n o t a r t i f i c i a l l y brought t o an i n i t i a l v a l u e of t h e n o s t advantageous v e l o c i t y b u t i s made t o s t a r t under i t s own
power. I n s o doing, t h e v e l o c i t y a t f i r s t i s somewhat lower than t h e n o s t f a v o r a b l e v e l o c i t y , w h i l e t h e rearward t h r u s t must be somewhat g r e a t e r . The l a t t e r r e t a i n s almost t h e e w e value d u r i n g t h e whole burning p e r i o d , s o t h a t t h e n o z z l e s can be made t o o p e r a t e a t top capacity.

The d i s t a n c e covered i s l i k e w i s e e a s i l y determined. I t i s

That can b e i n t e g r a t e d i f , w h i l e t a k i n g (21) i n t o account, we expresa and dv. Then we o b t a i n r d t by

The a l t i t u d e h reached i s :

These a r e t h e most important formulas f o r t h e oblique, s t r a i g h t l i n e ascent. We o b t a i n t h e corresponding formulas f o r v e r t i c a l a s c e n t from fornlulas (38) t o (48) i f we s e t & = 90 i n them, Then

For example, formula (38) would then be w r i t t e n

I n t h e following p o r t i o n of t h i s c k a p t e r we want t o c o n s i d e r

v e r t i c a l ascent. Be could l e a r n t o know t h e t h e o r e t i c p r i n c i p l e s a p p l i c a b l e t o s t r a i g h t - l i n e r o c k e t a s c e n t j u s t a s w e l l w i t h any o t h e r a n g l e of a s c e n t , b u t I e h a l l show i t s e f f e c t i n p r a c t i c e on a v e r t i c a l l y - a s c e n d i n g node1 and am t h e r e f o r e a l r e a d y baaing t h e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e theory on a 90 a n g l e of a s c e n t i n o r d e r t o avoid confusing t h e succeeding explanations.

Ve d i d some s i m p l i f y i n g i n our formulas and it will, f i r s t of a l l ,

be w e l l t o e a t i n a t e t h e l i m i t of e r r o r . The most obvious e r r o r was t h e f a c t t h a t I s e t H ' as c o n s t a n t i n formula (34). The a c t u a l a i r d e n s i t y could d i f f e r by two o r t h r e e times t h i s mount. F i r s t of a l l , I wish t o e x m i n e t h e e f f e c t . o f t h i s e r r o r w i t h high f i n a l v e l o c i t i e s by neans of a sonewhat s c h e n a t i z e d example. L e t u s aim f o r
t

vi

= 11,000 m/sec.

I n ao doing, a1

- so becoues l a r g e and,

according t o

(a),

becomes e s p e c i a l l y erroneous.

I now s e t H M H' = 6300 m. T h a t i s much t o o low a f i g u r e , and

if

wse c o r r e c t , then

pa,

c e r t a i n l y becomes fundamentally i n c o r r e c t .

A t t h e mment to, i n which our o b s e r v a t i o n begins, t h e r o c k e t i s a l r e a d y supposed t o have a t t a i n e d t h e most advantageoue v e l o c i t y

and tile j o i n t e f f e c t of t h e v a r i a b l e s i s supposed t o make ; o Then, according t o (48) :

500 Jsec.

: Y e f u r t h e r e u b s t i t u t e : g = 9.70 m/eec 2

,c

= 3000 m/eec,

In" = 23026 .log''

== 3.17333

s , -s , = H"
f i e 1 used r

= 6300.9.87822 = 6 3 2 3 w nb.

( n u e l j , i f (41) i e m u l t i p l i e d by t h e modulus of t h e comon logarithma)

(frbm the note on (38) t h i s follows)

V1----

2gJ-1

3 0 u 8 sek,

logv0

- -c-

2 g H v,

-.2 = 1,37772

-t 2.69897

- Q4139

=W3530,

(t,

- t,).0,4343

309J.8.403530 ? J ~137272 = 1Qi918 = 13811 s e ,~ 2 g . " = 13,811 e 1 9 . 4 =267,93m]sek, (V, - Vo) .44343 = 14500.44343 = 456415,

+u 9 3

log 3 (456415 $- 267.93) :3000 = 4 8 2 w / 3 0 0 0 = 1160936 ,

m1

"'Q = 44678.

A t a1t i t u d e e l

so

m 1

A--

63,833 m, according t o our nteteuent r

But, a s was etated,

8

Po > --, since H > 6300 m.

19530
8,

For example, i f

equalled SO00 n and

equalled 67,233 m,

would i n r e a l i t y be

4 6 times a s great. i r", however, I had regulated t h e velocity of the rocket so as, by a l l means, t o observe ( l e t us s a y , by g mechanism t h a t r e d ~ ~ c e the s exhaust when L > G, and vice veree), then \ would have been a t t a i n e d only a t a higher a l t i t u d e and somewhat l a t e r . The apparatus rould have bad t o coubat a i r resistance and gravity 1 onger and would have used more fuel.
I w i l l assume t h a t , st an ~ l t i t u d e of 67,433 m,@
make a

is n o t 4

times but 60 t)mes a s g r e a t a s I calculated e a r l i e r , which would

62233 = 2 5 1 2 5 . l u g a .
I

then

.........

(1)
(11)

-62233

6300

- 4.2907

.log r

.........

I T T1 end by d i v i s i o c I ; ; = -

(11

-= 3 . 5 8 6 3

set.

(ti

- to).0e4343 = 309.28-0.06231

+ 3.5863- L40473 = 2 4 3 0 9 ,

2g."=471.59,

logK = (4560.15

m,

+ 4 7 1 5 9 ) :3000 = 1,67724 (fur H = 10j58.S ?n ,)

Now, (even i f we take. into acconrt vrl:at

i8

s t a t e d i n p. 365), during:

She a h o l e period of propul s i c u , c e f t a i n l y 6300 m ( I1 rno thus c e r t a i n l y 40,678 47,560.

< ---- <

1

< 1$759

m,

If I m i t e r

this f i y r e c m ~ ill

ILO

cche deviate from the truth by more than 7 . 5

8,

i f everything e l s e i s cor, 1 3 c t .

In

ml
0

(for

= 10758)

61724

In

mo

ml

( f o r H = 6300)

1.60936

Now, according t o (40), I n

- Is
'"0

approximately p r o p o r t i o n a l t o

---.
1
C

The stme u n c e r t a i n t y would a l s o have r e s u l t e d i f c were i n d e f i n i t e t o 2.02

5.

But c i s i n d e f i n i t e t o 2 7-8 f% and, b e s i d e s mostly f l u c -

t u a t e s by more than 4 $ ( c f . p. 44). So, today, t h i a e s t i m a t e f o r

i s e n t i r e l y adequate. At high v e l o c i t i e s ,
4

vl - vo i s l i k e w i s e propor5
from

tional t o

A.Hence,
C

according t o what h a s been s a i d s o f a r , our

most important problem, nameIy c a l c u l a t i n g v e l o c i t i e s , be solved t o t h e formula only a l i t t l e . The r e s i s t a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t

m , 1
0

can, a t high

7-8

w i t h c e r t a i n t y , f o r t h e r e s t of

i n f l u e n c e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between m and

can be found f a i r l y e x a c t l y f r o u
= 1000 m/sec.

neasurements of speeds of p r o j e c t i l e s up t o

That i t

i s c o n s t a n t from t h e r e on i s a c t u a l l y ouly an hypothesis, ~ : h i c b , however, i s a s good a s proved by t h e o r y a s well by t h e neasure::ent

for v e l o c i t i e s should d e v i a t e from t l l i e value by two o r t h r e e t i d e s i t s aanount, t h a t would n o t change i t s c a p a c i t y i n performance. Above, we allowed t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e t o f l u c t u a t e 60-fold w i t h o u t causing t h e r e s u l t t o be n o t i c e a b l y innaccurate. 'i'ihea we gave g a c o n e t a n t average value, t h e e r r o r we colllnitted was s t i l l s m a l l e r , The deeper reason why t h e r e s u l t changes s o l i t t l e i f r e wrongly estimate of t h e r e s i s t a n c e of bodies moving i n water. But even i f

p ,y

, and g

f o r t h e upper a i r s t r a t a l i e s i n t h e f a c t

t h a t d t i s of t h e order of magnitude of

dv (cf.
V

37). A s

increases,

dy becones i n c r e a s i n g l y prominent i n c m p a r i s o n t o d t . I n the d i f f e r e n t i a l equation which d e t e r n i n e s performance, t h e increase

l o s e s the nore i n importance, t h e g r e a t e r quantities,

/5 ,y , and

v becomes.

But a l l t h r e e

g , a r e contained i n Q and, i n (31), occur only

i n t h i s member.
A t low v e l o c i t i e s , we would accordingly g e t much l a r g e r e r r o r s i f

we here e s t i u a t e d l e a s t rit h m y
50 m/eec,

3 j u s t a s wrongly. But here one circumstance ( a t apparatus) i s very important. Since Go already equals

s1 so a l s o becomes small. Over t h i s s h o r t d i s t a n c e , H and g a l s o d e v i a t e much l e s s f r o n t h e average value and can trmch b e t t e r be replaced by constants, by which t h e r e s u l t ( i f c were exactly h o w n l ) would become s t i l l more accurate.
with small From a l l t h i s we can d e r i v e the p r i n c i p l e f o r u s e of t h e f o r n u l a s t h a t those values m s t be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r 8 , g, a n d y t o become l a r g e ( f u r t h e r f o r

vl - vo,

, etc.),

, even

if ? ia

which they have i n t h e lower

a i r e t r a t a . I n s h o r t r a t t h e beginning,

9 must be accurate.
we

O u r most important t a s k i e t o c a l c u l a t e the performance, i.e.

want t o c a l c u l a t e

to and

v1 - yo i s approximately proportional f o -.
c

- from mo V1
0

and m i . Now, a t high v e l o c i t i e s ,

1

Since, today, c remainn

i n d e f i n i t e t o 2 7-8 $, ao t h e same margin a l s o remains f o r t o which mst be added a 1-8 whole, we can today s t a t e u n c e r t a i n t y connected w i t h a

F1

-vo ;
On t h e

i 1 a s 1/10 c e r t a i n . m a t i s mainly i n need

of improvenent i s our knowledge of t h e r e s p e c t i v e formula q u a n t i t i e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r the exhaust speed.

Aaauming t h a t the formula q u a n t i t i e s have been accurately determined by experiment, then we could achieve considerable accuracy by i n d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n with f o r n u l a s (36) t o (48). By the u s e of dm (40) and
de (47), we could make a c o r r e c t i o n , i n case c t o a m a l l e x t e n t

depended on L and v, To begin with, we would somehow have t o express of

V.

ay -a c

a s a function

I
I

Then we would have t o c a l c u l a t e

----.
dm

I t i s approximately r

de

dm

= .

. d ? - 2m.g -m .
C C

According t o (40)
dl,

According t o (47)

I n s t e a d of ( 2 5 ) , r e obtain :

From t h a t we could d e t e r n i n e

G, and with t h i s value of

a l c u l a t e t, m, e, and 3 2 . Nevertheless, I rnyeelf would c a l c u l a t e o r the above procedure is recommended only i f

t

he most advantageous v e l o c i t y f o r my machines by another method,

Then (easy e s p e c i a l l y i n the case wliere c i s independent of P)

e could more a c c u r a t e l y e x p r e s s p and g a s functions of e and there-

w i t h more a c c u r a t e l y determine t h e remaining q u a n t i t i e s . The f o l v u l a s of t h e second approximation would c e r t a i n l y a l r e a d y approach t h e t r u t h t o w i t h i n a few thousandths. I n t h e t h i r d approximation, it would be a d v i s a b l e t o d i v i d e t h e i n c r e a s e of v i n t o small s e c t i o n s and f i y r e o u t each s e c t i o n w i t h t h e formulas of t h e second approximat i o n . I n s o doing, we could s u b s t i t u t e e x a c t average values f o r c ,

g, s, etc., and a f t e r w a r d s , under circumstances, undertake some numerical approximations f o r t h e r e s p e c t i v e s e c t i o n . At t h e same time,
we would a l s o have t o make t h e c o r r e c t i o n s which t a k e i n t o account the f a c t that
I

; +I.

I n t h i s p l a c e , I would a l s o l i k e t o remark

t h a t I u y s e l f have c a l c u l a t e d t h e performance of mg machines according

t o o t h e r methods. But t h e s e methods do n o t l e a d t o such p l a i n formulas. Now we a l s o want t o d e r i v e a s i m i l a r formula f o r

. It

is

A s we j u s t saw, w i t h t h e propulsion formulas, t h e n o r e e x a c t approximations can be c a l c u l a t e d from t h e v d u e s of t h e f i r s t approximat i o n with t h e h e l p of n i n o r c o r r e c t i o n s . S i n c e t h e c o r r e c t i o n s a r e

s o small t h a t they no l o n g e r change t h e e s s e n t i a l s of t h e m a t t e r , we can u s e t h e s e f o r n u l a s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e out-flow and p r o j e c t i l e f o r r ~ u l a s i n our d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e performance and o p e r a t i o n of rocIcets. Fron them rve read o f f
t

1) I f a c e r t a i n r o c k e t i s t o p a s s through a c e r t a i n t h i n l a y e r of

a i r and, i n s o doing, r e c e i v e a c e r t a i n impulse, t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n v e l o c i t y ( 7 ) a t which t h e r e i s a miniraunl l o s s i n f u e l . But y e t simply t h e t o u s here.

i30st

v is not
&

advantageous v e l o c i t y ; r a t h e r , t h a t ( v ) i s a

small m o u n t l e s s than

7,

which, however, i s of no f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t

II

2) Prom f o r i u l a (49) we read o f f t h a t

i s very s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d

i f t h e out-flow speed c depends on t h e rearward t h r u s t P. The f o r n u l a s

( 2 5 f f ) only apply i f c i s c o n s t a n t .

3) Je can w r i t e formula (31) r

Now, a l l a p p a r a t u s a r e s i m i l a r , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r t i p s , and s o Y i s t h e m* g i s the same f o r a l l . m.g i s t h e weight of t h e r o c k e t , t h e r e f o r e F b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t , and we can s a y x

----

The most advantageous v e l o c i t y f o r s and d s i s s o l e l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e r a t i o of b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t t o a i r d e n s i t y ( a t ~vhichweight, crosss e c t i o n , b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t , and a i r d e n s i t y t h e u s e l v e s can have any value).

( s i n c e g and I1 can be considered a s c o n s t a n t ) i t f o l l o n s t h a t ( t i depends on c ,

and

vo,

aod

vl; i f

to)

and

Go

a r e given, s o l e l y on

GI. i f c

yo

a r e given,

-m1

lX10

l i k e w i s e depends only on

vl.

The saue h o l d s

for b*

-P-

(sl

130 - s o ) ; 3-, etc. I c f .

(I), )

, (

) (51)).

I f we

conpute a t a b l e c o n t a i n i a z v as a1-g~lell+, c a d :lie erlunerc%c! rlu;m?ntities a s f u n c t i o n s , theil t h i s t z b l e ,rol(ls roi- c f l r o c k e t s r . r i t : ~ vo a d c re;;arclless of how

%, cud c cone alJout, i . e . re,arc!leas

of holv l s , e

I r e i ~ h t ,c r o s s - s e c t i o u ,

o r sir d e v s i t y - r e i n d i v i d u a l l y , o r n:rat a r e

do,

etc.,

a r e indiviiiually. for.iulo,s s t i l l rlo i ~ o tc o n t a i n vo,

T h a t i s ilot a l l : t h e c!ilTcrcnsial

I it on any o t h e r v s l o c of
t!:e
fo m l n s for

an n v, we cc,ulcl have lilzsed so, e t c . Ii~sterzclo f 1 ~ c s i n gt h e i n t e ~ r ~ t i o let sb,

=
US

-vo,

sex va; t : ~ e u T:C wo~ild:inve obtnined -. 1.i

sa, i n
C

----

e t c . 3 u t zccoi-c:iilg t o %:le

r u l e s of i n t e g r a t i o n

4 dx B

5
C

h?

dx

- 2 rix,

t : r i ~ t i s , Kle t d l l e 110lds POP

a l l r o c k e t s m d auy f u e l , i f only v c l o c i t j . v aud e:r:inust s:iecc! c n;:lount

to r

If
n

tho i n i t i a l velocity

is v

a1r1

t h e fin?! ve1ocii;y
mr

v, , tileu
rl

tile

tine (t, 9
R

5 ) = (tb
B
0

- to) - ( t a - to).

LIC

l a s o i n f a e l ?ollo;ra Crco s
n = (sb

"b

n 0 In l a

---.
0

n,

..in a l t i C ~ d cR

so)

(sn

- so),

e t c . b ( 2 s ) i s n o t air"ec+,eci by this czlculciL-ion, f o t ~! ~ en c c c l e r n t i o u

i s nll.ct.rly the c!oriv~tive of L!le v e l a c i t y v i t h rcnpec t t o i i r i e .

For t h e sa?;e of c l a i - i t y , I Lnve iiicl .Ted qu<mtit i e s f o r c
=
3

C ~ ' , l o ~rlrich~ i v e sKlese

143; r ~ / s e c , I1

= ?Dv0

n .

I-

For example, i f w i t h a r o c k e t c = 1400 m/sec,

va = SO0 mjsec, and

q , = 3000 m/sec,

l o o k up l o g second. l o g

----

ma and we wish t o know how l a r g e l o g is, we must ~(500) m(500) mb and l o g and s u b t r a c t t h e f i r s t from t h e m(800) m(3000)

---

------

38.2

- 16.1

ma ---mb

0.815,

hence = 6.5.

The p r o p u l s i o n would r e q u i r e

= 82.1 s e c , e t c .

As a l r e a d y mentioned, t h i s must be t r u e :

W e found (p. velocity

93;

t h a t Go must be a s l a r g e a 8 p o s s i b l e . When we

assumed t h e r e s i s t a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t (

7, we e s p e c i a l l y a r r i v e d

) t o be c o n s t a n t w i t h Y a t t h e requireaen t t h a t

flight a t

Here it i s n o t s u p e r f l u o ~ st o p o i n t out[according t o p. 89) t h a t v #vg. At such low v e l o c i t i e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s q u i t e c o n s i d e r a b l e

a d , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e r o c k e t can a c t u a l l y j u s t g e t t o beyond t h e e a r t h ' s a t a o s p h e r e i f qo.c = Z.g.n, although only wit11 t h e u s e of

f a n t a s t i c arnounts of f u e l . A few 40-50 m/sec be1 ow t h i s f i g u r e , traversing t h e atuosphere i s e n t i r e l y inpossible f o r rockets, To be p r e c i s e , f o r 330 t o 460 rn/sec,

v i s n o t defined.

S i n c e , however,

we a r e n o t e x a c t l y s i s i n g f o r accuracy here, we c a i b a s e our c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e c a s e i n 5vIzick tlie r o c k e t f l i e s a t a v e l o c i t y a t which t h e a i r resistance b e c o ~ ~ e equal s t o t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y .

IIere a l s o , t h e square of t h e v e l o c i t y becoines p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e ratio

--:B.
C1

Accordingly, vt and

a r e d i r e c t l y proportional t o t h e

r o o t of t h e r a t i o between b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t and a i r d e n s i t y . A t t h e s x l e tirte, t h i s v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s s t i l l more slolrly than v above

4G0 m/sec,

f o r , because of t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e r e t a r d a t i o n ( b = b

8.g;

Z g i s conat.!mt, b i s r e l ~ t i v e l ys n a l l h e r e ) , t h e mass and w i t h i t

t h e b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t d e c r e a s e r a p i d l y , *hi1 e t h e a i r d e n s i t y only d e c r e a s e s sl o a l y because of t h e a1 ow uoveixout upward. Now, i f t h e i n i t i a l r a t i o between b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t - a n d a i r d e n a i t y i s s1n~11 enough, we a r r i v e a t t h e l i s ~ i where t t h e v e l o c i t y a t which t h e s l i g h t e s t r e t a r d a t i o n o c c u r s n o l o n g e r i n c r e a s e s b u t d e c r e a s e s because t h e ball i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t d e c r e a s e s n o r e r a p i d l y t1la.n t h e a i r d e n s i t y .

That a high b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t i s advantageous f o r a r o c k e t can

be understootl w i t h o u t higlier ~ : a t h e = a t i c s . L e t u s imagine a r o c k e t w i t h

a c r o s s - s e c t i o n of 1. The a i r r e s i s t a u c e i s 1 1% and s o i s i t s weight. IIence, i f i t s

upward a c c e l e r a t i o n i s 30 m/sec e

, the

t o t a l rearward t h r u s t must be 5 kg,

t h e f i f t h p a r t of which i r n u l l i f i e d by a i r reriafahce. If, however, t h e weight of t h e r o c k e t equalled 8 kg and a l l t h e other d a t a renained a s i n t h e f i r s t exanple, t h e t o t a l rearward t h r u s t would be 9 kg and t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e would only n u l l i f y 1/9 of the t o t a l propulsion.

NOW, i f Ire t a k e i n t o account t h a t

a l s o increase#, the c a l c u l a t i o n

becomes s t i l l more favorable. Although t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s t o 8 kg, t h e whole propulsion l a s t s f o r a correspondingly a b o r t e r time, s o t h a t , with t r a v e r s i n g of tlie sane l e y e r of a i r a t t h e s m e accelerat i o n , l o s s e s through a i r r e s i s t a n c e and g r a v i t y would drop from 40 t o 28

5.

And i f it i a remembered t h a t with g r e a t e r

7 the acceleration

a l s o grows, t h e l o s s e s due t o a i r r e s i s t a n c e and g r a v i t y a r e a t i l l t u a l l e r . I f t h e i d e a l propulsion i s the same i n both cases, t h e f i n a l v e l o c i f y i s considerably g r e a t e r i n t h e second case. Naturally, t h e condition i s t h a t t h e i d e a l propulaion i s t h e same i n both cases. "High b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t " i n t h i s context does n o t mean t h a t t h e b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t can be achieved by multiplying t h e metal p a r t s , a s with a m i s s i l e . I n t h i s case, the value of

would

i n c r e a s e b u t only because t h e r o c k e t would now have t o f l y f a s t e r i n order t o save a t l e a s t what can be saved while combatting t h e g r e a t e r m o f o r c e of gravity. I n addition t o t h e lower r n ~ a sr a t i o ----' , there 1 would now a l s o be t h e n e c e s s i t y of Flying f a s t e r and overcoming g r e a t e r

"

a i r resintance. I n order t o e s p r e s s t h i s more c l e a r l y , HOEFFT ha8 coined the expresaiona, lldynamiow md "deadn b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t . I am a g a i n s t coining new erpreaaiona i f I b e l i e v e I oan a w what I wish t o ray by u s e of t h e e x i s t i n g ones. I thought I had already expressed t h i s c l e a r l y enough i n t h e f i r s t two e d i t i o n s of t h i s book when I wrote t h a t t h e b a l l i a t i c c o e f f i c i e n t must be a s high a s p o s a i b l e and t h e empty weight, on t h e other hand, a s low an possible, and when I f i l l e d

a t h i r d of t h e booIc witti c o n s t r u c t i o n s u g g e s t i o n s t o show how t h a t can be achieved.

I n s p i t e of t h a t , two a u t h o r s ( I do n o t want t o mention names)

have managed t o a s s e r t t h a t I wanted t o i n c r e a s e t h e b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t by i n c r e a s i n g t h e dead weight. Apparently, w i t h t h e one, a c e r t a i n w i l l n o t t o u r ~ d e r s t a n dwas involved i n t h i s 1) w i t h t h e o t h e r I chi only

assune t h a t h e h a s n o t read uy booIc p r o p e r l y , i f I am n o t t o assume t h a t he h a s understood almost h a l f of it,

h'ow i t i s s i n p l y a n a t t e r of making relation t o 2 . g . , H

C

vo a s l a r g e

as p o s s i b l e i n

o r , what m o u n t s t o t h e same thing, making t h e t o achieve

product

vo c

i n a b s o l u t e t e r n s a s l a r g e a s p o s s i b l e . :!ems

it o r e a long and t h i n type of c o n s t r u c t i o n , us in^ s p e c i f i c a l l y h-eavg

l i q u i d s , reducing t h e a i r d e n s i t y , f o r example, by c a r r y i n g t h e r o c k e t a l o f t b r a i r c r a f t before the ascent, or, f i n a l l y , increasing t h e exhaust speed. Fl'hat i s p r e f e r a b l e i n one c a s e o r t h e o t h e r can only be d e t e r ~ i n e dby d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n ; f o r e x m p l e , with nodel B, f o r t h e lower r o c k e t t h e moraents t h a t speak f o r t h e choice of s p e c i f i c a l l y h e a v i e r f u e l predominate, f o r t h e upper r o c k e t t h e moments f a v o r i n g a high exhaust speed p r e d m i n a t e ( c f . p. 341 f f ) . The Bewe a p p l i e s t o t h e f i l l i n g of t h e f u e l t a n k s of model C. Although, p r e c i s e l y speaking, no r o c k e t can f l y a t t h e n o s t advantageous v e l o c i t y , t h e s e d e r i v a t i o n s a r e s t i l l of value. They show u s what t o s t r i v e f o r and what we can a t b e s t hope f o r . Besides, they t e l l u s t h i s r I f we do n o t move t o o f a r from t h e c o n d i t i o n s presupposed here, we can e a s i l y e s t i m a t e t h e d e v i a t i o n s and apply them t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h e form of c o r r e c t i o n s . These formulas g i v e u s a framework f o r a more comprehensive theory of rocketry.

Ee would very ouch l i k e t o d e a l me a blow, and s i n c e he does n o t have t h e neans t o do s o i n f a c t u a l m a t t e r s , he a t l e a s t attemptdl it by s t y l i e t i c means.

The well-known w r i t e r VALIXL has reproached me f o r i n v o l v i n g t o o m c h c a l c u l a t i o n i n t h e problem. I answer by s a y i n g r A theory can never be worked through t o o a c c u r a t e l y . What I have r e a d o u t of t h e formulas f o r t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y ( f o r example, t h a t t i n e , mass r a t i o , f o r c e , a c c e l e r a t i o n , a l t i t u d e , a i r d e n s i t y , etc., a r e f u n c t i o n s of t h e most advantageoue v e l o c i t y a l o n e
i s extremely
and do n o t a l s o depend on t h e a b s o l u t e s i z e , etc.)

important, and t h a t can only be read o u t of t h e s e foruulas. I t would be a n o t h e r m a t t e r i f I wanted t o f i g u r e o u t a s p e c i f i c model i n

y convenience how f a r t o every d e t a i l ; then i t would be e n t i r e l y a t m

s i m p l i f y t h e s e formulas and round o f f t h e f i g u r e s employed. That I have done s o I a l r e a d y s a i d on p.

a. In

my opinion, every approximate

c a l c u l a t i o n ~ m s be t based on a c c u r a t e l y computed theory; only then

i s one permitted t o s i m p l i f y and only then can one g i v e account of t h e

i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s . Indeed, l a t e r one simplify, f o r t h e r e i s no s e n s e i n s u b s t i t u t i n g f i g u r e s a c c u r a t e t o a hundredth

p a r t f o r v a l u e s t h a t need only be a c c u r a t e t o one-tenth. To t h e a c c u e a t i o n of l ~ o v e r - c a l c u l a t i o n nI would l i k e t o respond w i t h another thing. I have computed t h e s e f o r m l a s once aud checked them s e v e r a l times. Now I have t h e n and, by u s i n g then, can s a t i s f a c t o r i l y s o l v e any problem of c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e course of a few hours. O n the o t h e r hand, i f one c a r e f u l l y r e a d s t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n of GOIlDARlS1S book, "A Eietliod of Reaching 3xtreme altitude^,'^ one cannot avoid t h e impression t h a t he h a s worked weeks o r months on some of h i s tab1 e s , s t u d y i n g and changing them u n t i l he approximately found t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n . Yet, he i s s t i l l f a r from s u r e whether he r e a l l y h a s t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n .
I b e l i e v e one e x a c t l y c a l c u l a t e s l e s s if one has good f o m u l a s .

- I n fact,

VALIZFt has o f t e n avoided much c a l c u l a t i o n by l e t t i n g m e do h i e c a l c u l a t i o n s and d e r i v a t i o n s when he wee stuck.

Chapter 9 Counter-Pressure Formula q u a n t i t i e s of Chapter 9

counter-pressure

time
a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y on t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e d i s t a n c e from t h e ground mass of r o c k e t radius of e a r t h stopping distance vel o c i t y centrifugal force p e r i o d of r e v o l u t i o n of a c a r r o u s e l , e t c . r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e of t r a j e c t o r y
1. E x p l a n a t i o n

L e t u s o b s e r v e a 3an who i s s t a n d i n g s t i l l . The f o r c e of g r a v i t y acts

0 1 1

a l l t h e a t o m of h i s body and s e e k s t o p u l l t h e n down. If t h e t h a t is, a t t h e end of t h e f i r s t

atoms were a b l e t o f o l l o ~ rt h e p u l l of g r a v i t a t i o n , each one would f a l l wit11 an a c c e l e r a t i o n of 9.R1 m/sec2,

end o f t h e second 2:3,81

second, i t would nove dom~rvardsa t t h e r a t e of 9.81 m,'scc, a t t h e m/sec,

a t t h e end of t h e n-th l i r 3 . 8 1 m/sec.

Wow, t h e soft p a r t s .Ire h e l d fin^ by t h e bony framervork, which i n t u r n

i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e f e e t , and t h e f e e t ( a s we saw on p.

ff) are

b e i n g pushed upward by t h e e a r t h w i t h tlie sane f o r c e with which t h e body p r e s s e s down. 17e s a y : The body cannot f a l l f o r i t i s supported. The f a c t t h a t t h e s i n g l e atoms would a l l l i k e t o f a l l b u t a r e prevented from doing so by a f o r c e which only a c t s on t h e body from t h e o u t s i d e , r e s u l t s i n c e r t a i n t e n s i l e end conpressive s t r a i n s w i t h i n t h e body. f o r example, we cannot hold t h e arm h o r i z o n t a l l y without muscle s t r a i n ; t h e i n t e s t i n e s a r e pressed dorn~, e t c . 17e d e s i g n a t e t h i s s t a t e by saying
t

The man i s gubjected t o a counter-pressure of

9.81 m/sec2 a g a i n s t t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .

If g r a v i t a t i o n were lower, f o r example, only 3.72 m/sec 2

, as

on

Llsrs, a l l t h e s e s t r a i n s would n a t u r a l l y be correspondingly s u a l l e r .

O u r man could s t a n d on h i s b i g t o e l i k e a b a l l e t dancer; according

t o LASSIJITZ, t h e s i d e branches of t r e e s could be t h r e e t i n e s a s l o n g w i t h o u t breaking o f f ; according t o GAUSS, t h e a n i n a l s could grow t k r e e t i n e s a s l a r g e w i t h o u t g e t t i n g t o o plump, and so on. I f , on t h e otll?r hand, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y were 271 m/sec2, a s on t h e sw, 271 = 28 times a l l t h e s e t e n s i l e and coclpressive s t r a i u s would be

---

9.81

g r e a t e r than on t h e e a r t h . A person would i n s t a n t l y f a l l t o t h e ground and s p l u t t e r a p a r t a s though he were nade of s o f t dough. I f t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y were c o n p l e t e l y l a c k i n g , t h e s e t e n s i l e and conpressive s t r a i n s would c e a s e : t h e f e e t wquld n o l o n z e r p r e s s a g a i n s t t h e ground, nari would f l o a t i n t h e a i r l i k e an a n g e l , he could s t r e t c h o u t t h e arms h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h o u t t i r i n g , up and down would l o s e t h e i r rseaning, e t c . Thus, counter-pressure a r i s e s when a l l t h e atolrs of a body tend t o

c a r r y o u t t h e sane a c c e l e r a t e d motion, b u t a f o r c e , a c t i n g on a p a r t of t h e body only, p r e v e n t s t h e n o t i o n fro= t a k i n g place.

- According

to

^,ilia r l e f i u i t i o n , t h e .).an ~:o,ili! c l so LC snk j c c t t o cobil<er-piaessurc ~ r i ~ e n :1e h.tilW:, sitq, lies, or- ctLX?.s oil affect i,kc
;\C~SOII

t1i.r

Iiccr!.

These rpnrious p o s i t i o l l s
0 1 1

fluijve 2 i f i e r c n t l y ; 7rheii lie II;UI,S

n bar he bccones

t i ~ c c l ,~:ilell

he stancls o i l h i s head he :~cco':es ,idt!y,

:r;ien ; ~ eI ies he

r e s t s , e t c , Zut t;,eze rliiYereut e f f e c t s z r e 'Usset1 oiily on c!i-ffereiSc",s

in s;;por.+.;

i u a11 .Gflc?se c c s e s , 9s Ini12 n8 t h e pcrsou does 11ot riove, r - o m i t s t o 9.C1 n/sec

r!

t h e coiinter-prer;suro

S o ~ l t e r - p r e s s u r e c w a l s o i t r i s e iu m ? o t l ~ e r way : If the ?~rn!res a r c

p u t on d ~ e n iz Pra;;on

i s noviu;; a t full s!)eec?, a l l

it8

occupant,s nuci

every ? a r t of t h e l~otlyp r o p o r t i o u a l t o i t s :lass n r e precssc! forl:-ard. I+"t h e wa,-ou s t a r t s sucldenly, t h e y ;re forced hnchrard.
If our ;-an irere t o .?loaf
ill
i . ,

lift

ill

: r a ~ r i t c ~ t i o u - f r c e space nic! Objects l e t go i n t h i s l i f t

tLe l i C t s e r e s e t i u t o occelerzlec! .otion iu t h e d i r e c t i o n f r o n f e e t

t o Lleocl, he ~roultll ~ e prezseti t o t h e f l o o r .

r:.oul d n:?gare:~tly f a l l t o tile f l o o r w i t h uuiforl.lly nccel c r a t e d n o t i o n

a i d t h e s,me t e ~ s i l e sic1 c a - i p r e ~ n i v es + , r a i n s w o ~ l dw i s e i n t h e p c r s o n ' s

boc?.y ap though he round h i n s e l f on nn a t t r a c t i n 2 Iieavenly body, f l i t h u l a c c e l e r a t i o l ~of C.21 m,/sec 2 f o r era-iple, h i s s t a t e vould be uo

d i f f e r e n t fron t h a t

0x1

ezrtli. (counter-;,ressure

tllrouch i n e r t i a , )

I f a vacon d e s c r i b e s a sharp curve, t h e occupant& a r e h u r l e d s i d e -

rays 5y tlie c e n t r i f u ~ ; . a lf o r c e . S i n c e t h e cc11trifu;;al

f o r c e i s oiily a

; ? n i i r " e s t n t i o n of i n e r t i a , i t c;n 1iIiewise cause touter-preu~ure. D e f i n i t i o n : A body ( o r systei-I of b o d i e s ) i s s u b j e c t t o counterp r e s s u r e , t l i o t i s , p o r t of t h e body i s c f f e c t e d by an o u t s i d e f o r c e

(the s u ; ~ ~ o x . t ~)i h i c hi n f l u e u c e s t h e s t a t e o f n o t i o n of t h e c e n t r e of grav; t y ( f o r e x m p l e , p r e v e u t i n g t h e body from f a l l i n ; ; f o r c i n g i t

o u t of i t s t r a c k , a c c e l e r a t i n g o r d e c e l e r a t i n g i t ) , s o t h a t t e n s i l e
mlj c o ~ q ) r e s s i v es t r a i n s a r i s e between tlie s i n g l e u o l e c u l e s r h i c l ~

would n o t e x i s t i f t h i s f o r c e d i d n o t a c t , t h a t i s , i f t h e body were n o t s u b j e c t t o t h e counter-pressure.

Here we a r e o n l y t h i n k i n g of b o d i e s which a p p e a r l a r g e i n comparison

t o t h e e f f e c t i v e r a d i u s of t h e m o l e c u l a r f o r c e s b u t f n f i n i t e l y small

i n comparison t o t h e n o r e i m p o r t a n t c e l e s t i a l bodies. (Althougli, on t h e one hand, t h e phenomena of a d h e s i o n , c a p i l l a r i t y , e t c . a s w e l l a s of

ebb and f l o w a d t h e l i k e , on t h e o t h e r , could a l s o be t r e a t e d as an a s p e c t of c o u n t e r p r e s s u r e . ) The e x p r e s s i o n "supportll n u s t h e r e b e u u d e r s t o o d i n a v e r y wide s e n s e . A q f o r c e t l i u t h o l d s tile body nay b e r . m s i d e r e d as mi-$port as l o n g as it d o e s n o t s e e k t o i m p a r t t h e s a x e a c c e l e r a t i o n t o e v e r y p a r t i c l e of t h e nass. A c c o r d i ~ i g l y , a book l y i n g on t h e Lab1 e i s supp o r t e d j u s t as w e l l as a h a n ~ i n t ;lamp; t h e l i q u i d i n a t u n b l e r i s s u p p o r t e d , s o i s a f l o a t i n g body; b i t s of p a p e r c l i n g i n g t o an e l e c t r i f i e d r o d of s e a l i u g wax o r :)eta1 s h a v i n g s hanging f r o a a n a p e t are a l s o supported. The e l e c t r i c o r n s g i e t i c a t t r a c t i n g f o r c e s would n o t g i v e each mol e c u l e t h e sane a c c e l e r ~ t i o r t(as d o e s t h e f o r c e of ~ r a v i t y ) .

Cn t h e o t h e r hand, a c c o r d i n g t o o u r d e f i n i t i o n , t h e c y c l i s t i n t h e ~ i ; . , 46) i s n o t supported. interrupted loop (

Pig. 46

I t i s t r u e , t h e p e r f o r ~ l e rcmlnot d r o p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h 1 s a t t r o c t i o n ; t h a t i s preveiited by t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e . Ilut

t h e c e n t r i f u ~ n l f o r c e hns t h e sane a c c c l e r a t i u g e f f e c t on each p a r t i c l e . G r a v i t y mid c e ~ i t r i f u g n l f o r c e a r e c e r t n i r l l y i n b a l a n c e i n e v e r y a t o n and t h e body uoves ( a p a r t from a i r r e s i s t t m c e ) as e v e r y a t o n ~ v o u l d move i f it were f r e e l y novable. The n o t i o n of t h e body d o e s n o t r e s u l t
i11

auy t e n s i l e and c o a p r e e s i v e s t r e s s e s between t h e s i n g l e a t o n s :

t h e body i s n o t a t a l l s u b j e c t t o any counter-presnure.

I f , however,

i t were l'supportedll, a counter-pressure a g a i n s t t h e s u p p o r t would Have t o e x i s t ~ v h i c kuay only a r i s e from t e n s i l e and c o n p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s be tween t h e s i n g 1e no1 ecul e s

The counter-preseure

h a s t h e dimensions of a c c e l e r a t i o n ( i n t h e
2

t e c h n i c a l a e a s u r i n g s y s t e n m/sec ) and is, l i k e it, a v e c t o r q u a n t i t y . I t s p h y s i c a l e f f e c t depends only on i t s a b s o l u t e magnitude, on tile n a t u r e of t h e body a f f e c t e d , and on t h e t y p e of s u p p o r t , n o t on t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y o r i n e r t i a producing it.

8. C a l c u l a t i o n of Counter-Pressure
Counter-pressure through i n e r t i a : I n t h i s c a s e , tile counter-pressure

i s equal t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o r t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n . To that, t h e f o r c e of
g r a v i t y must be added v e a t o r i a l l y ~ v l i e t~ he ~ occusion a r i s e s . For exanple, i f v e l o c i t y v i s uxiiforuly produced o r decelerated over d i s t u n c e s, we f i n d t h e c o u l t e r - p r e s s u r e a f r o u t h e f o r ~ a u l a sf o r uniformly a c c e l e r s t e d n o t i o n ( t : p e r i o d of a c c e l e r a t i o n ) r

If t h e v e l o c i t y changes uneven1y , t h i s c s l c u l a t i o n n a t u r a l l y g i v e s u s only t h e average v s l u e f o r t h e counter-pressure d u r i n g n c e r t a i n p e r i o d of t h e , w h i l e t h e t o p f i g u r e would b e g r e a t e r . But :nost b o d i e s ( ~ ~ 0 o 1 t1 l ~~e r sa l s o tlte IIUUM body, c f , p.

1~8) a r e so constituted a s

t o be a b l e t o endure a counter-pressure c o u s t a n t l y i f they can endure

i t a t a l l , a d s o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of an uneven chaa1;;'e i n v e l o c i t y only

g i v e s u s t h e l o v e r 1 i : ) i t of t h e r e s i s t a n t o counter-pressure, not
t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o counter-pressure i t s e l f . IIere i s an e s t l l ~ p l e:

I f a person juwps i n t o t h e water from a 5-n-high

d i v i n g board, he

. -

meets t h e r a t e r a t a speed o ~ l h . ~ . =h 10 n/sec.

Now, he sinlcs a b o u t

& ro i n t o t h e w a t e r , s o t I i a t t h e a v e r a g e d e c e l e r a t i o n would be

2 v ----= 35 m/sec2.
2. s

To t h i s , g r a v i t y of roughly 10 n/sec8 would have

t o be added, s o t h a t tlie a v e r a g e c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e endured i s 36 o/sec2. B u t t h i s i s o n l y t h e lower li:!lit of t h e p e r s o n ' s r e s i s t a ~ l c et o counterp r e s s u r e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n frow head t o f e e t . !r'lleu he s t r u c k t h e w a t e r a t f u l l speed, Iiis r e s i s t a n c e was o b v i o u s l y g r e a t e r than v::ien a l r e a d y subnerbed t o t h e c h e s t and
IAOIY,

h e was

p r a c t i c a l l y only under the how mlch a o r e 11e e n d u r e s ,

i n f l u e n c e of g r a v i t y , s l o w l y smIc a1 t ~ g e t l ~ e rT . h i s o b s e r v a t i o n oilly s l ~ o n st h a t man endures u o r e than 35 m/sec2; t h a t i t d o e s n o t teacli u s . cun be d e t e r r l i n e d !.;ore a c c u r a t e l y by u e a s u r i n g t h e This f i ~ u r e v e l o c i t y w i t h ~vhiclia d i v e r clivos i n t o t h e w a t e r on a s u i t a b l e f i l m s h o t ( s t i l l b e t t e r on a slow-motion s h o t ) . I f one c h a r t s t h e G i v e r ' s aduruice from one p i c t u r e t o t h e n e x t and a l s o Xcno~~s tlie t i a e i n t e r v a l between t h e s i n g l e s h o t s , one can e a s i l y c a l c u l a t e h i s v e l o c i t y cutd t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n he e2:perienced
I o b t a i n e d f i g t i r e s 1.4

i n t h e w a t e r . Cne o b t a i n s t h e c o u n t e r -

p r e s s u r e by adding t h e g r a v i t y t o tile d e c e l e r a t i o n . I n t h i s way,

-2

t i ~ e s a s l a r g e trs t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e s .

I c i t e d here. Viifortunirtely, my n e a s u r e r a e ~ l t si n t h i s r e s p e c t were n o t

a c c u r a t e . I simply had t o t a k e a few s p o r t f i l m s t l i a t I had j u s t r e c e i v e d and on wliich I e s t i n a t e d t h e d i s t a n c e t r a v e r s e d o n l y on t h e body l e n g t h of t h e swiriier. It would be a rewarding t a s k t o r e p e a t on n o r e a c c u r a t e l y - p r e p a r e d the necst?re,~ent
f

sl ow-:lotion

shots.

S i n c e coun t e r - p r e s s u r e Iias t h e dil.:ensions of a c c e l e r a t i o n , i t s mag~~itud ne a t u r a l l y depeiicls riot o n l y on t h e a b s o l u t e v e l o c i t y wliic'ti

i s b e i n g d e c e l e r a t e d b u t a l s o on t h e p e r i o d of v e l o c i t y chiuige o r ,

vihttt i s colinected w i t h i t , on t h e braliin;:

distauce.

7-1

.or c z w ~ p l e , !-re 'r:I_;'X i s n i s t ? ' . e ~ w:~el: lie ivrite:: tila5 t : ~ e pcr-nccour:

C~LLLC'

in r e 1 o c i t y riliic:~ one 31.f Ters rvhe.1 1en!>i;l,c ra-01- n t r n i n

I

r!uriil;

at 12C :in>ir is 2C r;r/sec".

: ~ u tas
$0011 r ~ st1.e

'3

T i l ~express t r c i n .:ova..; a t n spee:!

of 2 :

rl,/,sec, is

50dy cf t h e ppi::on t a u c ? ~ e r , t h e ~ron..d t h e spec:!

nlrlouct i l i ~ t c n t l y2ecel e r ~ t e r ! t n 1

- 5 !:/s@c.

A t t i l i s .s:iecd, t h e

k e e p s on r m i l i i u ~ ;b e c i d a t l ~ ctrain f o r n f e v r ~ e f r e t , 3uriu; i h e f i r s t t e u t i ~of a secorl?, tl,e : . c r s o n l s c h r ~ ~ l t i l; n~ v e l o c i t y is t h u s c o n s i l e r n h l y ~ r e n t c r ;i f it iyerr: t o a c t f o r , d l o l e r,cconc7, i t ;:auld c a u s e a ciecelerot i o i i of at l o ~ s .iZC t n,/secn, ir!;icil n o , n;.-nl-i c-rl rcl o e i t y c:lm,e rroul
P..,'~.-I-~,

: eraon

?lie p e r - s e r n n d

nut e:reed
1011~. period

36 m/aecst o n l y i f s a t o p o c c u r r e d

duriu~ s srff'iciently

o r , x-hnt ciounts
if

t o the s m e t h i n : , an w a d e - i i c

over a sufficiently lo11,r d i . s t a n c e ; i . e .

:re junpcd on n 3 G *LO 4 O a -

high p i l e of f e a t l ~ e r so r very l o o s e s t r c s . For t h a t - o t t e r ,

t h e sr-qc e r r o r i n h i # well-Iuoim

t e ~ c h c rshoV.~ld n o t confrzne v e l o c i t j - and a c c c l c r n t i o n . Sr. li-XN llns m a d e a r t i c l e on t h e cos.zos,

2

i n which h e

r v r i t e s t h a t a mi.-rrer s t r i k i n ~ t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r a t 10 ~ / s e c i s s u b j e c t t o a c o u n t e r - > r c s s u r e of 4 C n/aec JtiL'3S '-25i3, his

1 7 ~ 1-Iilio~vn 1

ili

novel

, ItJourney Around

t h e :oo11~~,

a l s o cornzits fievercl g r o s s s i n s wit11 r e s p e c t t o t h e calculation of counter-pressure.

I h e r e p e n t i o n , a r i o n ~o t h e r s , Clle i d e n t h a t t h e
IJ

occupautfi iroulo' s c r v i v e t h e i n p a c t of s h o o t i n g o f f t h e p r o j e c t i l e i f tiiey l i e on a c u s h i o n o f water 3 I/:! t h i c k . , i c t u n l l y this cuslliou

would haye t o be a t l e n s t 1000 IGJ h i g h : a = ----;tile f o r n u l a i s 2s i u o x o r c b l e.

G n irapoct, a s o l i d bor';y i s s u b j e c t t o v e r y h i g h c o u u t c r - p r e s s u r e f o r R s h o r t tjr;e. For e z a ~ p l e , i f en i v o r y b i l l i a r d b a l l f a l l s on a ~:~rhf l lec o r from a h e i ~ I i tof CC cm, i t u e e t s t h e f l o o r a t s v e 1 o c i t ~ of rou;;l~ly 2 n / s e c , This velocity i s decelerate6 during t h e ir~pnct,
(a) d u r i n g t h e i n p a c t

a t rrliicIl t h e s t o p [ ~ i n g d i s t a n c e i s c e r t a i n l y n o t u o r e t h a u 1 m f o r any
p o i n t of t h e krtll. The aversze c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e

1 y e find t o he

Tlle h i g l ~ e s tv a l u e i s s t i l l 1iig:ler. ':'he couuter-pressure due t o ce~itrifugt;o,lf o r c e n n t u r a l l y e q u a l s t h e

c e n t r i p e t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h a t i s , i u c a s e v i s t h e v e l o c i t y and rt-dius of c u r v a t u r e , then

the

~vlien , YZGclt'D i n c r e a s c o v e c t o r i a l l y by t h e amou:lt of gravkty. For e x a r ~ ~ p l e r o d e i n s h o r i z o n t a l s p i r a l w i t h a r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e of 30 m a t a speed of 40 m/sec, t h e c e n t r i f u g a l a c c e l e r a t i o n e q u a l l e d 53.3 m/sec2 of

and lie was i n a l l s u b j e c t t o a counter-pressure P

lf53.3-

1 0 .

54.2 m/sec2.

his

f o l l o s s from ??ytl~afioras' Theorem. )

3.

Plienor~enaof Counter-Pressure

The s t a t e of counter-preesure i s c l l a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f a c t t h a t every p a r t of t h e s y s t e u seeks t o d i s p l a c e i t s e l f i n tile v e r t i c a l clirect i o n a s auch a s p o s s i b l e ; t h e f o r c e of t h i s tendency etju,ls of i t s u a s s t i n e s t!le cobu t e r - p r e s s u r e . Zxsnple r The plumb bob e x a c t l y slio~rst h e d i r e c t i o u of t h e c o u l ~ t e r p r e s s u r e . The s t r e n g t h wit11 ~vhiclii t d r w s on t h e l i n e i s d i r e c t l y proportioilal t o t h e counter-pressure. Thus t h e counter-pressure can be the product

n e l a s t i c sprins. neasured by t h e p u l l wl~icha c e r t a i n weight e x e r t s on a

A s l o n g a s t h e r o c k e t burns, i t i s s u b j e c t t o n counter-pressure

from t h e t i p toward t h e ~ i o z z l eo u t l e t ; w!lcn

t h e f i r e i s s l ~ u toff cud

t h e r o c k e t f l i e s on l i k e a c l o s e d p r o j e c t i l e , a l l counter-pressure i s 1acking. Then, n o t even t h e a t r o n g e o t g r s v i t a t i o u a l f i e l d can a t t r a c t a plunp bob because t h e p o i n t of suspension f o l l o w s t h e p u l l j u s t a 8 t h e weight i t s e l f . S o t h e p l u ~ m e tcannot be used t o d e t e r u i n e whether t h e r o c k e t i s r i s i n g v e r t i c a l l y s i n c e , when t h e r o c k e t does n o t burn, t h e p l m e t has no c o n s i e t e n t d i r e c t i o n and, when i t burns, t h e p l u r u e t always p o i n t s toward t h e n o z z l e o u t l e t , The d i r e c t i o n of t r a v e l i s b e s t r e g u l a t e d by t h e u s e of gyroconpasses (I< 13). On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e coun t e r - p r e s s u r e produced can be used f o r u e s o u r i n g a c c e l e r a t i o n , say by t h e use of cr s p r i n g b a l w c e o r tlie a d j o i n i n g a p p a r a t u s :

Fig. 47 Glaas tube 0 1 , which n u e t n o t be t o o wide, i s stucIc a i r - t i g h t i n t o g l a s s tube G2, v h e r e i t does n o t q u i t e reach t h e bottom. The two a i r colucms L1 aud La a r e separateti from each o t h e r by mercury 3; t h e t h i n s e c t i o u of GI i s of ~ ~ e t a l If . t h e counter-pressuro i n c r e a s e s , L1 becomes l a r g e r a d L2 sl.laller, causing w i r e dl t o emerge f a r t h e r o u t of t h e

11.lercury, by which tlie c u r r e ~ r tpasaint: tihrough d l d8 i s weakened- v i s a

, valve f o r p m p i n g q i r i u t o La o r drawing o f f

a i r , i n case t h e apparatus

tloes n o t i n d i c a t e c o r r e c t l y . The daupine; c o e f f i c i e n t of tlie o s c i l l a t i o n i i u s t be 2.1, o r e l s e t h e p e r i o d of o s c i l l a t i o n i!~ustbe very long. The inf1ue:lce of t h e g r a v j t a t i o n a l conponen ts cau be taken i n t o account by i n s e r t i n g cou t r o l l a b l e r e s j a t a r ~ c e si n t o t h e c u r r e n t p a s s i n g t h r o u ~ h d l d2.

i_5-

Liquids hindered open to the tend the fro_

tend

to_rard so (side

the by

pha_b being

lille kept in

as a

uuch

as

possible. they is also

If seer

they to

are burst

doing

container,

container

pressure). should be

Side-pressure noted_ in for tall_

proportional when calculating als_

counter-pressure_ wall to stren{jth buckle of

which my (cf.

ex._aple_ thin

rocket. Fi_.

Liquids 4Z).

containers

the;i

If mnon,_ _=reater

the other than

container thinus_ %he

is by

hermetically rigid fiilinu_

sealed_ thus

that *zalcinZ

c_i the

be

prevented_ pressure

inside

outside

pressure.

Bodies due to

of

differei_t forces For in In the the

densities the ex_usple_ milk sazle separator_ way_ faster_ 1silk

suspended ceteris is the with precipitate not _he easily faster_ alon/j sprayed swept the a_ain upward s%'ept in

in

water

are the

precipitated greater the pressure is forlnin5 the boilin U

molecular

paribus_ skimmed same b)" process A and in the into _reater fall as Dp

counter-pressure. in 5 in shell liquids_ but so the ,_,uch _4 hours;

zravitational is ice completed crlstals betveea %. the bacR high , into since as In

6 ninutes. the liquid a_ld the the particles faster

models

hydrogen nozzle gas bubbles of and _ainst are mid

quicRly are rise liquid not

groove pipe

cou_lter-pressure_ _he tl,e the of liquid vapor square

swept even

resistm_ee of the

liquid This is fuels.

par%iclen importml%

alonL

increases the

velocity. _ith

evaluatin_

operation

rocRets

liquid

Fig.

48

4.

:Ian's R e a c t i o n t o I n c r e c s e d Counter-Pressure

'At11 all t o o h i g h cocnter-l:i-essure,

i w p t u r e s o r c o n t u s i o n s of t h e

i n n e r organs, r i i s r u ~ t i o n s of c e r t a i n nei-ve t r a c I i s i n t h e b r a i n , mid s i x i l i ~ ri i ~ n e ri n j u r i e s : l u s t occur. I f , t l i e r e f o r e , ire ~ r i s l l t o p l a c e a nwi i n a v e h i c l e t l l s t i s beicc accelerated r a ; j i d l p mici f o r n prolonged p e r i o d , we n u s t s e e k t o deter.:ine liow i ~ u c l iwe cmi j u s t e x p e c t r r o n liin i n t h i s r e s p e c t . I s:;izll d o s o by iieculs of s e v e r z l e x x l p l e s : '-Illen j m p i n g o n t o a ~ v n t c rs u r r a c e f r o 3 s h e i ~ h t of S n i n n s t r a i g h t y o s i t i m i , t h e cowl t e r - p r e s s u r e r i s e s t o over kC n/sec2. The counterp r e s s u r e conaec t e d ~ vtli i t h e j w ~ p11ns ilcver y e t 11clr1.1ed n Ire,.l t h y person. ;;evertile1 e s s , w i t h laend-rliviu~ f r o n t h i s I ~ e i c ' i r t , r u s : l i n ~ ; of blood t o tlie !iel-tr!, f a i n tiu;;, and a,)opl exy a r e observed, a1 t:iouzli h e r e t h e s t o p p i u g turiiin;; over b a c ~ a i a r d s j . c ~ i s t i u l c ei s c r e a t e r ( s t r e t c l ~ i nt ~ h e cl~.lsi'orrvard, than i n t h e o,)!)osite d i r e c t i o n , t o s a y "in t h e l ~ i n g position. t L e t e n s i l e mid c c n g r e s s i v e g i v e h i m t h e g r e a t e s t rosl3',,u,

:To nan elidcres :.lore c o u u t e r - p r e s s u r e i n t h e d i r e c t i o r i fro:^ head t o f e e t

- :1m1

endures t h e z r e a t e s t couzter-

p r e s s u r e i n tlie t r a n s v e r s e o r s a g i t t a l d i r e c t i o n , t l l n t i s a s r~uclia s

"

i equal c o u ~ l t e r - p r e s s u r e , Because, ~ vt h
e t o coulter-pressure
i i ~ th

tresses a r e tlius t h e s i : ~ a l l e o t , n a t u r e could

i s direction.

NOW, n a t u r e could j u s t as well have saved m t e r i a1 aud l e f t t h e connec% i v e t i s s u e weaker i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . Very l i k e l y , t h i s d i d n o t happen f o r r e a s o n s of expediency. i?e o f t e n s l i p sidervaya and f a l l , and we could n o t 1 i k r e i f we cone array w i t h i n n e r i n j u r i e s every t i u e , such as

are caused b ~ too high counter-pressure.

3ecuuse t h e s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e

i s u s u a l l y s h o r t , t h e c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e i n such c a s e s i s hizh.

.I'e a r e

f w i 1 i a r w i t h t h e backward head d i v e i n t o t h e water. h i e t u n l a t h e back toward tlie w a t e r mid l e t s o n e s e l f drop brachvard, w h i l e t h e f e e t

a t f i r s t s t a y i n c o n t a c t w i t h tlie diving-board.

That r e s u l t s i n a

r o t a r y motion t h a t must go j u s t s o f u r t h n t one a e e t s t h o w a t e r w i t h tlie head v e r t , i c a l l y rlowuward. If t h e f e e t a r e taT;en fro11 t h e d i v i n g b o a r d t o o soon, one f a l l s on Iiis bncI; ( ~ i 4 ~ 0 ) . . If t h e diving-board was 2 m above t h e w a t e r , t h e s k i n lias s t o o d a c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e t o 300 m/soc2 ( b e c a u s e of t h e liardness o r t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e ) . of up
(AS

result, it becomes r e d as a c r a y f i s h . )

F i g . 49

The r e s t of t h e body s u f f e r s a c o t u ~ t c r - p r e s s u r e o f G O n / s e c llead nurl l e g s up 60 70 u/sec2.

, tlie

I f one i s c a r e f u l arxi e:it.enc?s Llre arrm

s o f u r bac!iwnrd
exceed G O

thnt tllerc i s n o ir.q,act ~ v i t l it h e w a t e r s u r f a c e i n t h e

one i s n o t i n c o n v e ~ ~ i e n c ce::cei,t d
f o r a r e d bacI:. stmlrl,

luribar regiorr, tlie c o u n t e r - p r e n s u r e f o r t h e I;irtneys a l s o riocs n o t

L~/SOC~ axd

At one tir!e, !vhile d i v i n g i l l t o t!le water fro!.i a 6-.2-!:i2h fro. counter-[~ressure.

I s l i p p e d and f e l l on zy siile. 1 c o u l d n o t f i n d t h e s l i , - l ~ t e s t rl.u~rt;l;e

Accorrlin~ly, the hur~o~ body l ill)l>ears t o endure rvi t11ouC 1inn.l a c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e o f up t o G O u/sec8
and one of G O

- 90 n / s e c 4

ill

t h e d i r e c t i o i i frwi head t o f e e t

at r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h a t d i r o c t i o l i . Tile

q u e s t i o n i s ~vheblleri t can a l s o endore t h i s c o r u ~ t e r - ; ) r e s s u r e p e r s i s t e n t l y , i.e. a t l e a s t f o r 2CO

- 600 seconds.

One c o u l d a r g u e as P o l l o ~ v s r

I f I t i e a cord t o a dynamometer culd L r i i q t h e i i ~ d i c r z t o ro i t h e dyliar~om e t e r t o 10C g by a short, ~ l i a r pp u l l on t h e c o r d , then I cnrl s a y t h a t t h e c o r d eiidures a c o n s t u n t p u l l of 100 g , c e r t c i n l y i t c o i i s t m ~ t l y

endures u o r e tila1 G O g. But i f , i n s t e a d of a wool o r c o t t o n cord, I t a k e a t h r e a d wound o u t of p i t c h , tlie f a c t t h a t i t s t a n d s a p u l l of

1 C O =, a t t h e .:lo.:~ent does n o t say by f a r t h a t i t endures even 10 g

persistently.

1x1

f a c t , by t h e s u a l l e s t c o n s t m t weight, say by i t s

om ~veigt~t it , becocles s t e a d i l y l o n g e r and t h i n n e r and f i n a l l y b r e d i s .

r i g . 53.

I1'L'lle 3 a s i n Golitlola" d e r n o n ~ t r n t ~ sts, ' . ~r e s i s t c u l c e 1%XJ .LiID!, l%f,wlI'

of t h e collnective t i s s u e of t h e hwnan thi'gh-ball.

- There

n r e a l s o i n t e r :edinte l e v e l s . For exrwple, n s t r o i q pa?er t u b e

f i l l e d ~ v i t i ip i t c h i s a s t r u c t u r e ~ 1 1 i c i 1 does n o t brenl; ~ v i t ht h e a l i g l ~ t e s t

c o u a t m t p u l l and endures a very s t r o n g p u l l by j e r k s , i f i t i s l a t e r o'lly c;ive~, t i l i e t o r e ~ a i ni t s f o r r ~ . n u t i f t h e p u l l a c t s construltly, t h e resistrwlce d e c r e a s e s coi~sir!ernbly, One could say t h a t our bocly i s
s:.c!~ n s ~ - s t eo ~ t ' ~r i ~ i d and p l a s t i c su11stimces and t h a t v a r i o u s orC;i\lls

( l i v e r , Iiiclneys, sl,lecll) have t h e resistciiice of p i t c h a t 30 C. This ar&w:teilt, Ilovrever, i s not. sound. Tlie l i q u i d substcuice of our body has

nowliere t h e v i s c o s i t y of p i t c h a t ? S o . (At b e s t t h e g l u e contaii~ei:i u t h e bones ard 1 i@a.!ents, b u t e x a c t l y t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s 5 e s t endure c o u t i l ~ u e dp u l l w i d p r e s s u r e f o r otiler r e a s o n s ( c f . Pi,.

50)

).

The c o n e ~ l t a r rresistculce o f t h e nentioned tube of p i t c h i s s o l e l y based on t h e v i s c o s i t y of t h e p i t c h . The f l u i d and pulpy i u g r e d i e n t s of our body, on t h e otller haud, i v i l l n o t oppose a chtul-e i n for;! w i t h more r e s i s t a n c e tlian say t h a t of t h e i n t e s t i n i t l ;,ulp. 20 a% l e a s t 19/20 of t h e r e s i s t m i c e of our body depends on s u b s t a n c e s that behave l i h e t h e ivool cord above. The f 011owing c a s e was observed d u r i n g t h e war : A p i 1 o t went around 4 t i n e s i n a s p i r a l a t tile izost 140 a p p r o x i n a t e l y 216 Imi p e r hour = 60 ru/sec; coun t e r - p r e s s u r e of 31.5 m/sec"nor

i n d i a n e t e r a t a speed of he was tlius exposed t o a

12

over 29 seconds ~ vt h i out s u f f e r i n g

harm. T h i s c a s e n a t u r a l l y g r e a t l y f a v o r s tlly a s s u a p t i o n t h a t man w i l l endure t h i s counter-pressure f o r even 2004C'O seconds ( w i t h o u t c o ~ l p l e t e l y c o n f i r L ~ i n gi t ) .

Fit;. 50,
The f i g u r e s of 60 o r 8 0 t o 90 m/sec
8

given h e r e a r e only good

a v e r a g e v a l u e s a s a r e borne by p e r s o n s who have n e v e r been e s p e c i a l l y accustomed t o enduring high counter-pressure. NOW, t h e counter-pressure depends only on t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c o n n e c t i v e t i s s u e i n our body
and, a s i s w e l l - h o ~ r n , that can be s t r e n g t h e n e d by p r a c t i c e , whereas

i t d e g e n e r a t e s w i t h aon-use. For e r a ~ p l e ,I Imor of a c a s e vliere a f i r e n a n jumped from a h e i g h t of 25 m, strucIr t h e s a f e t y n e t i n a l y i n g

any h a m from Clle p o s i t i o n , and sanIc i n t o it 1 n w i t h o u t s u f f e r i n ~ jump. The counter-pressure wllicI1 he had t o endure d u r i n g t h e it~pczct Z c e r t a i u l y exceeded 240 m/sec

The Hawaii i s l a n d e r s a r e supposed t o l e a p i n t o t h e sen i n au u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n from an t?O-m-!~igl~c l i f f . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , they must s t r i k e t h e s u r f a c e o i t h e w a t e r a t 40 n/sec. l e s s than 10 m/secg, Even i f t h e c i r c w s t a n c e i~ taken i n t o account t h a t tile a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y i s a c t u a l l y sonewhat

and t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e i s considereci, a good 25 m/sec s t i l l remain a s t h e i r f a l l i n g v e l o c i t y . And s i n c e , i n t h e f i r s t

of over 300 m/sece.
D

moneut, t h e counter-;)ressure h e r e i n c r e a s e s a s t h e s q u a r e of t h e v e l o c i t y , we a r e d e a l i n g ~ v i t ha counter-pressure (More than t h e g r a v i t a t i o n of tile sun! ) I n lt:loctlell, I saw t h e photograph of an Anerican who jumps i n t o t h e water head f i r s t from a h e i g h t of 40 rn. Here t h e counter-pressu1.e person. T h e ~ ec a s e s a r e e x c e p t i o n s ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e c i t e d exosiples shoir t h a t I estimated very c a r e f u l l y when I based rry r o c k e t c a l c u l a t i o r ~ son a l~urnan r e s i s t a n c e t o counter-pressure of 40 m/sec and Br, GILL'LlT.
I 1 1

i s "only" 150-200 m/sec2,

but it

a c t s f r m tile f e e t t o t h e head; i t would c e r t a i n l y I c i l l

unpracticed

Other o b s e r v a t i o n s
1 3 y

on t h e e f f e c t of high counter-pressure were c o l l e c t e d

GrlItllf, TUNIZZ!l,

t h i s connection, a1 s o corupare "Die Rackete",

jounial

th ~e J u l y , 193C of t h e S o c i e t y f o r Space F l i g h t , Breslou. ( ~ s p e c i a l l i s s u e c o n t a i n s v a l u a b l e observations.)

b) Psycho1 o ~ i c a l Eff e c t s of Abnoiual Conditions of Counter-X'ressure

Our s e n s e organ f o r counter-pressure i s t h e v e s t i b u l e of t h e i n n e r e a r . F l o a t i n g i u t h e p e r i l p p h and lield i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e space by

s e n s i t i v e , e l a s t i c f i b e r s i s a c a l c a r e o u s w a b r m e wlliclt, ~ r h e n e v e r counter-pressure p r e v a i l s , n u s t b e supported by s e v e r a l f i b e r s , t h e r e b y i n d i c a t i n g t h e nagmitude and d i r e c t i o n ( t o t h e head) of t h e counterpregsmre. This organ i s s u p p l e r ~ e n t e dby t h e t h r e e s e r l i - c i r c u l a r c a n a l s ...eilt of t h e ]lead i n space, of t h e i n n e r e a r which i n d i c a t e t h e i.:o~e mid by t h e g e n e r a l body s e u s a t i o n ; e q p e c i a l l y by t h e iiluscle, j o i n t , touch, a i d p r e s s u r e a e u s a t i o n s a s well by t h e eye and tile judgment a s t o l o c a t i o n , p o s i t i b u , mid motion. The r e l a t i o n s l ~ i pbetween t h e s e components, i.e. t h e c o n n e c t i c ~nZ ~ tlle vax-ious t y p e s of i q r e s e i o u s a r e only t o t h e s u a l l e s t e x t e n t bnsed on conscious r e f l e c t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g o r p r a c t i c e ; they a r e t o t h e g r e ~ t e s t e x t e n t by f a r based
0 1 1

i n h e r i t e d i n s t i n c t s , whe~rcet l ~ e r a p i d i t y , dei)endabil i t y , o r t h i s organ as l o u c a s tlic ~.!ove;?o~~ts a r e of a of m o t h e r n a ~ ntude. i 1.011oviinp:

and self-evideuce

n a g n i t u d e rrhicli can s t i l l be produced by our ovm ~ ? u s c u l n rf o r c e ; whence a1 s o i t s s t r i l i i n g f a i l u r e w i t h r.:ove:lents a r e two c x a a p l e s of t h e above r

Fig. 5 1
L e t us imagine a c a r r o u s e l ( c f . Fig. 61). Tlle d i a l ~ e t e rof t h e roof

i s 2 r; and tlre s e a t s a r e suspcucled by 8 n . Yven i f it t u r u s f a s t ,

!mIcing one r e v o l u t i o n i n 6.5 s e c , tllc seusc of e q u i l i b r i u u of tile

r i d c r s i s & l o t i n t h e l e a s t clisturbcd ( i f t h e y do n o t b e c a l e d i z z y ; about t t m t l a t e r ) . For T = G.5 s e c , t h e s e a t s a r e pus:~ed o u t ~ r a r d1.15 making t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e G. 15 n . The v e l o c i t y i s 5.

t h e c e n t r a l a c c e l e r a t i n n 6 m/sec".
11 w/eec%zld
nt,

. n/sec

and

The r e s u l t i n g couuter-pressure i s

i s i n c l i n e d to~rorrl t h e v e r t i c a l by 26.S0. I n s p i t e of

this co~~siderabl ie c c l i n a i i o n of tile plumb l i u e , i n ~rilicll our Lody and t h e s e a t s p a r t i c i p a t e , re can hold a s t i c k p a x - a l l e l t o t h e e n r t l l l s

s u r f a c e ~ v i t l ieyes s h u t ; a t l e a s t , t h e averages of v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s of t h e s t i c k stlow no s y s t e i ~ ~ l t iec rror. I f a p i l o t ( ~ 5 5 ~2 . ) f l i e s ou a curve wit11 cr r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e o f 590 n a t 1 0 0

h i

p e r hour, t h e
~ G S the

counter-pressure has t h e sw:e conponeuts, t h a t i s i t the earth is fin;;

saJ.le

d i r e c t i o u and n a p i t u d e . 3 u t t h e p i l o t no l o n g e r has t h e f e e l i n g t h a t he hae t h e impression t h a t h i s plunb l i n e i s i n c l i n e d

Fig. 52 toward tile v e r t i c a l by about lo0, a r ~ dt h e e a r t h lias 1i f t e d by lGO and r e v o l v e s about t h e a x i s of h i s p a t h A (Fig. 53). :Ie does n o t f e e l d i z z y a s l o n g a s lie does :lot r e f l e c t about h i s p o s i t i o n . The p i l o t aboirt ~ v h mI spoke on p.
129 had s a ~ e w l ~ a tlie t i n p r e s s i o l i of Fig.

54.

:le d i d n o t f e e l d i z z y e i t h e r b u t f e l t hirilself t o be llrer~arIsably thin

and heavyu. I I i s v e l o c i t y d i d n o t " a c t u a l l y see'] very g r e a t " t o him,

a s i s t h a t t o him tirile appeared t o p a s s Llore sl olvly tl~rult i o m a l l y .

Fig. 53 I n a s i n i l a r way, a1 tliougli t o a 1e s s e r e x t e n t , one t h i n k s t h a t t h e t e l e ~ r a p hp o l e s a r e stuidin;.

0 1 1

a s l a n t when one l o o k s from t h e window of

an e x p r e s s t r a i n t h a t i s t a k i n g a curve.
Because of t h e c l o s e c o ~ l n e c t i o nbetween v a r i o u s co:lpoi~ellta, t h e

p s y c h i c e f f e c t s of t h e scue counter-pressure d i r f e r uilcler diZ'ferent c i r c u ~ i s t t m c e s . Counter-pressul-o r e s u l t i n g from c i r c u l a r r i o t i o ~ ii s t h e

1 e a s t u n p l e a s a n t . :'?it11 h o r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n i t a l r e a d y h a s a more

u n p l e a s a n t e f f e c t ; w i t h s l i ~ l i up~vard t accel erntion i t i s s t i l l nore

u n p l e a s a n t ( l i f t , bow of a s h i p i n heavy s e n ) . S t r o n g e r u p ~ r a r da c c e l e r a t i o n , on t h e o t h e r hand, i n no vay lias t h e sa;:e u n p l e a s a n t e f f e c t . I f a l i f t descending a t 1 m/sec i s b r o u ~ h tt o n 11al-t over 20 cn, t h e r e s u l t i n g counter-pressure a = 2 . 5

g m/sec2 l a s t i n g f o r 2 / 5 second

i s d e c i d e d l y n o r e u n p l e a s a u t tlian i f a = 23

g n/sec2

( s a y , iriial

juaping i n t o t h e w a t e r ) f o r 2/5 of a second. (Ye lisve an a n a l o g i n ticIclislmess. L i g h t e r touch t i c k l e s n o r e than s t r o n g e r touc1111

This phenomenon only occurs v i t h straiglrt-1 i n e a c c e l e r a t i o n . Tliat h a s been s u f f i c i e n t l y proved by s e v e r a l hundred o b s e r v a t i o n s . The deeper r e a s o n s probably l i e i n t h e f a c t t h a t , f o r s l i g h t c l ~ a n g e si n v e l o c i t y , i a b r u p t changes i n our psycho1 o g i c a l judgment i s s t i l l adequate; ~ vt11 velocit,y, however, t h a t judgilent f a i l s , s o t h a t we j u s t do n o t g r a s p t h e s e changes i n v e l o c i t y . For example, t h e f a c t t h a t OI'ZL wid VOLIUkUT were s o a f f e c t e d when r i d i n g t h e rocket-car was n o t t h e r e s u l t of s t a r t i n g t o o r a p i d l y , b u t , one could a l n o s t say, of s t a r t i n g t o o slowly. IIere t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n amounted t o 6-10 n/sec2, which s i n c e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o t i was p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y , r e s u l t e d i n j u s t t h a t i n f a u o u s counter-pressure of 13-14 n/sec2 which nlaIces i t s o u n p l e a s a n t i n a l i f t aud i n lienvy s e a s , a i d which s l ~ o u l dbe a b s o l u t e l y avoided w i t h rocIcet v e h i c l e s . I f t h e rocket-car liad s t a r t e d a t 30 m/secZ, t h e occupants would presuilably have been a f f e c t e d j u s t a s l i t t l e a s say :'IITTLXJIIN i n B r e s l a u was a f f e c t e d i n h i s teats.

f i r t h e m o r c , t h e e f f e c t s seeil t o d i f f e r g r e a t l y i f we a r e a l r e a d y aware of b e i n g i n ixotion o r a r e a t l e a s t prepared f o r tile occurrcuce of counter-prcsr,ure.

I t a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s uucli t o t h e p s y c l ~ i ce f f e c t whether

we f e e l rve a r e i n c o n t r o l of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o r , s t i l l b e t t e r , wIietlter we can s u g g e s t t o o u r s e l v e s tlirrt we d e s i r e t h e r e s p e c t i v e a o t i o n . Tlie v o l u n t a r y d i v e i n t o t h e water ( e s p e c i a l l y i f we simply jump i n an e r e c t p o s i t i o n and s l i g h t l y bend t h e knees t o g i v e u s t h e subconscious ii-ipression a s t h o u ~ h we w a i t e d t o jump d o ~ mon s o r ~ e t l i i n ~ ) I, b e l i e v e t h i s d i v e h a s a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t psycllic e f f e c t thml an i n v o l u n t a r y f a l l . I n f a c t , only such counter-pressures seem t o d i f f e r i n e f f e c t i n
~ I I U S Ce ~

which t h e producing Irinenatic q u a n t i t i e s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e t h a t , under favornbl e c i r c m i s t r u ~ c e s , we clui s t i l l produce by n e r e p e r s i s t e n t , o,nd unifoim c o u t e r - p r e s s u r e , porrer o r a r t i f i c i a l s u p p l e ~ ~ e n t a s qe - w s . 011 tlie otlier hand, s t r o n g , independently of how produced, s e e m t o have tlie same p q - c h i c e f f c c t ; t h e s e n s e of tlie e a r t h ' s p o s i t i o n

i s l o s t and t h e v e r t i c a l i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o tlie plutnh l i n e ( a l m o s t

nchievec'r i u Fig. 5 4 ) . Over-all slowly ( c f . p. view i s l o s t of t h e rtlover~ent a c t u a l l y c a r r i e d out. Curves a r e b e i n g underestimated. Time e e m s t o p a s s more

143). The p l e a s a n t o r unplensiuit side-eff e c t s mentioned

f a d e away t h e n o r e , t h e s t r o n g e r and more p e r s i s t e n t t h e counter-pressure. The s e n s a t i o n s of d i z z i n e s s a r e l ~ a s i c a l l yq u i t e v a r i a b l e . Only one thin; i s c o w o n t o a l l t y p e s : d i s t r u s t i n our t o p i c organ, t h a t i s d i s t r u s t i n our a b i l i t y t o o r i e n t o u r s e l v e s i n space aud i n our motive a p p a r a t u s , and t h e d e s i r e t o Iiolc! on t o so:.ietliing o r t o l i e a s low a s p o s s i b l e . :Te become d i z z y when, f o r any reason, our t o p i c s e n s e a p p a r a t u s does n o t ruork n o r . l a l l y ,
WIG^ i s

1) VJllen t h e p e r i l p p h i s i n n o t i o n i ~ s t e a dof a t r e s t ( f o r exsnple,

alien rrre t u r n suddenly, swing, e t c . ) o r when we liave a d i s o r d e r of t h e i n n e r e a r a s a r e s u l t of d i s e a s e ( u e n i e r e 1 s d i s e a s e ) and have n o t y e t

',rt,:c;lc

accustv-tcd

LC

the lierr c c o d i t i o n (as decf %id c?uiib pei.sous have

become accustomed t o t h e IacIc of t h e organ of e q u i l i b r i u n ) .

P) Vhen t h e e x t r e u e l y c ~ & ~ ~ l i c a connection ted between t h e t o p i c

impressious i s d i s t u r b e d because t h e r e s p e c t i v e b r a i n a r e a s do n o t f u c t i o n p r o p e r l y ( f o r exauple, because of blood p r e s s u r e , lac!< of blood, f e v e r , o r p o i s o n i n g s a y w i t h a l c o h o l o r n i c o t i n e ) . F i n a l l y , because c e r t a i n h a l l u c i n a t i o n s h i n d e r t h e nonnal a s s o c i a t i v e p r o c e s s e s (heightd i z z i n e s s , s t a g e f r i g h t , q o r a p h o b i a , and t h e 1i k e )

3) D i z z i n e s s occurs when t h e s i n g l e cozlponents of our t o p i c . s e n s i t i -

v i t y c o n t r d i c t each o t h e r , s o t h a t it a p p e a r s inadequate. F o r t u n a t e l y , d i z z i n e s s , i u t h i a ma-@, s e t s i n alcrost only w i t h i n t e n s e r e f l e c t i o n

on our p o a i t i o n . For oxaaple, on curves, a v i a t o r s only Lecone d i z z y

motion of t h e e a r t h . when they t h i n k a b o u t t l ~ e
4) $.%en we a l l o w t h o u g h t s of d i s t r u s t i n our t o p i c organ o r our

c a p a b i l i t i e s t o s u g g e s t therlselves .Lo us. '{{hen we aay t o o u r s e l v o s t h a t we a r e n o t equal t o t h e tnsIr b e f o r e us. (11ence t h e o l d r u l e r When working on a r o o f , mountain climbing, o r f l y i n g , do n o t r e f l e c t ! )

- If

our t o p i c organ works n o r x u l l y , n o s e n s e of d i z z i n e s s w i l l a r i s e

even wi tli t h e v i l d e s t t o p i c i l l u s i o n ( c f . Fig, 5 4 ) . U n i f o r u counter-pressure i t s e l f produces no d i z z i i l e s s . The deeper c a u s e s of s e a - s i c l n ~ e s s have a c t u a l l y n o t been explained u n t i l today. C e r t a i n l y i t i s u o t n l i g l l t " b r a i n sl:oclil', ( t i m t i s , a necliauical i n j u r y due t o ahnoma1 counter-pressure) shocI;s than tFiose caused by a heavy s e a ; ?) a d u l t s r e a d i l y than c h i l d r e n . (e.;;.. a s cmi be reud i n s a l e bccni-.e s e a - ~ i c I i !?ore luedical kooks, f o r 1) we aaiv t h a t t h e b r a i n euciures q u i t e d i f f e r e n t

l?ho woulrl l i k e t o b e rockcd i n a c r a d l e

3) Sea-sickness

f o r hours ? ) I t Iias been s h o w t h a t a c t u a l b r a i n shock occurs w i t h l e s s

l l u w i t h grown-ups. couuter-presoure w i t h c l i i l d r e ~t ~

s t o p s very quickly a s soon a s oue s t m ~ d sou s o l i d ground. tlrairl shocI;

t h a t had j u s t a s ominous symptoms can l a s t f o r days, ~ v e o l s , and even n m t h s . 4 ) Ses-sicImeas can be produced by s u ~ ~ e s t i o i n hypnosis and aoiaeti~:es even healed f o r a t i w e , b r a i n shock caunot. Sea-sicIcness appears t o be a m a t t e r of a t i s u l a t i o u of t h e para-

s y u p a t h e t i c nervous s y s t w . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t a p p a r e n t l y n o nlerms e x i s t by wllich t o m a k e a d u l t s d i z z y f o r 1onger than 1/2 hour w i t h o u t s e ~ ~ - s i c ! i z ~ eensuing. s~ No n a t t e r whether d i z z i n e s s i s caused by r e v o l u t i o n , slrin,rring, e x c e s s o r l a c k of blood, b r a i n shock (hence t h e e r r o r nelltioaed), n i c o t i n e , o r a n y t h i n g e l s e , i f only t h e d i z z y sensatio~~ ps e r s i s t 1ong enough, sea-siclaless w i l l r e s u l t . Conversely, lio~vever, sea-sicfaless cau a p p a r e n t l y a r i s e w i t h o u t being pr.eceded by s e u s a t i o u s of d i z z i n e s s . ( A f t e r ~ v ~ r doilce , p r e s e n t , nausea and vomiting a r e n a t u r a l l y always connected ivith d i z z i t i e s s because t h e nortlal c o u r s e of t o p i c a s s o c i a t i o n s i s d i s t u r b e d i n t h e p r o c e s s . ) :?it11 my r o c k e t , t h e ahor;.lal counker-pressure c e r t a i n l y produces no s e n s e of d i z z i n e s s . Yhether t h e observer, even t h e n , does !lot become sea-sick,

i s another

q u e s t i o n , I , p e r s o n a l l y , would l i k e t o deny it. I b e l i e v e sea-sickness

i s ~ r o t t u c e d..lore by t h e up and down cilange. IIitll u n i f o r u counterd,u r i n g t h e whole p r e s s u r e , no m a t t e r Ilox obnor!lal, i f , f o r e x a ~ ~ p l e voyage t h e s h i p only had t o go over a s i n g l e g i a n t wave, no sea-sicknees ivould occur. The fol1owii.y a p p a r a t u s n i g h t s e r v e f o r experimental r e s e a r c h concenlint; our r e s i s t a n c e t o l o n g - p e r s i s t i n g
m d f o r g e t t i n g a c c u s t o ~ e dt o

and s t r o n g counter-pressure,

a 1ong metal am 13, B t

I).

it. About Axle A ( c f . Fig. 55) r e v o l v e s which i s supported 11y ~vheel s C running on r a i l s

A t t h e end of 131, wason 1. hangs f r m hinge El. F does n o t touch t h e i n c a s e C 1 breuTss. l a e(jlla1izing weight Ft hangs

cround aid, being f u r n i s h e d w i t h irhecls bottoin f r o n t and s l e d r u n n e r s behind, s t o p s quic!rly i n E a t t h e end of Bl. The ~ r l i o l ea p p a r a t u s i s uade t o run a s smoothly

Fig. 55

as p o s s i b l e ; a t c , e l a s t i c s p r i n g s t h a t a r e n o t t o o s t i f f ( s t i l l b e t t e r a
chambers L f i l l e d w i t h a i r ) .are t o absorb t h e v i b r a t i o n . The p e r i o d of o s c i l l a t i o n of t h i s r e s i l i e n t d e v i c e i s supposed t o be a t l e a s t one second. The person experiraented w i t h i s placed i n F, from where t h e speed of t h e wagon i s being r e g u l a t e d . N a t u r a l l y , the r e v o l u t i o n speed

is a c c u r a t e l y recorded. S i n c e F r u n s i n d i t c h G aud t h e e a r t h i s p i l e d
i n an embanIment a l l around, t h e expericlent i s f u r t h e r n o t dangerous. Because of t h e slow s t a r t i n g , t h e l a r g e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e ( t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e must n o t b e under 60 m ) ,
and t h e j o l t - f r e e motion, t h e

i s almost v e r t i c a l , and s o we have a n e m s by which t o observe t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l a s well a s p s y c h i c e f f e c t of high c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e 1)

experimental person t h i n k s t h e counter-pressure

Nuolerous e x p e r i n e n t s have a l r e a d y been uracle on nant s r e s i s t m ~ c et o coun t e r - p r e s s u r e on a p p a r a t u s w i t h small r a d i i of curvature. They a r e v a l u a b l e i n t h a t they show u s t h a t man, a c t u a l l y endures u counter-pressure of 4 g and more.. According t o a l l t h a t h a s been s a i d here, however, they a r e u n s u i t e d f o r studying t h e psychol ogic e f f e c t of a counter-presstire w i t h which t h e d i r e c t i o n of n o t i o n cilenges l e s s r a p i d l y o r n o t a t a l l . W e s u r e l y do n o t wish t o over-estimste t h e psychol ogic a s p e c t of t h e n a t t e r , b u t n e i t h e r should we under-estimate it. Ilence, a t t h e couvention of t h e B.G.L. i n Danzig on J y e 4, 1938, I suggested b u i l d i n g t h i s apparatus. I t would b e f a r f r o a r e p r e s e n t i n g c o n s w i n g c a p i t a l . If it stood i n t h e Vienna amuseuent p a r k o r a s i m i l a r p l a c e , t h e r e would always be people w i l l i n g t o pay a few pence f o r r i d i n g around on it.

l<OO1mG

s u g g e s t s a c e n t r i f u c - e on which t h e experimental wagon a t

f i r s t hangs a l l ~ o s tv e r t i c a l l y from a tower and i s only l i f t e d t o almost v e r t i c a l l y f r m a tower and i s olily l i f t e d t o alldost t h e h e i e h t of t h e t o a e r during rotation. O n t k i a occasion, 1 w i l l d i v u l g e tlie f a c t t h a t
my f i r s t sIcetch was very s i n i l a r t o h i s , N e v e r t h e l e s s , I moved away

f r o n t h i s plan again becauoe, f o r one t h i n g , t h i s a p p a r a t u s would be rsuch t o o c o s t l y . Besides, r a t 1 1 t h e s l i g l l t e s t d i s p l a c e u e n t of t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y , t h i s t o a e r would swing (e.g., because of t h e wind, r a d i o towers swing up t o 1 m), IIence, t h e e x p e r i s e n t s would be dangerous. Against m y p l a n , railway e n g i n e e r s r a i s e d tlie o b j e c t i o n t h a t t h e wheels at C would h a r d l y s t m d t h e o u t s i d e speed and t h a t , above a l l , a t such speeds t h e u s e of g u i d e r a i l s i s o u t of t h e question.

-I

counter

by saying t h a t , i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e r a i l s do n o t s e r v e a s g u i d e s here. Even i f tlie wheels bounced up f r o n tlie r a i l s , they could only f a l l back on t h e r a i l s a g a i n , f o r t h e s t r o n g base a t d p e r r i i t s a s good a e n o o a c i l l a t i o n s and arm B a l s o can only swinb a few c e n t i ~ i e t r e sl o n g i t u d i n a l l y . So i t would n o t be n e c e s s a r y t o f u r n i s h t h e w1:eeIs w i t h r i n s t o engage t h e r a i l s . For t h i s reason t h e r a i l s a r e u o t s u b j e c t t o any s i d e f o r c e i n s p i t e of tlie curve. S i u c e we a r e n o t d e a l i n g w i t h r a i l ~ v a y t u r b i n e wheel could be a p p l i e d when r h e e l a , t h e p r i n c i p l e s of LJV~~L'S c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e s e wheels, s o t h a t t h e i r o u t s i d e speed need n o t worry u s .
5.

Lack of Counter-Pressure only when when t h e

Gn t h e ground, we observe t h e l a c k of counter-pressure

notlling b u t t h e i n e r t i a of a body balances i t s wei@ht, i . e .

body can f r e e l y f o l l o w tlie p u l l of g r a v i t y . This i s t h e c a s e of unsupp o r t e d (thrown o r f a l l i n g ) bodies. And even t h e r e , counter-pressure i s a c t u a l l y c o l ~ p l e t e l ylac?cing onlg when t h e body i s n o t i n iiotion, and t l ~ n tc w ~only be t h e c a s e f o r a 1-.01se11t ( a :loving body i s supported by

sir r e s i s t u ~ c e ) .

I n t h e universe, t h e l a c k of counter-pressure i s n a t u r a l l y more frequent. E i t h e r no counter-pressure producing f o r c e r a c t on t h e 8ystem ( a s on the whole universe), o r ( a s SEELIGFR aaaunes, f o r example) t h e a t t r a c t i n g f o r c e s of t h e s i n g l e eystema of f i x e d stars do n o t reach each other, o r they still a t t r a c t each other, b u t t h e d i f f e r e n t a t t r a c G ing f o r c e s a c t i n g on the system f r a n t h e o u t r i d e cancel each other o u t ( t h a t could, f o r example, be t h e case with t h e f i x e d r t a r s i n r i d e t h e
3 i l E r y way), F i n a l l y , the body may be a b l e t o f r e e l y follow every gravita-

t i o n a l p u l l ( a t a r a on t h e edge of t h e Milky W a y , planets., etc.). The l a c k of counter-pressure i s characterized by t h e f a c t t h a t no outside f o r c e s tend t o d i s p l a c e t h e p a r t s of t h e system x i t h r e s p e c t t o each other, Hence movable p a r t s arrange t h ~ s e l v e ai n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e f o r c e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e system, For example, i f I jump i n t o t h e water from a s u f f i c i e n t h e i g h t holding a f l a a k with mercury in it, t h e mercury forms a sphere i n t h e middle of t h e f l a s k and c l i n g s t o t h e g l a s s a t only one place ( c f , Fig. 56).
(TO

compensate f o r t h e air

r e s i e t a n c e , I f i r s t hold t h e f l a s k above my head and them move it down x i t h increasing a c c e l e r a t i o n ; often it must a l e 0 be t i l t e d sideways.) A wetting l i q u i d , on t h e other hand (cog. r a t e r ) , seeks t o r i s e on t h e s i d e s and f o r c e t h e a i r t o t h e middle of t h e f l a s k (Fig. 57).

Fig. 56

Fig. 57

(~hia experiment aucceeda only i f the w a l l s o f . t h e f l a s k a r e moist

Otherwise t h e water does n o t have time t o r i s e , ) I f t h e r e a r e pebbles a t the b o t to m of t h e r a t e r f l a s k , they a r e d r a m away from the bottom i n t o the water, etc.

T h i s i s i u p o r t a u t f o r r e - s t a r t i n g a space-ship,

f o r e x m p l e . ?'Then

t h e f i r e i s s h u t o f f , t h e l i q u i d s ascend along t h e walls and f o r c e t h e vapor t o t h e c e n t r e . Therefore, t h e p i p e s used f o r drawing o f f l i q u i d s n u s t n o t p r o t r u d e t o t h e c e n t r e . I f , however, p i p e s a r e provided f o r d r a v i n g o f f vapor ( i n node1 E, I was a b l e t o avoid it), t h e y must run from top t o c e n t r e and have n c l o s a b l e opening b o t h on top ( f o r s t a r t of f l i g h t ) and i n t h e c e n t r e ( f o r r e - s t a r t i n g ) . I f ve can i,%ore t h e forces o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e systen, a l l f r e e l y

moving p a r t s of a s y s t e n r e u a i n i n t h e stwe p o s i t i o n o r observe t h e s a n e u n i f o m n o t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o each o t h e r . I f , w h i l e ciaIsing t h e above-nentioned jump, I hold a s t o n e i n my liruld, I can l e t i t go and

it rill r e a a i n i n t h e s a c p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o my body. I f I touch

it, i t c o n t i n u e s t o move u n i f o r o l y , a s seen from uy p o s i t i o n , I n s o doing, because of tlie a i r r e s i s t a n c e , i t s b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t u u s t

equal Chat of m y body; s o i t must be q u i t e l a r g e .

6. The Effect, on Man, of Minor o r l h t i r e l y Lacking Counter-Pressure

a ) Physical E f f e c t Reducirlg t h e counter-pressure f o r a few hours o r days can do u s no p h y s i c a l harm. A l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r l i f e c r e p o s s i b l e i n t h e u p r i g h t a s well a s i n t h e l y i n g p o s i t i o n , and i t is i r r e l e v a n t whether we l i e oil t h e back, s i d e , o r stor:acli. This f a c t alone sllo~rs that w e a r e n o t dependent on counter-pressure f r o u a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n
as a r e p l a n t a , f o r era,i~l)le, :vilich have a very queer Tray of growiuz ai t h ahnor. 181 concli t i o l l s of coun t e r - p r e s s u r e

( 2 r . 2, STOtPZL, IIauburf;,

h a s proved t l i i s by n e w s of n e a n i n ~ f u lexperit!euts). I t w o u l d be n d i i f e r e n t x j t t e r i f comiter-pressure de;eneratc were l a c k i n g

o r eve11 rceIrs; i n t h i s c a s e , our ~ n ~ s c l e mid s 1iga::lents ~vould for d a ~ s t h r o u ~ l ic?isuse wrl, wllell r e t u r u i u g t o e a r t h , vre ~vould s u f f e r

s e r i o u s i n j u r y from tlie counter-pressure

G:J;PI,'S

( a s , f o r e x m p l e , 1:atulIia i n

novel, "The S h o t i n t o t h e ~ n i v e r s e l ' ) . i s t o t r a v e l f o r ~veeIrs, it w i l l he good t o a r r a n g e

If a space-ship

t h e o b s e r v e r ' s cocIipit s o t h a t i t i s connected t o t h e r e s t of t h e space-ship by ouly a c a b l e a i d r o t a t e s & o u t i t s o r a p i d l y t h a t a counter-pressure s i - i l a r t o t h a t of t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y p r e v a i l s i n t h e o b s e r v e r ' s ~ ~ ~ I idue p i tt o Lhe c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e . ( ~ . : 9 . GAIL g i v e s a v i v i d d e s c r i p t i o n of such a r o t n t i n z oobserverts c c c k p i t i n h i s n o v e l ,
"The S t o ~ ~ from e t h e ;.!oonw. For p s y c h o l o g i c a l reasonq, however, I soulcl

have nade t:le coilnectinz cab1 e c o u s i d e r a b l y 1on;;er. )

'u) P s y c l ~ i cEffect,

A1 t : i o u ~ h r e d u c i ~ qt ! l e counter-i~ressui-e has no ptiysical e f f e c t worth

..ell ti on in^, i t does have colAoii.erable psychic e f i e c t s . N tllou~;li, today, -:an cau ! ! e ~:'i i,:~dra~vilfror! coun ter-prez ;nre f o r f r a c t i o c s of n secoilc! 0;11y (.:ale1

;., .r!lei~ 12c j ~ ~ i l pPsr o

a'ilr CI P T ~LP(: : : l o i r r t ; we

C A I ,

'jJ.

-1iuii~iz-

tile f e e l in,

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('3Y i u f l u e n c i n ~tile or;;an

of

- < i i l i h r i m ~~ . ~ ; ~ r o ~ : r i a t ?rociuce e l ~ ) , tLe psycilol o,icnl

e f r e c t s of t h e Psyc:~ol0,) teaches

l ,cr-

of couu tcr-t;~.c.,sux~e, f o r :hey 5 u t o,.l:

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h o t c'eter :iilec! by t h e a c t u a l

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eve11t 'uy !i s l end i::, t h e sel; s e orgculs h a s t h e

erLect ol" the e~ei~", t s n l f . c r e col-ipared v i t h t h o s e o,.e IILLS :::leu

:

If tile s e ; i s a l i o i : ~thus crc;terl

;i;.i,piLl;
01.

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01ei*atec'l p o i n t , 0:.

?I $:!.ins : : pic21;i.e of

l i i ~ !: : z ~ * r ; : . i C ~~ ~ C C L $ 1 1 ~ Ific:; o f
: correct a

C O * L J ~ : . T \ I . - ~ I - ~ Z S Y - ~~vliich ~~, is

certaiuly

L'irsL; s o . ~ euiiccrtniilt.;. re.ilziil~ a t t h e l a t e r s t a z e s , s i n c e

they c a ; ~ n o tbe v e r i f i e d by t!ie juzL1p. C e r t a i n l y , t h e coilnection b e t ~ r e c n our collsciou,suesa

and the o r p i

of eciuilil~i-i~ (w:iicll l i s rly c i e s i ~ u n t i o if~ o r tile c a l c a r e o u s Lie >brane

i n tile v e s t i b u l e of tile e a r , a s a l r e a d y a e n t i o n e d ) i s i n t e r r u p t e d clurinz

s l e e p . C t ; i e ~ v i a ei t ~ ~ o u l c :;ot l be p o s s i b l e t o dreazi of e q ~ e r i e ~ ~ c oe th ne r thml t ; l o ~ ewe have :rrilen i u a lyin; positiou,

111

s o doill;;,

tlic re;t.;oi~in_rr of t h e sensory

fw~ctioxs ; ~ ; uto r ~ ~ a l l fy a l l z s l e c p r i r s t olid t h e ;rul,lin

s e r v e s ot:ly l a t e r . Otilemi5e oae has t h e f a n i l i n r dren=.~ 02 f a l l i n ~ frog sor~e-r!lere s:iortly ! ~ e f o r ef a l l i t i ~ ;a s l e e p . This i:.!pression can n l s o be prociucecl Ijy l y p n o s i s o r axto-su;~e; t i o n (I cannot s o i n t o furt!ler Se t a i l e f f e c t a i d oile c m l a t e r scopolW1itle i n such

here). I T tile or;;an of cc:uil

t h e f i r s t Eri::lit
110

il~rilc i~ s put i n t o oufficier~tly deep s l e e p ,

lo11~;er 1:as nu arousin::

observe the p s y c h i c e f f e c t 3 of t.:le lac!: up~vards of <.(.La?

of c o w ~ t e r - p r e s s u r e . There a r e

al!:al o i d s t h a t nrlest;ietize t h e o r g u of e p i l i b r i w i , e.2.

( ! ) 2 ; u i f o r t u n a t e l y , it i s a l r e a d y da,n,rl;-ocs
of counter-pressure, t h e general

a dose. I n ftct, s c o , ) o l m i n e a l o a e i s n o t s u f f i c i e r ? t t o ,?roduce a

c o ~ u ~ t e r f e io +f , t h e lac!:
t ; ~ esTcin

:uscle .u;d

j o i u t seuactiol: ; ~ s n t l s o be su!,prcssed
IR:.SC!

(sap by .,ems of a l c o l l o l ) , mlc!

li:.e::ix (I;? z e t t i u ;

i n t o t h e water o r by a p : ~ l y i i ? ~ ..~~ns:h-

- The
n

etizin~ s u b s t r ~ ~ c e s ( c o c a i n e ) t o t h e sIcin a t t h e supported p l a c e s ) . i l l - r e p u t e d \vitc:ils o i n t n e i i t of t h e '-iddl e k e s a l s o had the

e f f e c t , s ion,- o t h e r t l i i n ~ s , of c ? e a c ~ e ~ ~ tlla iu~ f e e l i;if; of counter-!~resnure.,*erLnii~coupounc?~of bi-omine l i k e ~ r i s ea f r e c t t h e organ of e q u i l i b r i u m i n tinis s e n s e , b u t the;* d i s t u r b t h e psychic s i d e - e f l e c t s of counter-pressure. of t h e l a c k

- The

organ of e q u i l i b r i u m can a l s o be i r r i t a t e d

by e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n ; we t11infi we a r e f a l l i n g towarcl tile cat11ode. Iu t h e f i r s t f i l t h of a secoud, t h e l a c k of counter-pressure produces f r i g h t . The f r i ; ; k t i s t h e l e s s , 1) t h e c o r e o f t e n we have a l r e a d y eszeriencec: t h e l a c k of counter-pressure; 9 ) t h e b e t t e r we a r e prepared f o r

i t occurrin,rr. I f t h e s e n s a t i o n of counter-pressure i s n o t estinf;uisiled

suddellly a s i n a jump o r i n hypnosis, b u t g r a d u a l l y as i n t h e a p p l i c e t i o n
o f poisons, uo f r i g h t a t a l l i s felt.

The f r i ~ l i t i s i o l l o ~ r c dLy a ,,ecul i n r c1ra:rin~ s e n s c t i o b

iil

the area

of t h e eso!)hz~us, ;;iiic11 Lraciu;.ily subsitles asrain a f t e r alboat I/? r ~ i u u t e . I n tlie f i r s t sccoilrl, t?le b r a i n and t h e s e c s e o r z s n s a l s o b e s i n t o funct i o n very i u t e n s i v e l y , t!ie r e c e p t i v i t y t o s e n s e n11d toslcii i n p r e s s i o n s i n c r e a s e s , tlle b r a i n a s s o c i a t e s incretIi?)ly f a s t , t h o c ~ l l t s8i:d icecisious a r e d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y and l o ~ i c a l l yd i r e c t e L t o c o n c r e t e tkiu;s. two ~ i n u t e ssee: 1i!,e The f i r s t o r !low -!ucli f o u r hocrs, y e t one llas a f e e l i n f~

t i n e has a c t u a l l y pas.:ed. go ill^ h m d i n limrl ~ ~ i t i l tl i s a peccl i e r i l i s e 3 s i ! ~ i li t y t o p ~ i i lan(l 1i s t l e s s n e s s i r l ~ i c : c ~o u t i n n e s l~eyoad t h e s t a t e of lac!:inz counter-pressure, i f iiie l e t t e r does ilot l a s t t o o I ong. This nay be t h e reason 1 : . 1 1 y ju!upin,rr i n t h e e a t e r i s f e l t as an a n u s e l e n t

and n o t a t o r t u r e . In i t s e l f , n e i t h e r t h e punish-.cut on t h e s o l e s of
t!le f e e t t h a t one g e t s irhm~- 2 e e t i n ~t h e v a t e r f e e t f i r s t nor t h e r u s h of blood t o t h e liead when t h e heud coxes f i r s t i s a pleagure. X concept i o n of up a i d domi i s ~ t r e s e r v e db u t , w i t h eyes c l o s e d , i t can h a r d l y agree ~ r i t r le ~a l i t y . I n ny opinion, t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n f u r n i s h e s t h e o b j e c t i v e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e s e n s a t i o n of cowl t e r - p r e s a u r e i s a c t u a l l y e x t i n L a i s h e d l ) . Tile h e a r t vorlis f o s t e r tiian u s u a l . It uoy be p o s s i b l e t o e x p l a i u a l l t h e s e syaptons t e l eol o g i c a l l y . I n n a t u r e , coimter-pressure

i s 1acT:i.n~;~ r cn i ive f a l l off somewhere, m d then i t i s a r l a t t e r of u o t

b e i n g l a c h d i r i s i c a l , of observing c l e a r l y a d s h a r p l y , and u s i n g every p o s s i b i l i t y t o save o u r s e l v e s .

') Novels on space f l i g h t o f t e n d e s c r i b e irr v i v i d c o l o r s t h e i n t e n s e i n n e r experience t h a t persons n u s t have when t h e y no l o n g e r s e e t h e e a r t h a s t h e foundation o f a l l t h a t e x i s t s b u t o n l y a s a s t a r m o n g s t a r s . Here ie c m exmple :
"Lindner suddenly u t t e r e d a 1oud c r y and p o i n t e d downward w i t h o u t s t r e t c h e d a m . Vest and e a s t , s o u t h and n o r t h , b e s i d e and beliind t h e e a r t h , t h e y saw space, t h e y aa;;. t h e s t a r s g l i m e r . d e they saw t h e n i g h t y s p h e r e f l o a t r r e e l y i n space ( t h e e a r t h can never b e seen a s a sphere, a t b e s t a s a d i s c i n t h e sIcy; n o n o r e could one s e e t h e s t a r s behind t h e e a r t h , f o r t h e hwan eye cannot e s t i u a t e such d i s t a n c e s . !I. c . ) , t h e s p h e r e ou which they had stood and, i n a l l p h y s i c a l and nathenatic-geographic education, had always been a f i m , i w o v a b l e , s t r a i g l i t foundation i n t h e subconcious, t h e y s u f f e r e d an i n n e r shock

L a t e r , t h e s e phenonena grow Weaker. The h e a r t , obviously f a t i g u e d , r o r k e more slowly than usual1), t h e b r a i n a l s o works u o r e slowly, and

conparable t o t h e blow of a cannon-ball which, i n t h e t u r n o i l of b a t t l e , r i p s o f f a s o l d i e r ' s a m and makes hixl t h e n o r e conscious of t h e f a c t t h a t he i s n i s s i n g something and can and u u s t 1i v e v i t h o u t t h i s p a r t of h i s body which h e had considered a s an i n s e p a r a b l e p m t of h i s person." (~rom LUDYIG AHTON'S "Bridges Across I n t e r p l crnetary Space1', Johann Georg Rolzwerth, p u b l i s h e r . )

D r . U'tL DEBUS even aslcs whether inan w i l l b e a b l e t o s u r v i v e t h e emotional shock a t el ? (LW, "The P o s s i b i l i t y of I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Fl i g h t t l , Hachmeister and Thal ~ e i p z i ~ ) .

To c l a r i f y t h e q u e s t i o n , I would l i k e t o reclark : 'Wp" and "down" a r e concepts o r c a t e g o r i e s , t h a t i s modes of contemplation which we a s s o c i a t e w i t h s t i m u l i from our s e n s e organa. One can a l s o say t h a t "upll and "down" a r e e1er:ents of r e p r e d e n t a t i o n which, because of t h e way our b r a i n works, mnat b e a b s o l u t e l y included i n every s e n s a t i o n and concept of ours. ( ~ 0 t h d e s i g n a t i o n s s a y bL>,sicly t h e same t h i n g . )

The space t r a v e l l e r w i l l n a t u r a l l y a l s o have t h e s e n s a t i o n of %pw aud ridownll s i u p l y because he cannot ,have a s i n g l e experience i n which t h e s e elet.:ents of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n would n o t b e included. For t h a t m a t t e r , a high-flying a i r ~ l a nn o l o n g e r views t h e e a r t h a s tile foundatiori of a l l t h a t e x i s t s b u t a s a b a s i n covering t h e lower f o u r - t e n t h s of t h e empty s p h e r e a t t h e c e n t r e of which h e f i n d s h i t i s e l f . i : ~ c experl~rge i e n c e of t h e space t r a v e l l e r w i l l cliff e r from t h a t of t h e h i g h - f l y i n g a i r a a n only i n t h a t , w i t h him, tlie lower p a r t of t h i s s p h e r e i s n o t p o i n t e d over w i t h a t e r r e s t r i a l map b u t w i t h a s t e l l a r nap.
This c h o n ~ ei n t h e h e a r t tllrougll a b n o m a l e o r r d i t i o ~ i sof cotulterp r e s s u r e i e a p u r e l y psycliol o g i c a l process. P h y s i o l o z i c a l ly, t h e work tlie l i e a r t n u s t p e r f o r n , even w i t h t h e hi,hest act-issable countar-?rc,.:ure, i*~creases a t t h e s o s t by 1/10.
If, a s sketched i n Fig. 67a, we uaIce t h e water i n o c i r c u l a r p i ~ e c i r c u l a t e by .;ems of p w p P, t h e worIc of t h e puxp will b e n e a r l y independent of counter-pressure. T t i s t r u e , l i f t i n g t h e l i q u i d i n t!ie one o r n i s n o r e d i f f i c u l t , b u t 10; t h a t # :,'~e downward p r e s s u r e i n .the o t h e r a r J i s g r e a t e r , ao t h a t tile tlio e i r e c t s c m c e l each o t h e r out.

Fig. 678

At n o s t , t h e circumstance would have t o be considered t h a t , i n t h e lower p a r t of t h e pipe, a c t u a l l i q u i d i s under g r e a t e r p r e s v u r e and hence t h e f r i c t i o n a g a i n s t tlie all i s &re;.tcr..
I i t ot.r s m a l l e s t 31 ooc!. v c s a e l s , t h e so-called c a p i l l a r i e s , t h e f r i c t i o n i s g r e a t e r when tlie blood-pressure i s higher. I n s o doing, however, t h e increase i n f r i c t i o n i s n o t proportional t o t h e increase i n pressure ( t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e o u t s i d e a i r of 1 atm ~ J U Sb~ e added t o t h e bloodp r e s s u r e ) , f o r tlie c a p i l l a r y wall i s e l a s t i c and expands somewhat when t h e blood-pressure i n c r e a s e s . As i s we1 l-Imomm, however, l i q u i d f l OIVS = o r e e a s i l y through r i d e p i p e s than through narrow ones,

L e t u s f i g u r e t h e o u t s i d e - a i r p r e s s u r e t o equal t h e p r e s s u r e of a colu-a1 of water 10 m h i g h m d t h e n o n ~ a lblood-pressure i n tlie c a p i l l a r i e s ( t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e l a r g e r v e i n s does n o t i u t e r e s t u s h e r e ) on t h e average t o equal t h a t of a c o l u m of l r a t e r 60 cm hit;h. Nov, i f a nan e x p e r i e n c e s t h e counter-pressure i n a l y i n g p o s i t i o n , t h e i n c r e a s e i n b l ood-pressure i n t h e 1owest-lying c a p i l l s r i e s e q u a l s t h e p r e s s u r e of a colunn of water under n o r n e l c o n d i t i o n s whose h e i g h t e q u a l s t h e d i m e t e r of tlie rlau t h e s t h e counter-pressure i n u n i t s of g r a v i t a t i o n . K a t u r o l l y , on t h e average, t h e i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e i s only h a l f a s g r e a t . The work of t h e h e a r t i s s t i l l n o t 1 l/a t i n e s a s g r e a t a s t h e work i t n o r n a l l y h a s t o perform i n l y i n g p o s i t i o n . But i t can manage 4 8 tines t h i s work.

Therefore, one could a t t h e s o s t c o n s i d e r t h e h e a r t a s s t o p p i n g f o r psychologicrrl reasons. 3 u t every i.ledical d o c t o r t r i l l confirm t h a t n o t h i n g can ever f o l l ow from psycho1 o g i c a l r e a s o n s a1 one t h a t causes death. dt any r a t e , q i n v e s t i g a t i o n s g i v e adequate proof t h a t very high counterp r e s s u r e produces no psychological e f f e c t s whatever. laen VALIEX w r i t e s t h u t , w i t h high counter-pressure, t h e h e a r t would n o t b e capable of f u l f i l l i n g i t s t a s k , he i s expressillg complete nonsense. :'71TTI(UIIN9S experiments i n B r e s l a u ( c f . "RaI<etel', Vol. 1928-99, p. 100) have shown t h a t high counter-pressure i n no way a l t e r s t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e h e a r t ,

t h e s e n s i t i v i t y t o pin-pricks,

p r e s s u r e , and p i n c h i n g i n c r e a s e s , b u t

does n o t become a s g r e a t a s u s u a l . Only t h e p e c u l i a r freedom from l i s t l e s n e s s appears t o continue u n d i n i n i s h e d a s l o n g a s t h e r e i s n o s e n s a t i o n of counter-pressure. No sea-sicImess was ever observed, even afterwards. In f a c t , s l e e p i n e s s s e t i n soon; d r e w s were u o s t l y p l e a s a n t . !?ith r e p e t i t i o n of a c e r t a i n experi-lent, a l l t h e s e phenomena decrease. For ex=-iple, every f l y e r i ~ l c l o u f i r n t h a t t h e drawing f e e l i n g i n h i s

c h e s t and s t o r ~ a c hregion was rluch s t r o n g e r d u r i n g h i s f i r s t r a p i d d e s c e n t s than d u r i n g t h e l a t e r ones. I n f a c t , t h e q u e s t i o n i e how nmy of t h e observed symptoms can r e a l l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e l a c k of counterp r e s s u r e . They a r e of t h e type t h a t cwmouly a r i s e wit11 e x c i t e a e n t over an unusual s i t u a t i o n . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e l a c k of counter-pressure, once it i s n o l o n g e r an unusual s t a t e , would have no psychic e f f e c t s . I f a d e a f d ~ u t e ,wllose organ of e q u i l i b r i u m i a d i s t u r b e d , c l o n e a h i s eyes when i n t h e water, he no l o n g e r knows where i s up o r down a d a t f i r s t becomes f r i g h t e n e d . I f he o f t e n r e p e a t s t h e e x p e r i a e n t ( ~ r e f e r a b l ~ holding an a i r tube i n h i s mouth), every t r a c e of a n x i e t y f i n a l l y vanishes. The l a s t observation s u p p o r t s t h e assumption t h a t uan can l i v e witho u t t h e s e n s a t i o n of counter-pressure j u s t a s well a s with it. But i f t h a t were n o t t h e case, it would n o t p r e v e n t m a u from ascending i n a rocket. For, 1) a s we e a r , we have means by which t o delude our s e n s a t i o n of counter-pressure, counter-pressure as s o t h a t we would s e n s e abnornal c o n d i t i o n s of
! I ) by c o n d i t i o n i n g a s i n t h e c a s e of deaf-

n u t e a , t h e e f f e c t of abnornal c o n d i t i o n s of counter-pressure could l i k e l y be removed; 3) f i n a l l y , t h e r e would always b e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of connecting t h e o b s e r v e r ' s c o c k p i t and r o c k e t by only a c a b l e and l e t t i n g them r o t a t e about each o t h e r . Note : Our h o w l e d g e of t h e p h y s i o l o g i c e f f e c t of abnormal conditions

of counter-pressure i s today s t i l l q u i t e fragmentary. Hence I would be h o n e s t l y t h a n k f u l f o r any i n f o m a t i o n i n t h i s area. I t waa h e r e a c t u a l l y

q y d e s i r e only t o show t h a t p r e p a r a t o r y work is p o s s i b l e i n t h i s area.

I r a n a l r e a d y acquainted w i t h t h i s e f f e c t of scopolamine i n 1916 and suggested it a s a remedy f o r sea-aicknesa. Today, it i s a c t u a l l y being used t o g e t h e r with a t r o p i n e ( i n o r d e r t o remove c e r t a i n u n p l e a s a n t s i d e - e f f e c t s of scopolamine) i n t h e Vasano t a b l e t s . I n m y opinion, t h e i r e f f e c t i s based n o t , a s t h e i n v e n t o r , Prof. Dr. STARKENSTEIN, Prague, b e l i e v e e , on a primary calming of t h e sympathetic nervous system; r a t h e r , t h i s i e only a r e s u l t of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f e e l i n g of c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e i s being p a r t i a l l y suppressed.

7. C r i t i c a l Reiaarka.

I n conclusion, I would l i k e t o p o i n t o u t a few e r r o r s t h a t are v e q f r e q u e n t l y being made i n 1i t e r a t u r e on space f l i g h t .

1. Cine o f t e n f i n d s t h e viewpoint r e p r e s e n t e d t h a t counter-pressure

stops oqly when t h e space-ship i s found i n g r a v i t a t i o n - f r e e

space.

For e x m p l e , JULE3 VEWE l e t s h i s t r a v e l l e r s t o t h e moan f l o a t i n s i d e t h e p r o j e c t i l e only as long as it p a s s e s through t h e g r a v i t a t i o n - f r e e zone between e a r t h and uroon. A s I a l r e a d y s a i d , t h a t i s wrong. I f r e ( ~ i g .58) hold an o b j e c t i n t o a f r w e of l a t h e b and l e t both drop a t once, t h e f i g u r e remains i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e f r a e w i t h o u t " f a l l i n g " t o t h e bottom, f o r t h e f r a n e n a t u r a l l y d r o p s j u s t as f a s t a s t h e figure.

Fig. 58 The r o c k e t i s exposed t o counter-pressure only as l o n g a e it burnr; w i t h f r e e f l i g h t , however, even t h e s t r o n g e s t f i e l d of g r a v i t y can no l o n g e r p u l l t h e observer t o t h e ground ( c f .
On the o t h e r hand,

w r i t e r s who dreau about epace-ships nade of weight-less m a t e r i a l e (a8 DOlIINIK, LASSiYITZ, o r LUKYIG AXTON) can n a t u r a l l y l e t t h e i r h e r o s f e e l counter-pressure d u r i n g f l i g h t , f o r h e r e t h e body follo.rre t h e p u l l of g r a v i t y , b u t t h e apace-ship on which h e s t a n d s doe8 not.
JULES VEWE i s j u s t a s wrong when h e mi t e a t h a t t h e p r o j e c t i l e

alwaye turns t h e heavy bottom s u r f a c e toward t h e a t t r a c t i n g heavenly

body. I n a i r - f r e e space, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y of t h e t i p

i r n a t u r a l l y j u e t a s g r e a t as t h a t of t h e bottom, and s o t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p r o j e c t i l e i s e n t i r e l y a r b i t r a r y . By s l i d i n g t h e i r hands along

t h e w a l l e ( ~ i g .5 9 ) , t h e occupantr could g i v e t h e p r o j e c t i l e any d e s i r e d p o s i t i o n i n space; they could a l a o e e t t h e i r r o c k e t i n t o o p e r a t i o n a t my time 1)

Fig. 5 9 According t o BOIESWN, "The R e s c h i b i l i t y of t h e Heavenly Bodiea ll. ( ~ l d e n b o u r g Munich, 19S5)

P. Anotlier s i n a g a i n s t t h e problecl of counter-pressure even h a s

t h e honor, mong o t h e r thinge, of having been c m m i t t e d by & d o c t o r o f engiaeerinc. Concerned i s t h e following
1

A body a t an a l t i t u d e of about 500 km above t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( j u s t high enough s o t h a t t h e a h o s p h e r e i a no 1 onger f e l t ) , which uoves a t a v e l o c i t y of 7.8 b / s e c i n a h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n , cannot f a l l t o e a r t h b e c w s e t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e j u s t balances t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y . Proof :
@

The f i r s t f o r d u l a follows f r m (53) and t h e secoud from NEWTON'S law of g r a v i t y . S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e above f i g u r e s , we obtain

I ) I am i n c l u d i n g t h i s illustration a s an e x t u p l e of HOIEUNNtS p e c u l i a r t a l e n t of achieving h i s purpose by e i n p l e means. For an engineer, t h a t

is c e r t a i n l y a c a p a b i l i t y t h a t caunot be value& t o o !lighly.

Since t h e r e i s de f a c t o weightlessness, t h i s crawling about along t h e w a l l s i s q u i t e useless. IIOEFFT has c r i t i c i z e d BOItIANhT an t h i s account, aclong other things; i t seems t o ne, very unjustly. Since IIOWFT often r e f e r r e d t o ne i n t h e s e explanations, I wish t o explain herenit11 t h a t I consider I ~ O work ~ as ~ ba ~s i c Si n soue p o i n t s and t h a t I have learned much from it. I t would be well f o r IIOE'FF'T t o produce something approaching IIOIILWNfS achieveuents i n value before r a i l i n g a t IIOIlbWNNf S.
I

This body n a t u r a l l y weighs nothing; it i s n o t s u b j e c t t o any couuter-pressure, Nov, many people inagine t h i s body only needs t o b e given a f i l l i p upward and i t would fly away from the e a r t h , s i n c e it "weighs nothing". That t h a t i s i n c o r r e c t can be shown i n two ways. F i r s t of a l l , t h i s idea u i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t t h e law of the preservation of euergy. Ve c m ~irsasine a hich tower being attached t o my heaveuly body. Then we l e t a body f l y up i n a s p i r a l i n t h e suggested narlxler
a i ~ da t the very top i t i s
wc recover

t o a r r i v e a t the t i p of the tower. There

it cud use i t s k i n e t i c energy i n the perforrlmlce of aorIs. Thou we sixply l e t it f a l l i n s i d e the tower a d likewise use the f o r c e with wl1ic11 it a r r i v e s a t the bottoi? f o r worTc purposes, I f the tower
i s i n f i u i t e l y high, t h e body a r r i v e s a t t h e bottort :rith the parabolic velocity, by which it acquirea t v i c e t h e eusrgy required t o l a t e r g i v e i t the c i ~ . c u l a rv e l o c i t y wain, Iiere a l s o , h a l f of i t s k i n e t i c e n e r ~ could 5e u ~ e df o r rrorIc purposes, and we would have t h e f i u e s t
perpetual notiou ~ ~ a c h i r r e . \.'!leu I m o t e t h i s t o a youug student of p l ~ y s i c s , he answered t h a t we s t i l l had fouud t h e law of the preservation of energy t o be t r u e only uncler t e r r e s t r i a l c o n d i t i o i ~ smcl from t h a t i t could n o t be concluded t l r i r t i t r.lust a l s o apply i n general.

The philosoyl~erhas nothint; with w11icl~ t o counter t h a t , b u t the

p h y s i c i s t can ska~vt i n t , t h i s t h e nlso, t h e law of t h e preservation

of enerLy i s n o t i n jeopardy r Xamely, i f t h e body i s t o ascend i n a s p i r a l , t h a t i s l i k e pushing it up on an i n c l i n e d plane ( c f . Figs. 79 and 63). Now, however, t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y of t h e e a r t h has a braking e f f e c t ( i t does n o t brdce only a s long a s it a c t s a t r i g h t angles t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion; i n t h i s case it only has a d e f l e c t i n g e f f e c t ) .
A s soon a s t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion nakes an angle with t h e f o r c e of

g r a v i t y , i t has a braking e f f e c t and t h e body can make the a s c e n t only a t t h e c o s t of i t s energy of motion. 3. ZIOLK0:YSlCI ( i n t h i s connection, a l s o conpare t h e second volume

and LiU)EsmtSa r t i c l e i n t h e journal f o r aeronautics) i s thinking of placing t h e occupants of h i s r o c k e t space-ship i n a l i q u i d t h a t has approximately the s p e c i f i c weight of the hurnan body i n order t o p r o t e c t them a g a i n s t t h e e f f e c t of counter-pressure. Thus he hopes t o be a b l e t o i n c r e a s e the a c c e l e r a t i o n t o 100 m/secP and Yore. ~ n t h t a t o m be countered by saying t h a t the p a r t of t h e human body n o s t a e n s i f i v e t o counterpressure i s t h e brain, and t h e b r a i n cannot be helped i n t h i r way.
Dr. ~
A U placed X dogs on r o t a t i n g d i s c s and found t h a t t h e main damage

caused by strong, p e r s i s t e n t counter-pressure consisted of t h e b r a i n pressing a g a i n s t t h e wall of the cranium. Rupturing; of blood v e s r e l r in t h e r e s t of the body occurred l e s s often. These causes r e a u l t e d i n death even before other i n j u r i e s s e t in.
4. VALIER suggests l e t t i n g t h e counter-pressure atop gradually no

t h e occupants can g e t used t o t h e new s t a t e ; he l i k e w i r e want8 f o l e t

it begin slowly. F i r s t of a l l , t h i s meane an enomour warte of f u e l , a s we s h a l l s e e i n Chapter 1 % Secondly, i t i n q u i t e unnecesnary f o r

physiological reasons, f o r we d a i l y experience t h e most abrupt changes i n counter-presrure without harm (e.g. when jumping, driving, etc. ).
mlyr

For example, i f we d r i v e on a bumpy road, t h e counter-prereure change 10 times from the value of 0 up t o

a-3

g in the couree of a

aecond. A s f a r a s t h e psychological s i d e of t h e question i n concerned,

w i t 1 1 regard t o p. 133,

i t seems t o me l i k e c a r e f u l l y and g e n t l y t a k i n g a young p i g by t h e s t o o n c l ~so a s n o t t o t i c k l e i t t o o s t r o u g l y by touching it sudd en1y.

5. The 1ayrdo.n l a r g e l y v i s u n l i z e s a counter-pressure

of n u n i t s of

g r a v i t a t i o n as being s i i ~ ialr t o a load l y i n g on t o p of t h e e x p e r i n e n t a l person t h a t weighs n tiLles a s m c h a s t h e person h i u s e l f . But t h a t i s n o t c o r r e c t . I n r e a l i t y , it i s a m a t t e r oC t h e lowest-lying body p a r t s being p r e s s e d t o g e t h e r with t h i s f o r c e w h i l e t h e body p a r t s l y i n g on t o p c a r r y a c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r load. On t h e average, t h e s t a t e of n u n i t s of g r a v i t a t i o n can sooner be compared t o t h a t of a man when a w e i z h t only l/2 n t i u e s h i s body weight l i e s on top of him. That i s why
i-co;:l e ~vhoa r e under a counter-pressure of 3 0 4 0 n/sec can s t i l l

Get

UP

and nove, whereas t h a t would be i n p o s s i b l e t o n o s t i f t h e y

had t o b e a r 3-4 t i . ~ e st h e i r body weight. Chapter 10 >anr!.e, Overcoming G r a v i t a t i o n I t i s well t o say sonething on t h e t o p i c i n t h i s general s e c t i o n , L a t e r I w i l l speak about a number of i m e d i a t e p r o s s i b i l i t i e s of u t i l i z -

ing my r o c k e t n o z z l e , e.g.

f o r propelling air-craft,

etc,

Of t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s , t h e layuan n i g h t only t a k e note of t h e fiillowing: There a r e two p o s s i b i l i t i e s of e l e v a t i n g a body : 1) l i f t i n g it up,

2) throwing i t up.

I t can be l i f t e d only a s

Lemg a s t h e r e i s eomething on which t o

s u p p o r t t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e , l e t u s say t h e ground, o r a fulcrum f o r a l e v e r , o r a r o l l e r , o r surrounding a i r (e.g. w i t h a i r c r a f t ) ; a burning r o c k e t i s supported by t h e e j e c t e d g a s p a r t i c l e s . h r t h e m o r k , we can

regard bodies a s being l i f t e d t h a t a r e kept a l o f t by e l e c t r i c o r magnetic r e p u l s i v e forces, e t c .

Fig, 60

Fig. 61

But a l l these means would f a i l i f we wanted t o l i f t a body away from the sphere of a t t r a c t i o n of t h e earth. There a r e no eupports f o r l e v e r s or block and t a c k l e i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r g space; t h e r e likewise i e no a i r , and a r o c k e t cannot burn forever, a t t h e most 8-10 minutes. No nore could we, with a l l t h e neans on earth, produce e l e c t r i c or magnetic r e p u l s i v e forces capable of l i f t i n g a body out of the f i e l d of a t t r a c t i o n of t h e earth.

On the other hand, i t i e t h e o r e t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o high " t h a t it no longer f a l l s back". Astronmy teaches no longer f a l l back t o e a r t h i f it i s hurled away a t a h / s e c . A t a somewhat slower speed one can throw it a s pleases, b u t afterwards i t again f a l l s t o earth.

throw a body s o t h a t a body can speed of 11.8

high a s one

Hence, i u order t o recover a rocket, it i s n o t absolutely necessary t o t i e a s t r i n g t o i t , a s a w e l l - h o r n astonomer sonewhat i r o n i c a l l y sugcested t o me i n 1919. Now, t h i s v e l o c i t y of 11.8 h / s e c i s approximately 6 t i s e s a s g r e a t a s the highest m i s s i l e v e l o c i t y achieved so f a r , and i t i s n o t a t a l l l i k e l y t h a t a connon-ball could ever be given such a velocity. But

today we Imo~rt h r e e d e v i c e s which could t h e o r e t i c a l l y b e p e r f e c t e d s o f a r a s t o nake p o s s i b l e a c h i e r V i ~tgh i s v e l o c i t y , n m e l y tlie e l e c t r o magnetic gun, t h e e l e c t r i c wind-wheel (cf. Chapter 28), and t h e rocket.

Tile e l e c t r o u a ~ n e t i c, m z If a nagnet m (cf. Fig. 6 1 ) w i t h p o l e s n aucl s i s s l i p p e d i n t o a magnetizable p i p e l I and it i s p o s s i b l e t o continuously uake t h e p i p e south-polar a t S i n f r o n t of t h e n o r t h p o l e of t h e n a ~ p e tand nortll-polar a t N i n f r o n t of t h e s o u t h p o l e of t h e u a s e t , t h e magnet i s h u r l e d o u t ( i n Fig. 62, D i n d i c a t e s t h e winding).

Fig. G& T h e o r e t i c u l l y , t h e c a p a c i t y of t h i s gun i s w l i a A i t e d , except t h a t such

6 1 . 1: ,
1.<.2
3 1
:;I>

?A-

become u u n , u n ~ e a b l yl a r g e and expensive. For c u r i o s i t y l e

salre, I once c a l c u l a t e d t h e d i ~ ~ e n s i o n of s such a gun t h a t would have t h e capdcity t o h u r l a nau i n t o o u t e r s i ~ a c e , I t would have t o (under t h e i i o s t f a v o r a b l e a s s u - ~ ~ t i o n con,sist s) of a tunnel over 10,000 Im i n l e n g t h .

The tunnel could l i e h o r i z o n t a l l y ( t h e only way p e s s i b l e ) , b u t i t would have t o be punped o u t t o 4 vacuum aud s e a l e d i n f r o n t by a b r e a k a b l e corer c u d by b u l L l ~ e ~ c l sThe . h u r l e d space-ships would brxve t o weigh a t
l e - . s t ?C,CCC,CC3
kg, otilelswise t h e y would have l i t t l e hope of g e t t i n g

t H r o u ~ ; htlie e a r t h ' s atrlospllere i n t a c t . For t h i s reaBon, it would be p o s s i b l e t o s l ~ o o tt h e p r o j e c t i l e f r o i ~ a conpletelg llorizol~taltuunel, u o t one t h a t i s b e n i uplvarcl e t tlie cud, a s PI-l..bZT d e c l a r e d i t t o be necessary. (1n t l l i ~counection, c f . LEY z "The P o s s i b i l i t y of T r a v e l l i n g i n I n t e r p l m e t n r y Space", p . 302 f ~ . For ) t h e r e s t , however, I endorse evcrytnin,rr t h a t PI-L._7;ET hns s a i d about tile e l e c t r u ~ h 3 l e t i cLWI. The source 02 t h e c l e c t r i c i t ~ .and t h e s t o r a g e c e l l would n a t u r a l l y a l s o h~ve t o be o f a p p r o p r i a t e f o m a t .

The e l o c t r i c vind-~vheel roultl n o t rc.;t~ire any l e s s g i ; ; z ~ t i c:.:ems 1)

O n t!le otlrer l l , u d ,

toricrjr it a,:pears incomparably s i :pier t o reach

i u t e r p l a n e t c r y s:)ace by :~e;u:s of rockets. L'lan::e. Vitil high i u i t i a l vel oci t i e s , rockets can natilrully n o t only f l y high h u t f a r a s well (long-distance roclcets). Astronoay teaches t h a t , i f launched c o r r e c t l y , a long-distance rocket can reach m y point on earth. Index of t h e s o s t i n p o r t a n t f o r ~ u l a quantities r
A : energy

a r minor a x i s of t h e t r a j e c t o r y e l l i p s e d: angle of t h e t r a j e c t o r y curve with the horizontal

dl: angle o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y curve with the horizontal a t t h e place

where t h e rocket s t o p s bunling

e r l i n e a r e c c e n t r i c i t y of t h e t r a j e c t o r y

numerical e c c e n t r i c i t y of the t r a j e c t o r y

F r a r e a covered by t h e r a d i u s vector
g t a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y

g,r a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y a t the e a r t h ' s surface

g1: a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y a t t h e p o i n t where t h e roc1iet

a tope burning
p
I

p a r m e t e r of t h e t r a j e c t o r y e l l i p s e dietance of t h e rocket from c e b t r e of t h e e a r t h (radiua vector)

' I Besidea, wit11 revyect t o t h e f inancial-technical would be " i n d i v i s i b l e unite". Cf. Chapter 18.

aspects, t h e s e

r o : r a d i u s of e a r t h rl a r ~rlleuh u i - n i n ~s t o p s r,? : r a t t h e p l a c e ~ r l l e r et h e t r a j e c t o r y i s liorizoutal

l':r,ax r 1iil;'liest p o i n t of t h e t r a j e c t o r y flotm

min

: lowest t i i e o r e t i c a l p o i i l t of t h e t r a j e c t o r y e l l i p s e

t : tiue
v : v e l o c i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h
v1 : v w!aefi burning s t o p s

: b ~ l of e direction

A s soon a s t h e l o l i p c l i s t a n c e rocJcet otopa b u n i i q , it c o ~ i t i i ~ u e s

t o f l y l i k e a sliot p r o j e c t i l e . Y i t h t h e u s e of g a s o l i n e and wit11 c o n s t a n t redrvard t h r u s t , it only s t o p s burning above t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t of t h e at.~os?'lere; w i t k t h e u s e of kerosene, it l e a v e s tlie at-iosphere a t l e a s t r i t l i i n a few seconds a f t e r burning has stopped. I t f i u a l l y c o v e r s t h e greate:;t p a r t of i t s f l i g h t i n a i r - f r e e space. The f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y from t h e p o i n t ~ v h e r ei t l e a v e s t h e a t a o s p h e r e t o t!?e p o i u t where it r e - e n t e r s it again o a n be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h a e t r o n -

a i c .?.ccurecy, b u t t h e u s u a l b a l l i s t i c f o r r ~ u l a sa r e n o t s u i t a b l e f o r t h e purpose, f o r t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y i s of a n a p i t u d e a t which t h e f a c t must be taken i n t o account t h a t t h e a t t r a c t i o n of t h e e a r t h d e c r e a s e s

w i t h tI1b a l t i t u d e reached and a l s o i s n o t p a r a l l e l t o i t s e l f ( a s is assuned f o r s i r ~ pilc i t y ' s s a k e w i t k tlie b a l l i s t i c c a l c u l a t i o n s ) n o t r e p r e s e n t a b a l l i s t i c curve b u t a p u r e c o u i c s e c t i o n .

f i r t h e m o r e , t h e r e i s no a i r r e s i s t a n c e , s o t h a t t h e t r a j e c t o r y does

dstronony t e a c h e s t h a t , iritli s t a r t i n g v e l o c i t i e s of up t o 11,160 ~nn/sec, t h e t r a j e c t o r y curve i s e a r t h a t one i f i t s f o c i . Accortling t o IC3PLZ:11S second law, t h e radina v e c t o r r d r a ~ mfrom the c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h t o .the r o c k e t c o v e r s equal a r e a s d u r i n g equal p e r i o d s . I f v i s t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c e n t e r of tlie e a r t h ) , o ( t h e an@ e between t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y a d t h e h o r i z o n t a l when 1eaviny; thr! e a r t h ' s atc:osphere,
; i u

e l l i p s e w i t h t h e c e n t r e of t h e

t t h e ti::e, and F t h e a r e a covered

by t!:c rsdiua v e c t o r , t h e f o l l o w i n g i s Trrlown to be t r u e :

dF = 1 --v cosak d t . 2 (53)

S i n c e , w i t h d t c o n s t a n t , t h i s f i g u r e i s l i k e w i s e supposed t o remain c o n s t a n t , and f o r d i f f e r e n t 2 o i n t s of t h e t r a j e c t o r y v

1
C

--I

r cos 6 2 ---------

v9

r1

I n t h i s connection, a l s o cotipnre Tigs. G I , 67, and 130. Concerliing t h e work ~1 t l l i t t i s required t o l i f t a body w i t h i n t h e ; ; r n v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d of t h e e a r t h , one c a s a y r I f m i s t h e n e s s of t h e body, g t h e a c c e l e r a t i o u clue t o z r n v i t y , and t h e body i s to be l i f t e d a d i s t n u c e d r , .then ( i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e d i l - e c t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y

- cf.

Fig. 6 0 )

iu'atural l y , h e r e

I f t h e body h a s ucde t h e a s c e r ~ ta t t h e c o s t of i t s v e l o c i t y , 5.e. a t t h e c o s t of i t s k i n e t i c energy, then

m d from (58) w d (5(3n),

thie

"01 lows r

',Ye con f i n d the lligliest (rmax) m d t h e 1o e s t (rnin)

theoreticul

p o i n t of t h e f l i ~ h t r a j e c t o r y i f ire rede.iber t h c t h e r e t71e f l i z i ~ t t r a j e c t o r y i s Ilorizontal a i d ire , : u s t t h e r e 2 o r e s e t c o d 2 = 1. From ( G S ~ ) ,(57), m d ( 5 9 ) , rre tllexl o b t a i n r

I f we clloose t h e p l u s 3it-u of t h e square-root, tile :iix~ussit- we ge I f ve s e t

\2inm

1:1;

i gat r . ,?"X* ~ rt h

the11 r;,15X =d .

. A I;o(iy hurl

ed away ?ro;:i t h e ecrrtll a t t h i s v e l o c i t y

does n o t f n l l back; i t d e a c r i b e o n p n r a ? ~ o l a d i o a e sccontl v e r t e x l i e s

a t infiility. If the velocity is still "reater,

t h e eclrth i s ~ ~ f ~ t u r a l l y

s t i l l less d ~ l e t o pull the bocly hack. !Iere the v ~ l u c aTor r

3RX

have

negative s i p s , ~ullici~ !::cans t h a t t h i s poiiit of the t r a j e c t o r y i s riot traversed a t a l l , f o r , be p o s i t i v e .

ill

our i n ~ ! ~ ~ i r t:,e y , radiua vector ::ust always

From ( G O ) ,

we then obtain :

rn

lie .iufor a x i s of the e l l i p s e equals the sum o f r

R

UdX

a i d raiU. The

?inor a x i s

is

The l i n e a r e c c e n t r i c i t y e equals :

and the nur:erical

eccentricity :

A s m o l y t i c geouetry teaches r

a s long as we desi;wt~te t h e pnra:ete$ o f t h e e l l i p s e as p and

s u b s t i t u t e t h e hugle of r l i r e c t i o u Tkeref o r e

= 130 For r

nin

and

P) =

0 f o r rUax.

Prom t h e s e two e;,\tntioi~s, ti:Tting i u t o account ( e ) m d ( h ) , we :Pint\ r

To deter.,iue

t'le

dioo t i n g cli a t i ~ ~ i c on e tile e a r t h ' s ?urf lxce, we

:lust

d e t e r ~ i i l etlie m z l e

-PI

enclosed

'JJ-

t h e r a d i i - ~ e c t o rtlrc~nl f r o n

t h e c e n t t e of t h e e a r t h t o t h e rocrret. The slrootiuf: d i s t m c e S i s given

9y t h e f o r l ~al

oince
'pt--.v+=211.

This a p p l i e s i f Ire e x p r e s s p , i n arc ;::emure; i f we :-'oaaure d e ~ r e e s ,we Iaiow t h a t

in

Bow, accordiu=; t o ( f ) :

and from (k) a8 ~ v e l l a s from ( e ) , ( h ) , and ( i ) , it f o l l o w s t h a t

1-xcos'a S = 2 ro arc cbs - --.-* = = * = .

. :

Ji(2-x)l;cosza

Here, t h e shooting d i s t a n c e depends on c o s d a s well as on x. I t becomes s r e a t e s t when Qz i s a ~ l a x i m m . One way of d e t e m i n i n g t h i s maximum i s by making Bpog - -- cos (rl*- - 0 a[cos9U ] Now, according t o (k), ( e ) ,
and ( h ) :

and t h i s expression becomes zero when

To i l l u s t r a t e , I here include a c w v s iii :YG. C3, i h i c h shows the

connection between c o s &and
x.

Fig. 63

By arc fleasure,

and i f ue n o t e t h a t so8

III p = 1
S

- a i n D p , then
2

2 ', r,, arc sin4 --2 -- r

This expression becones ii:~n(=inary nhon x> 1, f o r , w i t h h o r i z o n t a l launclii~~ th , e r o c k e t tlion c i r c l e s t h e e a r t h cu~dr o t u r n a t o t h e s t a r t i f f $ p o i n t ( a s long a s x > 8 i s n o t true, i n ~vliichc a s e t h e r o c k e t l e a v e s t h e e a r t h a l t o g e t h e r ) and t h e r e i s no sense i n looking f o r t h e n o s t a d v u t n g o o u s launching auzle. F I i z h t period of l o n ~ - c l i s t , w c e rocketa_. V i t l ~l o n g - d i s t a n c e r o c k o t s , t h e appro-Alate f l i ~ . l i period t can be q t ~ i c k l yc a l c u l a t e d i f t h e d i s t n u c e on t h e e a r t h ' s s d r f s c e is d i v i d e d by t h e h o r i z o n t a l cor~ponentof t h e speed of f l i g h t a t t h e nonent wl~en I ~ u r n i n ss t o p e 1)

The e x a c t P l i ~ l l t period can he found according t o EPL121'8 second

I'he c a l c u l a t i o n i n s o i ~ e i l ~ ~ a tb r e h c c u r o t e i f one d ' v i d e s 0 by t h e avoraze vr.lr:c n P t h e ~ ~ x l vsl a r o c i t r u d develops according t o tlie b i n m i e l (;heorera, e ~ ~ p p r e n e it n he ~ liisller po~rernof x. For e x u p l e r

y*~

or in greater detail

law. The conatant area

dF ----, which dt
follow8

the radium vector covers i n one

second i s Icuown. Frau i t

In thia connection, a l s o compare Fig. 6'7. Y I e can integrate t h i r oxpreseio~r, i f we use mother m r i a b l e

1.
~

h (noting a that

d~

.-

I.

d ~ ) mer ) d

2;:ra~h~) \

Chapter 11
Pur t h e r .Iscent Cal cul a t i o n s

Pomula riuan-Lities f o r gp. a : counter-pressure

c : e:;l?cruot v e l o c i t y
e : hase of natural l o g a r i t l ~ ~ s
g : a c c e l e r a t i o u due t o g r a v i t y a t t h e

B l t i t u d Q examined

go : a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y a t e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e

h : elevation above e a r t h ' s c e n t r e

In : n a t u r a l logarittun
m r uass i n general

m
m

i n i t i a l mass

r f i n a l mass 1 n1 : l o s s i n mass caused by a i r r e a i s t a u c e

r r r a d i u s of e a r t i
s : elevation of rocket above t h e ground

t r tine
v r v e l o c i t y with reference t o the place of ascent
r advantageous v e l o c i t y according t o (26)

P B
G

parabolic v e l o c i t y l a r g e s t cross-section weight of rocket of rocket

t
t

1 H t a l t i t u d e a t which t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e decreases t o 7. A s an index, I1 r e f e r s t o the highest absolute a i r r e r i e t a n c e .

L
bl

t
t

a i r resistance f i u a l u a s s , i f v e could d i s r e g a r d a i r r e s i s t a r l c e

P : r e ~ u i r e drearward t h r u s t

Q r L + G

p
6

: a i r deusity

: b a l l i s t i c resistimce coefficient
: a n g l e between t'ne d i r e c t i o n of a c c e l e r a t i o n arid t h e h o r i z o u t a l : t h a t ~vliichh a s r e f e r e n c e t o g r e o t e o t d e c e l e r a t i o n t l i r o u ~ h

air resistwce

1. The v e r t i c a l a s c e n t of a manned rocIiet i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e

f a c t t h a t , t a k i n g t h e occupant i n t o sccouu t, t h e coun t e r - p r e s s u r e . % s t n o t exceed a c e r t a i n l i n i t . The b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t i s c,uite high, f o r g e n e r a l l y concerned a r e l a r g e llachines w i t h high b a l l i s t i c coeff i c i e u t s . Therefore, according t o ( 3 1 ) , tile vnlue of

7 i s a l s o vely

high, s o t h a t u s u a l l y i t i s n o t achieved a t a l l b e c a u ~ eof t h e re,,uireA : , i n o r a c c e l e r u t i o n . From (81), by t r a n s f o n i a t i o n wrl i u t c g r n t i o n , follows :

No~r, ire want t o u s e a s

L I U C ~f u e l

as ; > o s s i b l e f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e
iti.r

v e l o c i t y v and a s l i t t l e as p o s s i b l e i n working aso,inst and g r s v i t a t i o n . Vi tli v e r t i c a l a s c e n t

resistiu~ce

V i t h v e r t i c a l a s c e n t , v e llrve no i u f l u e n e e on,f g.dt. a s Ire p l e a s e because of t h e occupr:nts.

Cn t h e o t h e r :~tuld,

The acoelero-

t i o n due t o g r a v i t y g is ~ i v e r land Tre cannot s h o r t e n t h e f l i ; ; i ~ t periocl t

(+dt

i s the smaller, t h e s n a l l e r L

-m

becomes, i.e.

the higher

b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t . Hence, here a l s o , we a r e s t r i v i n g f o r a high b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t , although

3 is

n o t being reached.

S i m i l a r consideratious apply t o t h e oblique ascent (cf. p. 190 f f ) . The r a t t e r can be explained by saying : the g r e a t e r tlie b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t , the s u a l l e r i s the r e l a t i v e e f f e c t of a i r r e s i s t a n c e . h a t u r a l l y , such l a r g e machines can a l s o be s e n t a l o f t from sea-level ( c f . p. 348 ), f o r i f only

i; s

l a r g e , even with g r e a t e r a i r pressure,

F --e q u a l s b and m

80

fo

i s g u f f i c i e n t l y large.

Thus, node1 % r i s e s with the highest adnissable counter-pressure. ;lore, a i s constant during tile burning.
I f b forms an angle

6 with t h e horizontal, then

b

g.

s i n 6 = a.

( c f . Pig. GS).
.:it11 v e r t i c a l ascent ( c f . Fig. ~ 4 ) , s i n

= 1, and we g e t t

b = a - g .

(62)

{t'itilin tlie abzospliere, tile actual lacceleratioxl i s a s good a s constcult, v i ~ ie l Vne ideal a c c e l e r a t i o n

i s variable, f o r i t i s n o t considerations coi~cerniugthe ixaclline and

t h e required rearward t h r u s t t h a t a r e s e t t i n g a l i a i t t o accelcrntion
b u t only c o n s i d e r c t i o s ~ sc o s ~ c e r r l i ~the ~ g :iur,inn o r p n i s m . I f L increases,

we

sillply incraco3e P, s o t h a t tile counter-pressure r e i a i n s c o i ~ s t a n t .

P e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e i'~trlosp11cre: 2ecnil:;e of t h e 1011 a c c e l e r a t i o n ,

i20del S nust cover a f ; r e ~ t d i s t a n c e b e f o r e a*,tnining f u l l v e l o c i t y .

In s o cloiug, ~ r i t h i nt h e nb:ospliere, we can c o n s i d e r g as very n e a r l y

c o n s t a n t . I n v e r t i c a l a s c e n t , L i s a l s o c o n s t a n t , , u d we 11ttve :

cdm

ndv

+ 9
dt

cit =

( 91)

crln

nbdt

+G

L dt = 0

( i5)

Furthermore, from ( 9 7 ) f o l l o ~ r ar
L = rygvq
m d t h i s , talcinz i l l t o a c c ~ a n t(34) and (64), results in :

S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s i n ( 0 5 ) , ire obtnin :

That i e a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation betneeri n and t. Fron i t f o l l o l r s a

! Y e f i n d t h e c o n s t a n t of i n t e ~ r a t i o n'J ~vheuve substitute t = 0 . Then

we g e t C = m

0.

Therefore,

A change i n t h e f z c t o r s c o ~ l t l i t i o i ~ i r m t h~ e ~ i rr e s i s t a n c e obviously
only ckctslges t h e e x ~ r e s s i o n uuder t h e i n t e g r a l s i g n , Therefore, t h e l a t t e r r e ~ r e s e n t st h e l o s s i n ):ass t l ~ r o u g ha i r r e s i s t c n c e , t h a t i s , n a t u r a l l y i n i t s e f f e c t oil t h e f i n a l :lass of t h e l i f t e d ,uld a c c e l e r a t e d rocfret. If

i s the
t

1083

i n n a 3 s clue t o a i r r e s i s t a n c e , then i t folkowe

frw (66). t h a t

?,

+ . t ---A.
C

The c p a i t i t y e

also o c c u r s i n tire axpression. Thut i s

t11o.t n i r resisLtu.ce

u u d e r s t a d a k l c i f we ponder tile f;ct ively ~ r e a t e r braItinli; e f f e c t on

i u

hns a r e l a t -

e.:ptjr r o c k e t tllw ou a f u l l one m d

t h a t t h e e a t i r e f o r : u l a i s oriellted according t o t h e lev of i r p u l s e . Forriula (70) c!oes n o t c o ~ l t n i nno. Tirat i s as it ahould be. Tlie l o s s e i t i f l uerlce t h e -lass o f t h e rocki n substance tl1rou;;h a i r r e s i s t c ~ ~ i ccloes e t , b u t it i s dependent only on s i z e , shape, cud v e l o c i t y , n o t on i n i t i a l uaos o r npecifl'c weight.
If we wish t o exmine t h e e f f e c t of dir r e s i s t a u c e on t h e l o s s i n

i:;ass,

i t i s b e s t t o d i v i d e (GC) hy t h e erpnLion

~ r ; , i c L we o b t a i n from ( G S ) ahen we c!i.sre;;arc\

for eaople, set

ado r

tile a i r r e s i s t ~ c o aud,

eyual t o 0 . Tlien . : r e get r

Fram t h a t we r e a l i z e d i r e c t l y t h a t m can only r e z a i n p o s i t i v e , i.e. t h e roeket caa p e n e t r a t e the atmosphere only i f t h e second nember on t h e r i g h t s i d e i s smaller than 1 . ?hat i e , t h e following must be t r u e a

W e must, therefore, choose c and m

a s l a r g e a s possible, and F a s

m a l l a s possible; we hardly have a choice nrith r e s p e c t t o p . Large r o c k e t s must be s e n t . a l o f t from a water surface, which, i n most c a s e s can only be t h e ocean. As t h e formula shows, reducing a c c e l e r a t i o n b has a favorable e f f e c t on t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e , a t l e a s t a t f i r s t , What t h a t expresses

is only the f a c t t h a t t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e i s t h e lower, t h e slower t h e

rocket f l i e s . Later, the i n i t i a l l y favorable i n f l u e n c e i s n a t u r a l l y eliminated again by t h e widening of t h e i n t e g r a t i o n l i x t i t s , f o r t h e elower t h e rocket f l ' i e s , t h e more invonvenient i t becomes with time t h a t it does n o t l e a v e t h e atnosphere a s soon. Wholly r e g a r d l e s s of w t h e most advantageous velocity, we s h a l l t h a t f a c t , however, be1 o always make a c c e l e r a t i o n b a s l a r g e a s a t a l l p o s s i b l e , while tctlring i n t o account t h e human organism. Beside t h e l o s s of mass through a i r r e s i s t a n c e , t h e r e i s t h a t through g r a v i t a t i o n and, with t h e v e r t i c a l ascent of model E, it exceeds t h e a i r r e s i s t w c e .

A t t h e beginning, t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e i s s u a l l because of t h e low

velocity3 l a t e r it increases, then decreases again, m d f i n a l l y s t o p s completely, f o r toward t h e eud t h e a i r d e n s i t y decreases f a s t e r than t h e v e l o c i t y increases. We can f i n d t h e nariuum a i r r e s i s t a n c e (L*) by d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g L frm (66), o r s t i l l b e t t e r I n L, with r e s p e c t t o t. I f L i a a maximum, n a t u r a l l y I n L must a l s o be one, and we obtain :

d s we s h a l l s e e i-:.lediately,

t h e :an::i:.iu?.~ v a l u e of L ( r e will c a l l
1

it L ~ ) i s renclied w i t h

constant, aid therefore

f r o n ~vliicli f o l l o ~ v s:

tiI =

F,

Thede f i g i r e s i ~ i t e r e 3 t u s i n s o f a r as, ~t t h i s a l t i t u c : ~ , t h e +.z,ulned r o c k e t i s , ' o s t i n d a i z e r of b e i n g crushed by t h e a i r r e s i s t a c e , Tlie i n s i d e pres,,ure of i t n t c i k s ~ : u s tt!lcrefore l ~ e so ~ ; . r e , ~ t ltl c ~ tthey
3t,.nd the n i r r e j i s t ~ i c e . Ii they liere enclure t h e a i r r e s i s t ~ l c e , they

v i l l e ~ ~ r : : ~ it r e tilrou;;lio.~ t. '3iuce i t i s t l e s i r a L l e t o p l a c e t h e tcuiIrs of t h e i ~ y r l r o ~ e u ro . cket nilder 1 o w yreosure

i~i;rlci

s~a!;e t h e 1 s o t h i u t h a t t h e y could n o t b e a r up

under t ! ~ i s w.itnide a i r r e s i s t c l ~ c e , t h e hycrogen r o c k e t ( c f , p . 76)

;:ust be encl oseci i n a ;ier;::eticnl l y s e a l i n g , stronz-wal l e d j a c k e t which uilfolds only rvhen tile f u e l s of t h e rzlcol~ol r o c k e t o r e exhia~asted~ n r l t;re ;!ir re.;latr;l~cc ;ins 3eco:le l e s s . ?or I I = 73Ci) n axid b
=

3 G n/secd,

tlI becories equal t o 22.0 s e c .:nd

vU = 661 n l s e c . .!ere,

tile rorcc on ;he air r e s i s t i u c e x?ouilts t o

The clecelerdtiou clue t o a i r r e s i s t n n c e , i n ot'lcr x o r ? ~ , ;,Tic l o s s i n

cctn e , be fouud by ilix-idin,. t!le f o r c e propulsion caused by a i r r o n i . s t ~ ~ ~ c

of t h e a i r r e o i s t a r l c e by t h e
I:WU

o f the r o c k c t o r , mhnt cvlocnts t o

t h e scme t l i i n s , by (lividin,- khe sl~cireof t h e a i r r e s i s t a i c e f ~ l l i t l z t o t h e sc;i*;lre cen t i n e t r e by t h e b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t , and '-ul t i p l y i n g t h e c u o t i e n t by t h e converaioil f a c l o r 9.81. t h e decelerdtion i s
At t h i s nltitude,
r)

the bsl-

l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t of riodel X s t i l l nr~ountst o 0.935 kL/cmo. Therefore,

I n t h e f o l l o ~ r i n gseconds, i t becoLt?ss t i l l l a r g e r , f o r h e r e t h e d e n o : ~ i n a t o r of t h e f r a c t i o n

L ; is steadily

d e c r e a s i u g whereas t h e

nu~~erato L, r being c l o s e t o i t s naxir~un, i s n a t u r a l l y a l n o s t constant.

The tlaxil:~u:;l r e 1 crtive decel e r a t i o n i s about

L (1n c o n s t r u c t i o h , t h e f a c t o u s t be note6 tllot, a t t h i s t i n e , - ~ - & z + ) ,

The d i r e c t c a l c u l n t i o n of t h i s q u a n t i t y i s s o c l i f f i c u l t a d c o n p l i c a t e d t h a t I do n o t t h i n k it p r o f i t a b l e t o go i n t o it here. h e can convince o n e s e l f of t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of f o m l a (76) i n each s p o c i f i c c a s e i f one c o n s t r u c t s a t a b l e o r diagram f o r t h e r e l a t i v e deceler.,tion of a ntulned space-ship

i n v e r t i c a l ascent.

The c a l c u l a t i o n of

mainly depends on what f u n c t i o n of v, t h e r e f o r e of b . t , n e s u b s t i t u t e forp

I c o n s i d e r it p r a ~ a t u r e , however, t o r a c k ones b r a i n s over it

>

already, I n t h e f i r s t place, a few y e ~ r s w i l l l i k e l y pass before node1 E

i s s e n t a l o f t md, secondly, tihe exact value of

saLIe f o r a l l p r o j e c t i l e s ,

Y will

r e a l l y be lmown

only a f t e r an ascent, As 2 0 T 1 1 7 3 has s:lown, t h e curve f o r

i s n o t the Y a d i t i e t o be expected t h a t model 3 with

R ~ O Va

its cize a d i t n l a r ~ e fins w i l l

somewhat d i f f e r c u t r e s i s t a n c e

c o e f f i c i e n t than a r t i l l e r y n i s a i l e a s i m i l a r i n forn. I f one lalowe t h e exact course of t h e r e s i s t a u c e curve, one rill have t o s u b s t i t u t e f o r

i t a function of v s i u i l a r i n shape, which i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o The i n t e r p o l a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y f o r v = COO m/rec must be exactly r i g h t ,

s i n c e here t h e r e l a t i v e d e c e l e r a t i o u due t o a i r r e s i a t ~ c e beconea g r e a t e s t (cf. (70)).

Y.

I n oddition, t h e aim ahould be t o ndce i n t e g r a t i o u

i n a.cloacd exprension poasible by e u b ~ t i t u t i n g t h i s function, (1f one does n o t p r e f e r i n t e g r a t i o n by t ~ e a l sof a graph, which i e e s p e c i a l l y conveniei~there.)
I, f o r iJy p a r t , have used both graphic and c a l c u l a t i o n netliods. I n so doiug, I dispensed with closed ezrpreaaiona atld sirlply s e t fA'm 0 300 m/sec conatant, likewise above 480 mlsec. Then I introduced a

new v a r i ~ 2 l e

by which the i n t e g r a l (77) i s brought t o the f o m

A.$ZI.~-XW.~~ + ~.$x.e-fl.dz

+c.$c-"-~x

This expression can be represented i n the form

The c a p i t a l l e t t e r s A t o G i n d i c a t e constant ~ l u ~ i b e r a .

The i n t e g r a l e-'.dx cannot br r e p r e a e n t d i n s cloaed expression, b u t i t can b e developed in a r a p i d l y converging exponential r e r i e a a d , for x 1, reduced t o t h e s t i l l more r a p i d l y convergent i n t e g r o l r

>

s further r e s u l t i r r

between 300 and 400 n/aec, I u r e a parabols of t h e t h i r d order of For t h e form H + 1.r + + L.r 3 a t which t h e i n t e g r a t i o n i a very ~ i o i l a r .

~ . f ,

I n t h i n rqy, I found fhe l o a s i n propulsion clue t o a i r r e s i s t a n c e t o be z k . d t

300 m/aec.

(78)

Therefore, with tbe v e r t i c a l s r c e n t of model E, t h e i d e a l propulsion vx

must be g r e a t e r by 300 m/rec than i f t h e a i r r e r e i n f i n i t e l y t h i n or t h e apace-rhip i n f i n i t d l y heavy.

I n formula (88) we q u i e t l y aroamed b and g t o be c o n e t m t , but, taken accurately, only t h e sum b + g = a i n conatant. By c o n t r a s t

I n c a l c u l e t i n ~t h e a r c e n t rit h i n t h e earth1 e at:losphere,

such accuracy

i s unnecessary ( e s p e c i a l l y i n t h i s book). Be need c a l c u t a t e Kith

forltula

(a) only

up t o an a l t i t u d e of 150 1m; from t l ~ e r eon we can

i m o r e a i r r e s i s t a n c e and so u s e considerably s i n p l i f i e d fomul as.

A t an a l t i t u d e of 150 I m above t h e round, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o

gravity is r

Since, up t o t h i s a1 t i t u d e , g r a v i t a t i o n causes a l o s s i n propulsion of 130 n/sec,

g
P

we nake an e r r o r of l e s s than 0.05'100 = 5 m/sec i f we

go. I f we u s e a s u i t a b l e mean value of g , t h e e r r o r becomes

i n f i n i t e l y m a l l . For example, f o r g,,, = 0.08.go,

it i s l e s s than 1 m/eec.

I t would be another matter, however, i f with the ver?.ic,;l a s c e n t of a space-ship we a s s u e d g t o be constant up t o t h e moment a t which tile space-ship haa reached say t h e parabolic velocity. Here the e r r o r would be of the orcler of magnitude of 1 b / s . I n t h i s case, the change i n a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o ~ r a v i t y ~vouldabsolutely have t o be t&en i n t o
acco~wt. The probl en can be solved by c a l c u l a t i o n , b u t t h e r e s u l t s would only have t h e o r e t i c a l value, f o r , a s we s h a l l s e e i n t h e n e x t chapter, a nanned apace-ship does n o t ascend b e s t v e r t i c a l l y , b u t t h e energy l o s a i n s t a r t i n g i s l e a s t i f it f l i e s l e v e l above the atnosphere while burning. Since, with v e r t i c a l ascent, t h e formulas which take i n t o account t h e changes i n g a r e q u i t e conplicated, I would here l i k e t o r e s t r i c t n y s e l f t o simply showing the l i m i t s between which the l o s e of propulsion through g r a v i t y l i e s . l e Rre presuming t h a t our t a ~ k i s t o give t h e space-ship parabolic v e l o c i t y and make the s i a p l i f y i n g assumption t h a t g i s constcttlt. Then ire can a l s o aiqlwe t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n t o be constant (b = a

g).

If vP d e s i s a t e s t h e p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y and r t h e e a r t h ' s r a d i u s , and i P s i s tlte d i s t a n c e over Wlvich t h e r o c k e t must burn f o r ii t o r e a c h p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y , then, according t o (57),

(GQ), and ( 5 ~ )r

Furthermore, according t o t h e lawa of a c c e l e r a t i o n (with b c o n s t w t )

By equating t h e two v a l u e s of vp, we o b t a i n

A. W e now n&e

t h e c e r t a i n l y t o o unfavorable nsseription t h a t d u r i n g Then, according t o (SO),

t h e whole burning p e r i o d g = go = 10 m/sec. we could have obtained r

i n t h i s c a s e , t h e i d e a l propulsion would have been r

B, NOW, when t h e p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y was reached, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n

due t o g r a v i t y m e only 5.75 n/seca.

Presupposing a counter-pressure

of 35 m/sec2,
99.35 m/sec2.

i n t h e l a s t second t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n b would have equalled I f we had based oilr c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n

f i g u r e , t h e r e s u l t would have been t o o f a v o r a b l e , Re would have obtained r

(IL~ICI i f , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t l ~ el o s s i n v e l o c i t y throu$ll g r a v i t a t i o n , we

Lnd a l s o used t h i s t o o low value of g a s a b a s i s )

T l ~ c r e f o r e ,n i t h

counter-pressure of 35 n/sec e

The i d o n l pi-opulsion does n o t l i e say i n t h e a i d d l e b e t ~ r e e n t h e s e two 1 i : l i t s . b u t conaidcra3ly c l o s e r t o t h e upper one (about 13,700 n/sec),
f o r d u r i n g a s c e n t t h e space-ship i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l o n g e r under t h e

i n f l u e n c e of t h e s t r m g e r f i e l d of g r a v i t a t i o n , ".'lith a couuter-Pressure of 4G m/sec,

we would have obtained
t

V i t k a counter-pressure ( a l r e a d y h y p o t h e t i c a l ) of 70 m/sec2, would have obtained

1

we

ilere r e can i g n o r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e v e l o c i t y w i t h r e f e r ence t o t h e e a r t h f a c e n t r e and t h e v e l o c i t y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e a r t h ' s surface.

3) X f f e c t of A i r R e s i s t a u c e n i t h Free-ply in^ L l e t e o r o l o ~ i c a l and

Long-Distance Zockets. Here,

7 i s t o d e s i g n a t e t!ie a i r speed; a l l t h e o t h e r f o r n u l a
pp. 163-164

q u a n t i t i e s a r e t o d e s i g n a t e tlle same a s on
a) ~ f f e c w t ith v e r t i c a l asceut :

A s e:plained

on p.154,

:rith nnimncecl r o c k e t s , propulsion s t o p s

l r h i l e they a r e s t i l l w i t h i n t h e e ; ~ r t h ' sat-iosphere. L e t t h e a i r p r e s s u r e a t t h i s place. A f t e r v e l o c i t y , L2 t h e e.ir r e n i s t n u c e , f ,

Ti

be t h e a i r

speed a t t h e i:lonent when p r o p u l s i o n s t o p s , Li t h e a i r r e e i s t m c e , and

te

- tl seconds, v?

is t h e

t h e a i r p r e s s u r e . Then c

C o n s i d e r i u ~t h a t

? c h a s e s very l i t t l e

as l o n g a s tllere i s s t i l l

a i r r e s i s t a n c e a o r t l i u e n t i o n i n ~ ,we can a l s o w r i t e

The d e c e l e r n t i o u due t o a i r re3sintnnce i s :

Total deceleration :

If v1 "as t h e .-loat at1vcultnl;eous v e l o c i t y a t tile p l a c e sl, t h e n

( c f . p.

76ff)

--- = g
la

ntld the t o t a l c l e c e l c r a t i o ~i~ s equal t o -:-*Z.

v t h e t o t a l dece'leration

I f t'le v e l o c i t y liad 4 e a u l e s s tl~ii,;~ vl h y (v,,),

tlue t o o.ir i - e s i s Lance ~voulrlbe c o r r e z p o i i d i n ~ l y s ~ n l l e r ,n z i e l y a

.t:ist i s , ollly

--v1
j r l

tis.lcs as g r e a t .

For vl = 1000 m/sec and t h e r e a a i n i n g r e s p e d t i v e q u e a t i t i e s , we o b t a i n , f o r erawpl e r

( e x a c t l y 69 n/sec.

The d i f f e r e u c d i s s o m a l l , i n p a r t , because v a r i o u s

e r r o r s t h a t we nade co:;ipensate f o r each o t h e r ) . For

y1

= i O r i ) U O n/sec;

' 1 --"1

= 3 m/sec4

r)

( h e r e s, and hence tlie

hydrogen co/ntent of t h e a i r , t h e r e f o r e 11 i s g r e a t e r ) , t h e t o t a l deceleration mounts t o 3 . 2 m/sec;

an i n f i n i t e l y sclall amount.

k) Y i t h obliciue a s c e n t , we c ~ u s td i v i d e

a n g l e of i r l c l i ~ ~ s t i o6 n a t tile : ~ o i i e n tsllen p r o p u l s i o n coases. I oru choosing tlie m l ~ l eof i n c l i n a t i o n a t t h e b e ~ i n n i n qof f r e e f l i g h t f o r t h e sane reason why I c m e t o tlie conclusion on p. 1 0 7 t h a t 2 ~ u s b te c o r r e c t t o Seyin with. For r e - e n t r y of rocI;et p r o j e c t i l e s i n t o t h e e a r t h t s at:zospliere, t k e a i r r e s i s t a n c e could be c n l c u l n t e d a s f o r a r t i l l e r y : ~ i s s i Z e s . !:ere 1 :lust r e f e r tlie r e a d e r t o textboohs ou b a l l i s t i c s .

5:

--.dt

by tho s i n

of

tile

L . few irords ! l i g h t a l s o be s a i d conceruing t h e l a n d i n z of l o r q d i s t m c e r o c 2 e t s provic?ed w i t h a p a r a c h u t e 1) :'hey

e n t e r tile atl.~osp;lkrew i t h a v e l o c i t y of 2

7 ~ u / s e c a t nn

an-18 d q t a s s i z u e d t o t i ~ i av e l o c i t y according t o f o i ~ l u l a( 0 ) of t h e

p r e c e d i n c cLnp t e r . Then t h e p,\rac:lute

opeus, t h e vel ocit;. i s r e t a r d e d ,

These c a l c u l a t i o n s apply 0 ~ 1 yt o loni.-clistnuce rockets. They a r c n o t c!~pli c d ~el, ;lowever, t o .space-r;i~ips t h a t e n t e r t h e a-taospliere h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h a g r e a t e r t:iw c i r c u l a r vel ocf ty.

ntld t h e npparatca f i l l a l l y lnllds a t n u i l i f o n v e l o c i t y ve. h o t : ~ u c hcan b e s a i d about t!ie l a s t e t a s e of t h e f l i z l i t , The v e l o c i t y i a d e t e r . i n e d 51 t h e f c c t t h a t t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e i s etiisal t o Ule weiglrt. X c c o r d i n ~t o

( 9 1 , it is

'%e for::ula q u a n t i t i e s hnve t h e s?,.ie ..le,mins h e r e ns i n Chapter 8 .

A t a h i g h e r a l t i t u r l e , ve i s g r e ~ t c r because t h e a i r r c q i s t m c c i s
snnller, it is

Iho S r a k i n g d i s t a a c e , on t h e o t h e r hru~d, a e I-mst exxz-line riore

c l o s e l y . !fe can s i x p l i f y our c a l culotioll consirlernbly i f , accordin2 t o a r~etliodgiven by PI:t,Y7fi f o r s i m i l a r c a s e s , r e i p o r e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n clue t o g r a v i t y i n t h e f i r s t approxination. I7e a r e nlloned t o do
so.

r o c k e t b e l ~ a v e s a l l l o s t l i L e a body l e f t t o i t s e l f i u A t first, t?~e

apzco cud, besicle v e l o c i t i e s of L i l o ~ ~ e t r e per s second, t:lc ch,wl;ea i n v e l o c i 3 y ilue t o t h e r o r c c of ~ r a v i t y play n o s i ; ; n i C i c m t r o l e ciurinc t h i s s l l o r t pei-iad. L a t e r , tine c o c ~iic r - p r e s s u r e hecoilea s o consiZcroble t a ~ a i ut i l a t
176

al'o Ju!3tlyent.itled t o i p o r e ~ r a v i t c t i o ntesi,!e

i t , tile

.-oiqe S O s i u c e , even uorr, t h e touter-preswre i s s t i l l Z e t e r !ined ouly

Ly t h e u i r r e s i s t m l c c . Tllis : ~ e t l l o dof calculnLiou vonld 5 e Llieorctically

iliac! : i s s a b l e only t o ~ r a r dt h e e.icl of t h e bra?riug c'?is*,&ice, 'sut t h a t ; m r t oP the f l i , h t does n o t i r l t e r e s t us i n t'le f o l l o l u i n ~i n v e s t i , - s t i o n s , ?'?e c u f u r t t e r ~ i ~ i p l i f our y c ~ l c u 1 , ~ t i oby n 1.e@arein, t i ~ i ss h o r t d i s t r a c e

as sLrai,ht.
X~ei-ef o r e , tre e:qress L!le c:ecel e r a t i o u a s f o l l o v s
1

I
I

I n s o doing, Lrthemore.

P o i s the

a i r densit). a t t h e earth1. m r f s e e , on2 t h e

rest of the f o m l a q u m t i t i e a i n d i c a t e t h e me a ~ i n Chapter 8.

a i s t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e e t r a i g h t f l i g h t l i n e from t h e rocket t o t h e ground, S i e t h e d i a t a n c e the rocket muat t r a v e r s e f o r t h e air r e s i a t a a c e t o i n c r e a s e t o e t i n e s i t s value. Ebrtherawe.

From ( c ) , by m u l t i p l i c a t i o n with accoynt, r e obtain :

dt and taking (d) and (e) i n t o v

From t h a t , by i n t e g r a t i o n and taking (d) i n t o account, t h i s f o l l o r s

Here, v1 i s t h e v e l o c i t y above t h e atmosphere, v i e t h e v e l o c i t y a t t h e t r a j e c t o r y p o i n t e x m i n e d i p 1 would be t h e a i r p r e s m r e above e finally t h e atmosphere, b u t t h i a number n a t u r a l l y equals zero. W obtain r

Taking (c) and ( e ) i n t o account, t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n i s t

Ve f i n d v.dv froin ($) :

w h i l e , according t o ( d ) :

Tileref o r e

Frau tilnt, b i s e a s i l y crrlculr,terl. Pid. 71a siio~vst!ie curve of 11,

3nce t h e connections h c t ~ r e e nc!istmce covered, velocity, and a c c e l e r a t i o u a r e Lr~ovm, c a l c u l akin: i n t o this my f u r t i l e r f o r rea::ous t h e o t h e r f o r ~ urtl Cunn t i t i e s of space alcl ! - ~ u l~ et a v e t:le rencler n a t u r a l l y p r e s e n t s no n o r e d i l Y i c u l t i e s l ) . UuPortun:~tely, I cclluot go t o i n v e s t i ~ a t ef u r t h e r t l i e o r e t i c a l connections l i i n s e l f i f i t i i ~ t e r e n t s hin. 1 s i t i s , t h e book i s nlreacly c o ~ l s i d e r a b l y:iore c o ~ . p r e h e n s i v e than I o r i , i u n l l y inteacled.

I only want t o s t a t e t h e ~ ~ a r i . values :~: of d e c e l e r a t i o n i n order

t o i n v e s t i s n t e how s t r o n g t h e parnciiute ropes :wst be and t o 7v:iat c o w - t e r - p r e s s u r e tIie f r e i z i i t i s exposed, alt'liou,h only f o r a few seconcln.

can f i n d t h e a i r d e n s i t y st v h i c h t h e counter-pressure rcc?.c:lea

i t s uaxi.ium i f we d i f f e r e n t i a t e b w i t h r e s p e c t t o p i n ( i )

A) Calcvlntin;
LO

the t i : i e 1e;rds t.0 t h e e x , i r e ~ a i o n

il::;

f o r nilieh

clo~ed dezi,ric?tion

beeti intr~0711ceGcn :il tor1r.y (as say f'r*oi*nia,

lot, e t c . ) .

nax
I

I f t h i s value f o r

i s substituted i n ( i ) , the r e s a l t i s the

;:~axinun v a l u e of d e c e l e r a t i o n :

I n t e r e s t i n g l y o r l o g i c a l l y enougli, 8,

Y,

m d rnl c m c e l out. S i n c e curve, tlie s w e brair-

the z r a ~ h of t h e a i r r e s i s t w c e i s an e:iponential

i n g p r o c e s s w i l l simply s e t i n s o n e d i a t l a t e r lien, i n t h e second case, t h e braIcing f o r c e of t h e parstchute has i n c r e a s e d mwy t i i ~ e sover ( t h e n q u i t e l o g i c a l l y shoirs i t s e l f 2ependeut on t h e hrnding f o r c e ) , ?Jut t h e course of t h e braking p r o c e s s w i l l be tile s w e i n b o t h cases. C f . Fig. 71b. I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s i z e of t h e paracllute does n o t a f f e c t t h e d e g r e e of counter-pressure clue t o braking. I t shopld a l s o be t;entioned h e r e t h a t we Lave a ~ s u m e dt h e paracliute t o Be a s i u p l e one, w i t h which

-'X
"ll

is tliou~l~ to t be c o n s t m t . On tile o t h e r Laud, t h e

curve f o r b would l o o k q u i t e d i i f e r e n t i f we had equipped t h e p a r a c h u t e v i t < h r e g u l a t i n g f l a p s t h a t open rvl~en t h e d i f r e r e n c e bet~veen tlie press u r e i u s i d e aud o u t s i d e hecones t o o p e a t ( c f . Piz. 71 c ) .

a n g l e between t h e t r a j e c t o r y i?ud t h e h o r i z o n t a l . For e r a - ~ p l e , a i t h a . . : e t e o r o l o ~ i c a lroclret r i s i n g v e r t i c a l l y ,

o ( vould

equal 90 a i d

a f i g u r e rrhich, f o r e r x l p l e , Tor vl = 100 n/sec,

would w ~ o u u tt o 35.6

m/sec2 o r 9 . 3 u n i t s of s r a v i t a t i o n .

Long-distcuce r o c k e t s ascend b e n t a t t h e a n z l e derived from ionnula

(0)

of Ule preceding chapter. I f a t u r n l l y , -;Ley e n t e r t h e atdlospllere

(0)

again a t t h i s anzle. Fron t h e nentioned fonqula c h a p t e r , t h i s f 01 1 o ~ r sr

of tile preceding

coaecd opt

- F\/------- ,
2 - x

1-x

and according t o f o m u l a ( a ) of Zhnpter 10

Then we f i n d t h a t

For e x w p l e , f o r a shooting d i s t a n c e of 1000 km, vl = 3100 m/sec and bmax would equal 18 g; f o r a shooting d i s t a n c e of 2GOO km, bnax vould

b e n o t q u i t e twice a s g r e a t , hence about 35 g. Now, on t h e whole, wllat i s t h e g r e a t e s t counter-pressure occur i n t h e worst c a s e with a r e g u l a r long-distance velocity ? W e can answer t h i s q u e s t i o n p r e c i s e l y by d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b w i t h r e s p e c t t o x i n formula ( n ) l ) . F o r d(1nb) ----dx
= 0 , we t h & . o b t a i n

t h a t can

shot, and wllat

a r e t h e corresponding v a l u e s f o r t h e d i s t a n c e s h o t and t h e f i n a l

It s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t a l l t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s of e x t r e n e s i n d i c a t e d h e r e a r e n o r e convenient i f one does n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e f i g u r e a t h e u s e l v e s b u t t h e i r logarithms, I f a f u n c t i o n reaches i t s e x t r e a e , i t s l o g a r i t l m a l s o r e a c h e s i t s extreme a t t h e sane place.

According t o f o r n u l a ( a ) of Chapter 10, t h e corresponcling f i n a l v e l o c i t y rvould be vl = 6630 m/sec; t h e corresponding d i s t a n c e s h o t would b e

315il ! a . The d e c e l e r a t i o n would r e a c h 53 l/2 g.

A r o c k e t weighing 50 Icg rvould e x e r t a f o r c e of 50'33

1/8 = 2675 J i g

on t h e p a r a c h u t e ropes, w d 30 kg of u a i l would e x e r t a p r e s s u r e of 1505 on t h e c a r r i e r . I f tlie b o t t o : ~ s u r f a c e of a >mil-box i s 0 . 1 ma

1 c m2 would t a k e a p r e s s u r e of 1 1/3 kg, Tllua, t h e b o t t o n l e t t e r s

n o u l d have t o endure tabout o t e u t l l of t h e p r e s s u r e p e r cn? which t h e y endure rvhen we g r a s p t h e L f ~i r d l y ai t h tllurrlb and i n d e x f i u p r

Xaturally,

t h e ;)ressure on t h e Z e t t c r s l y i u g on to;) nould be s t i l l l e s s . I cannot q u i t e u n t l e r s t u ~ r lliow so:Te a t ~ t i l o r sa u i n t c i n t l i a t t h e l e t t e r s ~ r o u l dn o t

stand t h e counter-i;ressure.

I t i s l i k e l y one could a l s o t r a n s p o r t

q u i t e d i P r e r e n t o b j e c t s tlian l e t t e r s w i t h such r o c k e t s . They xvould only n o t have t o be pacled a t t h e bottom. Z e s i d e s , t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s of co.unter-pressure only apply t o t h e iaost unfavoraY11 e s h o o t i n g d i s t a n c e of C150 hm; w i t h s h o r t e r d i s t a n c e s they become u o r e f a v o r a b l e because t h e v e l o c i t y t o h e d e c e l e r ~ t e di s n o t as g r e a t . The s m e h o l d s f o r l a r z e r ones because t h e roc!set e n t e r s t h e atmosphere on a more l e v e l with ? l a u e a i d t h e s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e becones g r e a t e r . For exa;:ple,

a s h o t of 1000 Ism, t h e y would be only a t h i r d a s g r e a t . Aud t h a t i s n o t even taIiing i n t o w c o u n t t h a t t h e naxinuu counter-pressure can be

/ 4 of t h e fig-re reduced t o l e s s than 1

p a r a c h u t e f 1apa a1 re;dy :~entioned.

c a l c u l a t e d h e r e by t h e u s e of

J u s t a few words concerning t h e parachute Slaps. The r e a d e r w i l l excuse a e f o r n o t y e t s t a t i n g l u ~ y t h i n gon t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r r e a s o n s ~ e n t i o n e di n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n . They o p e r u t e appro+ir.:ately a s follolra r The p a r a c h u t e siilply arl.lits no g r e a t e r a i r r e s i s t u l c e than, l e t
u s say, b.?.nl. A s soon a s , accordiul; t o ( i ) , t h e a i r r e ~ i s t a n c e would

b e ~ r e a t e r , t h e a i r s i q l y opeils e l n s t i c f l a p s on t h e p a r a c h u t e and p a r t i a l l y esca,;es through the:^, Lhus s u i t a b l y reducing i t s braking f o r c e .

The r e t a r d a t i o n remains c o n s t a n t l y ba u n t i l , due t o t h e steady decrease i n velocity,

--' m,

2<bp

again.

Thie nay occur when t h e v e l o c i t y h a s dropped t o v3. Aa long a s the braking f l a p s a r e 14 operation, because of t h e c o n s t a n t d e c e l e r a t i o n , the v e l o c i t y i e

The d i s t c n c e covered s i n c e t h e f l a p s began t o operate i s r

and t h e corresponding a i r d e n s i t y we obtain i s

can be found from ( i ) by n e m s of a graph or by use of t h e 3eg-mla f a l e i , s i n c e a l l t h e reuaining f o n l ~ u l aq u a n t i t i e s a r e given. Knowing

p,,

va can be c d c u l a t e d ; it i s

NOW we sliul l c!o

Lllc i'u! ; <,'.iitg mental experiaellt t

W e imagine a rocket with a s i * ~ p l e parnchnte (I w i l l c a l l it tile v i r t u a l rocket, s i n c e no b e t t e r word occurs t o ue). The two rockets have t h e stme :laas and t h e paracliutc of the r e a l rocket, with f l a p s closed, i s t o !lave the s w e braking force a a t h a t of the v i r t u a l rocket, F i n a l l y , t h i s v i r t u a l roclcet i s to be taken up beaide the r e a l rocket

'

a t the aoue v e l o c i t y by raeana of some a s w e d force. Obriously, with t h e v i r t u a l rocket, t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e w i l l equal

t

After a few conversions ( t a k i n g ( q ) i n t o account), r e obtain

or, taking ( r ) i n t o account :

The p o i n t where the regulating f l a p s c l o s e again i s indicated by t h e f a c t tl~sthere L 'Pherefore, here

i

becomes e q i ~ a l t o tire actual a i r r e s i s t a n c e 1nl.b2.

This p o i n t i s Best Poruid by ~ r a p h i cnecms. lye s e t

Then we p l o t t h e curve

aud f i n d the place ~t ~ v i ~ i cz h = 1.

iJow tile q u e s t i o n s t i l l i n t e r e s t s u s , :~;ien, w i t h rekula-tiul; f l a p s p u t t o t h e , r e d t e s t u.se ?

,z

specific velocity a r e the

and a s p e c i f i c , s t i l l p e r r l i e s i l l e ~i\n~:i~-!ura rlecel e r n t i o n 1J3,

Thut w i l l obviously be t h e c a s e when L. reac:ica u

1

iln;<i:i~un i n

co1.1parison t o t h e h i g h e s t p e r j i s s i b l e a i r r e s i sttzl~ce. Zron ( t ) , t h i s f o l l o ~ v sr

This e x p r e s s i o n obviously b c c o i ~ e sec,ual t o z e r o ~v'c~en

A f t e r t h e v e l o c i t y has f a l l e n s h o r t of t h e v a l u e vg, t h e f l a p s
w i l l c l o s e and t h e ;:srncliute will ngain f u n c t i o n l i k e s si:?ple

parachute. Accordingly, we v r i l l b a s e f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s on fomLiula

( f ) again, e x c e p t t h a t

we w i l l u s e v8 a d

a s i n i t i a l values

e obtain r f o r v e l o c i t y auc? a i r prexsuro. W

Note r I n g e n e r a l , I f o l l o w t h e p r i n c i p l e of p u b l i s h i n g ne formula w i t h which I have n o t worked f o r a t l e a s t a y e a r w i t h o u t ciiscovering contr'adictions. v i t h t h e f o n i u l a s of Chapters 1 0 a d 11, lnsrIred by l e t t e r s , I have d e p a r t e d from t l i i s p r i n c i p l e . They come from work which I began about 4 nontlra ago ead coxpleted 2 months ago. I am p u b l i s l ~ i n gt h e n a l r e a d y because, by u s i n g theiq, I can b e t t e r s u p p o r t

d of t h e a

rocket1). Among t h e fo11111as of t h i a book t h a t 8 r e

marked by number# in parentheses, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i n n o t a s i n g l e one with which I have n o t worked a t l e a s t f o r P yeera, and hence, I b e l i e v e I can vouch f o r t h e i r correctness. Fonmrls q u a n t i t i e s f o r pp. 187

- 190.

k=-

drag up1 i f t

a most sdraatageoar v e l o c i t y

r angle between t h e . d i r e c t i o n of a s c e n t of t h e horizontal

A l l o t h e r folmmla g u m t i t i e s have t h e same meaning a8 on pp. 169

3.

- 164.

Some d e t a i l a concernina t h e obliaue f l i g h t of . i e b ~ r o ~ e l l e d

atmosphere,

a i r c r a f t within t h e

Here I w i l l c a l l such s i r c r a f t njet-propelled a i r c r a f t n o r "jetpropelled f l y e r r n , which a r e provided with c a r v i n g s u r f a c e l i k e planer b u t a r e being propelled forward by r o c k e t jet. propellera. Aa in Chapter 8, r e again a e t i n s t e a d of aero-

P i r t h e t o t a l rearnard t h r u s t , Q i r t h e f o r c e required t o c a r r y and

I n t h e meantime, another 9 months h a r e pasaed, during which I repeatedly had t h e opportpnity of applying and t e s t i n g t h e formulea. The calcul a t i o n i t s e l f is correct. The formulas, however, ignore t h e circums t a n c e t h a t t h e f 1i g h t t r a jectory bends downward somewhat daring braking. That c w s e r romerhat f a s t e r re-entry i n t o t h e ataoephere snd an i n c r e a s e i n t h e m a x i m u m counter-preaaure due t o braking, But t h e d i f f e r e n c e i r v e q mall. A t t h e very moat, f o r example, t h e deceleration cuoounts t o 54 g i n a t e a d of 5 3 1/i g. The g r e a t e s t r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e occurs with t h e 1000-km shot, where t h e maximum counter-pressure is n o t q u i t e I 9 g ( i n s t e a d of somewhat over 18). Therefore, the above fonrmlas can be confidently accepted.

hold t h e i l a c l ~ i u eand overcoue t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e . X i s t h e s u r p l u s t h a t s e r v e s t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e rocIset.

2 = ~ . y , p . v

m.8.

( s i n b t ir c o s b ) .

(25)

; Y e a l r e a d y d e r i v e d t h e f o r ~ i u l a sf o r t h e ascellt w i t h t ! ~ e :loat advantageous v e l o c i t y i n Chapter 8 and saw t h a t .the r o c k e t aorIss b e s t wheu it ascends v e r t i c a l l y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s I v i l l show i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r , o t h e r c i r c u l l s t a n c e s c a n have t h e e f f e c t t h a t f u e l i s saved with oblique ascent, I n t h e a s c e n t of named r o c k e t a i r c r a f t , which cnanot f l y a t t h e i l o s t a d v m t a ~ e o u sv e l o c i t y because of t h e counter-presoure, is a l s o l e ~ s w t i t h v e r t i c a l a s c e u t . Xar~ely, f o r t h e 1ose

i n i t s e l f due t o a i r r e s i s t a n c e and ~ ; r a v i t a t i o nw i t h i n t h e a h o s p l l e r e

6#

90

9,

--dh

GIG.
p

(sin

6+
v.sin

k.cos6)

I -

~ i t h , f + 9 C 0 , t h e suiwands of t h e l a t t e r e:;pression

r m s t be rlul L i p l i e d

by t h e nu.,i~ers z r e a t e r than 1 i f one wislies t o o b t a i n ",ie suSl:lnnds

of t h e forr.1er expres$lion. Sven then, t h o f r i c t i o n o f t h e a i r ngrsinst
Polls t h e c a r r y i n g s u r f a c e s h a s n o t beell taken i n t o account, ~r!~icli

away rvith n a c h i n e s tliut have no c a r r y i n g surfaces. T:lcrsf?re,

t o i n t e r p l . u c t n r y s;.Ace.
(AS, f o r

nn

o'J1ir;ue a s c e n t v i t h c n r r r i n i ; s u r f ~ c e scml uever Pncil i t . i t e n d v i ~ i ~ c i n ~ e x t u p l e , IrATII'::t ,and G.tI1. assti.-e, e v i d e n t l y x i s l e d by t h e f a c t t l ~ i ~ tcousidered , Ly it.cell',
will a l s o do ;:ell

is ~ c t ~ : ~ ~ l I y

s m a l l e r w i t h obliilue a s c e n t . ) A rocItet e . i r c r a f t w i t 1 1 chriyiiig ~ u r f a c e t o ascenrl v e r t i c a l l y at f i r s t .

It i s t r u e , i n descent, such s u r f a c e s can very c o n s i d e r a b l y extend

t h e range of r o c k e t a i r c r a f t nnd long-distance r o c k e t s . For example, i f a l o n g - d i s t a n c e r o c k e t w i t h o u t c a r r y i n g s u r f a c e s s t a r t s a t au a n g l e

it w i l l f l y 400 Inn according t o c h a p t e r 10. I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, it f l i e s h o r i z o n t a l l y and t h e d e s c e n t occurs irit'ti c a r r y i n g s u r f a c e s Pron an a l t i t u d e of 50 Ian, i t r e a c h e s a d i s t a n c e of 1350 Xun. (111 Chapter 18, I ~ v i l l s t a t e lion I obtaiiied t h i s
of 49. rvith a v e l o c i t y of 9 luu/sec, fipre,)

It i s a c t u a l l y =lazing how l i t t l e t h e t h e o r y of r o c k e t r y h a s
progessed. The p r i n a r y rezson a p p e a r s t o n e t o be because

i t i s s o d i f f i c u l t . The t h e o r y of rocIretly i s one of t h e n o s t

d i f f i c u l t c1i;zpters i n t h e rrhole t h e o r y of nechnnics. I n a c e r t a i n r e s p e c t , t h e rnotion of t h e r o c k e t c o ~ l t r l r s t sw i t h every o t h e r t y p e of nove~ent.

I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , i r i t h a l l o t h e r p r o p u l s i o n nochiues ( a s w i t h

tile lissil e s of c a t a p u l t i n z c m n o n )

, the nass

on ~vlliclit h e p r o p u l s i o n

;-lechsuisl? can be supported i s u n l i ~ l i t e d . For exnr-lple, when n l o c o ~ ~ o t i v e s e t s a t r a i n i n :lotion, i t s Irhecls seek t o push t h e lvliole c ~ r t h bdc!:liar(! and finG t ' l e i r s u i ~ p o r ton it. Iu c o i p n r i s o n t o t h e ::ass o r the veilicl e , :>ro:)clle r s X i L e ~ v i s etliro~vbeck e11or:lous mi(!, above a l l , ~ u l i n i t , e ( ll a r u e r;umltities of a i r ~-~ucl a a t e r . 3y c o n t r a j t , ~ v i t ha rocLet, bile n;css .t:~i.o~m l~ncIn.rard c m never be ns j r e d t i t s CIle i i i i t i a l ivei,Iit of t h e v c i ~ i c l 1) e

f o r ex i lpl e , rue F o r ~ Ltcii a t!~i 8 f a c t . r n : ~:ii ~ :Ply ~ a p p l i e d t::e p r i l ~ c i y cr, i or L !e <:ircr.-&?tt o t;,e l*ocT:et :!ircrilft.

Secondly, t h e support in^ mass of a l l o t h e r v e h i c l e s i s i n r e l a t i v e n o t i o n during t r a v e l . With t h e r o c k e t , t h e f u e l s a r e being c a r r i e d along and, t h e r e f o r e , always have t h e same n o t i o n a s t h e r o c k e t i t s e l f 1) The r o c k e t r y t h e o r i s t n u s t a l ~ v a y sbe aware of t h e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s under which t h e r o c k e t works and cannot adopt any models t h a t have proved t h e a s e l v e s i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of o t h e r propul s i o u d e v i c e s w i t l ~ o u tf i r s t t e $ t i n g theu. I t took me, f o r e x w p l e , over
10 y e r r s t o work o u t t h e t h e o r y of rocketry. Not every m e i s s u i t e d

f o r such a method of work, which i s one reason why, u n t i l 15 y e a r e ago,

PO

theory of roc1iet.q- e x i s t e d .

The second reason i s t h a t , because of t h e i n s i g n i f i c a n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r u s e of t h e r o c k e t s b u i l t s o f a r , t h e whole f i e l d was n o t regarded a s very f r u i t f u l and, hence, t h e r e was n o t very nuch concern about doing r e s e a r c h i n it (even today, n o s t s p e c i a l i s t s i n b a l l i s t i c s do n o t c o n s i d e r it n e c e s s a r y t o read what has been w r i t t e n ou t h e t h e o r y and a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e r o c k e t ) .
4.

The Cblique, Strainlit-Line Aecent of ZIodel E Formula q u a i i t i t i e s f o r p p . 190

- 193

s : d i s t a n c e of t r a j e c t o r y covered
y r a l t i t u d e above t h e grouud

A:a n g l e

of t r a j e c t o r y nit11 t h e liorizontul

: m ~ l of e rocket a x i s with t h e horizontal

. I ) \%at f o l l o n s from t h i s is, f o r exsnple, t h e p e c u l i a r f a c t t h a t tlie

concept of energy, by t h e u s e of which we can e v a l u a t e t h e performance of a i r c r a f t s o w e l l , can only be a p p l i e d witla u t ; o s t caution t o t h e r o c k e t , f o r depending on t h e s t a t e of n o t i o n of t h e rocket, w i t h equal a c t i o n , t h e saixe rocIcet u o t o r can e f f e c t n o t h i n g up t o m i l l i o n s of horsepower. D e t a i l s i n Chapter 12.

The remaining f o m u l a q u a n t i t i e s a r e explained on p. it37 W e a r e v i s u a l i z i n g (cf. Figs. 79, a7, 65, and 79a) a space-ship ascending i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e a t an angle A t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l . I n s o doing, t h e r o c k e t a x i s i s t o be sonewhat s t e e p e r s o a s t o compensate f o r t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y by t h e rearward t h r u s t and t h e aerodynamic u p l i f t ; o t h e r x i s e , t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t would g r a d u a l l y i n c l i n e toward t h e h o r i z o n t a l (Ffg, 65). I n a i r - f r e e space, t h e a x i s would have t o make q u i t e a l a r g e a n g l e with t h e d i r e c t i o n 6f f l i g h t . I n t h e atnosphere, t h e a n g l e between t h e a x i s and t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t b r i n g s about an aerodynamic u p l i f t , s o h e r e t h e i n c l i n a t i o n could b e c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s . The angle between t h e emis and t h e h o r i z o n t a l i s t o be

,@.

O n t h i s t r a j e c t o r y , t h e r o c k e t 5 s t o ascend with a counterW e can then f i n d t h e a c t u a l a c c e l e r a t i o n d

p r e s s u r e of a m/secg.

according t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n parallelogram of Mg. 65.

Fig. 65

W e s h a l l u a e f o r u u l a (61). Here

g.sinp.m.

Frau t h a t , analogous t o (61) t o (65) and (85) f f , t h i s f o l l o w s a

If y i n d i c a t e s t h e a l t i t u d e above t h e ground and s t h e d i s t a n c e

covered, then
v=bt,

From a l l t h a t , t h i s f o l l o w s :

Because t h e s t r u c t u r e i s t h e sane, a p p l i c a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s forriula i s l i k e t h a t o f t h e f o n ~ u l a s(48) Pf througi~out. So I ueed n o t go i n t o t h a t any f u r t h e r .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t , w i t h o b l i q u e a s c e n t , a s long as it
occurs i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e i s a b s o l u t e l y g r e a t e s t a t an a1 t i t u d e o f H ! a n , nliereas t h e r e l a t i v e d e c e l e r a t i o n reaches i t s
nnxinun 3-5 km h i g h e r up.

I f - t h e space-ship ascends on a b e n t curve, we iilust b u i l d t h e f o l l o n i u g e ~ u a t i o nfrom (96) :

I u t e g r a t i n g t h a t , we o b t a i n

I:aturally,

i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e i n t e g r a l , v, t, sud y would have t o

be expressed by a given argwieut.

Chapter 18 C o n s i d e r a t i o n s of X n e r , ~ Fornula > a n t i t i e s f o r pp. 193 t o 817

A : t o t a l thermo-chei~ical energy of the f u e l s

B r d e s i p a t i o n of enerL.y ( w i t h wrong s t a r t s ) Ii : d e s i p a t i o n of energy w i t h r i g h t s t a r t s

E : k i n e t i c energy of e r ~ p t yr o c k e t
c : e x l ~ a u s tv e l o c i t y e : b a s e of n a t u r n l l o g a r i t h m s

m, m l : u n s s of r o c k e t

v : velocity vx
t

i d e a l propulsion

Gut of t h i s cilapter, I can p i c k only s i n g l e , loosely-connected p i e c e s . Only a d e t a i l e d treat:nent woulcl show t h e deeper c o ~ ~ n e c t i o n s . Perhaps, i n a n o r e d e t a i l e d work, I w i l l r e p o r t on t h e three-body problem and on an a l t e r r ~ a t eapproximate ccllculatinn a p p a r e n t l y f i r s t

used by me. Whether, with i;ry e v e r l a s t i n g s h o r t a g e of funds and t h e r e s u l t i n g impossibil i t y of spending 13uch time i n s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s ,

I w i l l ever be a b l e t o c o z p l e t e t h i s c o u p r e l ~ e n s i v ework o r evcn c o t it p r i n t e d i s m o t h e r question.

R e l a t i v e t o t h e three-body problems, f o r example, I s h a l l h e r e e a r e i n a p o s i t i o n s i n i l a r t o t h a t with h i g h e r than s a y t h i s much t W 4 t h degree e q u a t i o n s ; a s has been proved, they can i n general n o t be solved with t h e supplementary neans of our mathei.~atics. But t h a t does n o t prevent u s f r o a f i g u r i n g o u t every numerically given problem a s l o n g a s a s o l u t i o n e x i s t s a t a l l . With three-body problens, p a r t of t h e f i g u r e s ctm even be r e p l a c e d by l e t t e r s . Besides, I t h e s h o r t e s t of t i n e by t h e g r a p h i c nethod, I n t h i s c h a p t e r , I am s t a y i n g i n t h e a r e a of c l a s s i c a l mechanics and am completely avoiding E&'STEINtS t h e o r y of r e l a t i v i t y . !fiat I have s u b s t a n t i a t e d here, however, i a e a s i l y converted t o SINSTEINtS system.

h a

p l a n s of a p p a r a t u s w i t h which three-body p r o b l e n s can be solved i n

I. I s u l s e and Work
I f one a p p l i e s t h e energy concept t o problems of r o c k e t e r y , one experiences t h e most p e c u l i a r s u r p r i s e s . Not t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e conservation of energy no l o n g e r a p p l i e s i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space3 n a t u r a l l y , it i s v a l i d a s h e r e t o f o r e , but, s i n c e we know of no a b s o l u t e r e s t i n t h e cosmos, it i r h e r e impossible t o simply speak of motion

and, w i t h t h a t , of t h e energy of motion. One must always s t a t e with

r e f e r e n c e t o which f i x e d p o i n t t h e body has t h e energy of motion mentioned. For example, a block of i c e l y i n g a t r e s t a t t h e n o r t h p o l e of

t h e e a r t h :us no k i n e t i c energy wit11 r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h . Y i t h reference t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e sun, on t h e o t h e r hand, it has a v e l o c i t y of ?9.7 lan/sec and a I i i n e t i c energy of -.m.t9700
2

mkg.

No n o r e cau we speak s i d p l y of p o t e n t i a l energy. V i t h our block of i c e , we even g e t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t values f o r it. Naaely, 1) t h e value w i t h r e f e r e u c e t o t h e n o r t h p o l e of t h e e a r t h ; 8) t h e value w i t h r e f e r ence t o t h e c e x ~ t r eof t h e sun, when one t h i n k s of t h e body b e i n g c a r r i e d away Prod t h e e a r t h and broui;ht t o t h e sun; 3) f i n a l l y , t h e v a l u e of

i t s p o t e n t i a l energy w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e sun, when one

tlii~llsso f t h e whole e a r t h t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e block of i c e a s b e i n g b r o u ~ h tt o t h e sun. I n t h i s case, t h e work n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e t h e body
away i r o n t h e e a r t h ~ r o u l dn o t be r e ~ ~ u i r e dI.n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e endrgy

p a r t s of t h e e a r t h , cud e s t i u a t i n g t h e k i n e t i c energy i n t h e r e ~ a i n i n g

it i s s i y i f i c a n t whether t h e u o t i o n of t h e body i s being considered

w i t h r e s p e c t t o the e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e o r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e a r t h ' s center.
I n space, t h e p r i n c i p l e of -the p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y

( n a t u r a l l y , i n t h e frauework of c l a s s i c a l n e c h a n i c s ) i s a b s o l u t e l y v a l i d , i . e , u o t t a k i n g i n t o account tile a c t u a l s t a t e of motion of t h e system, Otherwise we ~vouldf i n d c o n s i d e r a b l e d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s p r i n c i p l e on t h e e a r t h , which could n o t b e explained any o t h e r way. iiccording t o COU~I1r'OISXXL'S r e s e a r c h , which can be regarded as e s t a b l i s h e d todc.7, t h e whole system of t h e I:ilIry Yay i s moving toward a p o i n t above tile plane of t h e e c l i p t i c w i t h a v e l o c i t y of Since, however, t h e e a r t h i t s e l f r e v o l v e s about l y i n g b a r e l y 25'

roughly 300 h / s e c .

t h e sun a t 29.7 h / s e c ,

i t s a b s o l u t e v e l o c i t y i n s p r i n g d i f f e r s from
P

t h a t i n f a l l by B*t9.7lcos 85.

45 1an/sec, i.e.

a l n o s t 1/10 of t h e

a b s o l u t e v e l o c i t y , and, i n any case, we would n o t i c e d i s c r e p a n c i e s in t h e law of impulse r e s u l t i n g therefrom. I n t h i s connection, a l s o compare

?lie p r i n c i p l e of the connervation of euergy i n i n t e r s l a n e t r r y Bpace a l s o appears e s t a b l i s h e d ; t h e p r i n c i p l e of the preservation of t h e c e u t r e of g r a v i t y can be derived from it. For excmple, i f a systen of two masses n nctd ilm has uo notion, and
a f o r c e a c t s between the two which i n p a r t s v e l o c i t y dv t o n a s s rn and

v e l o c i t y c -to riaso h (here one sllould i ~ a g i n ethe d i f f e r e n t i a l s a s m a l l but f i n i f ' e

PJ:~

ensurable c;uanti t i e s ) , theu t h e work perforned

by t h i s f o r c e i a r

I f , on the other hmd, the s c : e systerl i s r e l a t e d t o an o r i z i n of coordinates which, r e l a t i v e t o t h e systed, advnaces i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e

axd unif or?--~ly with v e l o c i t y v, then, a f t e r t h e i u t e r v e n i u ~f o r c e I ~ n s

acted, 1.1ass u kas t h e v e l o c i t y v
Y

dv, aud msas

~ L Y

has the v e l o c i t y

c (namely, i f we nake c r e l a t i v e , i.e.

a s s i c i ct a e ~ a t i v e uuciber

t o the l e t t e r c). Then, the work perfonled by the force i s

Opening the brackets wcl r e ~ r o u p i n g , we obtain :

~ & - i- . m -;-m'ldv ~? 2

i n ~ t l v ' -i- n j ( ~ s 1 ++-dn~~2 vc +d m

Froat the p r i u c i p l e of the conservation of e u e r C m d t h a t of the r e l a t i v i t y o f mo%ion, it now follows t h a t it i s i r r e l e v o u t t o t h e absolute q~tnrl t i t y o f vorIr perf o r :ed by the f o r c e :low ;reat v e l o c i t y v

of t h e r e f e r e n c e s y s t e x is. In o t h e r words, A1 must equal A2

From t h a t , it f o l l o w s t h a t A,-A1=O. That i s ( u c c o r d i n g t o (101) and (108))

l l e l a t i v e t o t h e s y s t e z ~ r l i e r ev = 0 , n a s s n s e t s an energy i n c r e a s e 1 ---a ~lv'; r e l a t i v e t o t h e ::!oving s y s t e . . ~ , on t h e o:her hand, it g e t s an 8 energy i u c r e a ~ e

That i~ c o n ~ i d e r a b l y-!ore. Nevertlicless, t h e t o t a l e n o r 3 i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s!)ace i s u o t ~ r e a t e r , f o r , a i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s s y s t e u , work t o t h e w2omt of c . b i s simply w i t h d r a m from mass dm. Itisturally, t h i s ;;recter t r a i s f o r . ; n t i o n of e n e r u sss u o t perforued t o b e impelled a p a r t .

by t h e nechanistu vliich caused t h e t w o r:nsses

As h e r e t o f o r e , i t s perfori.iauce xraa

T h i s e x t r a work was e::cluaivelp

p e r f or:ed

( s i t v e u i a verbo) by tlie

t i l e o r e t i c u e c l i m i c s r e s u l t i n g from t h e c h o i c e of t h e r e f e r e u c e system. I n thou"tlt, v e s i n p l y vitlidrew a connidernbl e m o u n t of k i n e t i c e n e r , y (c.ch) f r m t h e r e c e d i n g ~3a.w xld gave i t t o t h e advnslcing u a e s

i n t h e f o m of u.dv. That i s the s w c a l l e d p r i n c i p l e of r e l a t i v e vork.

If I sta~cli n a b o n t

p.1.d

wei,-h 1%

1% t o g e t h e r - 5 t h :he

oat,

~s

i s well-I.no~m, t h e s y s t m : nan
i!ow,

!)o,lt nrt1.e~ 90 t o c l k ~ i c a lu u i t s of nixs.

i f I have a s t o n e ~i-i-eizhiny19.6

Iic

( t h a t IFLTLCSJ 2 tec:lliical u u i t s tho

of n n s s ) on t h e b o n t a d tliroiv i t array v i t h a v e l o c i t y O F 1 ri/sec, > o a t i s ! ~ r o p e l l e d i n t h e o;,ponite c l i r e c t i o n a t C.l n/sec.

V i t L r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c a r t h ' e o u r i n c e , I ;lave ; ) e r r o r .ed t h e rvork

V i t h r e s p e c t -to t h e sun, t h e p l a c e where t h a t Ilnppelled i s t o have a v e l o c i t y of !?C im/sec,

and t h e s t o n e i s t o Le i:lrorm

i n the s a n e to

c l i r e c t i o n i n which t h e r e s p e c t i v e r e s i o n moved. So, ~ r i t hr e f e r e n c e t o t h i s s y s t e : ~ , I have done work on t h e s t o n e ti!oullti:lg

I n s o d o i n z , I withdrew energy from t h e b o a t amountins t o

T h i s shows t h a t nan can b e c o n s i d e r e d n s s good, Zi;;ht, a d cheap n o t o r

- if

efficient,

one d o e s n o t Irnow a l l a b o u t t h e p r i n c i p l e of

n t h e r?cmts r e l a t i v e work. I n r e a l i t y , t h e energy t r c u ~ s f o r t ~ a ' l i oby z u s c l e s was o n l y 5G001.1

57909.9 = 1.1 mkg.

A s i s a p p a r e n t , n e have s o Tar d e a l t w i t h : . ~ a t t e r sof p u r e c l e f i n i t i o n .

T h a t chan;;es, hoeever, as soon a s Ire n r e d e a l i n g v i t h a body rloving between d i f f e r e n t r e f e r e n c e syste:~a. L e t u s de-:lonstrate o f a rier.ta1 experiment.

i t by : J e w s

An a s t e r o i d i s t o c i r c l e t h e e a r t h a t a d i s t a n c e of 000 r a d i i of
t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t . Then, a c c o r d i n g t o tlie r u l e s of n s t r o n m y , i t s velocity equals 1 h / s e c , aud i t s p e r i o d of r e v o l u t i o n i s 87000 y e a r s . L e t u s suppose t h e r e i s a l o u g - l i v i n g a s t r o n a u t on t h e a s t e r o i d . IIe

~ r i s k e s$0 f l y t o a fi-:ed s t a r 1015 ( t i l e t i s one ladril rill ion) Lu away ( t h a t i s about tile d i s t u l c e of t h e r e t u l u s i n t h e ion). T!ie f i x e d s t a r i s n o t supposed t o nove r e l a t i v e t o t h e a t p o i n t A' ( c f .
7-u

a d i s to l i e i n t h e

t r a j e c t o r y p l m ~ eof t h e a s t e r o i d . Tlie a s t e r o i d i s t o s i ~ e:mctly d

Fit.

6 6 ) Xlet~vcen t h e acn nud t h e f i x e d s t a r ( A i n t l i c o t e s

nucl

t h e d i r e c t i o n t,o t h e f i x e d s t a r ) ,

t h e n v n i l n h l e f u e l s of t h e Later

r o c k e t n r e t o corrcs:~ond t o rsn i d e a l ; ~ r o p u l s i n nof G ~ a / s e c . LIere, the parn71olic v e l o c i t y w i t h referellce t o t h e scil i s p = 1.4 !m/soc. i n tlie c h a p t e r , I w i l l slloa t h a t we can c o n p l e t e l y i p o r e t h i s c p u t i t y i n t h e follolvin;; c n l c u l a t i o u ; t h e pnrn7?olic v e l o c i t y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e aste'roid i s 1iLewise t o he i r i 9 e l e v u : t . irolr t h e riuestioii i s : ;low c m our a s t r o n a u t :;et t:) t!le d i s t t m t *Pixed s t a r f ~ . s i e s t?

lie l o s e s no ti.~ c waitin:.

3) This i s the ? j e s t 5 : : ~ i~ : l e a v e ruipvay,

f o r t ~ aes t e r o i d i s n c z r e s t t o t h e fi::ed

10l5 ------7 6'3910

s t a r , The11 Iie v i l l a r i v e i n

5, ssz,G00 y e a r s ( i n t h i s connection, corlpare the aislver z i v e n

!;y t h e a s t r o n o n i c oboervatorjr i n SbLVX *vrL?i47'5 novel, f'Fron t ! ~ e 3 a r t h

t o t h e ;Ioon", P o i u t 4 ) . Others ncain sill say : ;yo, he :.lust a n i t another 3GCwO y e a r s ; tlieri t h e p l a n e t has conpleterl 3/4 of i t s r e v o l u t i o n nilc! i t s n o t i o n ni:.~s s:;actly a t t h e f i x e d stnr. I f +,he roc!:et start:: then (that, i s on l i n e

C'C),

tile a s t e r o i d ' s v e l o c i t y of 1 1u1,'sec i s added t o i t s o~vn v e l o c i t y .

- ROO lols ---= 4,730,690 y e a r s cad nakes up f o r 7.4'10~ t h e 2OCCO y e a r s of s c i t i n g . - '.'n~oi s r i s l r t ?

No one. I t i s b e s t f o r t h e r o c k e t t o s t a r t a few c e n t u r i e s a r t e r t h i s period w i t h a v e l o c i t y c;:actly f o r c e of 1 lan/sec w d c!escribes o p p o s i t e t o Ll~ev e l o c i t y of t h e a s t e r o i d m d n o t q u i t e a s s r e a t . I u s o doing, i t u s e s a p r o p e l l i n g
nn e l o n ~ a t e de l l i p s e around t h e suu

I t covers t h e i t i s t m c e i n

t l i c t i s L o b r i l r ~ ;i t t o t1.e ecl,ce of t h e s o l a r corona, I n t h e 2erii1clion ( t h a t i s t h e t r a j e c t o r y p o i n t l i e a r e s t t h e sun) i t should :i?,ve a v e l o c i t y of 5C0 1s/sec. lloa, t h e astroncC*-~t acids t h e rae;:niiliilg 5 lia/sec t o t h i s ve1oci-Q and t r a v e l s toward t h e f i x e d s 5 s r w i t h t h e liyperb o l i c v e l o c i t y of 505 1m/sec ou t r n j e c t o v j 1 3 . The v e l o c i t y of 500 h / s e c correspo,lds t o t!ie k i n e t i c eGerLy used up i n o r d e r t o b r i n g tlie r o c k e t back up t o t h e t r z j e c t o r y of t ? ~ e a s t e r o i d a z a i n . That 1 8 nould r e c ~ u i r eenergy c ~ o u n t i n gt o ---9n.5CO , The a d d i t i o n a l L i n e t i c

onerLy which t h e r o c k e t h a s a t 535 l u / s e c i s espressecl i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t does n o t s t o p rvllen i t r e a c h e s tlie r a n z e 02' t h e a s t e r o i d b u t f l i e s on i:itii n v e l o c i i y v:~ose Iiilletic energy i s or;ual t o Ele d i l " P e r e ~ c o bet~vceu t h e energy p r e s e n t a t 505 h / s e c a ~ a d t 5 C O ?m/sec. I f t!lis v e l o c i t y i s x, then

From t h a t f o l l o ~ r s

'Yitti t h i s v e l o c i t y , our a s t r o n n u t g e t s t o t h e u n h o r m Pixed s t a r i u

470,300

y e a r s , lvllich i s 1/12 o r 1/10 of t h e t h e s t i ~ t e r l;r:love. 5l1e !linetic cuer2;y of

and o:g-;;en,

I t i s l o s t r e ; l e r t n b l e t i l n t , a t 70.0 b / s e c ,
t h e r o c k e t cnn b e ; r e c t o r

t l ~ t w l tlie t o t a l the-lica1 P i ; e r a of the f u e l s

c a r r i e d alonz. For exo~3ple, i f i t a n s f i l l e d sit11 :rj.cIro,en

1
I

which r e s u l t i n on erlioust v e l o c i t y of ca 1 0 0 im/sec,

a d ve l e t the

r:ass of t h e e:~pty r o c k e t equal n, tLen t h e mass of t h e f u l l r o c k e t ( a c c ~ r d i ut ~ o fon.1~1 (6)) ~ e q u a l l e d e 6 l 4 = 4.48 n, and t h e moss of t h e f u e l s c a r r i e d ulong was 3 - 4 3 m. The :~eclictuical e q u i v a l e n t of t h e lieat of combustion was 33.5

- 35.9

million

I~I;~/IC~.

Xien r e t ~ ~ r n i n fg ron the

sun, on t h e o t h c r hand, t h e I r i r ~ e t i ce n e r g of t h e r o c k e t , when i t was a s f a r away f r o n tiie sun a s t h e a s t e r o i d , m o u n t e d t o

ahicli i s 70-100 t i n e s L!ore t l i m tlre cliev?ical c n e r g of t h e f u e l s ! Tlie f i r a t t i r ~ e I made t h i s c s l c u l a t i o n , I b e l i e v e d n o t h i n g e l s e i n t h e f i r s t minute b u t t h a t h e r e t h e law of t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of energy was broIcen, o r a t l e a s t t h u t one coulcl p i n v o r k a t t h e c o s t of ellorgy s t i : \ u l a t i n g tiie f i e l d of g r a v i t y soonevllnt s i - : i l a r t o t h e lvork p e r f o x ~ ~ e d by an e l ec t r o i ~ a ~ w!iich ~ ~ e t i s c o u n t e r l a l a u c c d by 1veaIrening of t h e stii~ulati~i cg u r r e c t . 3 u t n e i t h e r i s t h e case. The f u e l s have perfor-led tile v h o l e rrorL nl one. I3esi.de t h e i r ener,-y of co::lbustion, t h e y contained p o t e n t i a l energy, s i n c e t h e y were s o high above t h e sun t o begin ~ r i t h . J y tile drop, t h a t was converted t o I r i n e t i c energy, ~ v h i c hnow was c o n s i d e r a b l y dirlininhed by t h e e::liaust v e l o c i t y of L h / s e c . The g a s e s t r a i l i n g hehind t h e roc1;et a r e s t i l l flyiue; away from t h e sun, h u t t h e y no loileer come t o t h e h e i g h t of t h e a s t e r o i d ; ulcl becotme we b r o u ~ l i tt!le:~ n e a r e r t o t h e ann, cuerLy was r e l e a s e d wliich i s riolv e v i d e n t i n t!le !lore ra,,iCI jlotion of t h e rocket. I n t h e c a s e of t h e b u r r ~ i n zrocI;et, Ire n r e a l s o d e s l i i ~ : w i t h t ~ v o d i r f ercilt r e f e r e n c e systerls. 'Chc e x l ~ n u s t;as nLtnins v e l o c i t y c ~ rt h i of i ~ e n t u l r e f ereilcc t o t h e r o c k e t , b u t t h e rocIist ;;eta i t s :)repulsion w i t h r e z p e c t t o t h e e n r t h . Y i t h t h a t w e .-love Erou tlic experi:lents t o t h e sp:iere of t h e tfill,ihle.
arc;^

I n works on t h e theory o f rocketry, one frec;aeutly f i n d s t h e f 011 owing e r r or : I f tile edittitst v e l o c i t y of t h e . f ~ ~ se il s c n/sec, ener;;y of a rie.ss p a r t i c l e d a i s
t

tlieu t h e I r i 1 ~ e t . i ~

(~i~i ast c o r r e c t , b u t only with reference t o tile rocliet, refereuce t o tlie earth.) I f ejectin:: v e l o c i t y of t h e rocket t o the value v

not with

t h i s :>ass po.rticle r n i o e s tlie

dv, then t!le k i u e t i c enorgy

( i f we disregard dvB) i n c r e a s e s 5y

That i s a l s o c o r r e o t but t h i s t h e ollly with refereilce t o the e a r t h .

Dut now dA and dil a r e equated. ( h e nay s t i l l reckon w i t h t h e

p r i n c i p l e of the conservation of e n e r a ! ) I n t h i s

nw

oue obtains

3y i n t e g r a t i o n we g e t
V'. 3

l r a t u r a l l y , t h a t soon r e s u l t s i n t e r r i b l e ri:;ures.
v = 4 C , one z e t a

F o r a x ; r > ~ p l ef ,or

h e c m colrpreliend irliy tLose sc:iolars c w ~ et o t h e c o u c l u s i o n t h a t r e - c h i n 2 i u t e r i > l a u e t a i - j s p a c e by r o c k e t i s n o t f e a s i b l e , Tlre P o l l o v i n g e r r o r i a yet-;. t h o thel-no-che-lical by n o r e tl:,m cln.13. e n e r a of t h e r e .ni;,ing rocI:et si . i l a r : I f a , l a s s u n i t of f u e l h a s lass ( n o ) ~ i n ~ , lc lc ~u)n o t b e i n c r e a s e d

energy B, 5y L:~rr:i:lz up tile ..ass c h ,t h e L i u e t i c

r~

Usit12 t h e Eon-iuln

a f a n t a s t i c f i p r e i s 1 i L e a i s e a r r i v e d a t , nruxely
TI

As v e a l r e a d y saw, l o r 5lle in;)ell in;

a p a r t of t h e n a s s e s r~ and clu, v e l o c i t y cu~d t h e p r i n c i p l e n h i c h f ~ ~ r u i s l i ef o r . m l a

t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e c o n s t a n c y of t h e e::haust of tile p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e cenLrc of ;.ravity,

( s ) , o r e v a l i d indepenclent of t h e s t a t e of r t o t i a g of t h e r o c l e t .
O r , as I w r o t e 30 '1,KITt i n 1025, 1vi10, cs;-ion,- o t h e r t h i n g s , had also

-7ade t h i s e r r o r : "'Tit11 r e f e r e n c e t o i t s e l f , t h e r o c k e t i s always a t rest. I I a s t y e a r , I correspoilded, w.lon~.o t h e r s , vrith P r i v y C o u n c i l l o r

iI. LO:lX"Z, Dtuzig, c o n c e n l i u ~t h i s t o p i c , and i t tooIc t h r e e l e t t o r o t o

convince hin t h a t t h i s assump t i o n c o n t r a d i c t s t h e p r i n c i p l e of the preservation of t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y 1

>

I f one xisties t o use the e n e r a p r i u c i p l e a s a b a s i s , one n u s t

consider t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f u e l s of a fast-flyin;;

rocket do n o t only

:lave therno-clienical e n e r a b u t a l s o considerable k i n e t i c energy, ~vIvichi s considerably reduced as they a r e t k r o m back. For excuple, 1 i f --.c2*dv i s tlle portion of chemical e n e r a 3 which c ~ m be 2 converted i n t o gotion, then, i n flowing out, t h e f u e l s n o t only l o s e energy i n amount of

b u t a l s o tlie m o u n t

For example, i f a rocket f l y i n g ~t 12 h / s c c e j e c t s a technical nssa u n i t of p r o p e l l a n t s with a r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of '1 k / s e c , l a t t e r l o s e n o t only then the

b u t beside t h a t a l s o

A1 t o ~ e t h e rthey re1 ease 43.10 G r n d c ~ .

That i s 6 t i n e s a s r?uch a s tile bare therno-cile:sicc?l e n e r g . liaturnlly, t h i s e n e r g rqust go sonewliere w d i s si'lply oxpressed i n the f a c t t h a t

I r ~ e n t i o nt h i s only .;a a e x m p l e of bow d i f f i c u l t the i n ~ u i l y here

i s exactly f o r pllyaicista wllo have rrorked with tile concept of energy

a lot.

t h e er1eri-y i a c r e a s e of t h e rocIret

i s 6 times g r e a t e r

t:mx~ should h e expected accorcliii.~ t o t h e c c l c u l a t i o u s c i t e d above,

I need u o t e x p l a i n t o n a t h e ~ a a t i c i c ~ mid ~ s p h y s i c i s t s what i t means i f

Ire can m u l t i p l y a l o ~ a r i t h m i ci n c r m e ~ i tby 8, ik.iot:~er offelice a g a i i i s t t h e energy p r i u c i p l e i s found e s p e c i a l l y
i n t h e f i r s t w r i t i n g s of VALI=.

I n !iis e a r l y l r r i t i n g s , he a s s u e d

t h a t t h e encrGy of t h e f u e l s i s d i v i d e d i n a C h r i s t i a n s p i r i t between exil?.uat energy mlcl m e r a i n c r e a s e of t h e r o c k e t , s o t h a t t h e exhaust ~naes s e t e x a c t l y a s much ener,T a s t h e advaucinz r o c k e t ; o r , t h a t t h e t o t a l cner;;3. h e i l e f i t s t h e advancing rocket.

In this collnection, i ~roulrla l s o l i k e t o n e n t i o n t h a t , auong o t h e r

t h i n g s , it v a s su~,:gested to ne to c~~lculaa te s follows t
I f a r e r l e c t o r :.lace of sodium p l a t e weizhing 100 kg p e r 11ectnre

e n t e r s a cloud of c o m i c d u s t , a l s o c o n t a i n i n g only 1.8 g of mass i n a cubic !;iloaetre,

D

w i t h a r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of 7 ~;m/sec p e r p e n d i c u l a r

t o t;ie r c f l c c t o r surfo.ce, then t h e r e i l e c t o r would be slo~reclclo~vn a t

0,1

r:/jec".
ISJ',

----.I su

C,37

I ; w e l y , i n one secouil, t h e r e f l e c t o r t r a v e r s e s a space of 1.2 t!le . ~ n t t c r f i l liu;; t h i s space nu:.ibers 0 . We----teclmical

98 10

r.lass u n i t s , oxcl t h e i r e n e r 3 of :.lotion i s

2 u t t h e encrdy of .lotion of t h e r e f l e c t o r (according t o t h i s nethod) r ~ u s ta1 s o c l ~ n u ~ by e t h e stme n u r ~ b e rof mkg; w i t h t h e r e f l e c t

6.4 ~ l / s e c .
b e . ,

l o1:cw-cr, ' h j , e n e r r j of motion would correspond t o a v e l o c i t y of

Ac-tunlly, liere a l s o , only t h e i ~ g p u l s e would be t h e sane on b o t h

sides. I f x i s tile a c c e l e r a t i o n of the r e f l e c t o r , then it ~rouldbe given by the f oriiula

From t h a t , r e g e t x = 0.59 ~ ~ i / s e c ' . The d e c e l e r a t i o n of an e l e c t r i c space-ship, t h a t reiglie a t l e a s t

10,000 kg per hectare, would be a l l of 10,000 t i n e s smaller, (1n t h i s chapter, 1 , ~ r i l d l i s r e g a r d a l l tlie other e r r o r s l y i n g i n t h i s t r a i n of thought. 'i) Certainly, t h e r e i s n o t 1.8 g of d u s t per

km3 i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. a ) These d u s t p a r t i c l e s s i n p l y p i e r c e a sodium p l a t e 0.005 n m i n thickness and, i n s o doing, l o s e a t t h e

nost t h e i r velocity; t h e impact they a r e a b l e t o impart t o 1 t h e r e f l e c t o r is a l s o only a s g r e a t , cnd so forth.) 100
1 -of 100
(7

For our purposes, t h e concept of energy i s on the wllol e too ~ e n e r a l m d hence l ~ e a n i n g l e s s . When c a l c u l a t i n g the propulsion of a rocket f l y i n g through space, we have an ecluluation c o n t a i n i n s 5 d i f f e r e n t each of which can be c a l c u l a t e d only by t h e u s e energy of other formulas. ! Y e s h a l l l e t t h e energy of uotion of the rocket q u a n t i t y of gas be El and a f t e r the before e j e c t i o n o ~ , a ' a s r t a i n e j e c t i o n E3; t h e c h e r ~ i c a lenergy of t h i s q u a n t i t y of gas i s Ea, t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e escaping gases with reference t o tbe e a r t h ( n o t with reference t o the rocket) t e l l s u s only t h a t

q, and

t h e heat t h e exhaust cas

s t i l l r e t a i n s , E5. Then, t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e conservation of energy

A s t o how l a r g e these s i n g l e energy q u a n t i t i e s a r e , we l e a r n

nothing from t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e conservation of energy.

For three-3ody problens, t h i s law i s a l s o too general, f o r i t only s t a t e s : The sum of the k i n e t i c energy of .the t h r e e bodies with reference t o any uniforr?ly :loving systed of coordinates i s constantly so and
SO

g r e a t . Eut i t doeo n o t s t a t e ilorr nucli f a l l s t o one body o r

tile other. The p r i n c i p l e of the conservation of energy can be applied only t o tile ~ r a v i t a t i n gof a very sna11 body i u t h e f i e l d of g r a v i t y * of a very l a r g e one, i f the body i s only exposed t o the p u l l of g r a v i t y (uo pressure or impact), i f i t can f r e e l y follow t h i s p u l l of g r a v i t y ,

and i f the influence of a l l other s t a r s riay be disregarded.

For example, i f r e regard t h e s y s t e n r o c k e t

e a r t h ae a t r e s t

> e f o r e s t a r t of the rocket and assume t h a t t h e e a r t h ham t h e mass of t h e po~vder gases, and t h a t t h e rocket has t h e mass tile v e l o c i t y v upon s t a r t i n g , then o b v i o ~ s l y

and, rrith s t a r t of the rocket, r e c e i v e s thb v e l o c i t y V by t h e p r e s s u r e

'h and r e c e i v e s

Aftcmards, t h e k i n e t i c energy A of t h e e a r t h i s

[ That

i s obtained i f , r l i i l e taking (103) i n t o account, (104) i a Since m 4 ~ 1 , A can o c t u a l l y be ignored beside a.

divided by (105).]

The s u e holds when we consider f r e e f l i g h t of the rocket i n t h e

f i e l d of z r a v i t y of t h e eartli. Ilere, i n s t e a d of t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e c a s e s , l?e s i n p l y s u b s t i t u t e t h e p u l l of g r a v i t y . I f the r o c k e t were of t!le o r ~ l e rof t ~ a ~ ~ i i t u of d et h e e a r t h , t l i a t could n a t t ~ r a l l yno l o n g e r be

iii 7 of

clone. Svery nntroilo.!er \ r i l l , f o r e?r,mple, c o n i i r ~ ;t h a t t h e .:eon c o u p l e t e s

a r e v o l u t i o n o.round t h e ec:rth

80

u1

t h e t i d e t h a t a r o c k e t would

r e q r ~ i r enllose c e n t r e of c r a v i t y i s t h e sene clistaslce f r o r ~tile c c i t r e of t h e e a r t h a s t h e c e u t r e of t!le t!oon. ?hen Ire n a u t t o G e t o r l i n e t h e f l i , ! ~ t a t n r o c k e t synce-ship b e t ~ r e c n tyro p l a n e t s inadcc;uate. ,ravitation

, the priilciple

of t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of ener;;y i s a7 s o t h e space-aIiip ~ o u l d

For e x m p l e , b e w e e n e a r t h and :!ars,

d e s c r i b e a LTl'PL32 e l l i p s e only i f t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e e c r t h ' s could be c~isre;;urGecl. A t t h e begixiriinc, it r u n s nlieild o f t h e e a r t h , f o r when it s t a r t s o f f it haa a g r e a t e r m g u l a r v e l o c i t y rvith r e f e r e n c e t o t h e sun than tiie e a r t h h a s ( c f . Pig. 67). L a t e r , ho~vever, i t s a n z u l a r v e l o c i t y aiulrs below t!iat of tlie e a r t h , s o t h a t t h e e a r t h passes i t by once :.lore. The r e r , u l t i s a v c l o c i t y conponent of ca 3C0 n/scc d i o n e e n e r a v a l u e b e n e f i t s t h e i ~ o t i o uof tlie e a r t h about tiie sun. T h i s t r a j e c t o r y d i s t ~ ~ r l u c would e l l a t u r n l l y b e ~vllolly s u f f i c i e n t t o rlnkc tiie r o c k e t miss :!ars, account. i f i t v e r e n o t tn!ren i l l t o

I llove o f t e n been anItec1 concerning t h e lieat tone, t h a t i s t h e t i l e ~ l a le f f e c t of my r o c k e t nozzle. N a t u r a l l y , t l i a t i s a q u e s t i o n

1rIlicll can only 5 e answered c o n d i + , i o t ~ a l l y .Y i t h good n o z z l e s and t h e
r i ~ hc t o n b i n a t i o n of f u e l s , t h e 1ri:ictic ei1crL.y of tile c x l l w c t ;;as

1 -.--.cbn.c2 -9

w i l l r~nIre 5 0

- 70 $ of

t h e t,her:~o-clle.~icnlenerdy o f t h e l e n t s o 'i'l~is i s nttdributi:ble e t c . _lacl~iiie

f u e l s . dC3: ~3 acliieved 07 $ i n his e1:)eri t o t h e f a c t t h a t 1ier.c a l l irws i ttin:;, p a r t s fa1 1 c.luay.

Ll.nking, coolin:;,

A m a response t o t h i s answer, I u s u a l l y s e t t h e p a r t l y scornful,

p a r t l y well+eant

advice t o nount t h e rocket nozzle on a c a r s i n c e

it i s a splendid propellinif n o t o r (mong other t n i n s s , t h i s was a l s o

VbCIELIS advice a t t h e beginning. Later, t h e rocket a i r p l a n e c r y s t n l l i z e d from our correspondence).

y answer t o t h a t i s t h a t I would f i r s t have t o be given Usually, m

a c a r t h a t can run 1000-4CG0 n/sec.

I f i e n o t enough t o develop t h i s

k i n e t i c e n e r g , it n u s t b e n e f i t t h e v e h i c l e and n o t a i a p l y be borne away by t h e exhaust gases. I f t i e vehicle stops, t h e energy u t i l i z a t i o n

i s i n f i n i t e l y bad, f o r a l l t h e energy i s now used only f o r bloning out t h e p r o p e l l i n g gases more violently. The g r e a t e r t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e v e h i c l e becmea, t h e s u a l l e r t h e v e l o c i t y f m a i n i n g t o t h e propolling
gases a f t e r they a r e blown out. When v = c, energy u t i l i z a t i o n i s b e s t , f o r then t h e prop ell in^ gases coae t o a atop behind tlae v e h i c l e and, i n so doing, t r a n s f e r 50-70 $ of t h e ~ ~ ~ I T I o - c ; A B e~ n_ eI rg ~c~~~ contained i n t h e f u e l 8 and e l l t h e k i n e t i c e i d e r 3 of the Tuels t o %he vehicle. I f t h e vehicle t r a v e l s f a s t e r thau t h e Eases flow out, t h e exhaust gases apparently p e r f o r n s t i l l more work per u n i t of nass. I n t h i s case, however, it m a t be ;-e=matored t h a t they were enabled t o do s o only bmcause t h e f u e l s were e a r l i e r brought t o t h i s h i ~ h velocity. That n a t u r a l l y required energy. This e n o r 3 i s n o t returner1 t o u s i n f u l l rnecsure, f o r t h e exllaust gases behind t h e vehicle s t i l l r e t a i n a v e l o c i t y forward; t h a t u e m s t h a t p a r t of the energy of the p r o p e l l a n t s i s converted i n t o k i n e t i c e n e r e of t h e exhaust Gases. Therefore,nith hi$ v e l o c i t i e s , t h e e r f i c i e n c y becones tvorae asain.

O f t h e t h e m o - c b e ~ i c a l e n e r a B of t h e f u e l s , per u u i t of mass, 1 t h e p a r t Kl = -.cl can b e converted i n t o k i n e t i c e n e r g (here 4 i s

t
n a t u r a l l y tdcen d t h r e f e r e n c e ' t o t h e rocket). The k i n e t i c e n e r a with

r e f e r e n c e t o tTie c:irt:l coil tninc?tl i n t!le r e e l s 1~cl"ore-the ? ~ u r n i i l ~ 1 2 p e r w15.t of r w w . Therefore, w i t h r..c.?ercuce iu~o;ults t o 1i3 = ---.v
2

t o the e a r t h , t h e -Lo.tnl encr;jr cniitr>kieci i n pro:,,ell:.nt c:-.:!ounts t o :

(E

uiii.2 of unss of Z i e

A s c m be seen, @ilatcloes l;ot t,n;;e i l l t o s c ~ o : : ~ i t6;1e t!ler.;~;l c u e r g

Z i n t cculnot Le converted i u t o n o t i o , ~ ; i t rloes n o t i a t e r e ; t a s :leiqe.

m-

~iie eilerLy :r:iich t!lc u n i t of r1a;s

o f f n e l s t i l l r e t n i i i a a f t e r tlic

out-flow ,TIQUIA$S t o (no-turnlly h e r e a l s o ~ r i t h o u tt h e i ~ e which ~ t the Eases s t i l l ~ a r i . ~ )

Accorrlin~;ly, t h e r o c k e t 13e:lef i t s Procl t h e e n c r z

LPPXfAr"2, f o r e:;nuple, aiiould Iiavo considerc?rl t h i e wI~en he w;-o+,e h i s liiglrly-reco~miced a r t i c l e (but crnlvlinl; 1!~it:1 e r r o r s ) on t h e inposs i b i l i t y of space P l i ~ h t , i n ~vliich, u o n g o t h e r 611in~s, he sit-tply tro.nsferred tlie d e z r e e of e f f i c i c i c y of LPTLtS rocl:et c c r t o t h e spaces h i p , ~ r i i i c ht r a v e l o 300 ti:nes fcritor.
'I;CC:DVNG liere :aaT:es a v0i.y p e c u l i a r m i i t a t ( 0 . fie C$&S h i n a e l f t h e cluestion, horr l o n g t h e k i n e t i c e n e r o of a rocIiet i n c r e a s e s mid 1711ether l a t e r , i n s p i t e of t h e iucrensin,rr v e l o c i t y , i t does u o t d o c r e a s e again because t h e mass t e c o n e s s ~ x n l l e r . I n s o do in^, he e n v i s c r ~ e s$he v1101e I r i u e t i c energy of fonrard-speedin@ roc1;et i n c l u d i n g i t s r u e l s nnd does n o t e r m i n e t h e ahnre f a l l i n g t o t h e empty r o c l e t , a s I h a m ilolie above. X a t u r a l l y , one i s p e r l i t t e d t o exanine t h a t , a1 thou&h, f o r t h e p r e s e n t , t h e 6 e s t 5 o i i s only of acadenic i n t e r e s t ; a c t u a l l y , t h e t o t a l I i i n e t i c < euergy does n o t even i n t e r e s t u s w i t h t h e rocIcct p r o j e c t i l e .

1 0 0 1 1 , Z I ' 1 ~ I Gi s q u i t e ri;;ht To c l a r i f y t h e c u e s t i o n , ~

1711en he r e f l e c t s

t h a t t h e e j e c t e d f u e l s s t i l l have t h e k i n e t i c energy

(I an h e r e w r i t i n g t h e formula w i t h uy symbols). Then he simply e q u a t e s t h e work t h e u n i t of mass does on t h e r o c k e t t o

s o t h a t he n a t u r a l l y a r r i v e s a t completely wrong values. E s p e c i a l l y t h e conclusion : a r o c k e t a i r p l a n e should s t r i v e t o f l y w i t h a v e l o c i t y v = c, i s wrong. Cf. a l s o wAutoteclmik" (Autonobile ~ e c h u i c s ) ,V o l m e 18. I t i s n o s t r e h a r k a b l e t h a t , a few pages f a r t h e r dorm, he f i n d s f o r n u l a (li)9a) (and t h a t , a s he means t o emphasize, independently of ZIOWiCWSIY o r me). Then, i n t h e sequel, he works w i t h both formulas w i t h o u t being aware t h a t they c o n t r a d i c t each other.

I have h e r e i n q u i r e d only a f t e r t h e a b s o l u t e q u a n t i t y of t h i s
energy; we f i n d i t s s i p i f we n o t e t h a t au energy i n c r e a s e can t a k e p l a c e only when v and c a r e o p p o s i t e t o each other. I f v and c work i n t h e s a a e d i r e c t i o n , t h a t i s when t h e exhaust g a s flows o u t toward t h e f r o n t , t h e ' r o c k e t i s being r e t a r d e d ; i n s o doing, i t l o s e s energy. So v e u u s t s e t

Fig. 68 ehows t h e n a t u r e of t h i s f u n c t i o n i n t h e a o l i d curve. For

c o n s t a n t c, i t i s a s t r a i g h t l i n e ; I $ i n i t s e l f becomeg l a r g e a t ramdm i f only t h e v e l o c i t y i s correspondingly l a r g e . The broken l i n e i n Fig. 68 r e p r e s e n t s t h e themo-chemical energy of a u n i t of mass of f u e l s which can be converted i n t o motion. Thus, i t i s aeeg how much more 1 kg of f u e l s can do w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e v e l o c i t y .

I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, we i n q u i r e i n t o t h e p a r t y of t h e t o t a l k i n e t i c and thexwo-chemical energy of t h e f u e l s which b e n e f i t s t h e

( . by Xg. Then we o b t a i n r r o c k e t a t a s p e c i f i e d nonent, we must d i v i d e I

~ ~ ~ o - r ,p i;f r e s e t y = - P + c

= I ,y

2 + 1

(108)

7.

- 1 ~ .59

g i v e s .&lienat;ure o f t h i s curve. Yliu3 we cc?r~9ce that, the Euel

u t i l i z a t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y ( c o t ;J~solu"sely)tile 3 e o t Tor v =
"2::e:;e

c.

ioi-izlulrts micl curves onljr iu(!ic~t:: ~vilntr!u:uitit,y

o f -the Tucl

o n e l - 3 i s ber~P e i c i n l i n :3ropcll in:

tIie iqoc:iet a t a o;eciPictl

,?o,~er: t.

- '~'Iie f a l l ovrinr;. c.;~~es-tion i s more

l ~ s s of

t in?ortc?ilt : i f t h e roc'-ct Lng ?~ur:l

no nud s o l o n ~ ,how lluch o f t l ~ ct o t 2 1 c o l ? v c r t i 5 l e exel*>;yof t h e A : e l s

s p e u t agr.in becornea ap?,l.roi~t i n :!ie t:le roc::et

tot~l !:inctic
p

e n e r a oT $he Ti.lnl
. 2 ~ cnrricc! ~

cud how ~ u c hhnvc t'lc e::h;lust

array?

For t h e time being, no d e f i n i t e anewer can be given t o t h i e q u e s t i o n , L e t u s coneider a r o c k e t f l y i n g i n a i r - f r e e and g r a v i t a t i o n - f r e e space and chooee our c o o r d i n a t e system s o t h a t , with r e f e r e n c e t o t h e same, t h e r o c k e t j u s t stood s t i l l b e f o r e t h e burning. Nor, i f A i s t h e t o t a l energy c o n t a i n e d i n t h e f u e l a which can b e converted t o motion of t h e exhuurt g a s e r (which, t h e r e f o r e , does n o t s e r v e only t o h e a t t h e exh a u s t gas), E t h e k i n e t i c energy r h i c h t h e r o c k e t h a s a f t e r t h e propulsion v (here v is t h e ideal propultion), then

From t h a t f 011ova

W e shall designate t h e equation

E -

v a s y and -- a e x; then we d i r e c t l y r e a d from c

X

3"-

ex

t h a t a s x i n c r e a s e s (when we r e g a r d c a s c o n e t a n t ; hence, as v i n c r e a s e s ) , y murt tend t o v a r d t h e l i m i t i n g v a l u e 0, for,Oin ao doing, t h e denominator i n c r e a s e s f n a t e r than t h e numerator. That, f o r x ( o r v) = O, y a l s o ~ ~ C O N eq ~u S a l s t o 0, r e can prove by our equation i f we apply t h e method of v a r i a b l e fortila t o it.

Fig, 70

fi;.

'id niiown tlie u n t u r o of the ctl~-vc!;or ?or.-uln ( l i 3 a ) . :e

~ s l J l o5?1cr

ctlll

c ' o t c ~ l i n c t:lc o!, : i : , u qe::actl;.,

S : i n ~ s ,: ~ y,.i

OI'CU hi3tj.011.

It is

%en,

f u r xogt,

t:ie n u n e r a t o r : ; u s t be 0 . 7ron tiink (by rIi.op~i11~ tile

Ceuoninntol-, ~r:iic:~ i o everyirhere f i n i t e , cad clividiu;; t h e ~ ~ ~ r e r n by tor

2 x

e ) t h i * ~ o l l o r r sr

7rm t h a t , x

c n r ~b e e a s i l y cisJcul:.t.ed n c c o r c l i u ~t o t h e rel;ula P a l s i . oiJt I-';is Zoru~d t o ?je 1.598.. I f v = l.59D0c, a'; ",:e concluoiou

..

oi" propi;lsiou, -the r a t i o of Tciuetic c n o r s -Lo 5 1 c l @ilcr;;.Ji s -:lie .:on+, ad-mu';a~;eo-ils. Then, no = .i..S-l*n mlii +,'iie l o s s i n f u e l ~vould e(;11::1 1

of t h e t;ier.~o-c:ie:iical e n e r g vas couverted i a t o k i n e t i c e ? l e r z . Gn t h e otlier hand, t h e 1.oc:iot r i u c l l y has tile FiineCic enerLy

r o c k e t cunnot pertora b e t t e r wi t I l con~t;bnLouch-fl ow vol o c i t y , evcn ii

t h e ; ~ r o p u l o i o nap,,orutuu i s i t 0 f: e i ' f i c i e u t , lio~r, i f one I^itiures t l i u t

the I i i u e t i c energy of t h e exllaust Gases a t t!ie iioat ncLi:es 70

;b of t h e

c h e i l i c d energy ol" the f u e l a , then one f i n d s t h a t , Kit11 c o n s t a n t exhauat

val o c i t y , under even tile most f a v o r a b l e coilditions, t h e roclief ccin only

c o n v e r t h a l f of t h e f u e l e n e r g i n t o eQer,y of n o t i o n of t h e f i n a l n a s s . The r a t i o

I II
1

II

E -

t u r n s o u t b e t t e r i f c i s v a r i a b l e and i n c r e a a c s

s i n u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h v; it tunis o u t b e s t i f c = v c o n s t a n t l y , s o t h a t t h e f u e l s j u s t cone t o a s%op belliriil t h e rocket. Then, tile t o t a l k i n e t i c energy produced b e n e f i t s t h e r o c k e t , and t h e o a l y energy l o s t i s t h a t
c ! tllot used i n l i f l , i n z t h e P.:els u s e d i n h e a t i n g t h e exhaust g s o e s w

t o t h e i r p r e s e n t a l t i t u d e . !'lit:i

v e r t i c a l a s c e n t , even i n t!lis nos'i roclek, the

f a v o r a b l e case, o t a l l g a s p i l l a r would Torn bekin;;: 2,::e

e r e c t i o n of which n a t u r a l l y r e q u i r e s work a s does t l ~ ee r e c t i o i l of m y

high p i l l a r , Ve ~ 1 1 ~ ~ soon 1 1 s e e t h ~ -t:lct t i s not a l i t t l e , rcla5ivcly

speaking. I t i s t r u e , tire s t a t e i n n h i c h v = c i s only po;si!>le Pron a c e r t a i n n i n i n m v e l o c i t y on an2 s t o p s v:ieu v e l o c i t i e o a r e t o h e achieved t h a t a r e h i g h e r t h m t h e ;li,;lezt ;.ossi'-le e s h u s t velocity. Bol7:ulas z r e v a l i c r For t h e Q p e of f1i;;ht j u s t n e n t i s n e c , Lhe f o l loviu;

Uere t h e n a s s i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l only t o t h e v e l o c i t y i t s e l f . Wevertheless, it i s a t i l l z r e a t c r t!lo,n i f t h e er::iat~.r:st vcl o r i t y ltcd c o n s t a n t l y Iiad t h e hi,hest vnluc a t t a i n c b l e . I n t:le c a s e ~r;lei.o t::e f l i ~ hv t e l i c i t y devicrtcs l i t t l e fro= t h e exlisust v e l o c i t y , t h e euprfj. l o s s i s r e l a t i v e l y m a l l , f o r it ouly i n c r e a s e s e,a t h e rIiffercllce ol" t h e squares. For e x m p l e , i f v = tl;e e::l;ilnust Lases c a r r y o.~~ay 2 8 1 C only be--of t h e pro:!uced cuergy, ~ v l ~ e r e at s h e e n e r j of t h e e 4 r o c k e t i t a e l f il;crer:aes by t h e a ~ o u i ~ oft

---

-- '
C

Thot i s f o u r t i n e s t?ie k i n e t i c eilergy of t h e e s l l x l s t z a s e s =id, 1)y

comparison, e x a c t l y a s much caa be converted i n t o k i n e t i c energy of t h e exhaust gases from the thermo-chemical emergy. Note t The circumstance t h a t t h e r o c k e t operates most economically when i t s f l i g h t v e l o c i t y i s c l o s e t o t h e out-flow r e l o c i t y i s an att r i b u t i n g f a c t o r t o t h e f a c t t h a t alcohol r o c k e t s a r e more s u i t a b l e f o r lower v e l o c i t i e r , t h a t i s f o r t h e lower l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere, and hydrogen r o c k e t s a r e more s u i t a b l e f o r higher v e l o c i t i e s . h i upper r o c k e t s i n t h e operation, they a r e s t i l l cheaper (althaugh, today, l i q u i d hydrogen i r 5 timer ae expensive as alcohol), because t h e f u e l s a r e b e t t e r u t i l i z e d . F a r t h e r up, t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e hydrogen rocket becomes worse again. Perhaps, l a t e r , one could attempt t o impart a g r e a t e r v e l o c i t y t o t h e out-flowing material by using e l e c t r i c a l forcea. Yet, as a b a r i s , hydrogen and alcohol rocketa rill presumably hold t h e i r o m f o r a long time, f o r , up t o 7000 m/sec, they u t i l i z e the provided thermo-chemical energy b e t t e r than o t h e r thermal enginea. Actually, I am here speaking purely academically. Today, t h e e n t i r e invention i s about a t t h e atage where t h e r a i l r a y stood around 1805, t h e motor c a r around 1850, and t h e aeroplane about 1900. One w i l l b e happy i f t h e t h i n g rill work a t a l l , and n o t ask about t h e thermal efficiency. I mentioned t h i r h e r e only because VALIER has d e a l t with t h e s e questionn in t h e book, "Advance i n t o I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Space", and because h i s e x p l i c a t i o n 8 r e l e t i r e t o them have occasioned numerous misconceptions. Slogans such a s
t

Y3pace f l i g h t i s a question of energyi*, "Space

f l i g h t is a motor problemn, and otherr, coined by VALIER, l e a d t o a i m i l a r miscoaceptionr. Naturally, I a l s o know t h a t t h e most important aspect i s t h e achieving of high exhaust v e l o c i t i e s , rhich, in other words, i r t h e c r e a t i o n of a good propulsion apparatus and t h e discovery of propellante containing s u f f i c i e n t energy. But, i n t h e f i r s t place, t h e exhaust v e l o c i t y does n o t depand anly on t h e propulsion apparatur

and t h e energy c o n t e n t of t h e f u e l ; many o t h e r t h i n g s a r e involved. For example, of a l l t h e f u e l compositions h o r n today, t h e one w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t energy c o n t e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s volutne, namely 8 p a r t s oxygen and 7 p a r t s s i l i c o n , produces n o e z h a u s t v e l o c i t y a t a l l , and t h e substance c o n t a i n i n g t h e n o s t ener,gy i n r e l a t i o n t o i t s weight

that treknow of

today, nanely rlonoatonic n i t r o g e n , cannot be considered

a3 r o c k e t p r o p e l l a n t f o r o t h e r reasons. I n t h i s connection, a l s o

compare Chapter 17, P o i n t 14. Re see, furthermore, t h a t one cannot simply speak of a b s o l u t e work performed on t h e r o c k e t by t h e p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s and t h a t t h e tlleory of r o c k e t r y i s b u i l t up only on t h e t h e o r y of impact and n o t on t h e law of energy. Therefore, t h e n o d c e i n t h e s e t h i n g s w i l l do well f i r s t t o c o n s i d e r t h e t h i n g s a s though t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e conservation of work has n o t yet. been discovered f o r him.
2.

The Synergy Problem

Formula q u a n t i t i e s f o r pp. P i 7 a : counter-pressure

b : acceleration

889

c : out-flow v e l o c i t y
g : a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y

go r a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y on t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e
rn : mass of e a r t h

p : parabolic velocity r : d i s t a n c e from c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h ro : r a d i u s of e a r t h

t : time
v : velocity

v ,

: ideal propulsion

A a work p e r f o r u e d on r o c k e t

energy

P a rearward t h r u s t

d: a n g l e between f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n and r o c k e t a x i s
b : a n g l e between t h e Iiorizo~itcrla d Line f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n
: a n g l e of d i r e c t i o n

A l l o t h e r formula q u a n t i t i e s r e l a t e only t o t h e s e c t i o n s i n which

t h e y have been explained.

sc t i o n o r work. I n Greek, "syn" n e m s " t o g e t h e r " and "ergon" n e ~ a 'Synergyft has t h e meaning of c o r r e c t norking t o g e t h e r . I have cliosen t h i s word t o e x p r e s s t h e complex of a l l t h e r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o t h e problem of how, w i t h t h e out-flow v e l o c i t y S e i n ~ ~ i v e g ,it cnn be achieved t h a t t h e r o c k e t r e c e i v e s as much of t h e I r i n e t i c energy produced i n the p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s as p o s s i b l e m d t h e ezhrrust g a s e s aa possible. topic.)
4s

little

( ~ e n c e , r e s e a r c h concerning t h e pro;)ulsion apparrrtils i t n e l f

out-flow v e l o c i t i e s cloes n o t Selong t o t h e and t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r l l i ~ h

If t h e d i r e c t i o n of ';he r e ~ r v a r dt h r u s t ma?res t h e angle d w i t h t h e

f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n of t h e r o c k e t , then t h e component of t h e rearward t h r u g t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t m o u n t s t o r P'cosd. Aa i a well Imown, t h i s component only s e r v e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e e n e r a of t h e body i n motion, whereas t h e component p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o i t

(P* a i d ) changes only t h e d i r e c t i o n of notion.

& l r i n ~the secuent of t i a e d t , the rocket covers the d i s t c u ~ c ev - d t ,

and the work perfor,:od

on the rocket, which e t p a l s t h e increase i n

v i r t u a l energy (I c a l l i t v i r t c a l because we a r e here d i s r e z a r d i n g a i r resistance), mounts t o :

@nthe other Iiand, the l o s s i n subntcmce dn, according t o (7),

is

I f we divide dA by

~JU,

ne obtain t h e r a t i o between t h e energy i n c r e a s e

produced crud t h e :lass expended. I t i a

1) I n t h i s for:,mla, the f a c t o r c = e m s nothing nore than t h a t ,

with e j e c t i o n of t h e sw:e q u a n t i t y of p r o p e l l a n t , t h e rocket experiences a g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n energy i f t h e p r o p e l l u i t s flow out r a p i d l y 1)

8) 3y c o n t r a s t , f a c t o r v i s i n t e r e s t i n g .

I t t e l l s u s r Other t h i n g s

being equal, t h e increase i n enerLrg i s the g r e a t e r , t h e f a s t e r t h e r o c k e t f l i e s . That r e s u l t s i n a requircnent ~ r h i c hI would l i k e t o express a s follows a Ve must i t r i v e f o r high v e l o c i t y of t h e burning rocket. llere t h e i n q u i r y i s adwittedly only i n t o the absolute i n c r e a s e i n energy of t h e rocket and n o t i n t o the u t i l i z a t i o n of the energy i n h e r e n t i n t h e fuel.
Ae i s well Tmorm, the energy of the f u e l q u a n t i t y dm which i s conv e r t i b l e i n t o k i n e t i c energy i s

and fran t h a t and frocl (118) we f i n d dA v u 2 cosd. dE c l e w i l l n o t need t o d i s c u s s t h e consequences of t h i s f a c t before p.567, f o r m l a (235) f f ; f o r t h e t i n e being we only wish t o achieve high performance witliout taking economy i n t o account.

---

-.

I w i l l show what t h a t illems by a f e n examples.

a) :?hether I l i f t a body o u t of t h e e a r t h ' s s p h e r e of a t t r a c t 5 o n

a velocity i n t h e c o u r s e of y e a r s o r , i n t h e c o u r s e of u i n u t e s i ~ p a r t t o it t h a t h u r l s

i t o u t of e a r t h ' s s p h e r e of a t t r a c t i o n i s q u i t e

i r r e l e v a n t from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of energy. I n one

% t o it. c a s e a s i n t h e o t h e r , I n u a t i r l p a r t 6,370,000 dcg p e r 1

- On

t h e o t h e r h m d , i f a r o c k e t ascends wit11 c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y o r nillor a c c e l e r a t i o o and u s e s rearward t h r u s t only t o conpensate f o r t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y , i t needs ipconparcllsly riore f u e l thitn i f it i s nade t o a t t a i n a v e l o c i t y r a s i d l y , under rr!ioss i n f l u e n c e ( s i n i l n r t o a s h o t b u l l e t ) i t then continues t o f l y vitliout giving off nore fuel. I n the l a t t e r c a s e , i n o r d e r t o r e a c h t h e stme I i e i & t of a s c e n t , i t riust have
a much h i g h e r v e l o c i t y when t h e p r o p u l s i o n s t o p s , s i n c e it i s s t i l l

n e a r e r t o t h e e a r t h . X a t u r a l l y , i t a l r e a d y hzd a h i s h e r v e l o c i t y d u r i n z

a good p a r t of t h e p e r i o d of p r o p u l s i o n , and, d n r i n z t h i s t u e , t h e
e j e c t e d f u e l s c o n t r i b u t e d =ore t o t h e ener;3- i n c r e a s e thrtll i n t h e c a s e of slow f ornard n o t i o n neutioned e c r l i e r . I n t h i s place, I ~ o u l d a l s o l i k e t o pocnt o u t t h a t , beside fornula
(112) d e r i v e d from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s , en i n t e z r a l forllula e x i s t s rv:lic:i

enabl e s u s t o apply t h e enerLy p r i n c i p l e t o r o c k e t propul s i o u r r o l ~ e l xs. Concerned a r e e n e r a c s l c u l ~ t i o u sr e l a t e d ouly t o t h e i l l c r e c s e i n energy of t h e f i n a l naus,

I
l
I

If m

i s t h e p a r t of t h e r o c L e t t h a t i s

.te r e ~ l a i na f t e r p r o p u l s i o n ,
1 b i s the share of

and Is t h e i d e a l s c c c l e r - , t i o n of t h e r o c k e t , then n

t!ie t o t a l f o r c e of t h e recrlrrard t l i r u s t f n l l i n z t o ::ass nl; tile r e s t f a l l s t o a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e h e l s ~ r h i c i lw e e j e c t e i . 1sLer. In tile c o u r s e of t h e s e g i e n t of t i n e d t , tile f i n a l no.ss r e c c i v e n t h e enerLy i n c r e a s e n * v * b * d t , s o t h a t , a t t h e conclusion of p r o p u l s i o n , t h e
1

r o c k e t c a r r i e s with it t h e k i n e t i c energy ml

r6nconditianally valid! from t h i s we a l s o n o t i c e t h a t r e must know b o r

and t h e a c t u a l rearward t h r u s t . On t h e o t h e r "1 hand, as s t a t e d , a b s o l u t e l y nothing can be done with energy c a l c u l a t i o n s

at l e a s t the r a t i o

- v * d t . Thia fonnula i a

alone i n connection with t h e burning rocket. Of course, d i f f e r e n t considerations can a l s o v e r i f y t h e correctn e s s of t h e n e c e s s i t y of throwing t h e rocket i n s t e a d of l i f t i n g it. The g r e a t e r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e quicker one g e t s out of t h e e a r t h l a sphere of g r a v i t a t i o n and t h e s h o r t e r t h e time during which one hae t o work a g a i n s t t h e a c c e l e r a t i o a due t o gravity. b) Furthernore, what r e s u l t s from t h e requirement of r a p i d f l i g h t d u r i n e t h e burning is t h e requirement t o have low-lying t r a j e c t o r y curves during t h e propulsion; i n so doing, t h e p o i n t a t which propuls i o n s t o p s i s lower, and hence, o t h e r t h i n g s being equal, t h e required ground speed i e g r e a t e r . The advantage of d e n t i n g t r a j e c t o r i e s i s a l s o grasped without t h e formula (112) i f t h e f a c t i s considered t h a t , with v e r t i c d ' a s c e n t , t h e f o r c e of p a v i t y works a g a i n e t a c c e l e r a t i o n i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , whereas, with oblique ascent, it only cancela out t h e amount g sin& Cf. Fig. 63. ( ~ a t u r a l l ~ th , i a requirement cont r a d i c t s t h e n e c e s s i t y of p a s ~ i n gthrough t h e alnosphere v e r t i c a l l y , ao we must e t i l l d i s c u s s t h i s question,) c ) From t h e requirement of r a p i d f l i g h t during t h e burning f o l l o r s a l s o t h e requirement t o u t i l i z e t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e e a r t h or t h e requirement of i n c l i n i n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y toward t h e east. For example, i f t h e rocket ascends from t h e equator, it already has a v e l o c i t y of 460 m/sec because of t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e earth. Other thing8 being equal, it achieves more i f t h e rearward t h r u s t workr i n t h i a d i r e c t i o n .

d ) Z e s u l t i n g f r m t h e reciuiredeut of higher v e l o c i t y d u r i n g burning

is also a require~ent w11ich I would l i k e t o d e s i g n a t e a s 'fconlsination

of impacts". to Here i s an example r I n h i s book, ffThe Z e a c h i b i l i t y of t h e Heavenly Bodies" ( ~ l d e n b o u r g , IAmich, 19%5), H O I I E W d e s c r i b e s a t r i p a s follows1)

The space-ship i s t o ascend i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e sun a t noon w i t h almost p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y up t o an a l t i t u d e of S00,000 Ism. T h i s a s c e n t would t a k e about 15 days. I n s o doing, t h e space-ship would i n e f f e c t g e t o u t of t h e e a r t h ' s sphere of g r a v i t a t i o n . Although Llars i s f a r t h e r from t h e sun than t h e e a r t h , HDBL-ILILNN advocates ascending i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e sun s o t h a t tine space n a v i g a t o r has t h e e a r t h b e f o r e him i n f u l l l i g h t and can f i n d p o s i t i o n s Fore c o n v h i e n t l y and a c c u r a t e l y .

e ere I cannot a g r e e w i t h HOBWNN.

I n q y opinion, t h e f i u d i n g of posi-

t i o n s . could be c a r r i e d ' o u t j u s t a s e a s i l y and s u r e l y i f t h e e a r t h i s seen a s a s i c k l e . Then t h e y should n o t only be possLb1e because of t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e e t h e r b u t perhaps be s t i l l , more dependable bedause of t h e l a c k of i r r a d i a t i o n . I f t h e r o c k e t f l i e s completely i n t h e e a r t h ' s ahade, t h e e a r t h i s seen e i t h e r a s a d a r k d i s c b e f o r e t h e z o d i a c a l l i g h t o r a s a d i s c i l l u m i n a t e d by t h e moon and sonewhat l i g h t e r than

I n t h i s book, I must r e p e a t e d l y c r i t i c i z e ROICLQXfS explanations. I n o r d e r t o avoid n i s u c l e r s t a n d i n , r s , however, I d e c l a r e a t t h e very o u t s e t t h a t I r e g a r d h i s book a s a very v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e t e c h n i c s of r o c k e t r y and t o cosaonautics. I only c o n s i d e r i t my d u t y t o do uy p a r t s o t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s of space f l i g h t a r e c l a r i f i e d a s well a s p o s s i b l e . I t i s an e n t i r e l y new f i e l d , i n *which it i s s e l f e v i d e n t t h a t we have nothing p e r f e c t and i n which, t h e r e f o r e , e v e r y t h i n g must c o n s t a n t l y b e t e a t e d and improved. I myself, l i k e w i s e , am g r a t e f u l 1 1 o draws my a t t e n t i o n t o any m i s t d i e i n my work. I n no way, t o anyone w d o I have t h e ambition t o re.:ain t h e winner i u every d e b a t e and l a t e r t o break my neck w i t h t h e f i r s t nanned rocket. I would r a t h e r t e k e a s l a p h e r e and t h e r e and l a t e r f l y i n a c o r r e c t l y - c o n s t r u c t s d space-ship. I n t h e meantine, BOID!ANlJ has i n another p l a c e ( ~ e The P o s s i b i l i t y of I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Travel, Eachi:eister and Thal 19285 l i k e w i s e p o i n t e d o u t t h e advantages of combining Pnpacts.

/
1

t h e bsckground. The p o s i t i o n f i n d i n g s could nl s o be e a s i l y executed i f t h e spcce-ship has a l r e a d y advanced s o f a r t h a t t h e a t u o s p h e r e becoaes vis-

ible
ship

88

a l i g h t border.)

- If

then, according t o XOXYLilI, t h e space-

81i ~ r o r i n a t e l ys t o p s

a t es a1 titucle of 200,000 Im w i t h r e f e r e n c e

t o t11e e a r t h , w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e sun it s t i l l has tile sane l a t e r a l motion as t h e e a r t h , namely 29.7 ~in/sec. V i t h t h i s v e l o c i t j - , t h e spsccs h i p roulcl c i r c l e t h e sun once i n a y e a r and, i n s o doinz, colitiiiue t o keep t h e s s : e d i s t c u ~ c ef r o 2 t h e snxi as t h e edrt!l~. The Gi)(i,OZG h !:entioned can b e i p o r e d here. To t a k e i t t o t h e distctnce of !'us f r m t h e sun

i t : e q ~ i r e s a new il3pulse. That, a c c o r d i n ~t o iIO:L"*RiLj'S

n

recezrc!~, i s t h e

s z l a l l e s t i f i t occurs e s c c t l y ir, t h e d i r e c t i o n of riotion and i s s o g r e a t t h a t , because of t h e i n c r e a s e i u v e l o c i t y , t h e space-ship d e s c r i b e s

an e l l i p s e (si::ilnr

t o an independent comet. IIence I ~ C I C X I Na l s o speaks

of I'coaet f l i Z h t 1 ' ) hose p e r i h e l i o n touches t h e e a r t h l s o r b i t m:r! nhose a p h e l i o n touches ;:srs' o r b i t ( c f . Pig. 67). T h i s p r o p ~ l ~ i o ~nm s t w~ou:lt t o 3 h/sec. i i s t u r a l l y , t h e t r i p r;uat be underta!ren a t n tirie 7~;ieii : hrs h a s a p o s i t i o n s o t : ~ e space-skip e c t ~ . ? o l l y!;its i t , rjllrl n o t 0 1 1 1 7 re;c:lcs t h e n n t h e n a t i c a l p o s i ti011of :Ini.s' where e l s e . ?urt!lernore, t h e space-ship c a s t e j e c t propel la,: Ln f o r vx = 320 d/sec o r k i t rrhile t h e p l n x e t i t s e l f i s sone-

i n order t o conpensate f o r tlie t r a j e c t o q - ctinturhrznce nentioueil on

p. e08. iTon, 1-ICIIXJII c c l c u l a t e s a s rollows : The Cirst i n p u l s e occurs

vri't;~ v : : = l d t o 14 Irn/sec,

s f t e r 15 days

a secoilc! i..:pehs rr-it;, of

t:~d

vx = 3C00 m/sec i s ~ i - ~ e and, n, i n tlie co;lrse

Pli;:lt,

o Yen
Alto~e*u:ler

s~aller inpulses t o ~ e t k e r nn!~in~ 3 = 820 n/sec are ;iveu.

t h a t vould rer~uirctn!ciug

don" f ~ e l n for v , :

= 15,320 t o 17,320 n/scc.

I i n no way deny tile f a c t t ; m t t;iis c l e ~ r n u ! s i x ~ p l cstzle-;eA:t, ! conliner?. ~ r i t :t~ h e ele_,-;l,t

L,I~

c-sily-ur:derstood

c a l c u l i:ti~:;s, =1,7'<es t'le

(L

hook vcblus7,1e ( e s p e c i r , l l x t o i:ie m a t e u r ) , b u t

s k i l l Fu,"ulsp,:ce

t r a v e l l e r rill n o t give gas t h r e e times i n mcceerion a t r e l a t i v e l y l o r velocity, but he rill seek t o reach h i s goal with a r i n g l e propalsion ao t h a t t h e propulsion occurs a t a higher velocity. Namely, i f p i n t h e parabolic velocity st the a l t i t u d e where t h e propulaion stop. and t h e rocket f l i e a with t h e hyperbolic v e l o c i t y vl, outaide t h e earth1a f i e l d of gravity, it s t i l l refainn the v e l o c i t y t

I a in re11 known, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e k i n e t i c energp E required P t o overcome the e s r t h l r f i e l d of g r a v i t y and t h e parabolic v e l o c i t y is

and a f t e r overcoming the f o r c e of gravity, t h e rocket s t i l l poeaesaea t h e k i n e t i c energy Ep, f o r r h i c h t h i a i s n a t u r a l l y v a l i d t

From t h a t , (113) followa.

The advmtage of t h i s type of f l i g h t i s expressed by t h e f a c t t h e t

A t t h e same time, we here recognize an important bbsic law of spaceship t r a v e l : With t h e f r e e l y f l y i n g rocket, t h e v e l o c i t y values of t h e energy e f f e c t 8 add up in accordance with Pgthagorale Theorem. Namely, i f the i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e rocket is v1, i t a i n i t i a l energy i s

If a second energy e f f e c t + Ep is added, nhich would impart a v e l o c i t y vp t o a body a t r e s t , then obviously

II a t h i r d and f o u r t h a r e ~ d d e d
1 2 k E g - L r n v 3 ,

nnd t h e I ~ i u e t i cr e s i d u a l c.let-J

of t h e r o c k e t i s obviously

X , = Tl + XO

+ E3

E4

(118)

Its residual velocity v , . r v i l l :,e ;;iven by t h e f a c t t h a t

tiien, P r o u (114) t o (119), t h i n f o l l o ~ r sa

But t h i s a p p l i e s only t o e n e r j e f f e c t s t h a t a r e independent 01 tlie ~ i o t i o nof t h e 5ody i n f l u e n c e d , Tor e:rarlple t o l i f t work r e q u i r e d t o t a k e t h e body f r o u one f i e l d of ;;rnvity t o t h e o t ; ~ e r , etc.

Re cnn den1 w i t h t h e t r a j e c t o r y d i s t ~ r b i u c ev e l o c i t y i n a s i ! l i l a r
vay. I f we C e s i s o t e i t ns x, then we vill have t o a i a i n a aoxlenliat

di?r"ereut c!irection

p a 2 orlploy v s o t h a t

('i';lo state:!ent with

G

for

, u

i s n o t e n t i r e l y correct, f o r r e a r e here decling

three-3ody problen which czn be b u i l t up on t h e p r i n c i p l e of

tlle conservation of e n o r 3 c o n d i t i o n a l l y ouly. Tile t r a j e c t o r y d i s t u r k auce a l s o ciepeuZs on tl-ic v e l o c i t y o f t.he rocket. Actunlly, vl r ~ u e t be

"rester

by 1 0 0 n/sec tlmn i f t h e r e yre~*e uo t r a j e c t o i y d i s t u r b m ~ c e ; f i t

a s :IOIC*AIJIJ a s s u e d . )

l e a s t u o t by 230 n/sec,

Fig. 7 1 PTature of counter-pressure w i t h re-entry i n t o t h e e a r t l i ' s atmoephere of unnmned rocIrets provided v i t l i a parachute. T l ~ eo r d i n a t e s iuclicate counter-pressure and t h e a b s c i s s a e a nonotouous f u n c t i o n of t i n e n o t d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n t h i s book. Fig. 71a shows t h e n a t u r e of t h e counter-pressure wi.th n r o c k e t w i t h a very s t r o n g parachute ( s o l i d l'iile) wid w i t h a very weakly-braking parac h u t e (broken l i n e ) . The p r o c e s s i s t h e very scule i n Both c s s c s , i n t h e one it only s e t s i n l a t e r . Fig. 71b shows t h e n a t u r e of t h e counter-preesure, i n the. sane c o o r d i n a t e s , w i t h n simple parachute ( d o t t e d l i n e ) and w i t h a f l a p parc~chute ( s o l i d l i n e ) , whose a i r r e s i s t m c e , with open f l a p s , i s reduced t o 44 $. T!le h i g h e s t counter-pressure o c c u r r i n ~h e r e i s only 57% of the coun.terp r e s s u r e w i t h a s i x p l e parachute. The advantage of conbinin% t h e i n p u l s e s becoxes c l e a r if s e c o n s i d e r t h a t , accordinz t o t h i s set-up,

IIencc, vZ

18 h / s e c makes 18,470 m/sec and vx = 14 h / s e c makes 14,470 n/aec, which i s a850 m/sec l e s s than wllst LIOBLUW d e c l a r e d aa
P

necessary. e) The a s t o n i s h i n g n e n t a l experiinent on p. p o o l ) a l s o b e l o n c s t o Perhaps, t h i s c a s e w i l l be r e a l i z e d i f a v i s i t t o a aoon of J u p i t e r ehould u a t e r i s l i z e . I n so doing, t h e space-ship ail1 pasa c l o s e -to J ~ ~ p i t e r and t h e propulsion w i l l occur i n two impulses, one of which w i l l only overcane t h e f i e l d of g r a v i t y of t h e g a t e l l i t e , ~ d l e r e a sVie a c t u a l prop u l s i o n w i l l occur n e a r t o J u p i t e r .

t h e t o p i c , I1Bnruin=;w i t h ; i i ~ ; h 7relocityf1. ?.eq~..ire.lentsa ) , b ) , and e ) , a s a s p e c i n l Zroup, czn ' ~ e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by :!le p z r t of 31e ei:er;y
otii",

olent : "%ile

it

b u r n s , t h e r0cke-L . l u s t r e 1c.h an l o ~ vilo~vn a 3 p o s s i 5 1 e f f . Tllus a g r e a t e r

i s traiisfor :ed iuA,o I i i u c t i c energy, t h e rocket burns

-,.eloci*v;--.

~r1;il c ?lyin, rri-t:~ a :li;:ier

3 . In f o r - 1 ~ 1 ( I~ I B ) , tile ? a c t o r c o s CX a l s o nppenrs. Proa it a e r e a d cl i off t h a t i s a ~acr::i:~uu ~ r h e co ~ s~ Ot i s a ~ ~ - r i i t \h ~a , t i s ~ d i c n = 0 1)

-a%-

i f t h e r o c k e t sacended v e r t i c a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o tile c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h , i t ~ r o u I d:':escrihe a s t r a i s h t l i n e . I f , on t h e oLiler hand, it noves nn;le

011

n sl'wt,

a t a i y p o i u t considered, i t s t r a j e c t o r y forms nn

nit11 t h e b o r i s o n t a l d

, i f the i i g u l s e a c t s i n the d i r e c t i o n

of f l i , - L t , w'r~ati s ntl(!ed t o t h e c c c e l c r n t i o n csnsecl by t h e recsmvard

till'llst i s t'ne conpollent of t h e f o r c e of z r ~ v i t j r

cos

~ r h i c ha c t s pcrpenllicular t o t h e Oil-ection of f l i ~ k t .I t c a u s e s a curvat u r e of the trajectory. Tlie c u r v e s v h i c h a r c d e s c r i b e d i n tllst Tray I have c a l l e d r o c k e t l i n e s 'Jecauune a r o c k e t provided w i t h s h o r t , v i d e f i n s ( n o t n i t h s t e e r i n g luL;s), i f l e f t t o i t s e l f i n o11lic;ue a s c e n t , l i k e w i s e d e s c r i b e s a r o c k e t
. a m b e r of r o c k e t l i n e s . The a c c e l e r a t i o n i s l i n e . Piz. 7.?! sliows a

a s s u ~ . ~ ea ds Seing c o n s t e n t and sorsedlat s n a l l e r than 1rit11 model E. I choae such low accelerati.on because, i n t h i s way, t h e n a t u r e of t h e c u r v e s i s expressed n o r e d i s t i n c t l y . A s can be seen, p a r t of them l a a d back t o
- -

e a r t h again. Another one, i ~ o ~ r e v e r n,o l o n g e r s t r i k e s t h e e a r t h . S i n c e no f o r c e s e t s i n t o d e f l e c t t o t h e r i ~ h o t r t o t h e l e f t , 011 such curves always l i e i n a p l a n e p a s s i n g tilrouzh t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h . For t h i s reason, i t was t h e i n t e n t i o n , i n S u i l d i n g r o c k e t s n i t h a n m b e r of i l o x z l e ~ , t o avoid p l a c i u ~t h e n o z z l e s a t an an;.le t o each o*v!~er.

Pig. 72 I n a i r - f r e e space, observinc t h e r o c k e t l i n e i s d i f f i c u l t . With automatic s t e e r i n g , i t r e q u i r e s q u i t e a c o t ~ pilc a t e d s-teerinz r.iec;i~,uisn, otLerwiae t h e a o t r o u a u t has t o do t h e

steer in^. :Ience, f l y i i i ~on a

r o c k e t l i n e cminot 5 e considered f o r um,mlled :ieteorolo,yical a i d longd i s t a n c e roc1;ets b u t only l a r g e nrzllued nnchiues from 10 I n upward. IIere, t h e counter-pressure can be consiclered c o n s t a n t ; I r i l l i l e c i p s t e

i t by a

cad u s e i t i n t h e e p a t i o n as an a c c c l c r a t i o u . To bezin w i t h ,

17e want t o disrei=nrrl a i r r e s i s t a n c e . L e t

be t h e z n ~ l e with the eurtll, czud t h e

h o r i z o n t a l a g a i n , r tlie d i s t a i i c e fror.1 t h e cell Crc of t h e e a r t h m d Q) t h e m z l e bot~veen t h e poiilt of rzsccnt, t h e ceu-trc of

j t the p o s i t i o n p o s i t i o n coasiclered, L. -the n c c e l e r i t t i o ~ ldue t o ~ r n v i t a

cousiilered, go t!le a c c e l e r c t i o n d u e t o d r a v i t y a t t h e c c r t h t s s u r f a c e ,
and ro t h e r a d i u s of t h e e a r t h . Then t!!e

upward accel cr..tion i s :

F o r the ! l o r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n , tlie f o l l o w i n g i s v a l i d :

?lie v e r t i c a l conporrent of t h e v e l o c i t y v m o u n t s t o r

From f l i n t , t h i s f o l l o v s r

S o ;)ere Ire :;avo tyro c!iC!crccticrl

e q x a l t o n s i:i t:lree ~ m r i a b l e sr, of t h e net:lod o f i n d e t e ~ . l i n i t t e

Q), t.
tLe

interratisu i s p o ~ s i b l en r t e r a ?elr obvious t r n i l n t o r 2 a t i o n s i n

i i i f i i ~ i t e::erics ~ r i t ; ,:si ~ c

rui'111 of

coeZ+"icicntn. Tilo fnuctio.lr?l ~ o u u c c t i o ~ J l~ s c L ~ r e er n ,mil t,

e) and

ty

s ( s = ~ I ~ s + , ~ ~ Icovered cc i u fli;;~t)
Cri~.:~sceii(:eut. I'i?rotller t11e;

nlirl

t, v

PAC!

t cxe i:~ ;;.enera1

can 5 e i0e:~i.sr,entcdaa clonei: e : y r e s s i o u s n a t : ~la.';ics ~: is ~ l r o n d yu.lii12 8:lort s p b o l s ,

:?etnocn ~~l;ict,io:ln, f o r

17:,icii

1 c ~ u I ( . Ii 1 0 t j e t c!etelV: i i i i ~ .

7':icse Twc ti-ous a r e a1 s o imp O L ' ~ ? J t ~ ror the ::ppro::i:ln

Loily c c l c u l n 5 a n

. So,

t i ; i ~+,:I:-eeS,;,rcc-body

i n t;ie alre,y!y ~1e,ltioi1ecivorl,

0.1

c,~lcul~tion 1, w i l l s r S t e :lore ;.,5out it.

Pic. 73. ' ~ i , s t c a c cof the rocTrst l i u e i"rm t:ie c?,rt:lta z n r r d c e r e ~ r e a e n t e c ! i n sr:usre coorilii1::ten. .1bgci::sq,e i u c:e;.rees of t h e e a r t i i t s circu:~Terence, o r d i n a t e s enc!~ i n 1.2~0 nkove t h e c e n t r e of t h e enrtli.
iTaturnlly, t h e curves run s i - M a r t o t;lose iu t h e r l i a t c s c e uy t o =Ile p o i u t of inf1e::iou

%c;.72,

except t h a t ,

~vheu k!:eJv a r e p l o t t e d on a square s y a t e n of coorrli.~ntes a s i n 3 : . 72, is n:iorter.

s : couu ber-prensure

r;. . a c c e l era5ion ,

due t o c r c v i by

, c n

: aperaLe value f o r 2 i n t h e Foiirth s e c t i o n

t:lo

h : a l t i t i ? d o of space-ship nbove

,ro~!nrl ( i n t h e f o u r t h s e c t i o n )

ht : v e r t i c a l co:.tponeut of t h e -re1 o c i t y ( i n tile fourt;i s e c t i o n )

Ic : e x p l a n a t i o n on
13,

2.i0

P u g - =

r r d i s t a i c e fron c e n t r e of e a r t h
s : l e n g t h of t r a j e c t o r y

P : velocity

vi, v2, v3, va4 s w l o c i t i e a

and f o u r t h s e c t i o n s

a t t!ie end of 611e f i r a t , second, t h i r d ,

, v
v ,

r avers;l;e v a l u e of the v e l o c i t y ou t h e b e n t curve

r i d e a l !3ropulsion
: i d e a l ; ~ r o p u l s i o n i n %lie f i r s t t o f o u r t h s e c t i o n s

vx t o v,q
v*

: l0s8 i n propuasion conrlitioned by t h e d i f f e r e n c e between

oc a n d B
v ,
t

circular velocity of tile ve10cit.y

n : h o r i z o n t a l cor:ponent

: : : h o r i z o n t a l coordinate or" t ! ? e p o i n t oP t h e t r c j e c t o r y

x 1 r h o r i z o n t a l c o ~ p o n e n tof t h e v e l o c i t y
dxl ---dt

h o r i z o n t a l c o u p o ~ e n tof t!le a c c e l e r a t i o n

y : v e r t i c a l c o o r d i n a t e of t h e p o i n t of t h e t r a j e c t o r y
y'

r v e r t i c a l conponent of t h e v e l o c i t y
component of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n

---dy' . v e r t l c a l
dt

z r centrifugal acceleration
A : aerodynanic d r i f t

B = tgaO+ secaO
C r i n t e g r a t i o n c o n s t a n t of ( 1 4 ~ )and (151)
QC 3 augl e of i n c l i n a t i o n of t r a j e c t o r y

6 Am
G

r a n z l e of i n c l i n a t i o n of a x i s of apace-ship

r d i r e c t i o n d i f f e r e n c e corlpansated f o r by t h e a e r o d y n t i ~ i cd r i f t
x a n g l e between a x i s of space-s!lip
m d d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t

1 r i n i t i a l v a l u e of

8
t:lu

: p e r i o d of f l i g h t w i t h Aore

circular velocity

IIaving e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e q u i r e . i e n t of b u r n i n s rri t h l i i ~ kv e l o c i t y ,

it i s r e a s o n a b l e t o i n v e s t i z a t e how t h e space-ship ivor!;a

h o r i z o n t a l l y ( a t l e a s t above t h e e a r t h t s ataosp!:ere). I n s o rloi:::;,

i f it travels

~rc rrould !lave t o p o i n t t h e ~ l o z z l e2oimr.rard st a s o 3 1 n t t h e space-s!iip

d e f i n i t e m g l e & ( c f . Fig. 27) s o t h a t the v e h i c l e 170~1~1 he j u s t c a r r i e d

by t h e uin:urd component of t h e propulsion (i.e.

irould r e t a i n i t s h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n of f l i c h t i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t of g r a v i t a t i o n ; then t h e h o r i z o n t a l corlpouent of t h e p r o p u l s i o n

b serves acceleration).

I an here i n t e n t i o i i a l l y w r i t i n g only about space-ships) an unmanned

meteorological r o c k e t f l i e s u o s t econonically uuder a l l c i r c u n s t w c e s i f i t r i s e s a l o f t v e r t i c a l l y with t h e n o s t a d v a n t a ~ e o u sv e l o c i t y

T,

end it can a t t a i n any v e l o c i t y a l u o s t nouentarily, a s soon a s 'the a i r

r e s i s t a n c e p e r a i t s it. I n c l i n i n g t h e t r a j e c t o r y and renaining i n t h e atmosphere l o n s e r ~vouldhere be absurd. A n uxlnanned lonc-Cistauce rocket a l s o a t h i n s i $ s Ilizhest v e l o c i t y 1711ile s t i l l within the e s r t L f s atnosphere; research i n t o the most favorable angle of ascent i s superfluous !rere a l s o .

- It

i s d i f f e r e n t i n the case of t h e space-ship

which, with v e r t i c a l ascent, only a t t a i n s iLs h i z h e s t v e l o c i t y a t an a l t i t u c ! ~ o f 17CG-82GC Im. Iiere, t h e energy required bo e r e c t a 2000-hhigh gas p i l l a r can obviously be saved by sl.anting t h e t r a j e c t o r y . The :light curve s1ior:ld r i s e above the e a r f l i t s atzlospI~erea s l i t t l e a s p o s s i b l e so tllat a hizh v e l o c i t y i s a t t a i n e d quickly. ??ith f l i g h t above t h e a b o s p h e r e , we w m t t o n&e Oc = 0, Ye f i n d :

B=&.
(1m)

v x = a t

.t

vx* cos

El

For example, i f r e apply a = 35 m/aec a ; r of e a r t h ) , then g = 9.5 m/seca, v

ro

140 krn ( r o r a d i u s

el =

16.5O, snd r e f i n d t

v v e c 15'.s0 = 1.035 v.

So h e r e , almost t h e e n t i r e i d e a l propulsion b e n e f i t s t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e epace-ship. I n a d d i t i o n , i f t h e t r a j e c t o r y i s i n c l i n e d toward t h e e a s t , r e a r e a l s o a s s i s t e d by t h e e a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n , which amounta t o roughly 300 m/sec i n our l a t i t u d e and a s much a s 460 m/eec in t h e t r o p i c s ; whereas, with v e r t i c a l a s c e n t , it c o n t r i b u t e s almost n o t h i n g t o i n c r e a s i n g t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y . I n apace f l i g h t , n a t u r a l l y o n l y t h e v e l o c i t y with r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h i s determining, and t h i s gain i n propuleion through t h e e a r t h t @ r o t a t i o n would, up t o t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y , even over-cornpcnsate f o r t h e 1oeses due t o s e t t i n g t h e n o z z l e on a a l s n t ; so t h a t f o r t h i a p a r t of t h e f l i g h t vl>vx.
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e requirement t o p a s s through t h e atmosphere

q u i c k l y c o n t r a d i c t s t h e requirement of h o r i z o h t a l departure. F u r t h e r more, bending of t h e f l i g h t curve, a s r e have it h e r e ( c f . f a r t h e r down), meana a l o s s of energy and, f i n a l l y , t h e p e r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t e r c l o s e r t o t h e ground than f a r t h e r up. Hence, we w i l l be a b l e t o g i v e c o n c l u s i v e judgement on t h e b e s t form of a a c e n t only when r e a h a l l b o w how t o manage t h i s h o r i z o n t a l d e p a r t u r e and how g r e a t a r e t h e
1oases i n propulsion when c o n v e r t i n g t h e i n i t i a l s t e e p l y upward d i r e c t e d

motion i n t o a h o r i z o n t a l one. So, t h e space-ship rill a t f i r s t ascend i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e and n t e e p l y ; l a r g e space-ahipe with a high b a l l i s t i c c o ' e f f i c i e n t somewhat more l e v e l than s m a l l e r ones. At an a l t i t u d e of a few k i l o m e t r e s , with l a r g e ones perhaps a t 3 t o 4 km, with amall ones a t IlO t o 30 Eon, we
rill then s e t t h e n o z z l e of t h e v e h i c l e p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of

motion. Nor, t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y rill e f f e c t a bending d o m r a r d of t h e t r a j e c t o r y and, i f r e c o n s t a n t l y keep t h e n o z z l e in t h e p r e v a i l i n g

d i r e c t i o n of motion, t h e motion w i l l f i n a l l y be i n a h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n . This i s t o happen a t an a1t i t u d e of 180-140 Ian and with a v e l o c i t y of g-6 km/sec. With s t e e p a s c e n t , s m a l l e r space-ships would n o t g e t i n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l as quickly. W e can s o l v e t h e problem by making t h e r o c k e t a x i s more l e v e l than t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e d i r e c t i o n of t r a v e l . That b r i n g e about ( c f . Fig. 74) an aeorodynamic d r i f t A which bends t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n toward t h e h o r i z o n t a l f a s t e r ( s i n c e t h e t r u e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n i s shallower than t h e apparent because of t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e e a r t h , t h i s i n c l i n a t i o n i t s e l f need n o t even be connected with l o s e of work. On t h e whole, however, t h a t space-ship n a t u r a l l y f l i e s more economically which i s so l a r g e t h a t it need n o t f i r s t ascend s t e e p l y and then change i t s t r a j e c t o r y through a i r p r e s s u r e ) . f l i g h t f o l l o w s u n t i l c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y i s reached. g r a v i t a t i o n i s j u s t c a n c e l l e d o u t by

- Then h o r i z o n t a l

With crirculer v e l o c i t y ( v P*),

t h e c e n t r i f u g a l force. From t h e r e on, t h e c e n t r i f u g a l a c c e l e r a t i o n o u t b a l a n c e s t h e c e n t r i p e t a l ; t h e space-ship w i l l g r a d u a l l y 1i f t off from t h e h o r i z o n t a l under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l force. The curve w-hich t h e space-ship d e s c r i b e s i n t h i s t y p e of a s c e n t
I s h a l l c a l l "synergy curve".
1) s t r a i g h t - l i n e ,

I t n a t u r a l l y f a l l s i n t o four sections

oblique a s c e n t , 2) d e f l e c t i o n of t h e o b l i q u e f l i g h t

d i r e o t i o n i n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l , 3) h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t u n t i l c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y i s reached, 4 ) from t h e r e u n t i l ground speed i s reached, f l i g h t on a r o c k e t l i a e . Calculations r

1) For t h e f i r s t p a r t of t h e eynergp curve, formula (98) i s v a l i d . 2) With t h e second p a r t , we s h e l l begin with t h e c a s e i n h i c h t h e

bending of t h e f l i g h t curve i s caused only by t h e e f f e c t of t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y , s i n c e t h a t makes t h e c s l c u l a t i o n s simpler. Taken p r e c i s e l y , h e r e t h e f l i g h t curve i s a r o c k e t l i n e t o which t h e formulas (127)

would be a p p l i c a b l e . Since, however, it i s a m a t t e r of a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t d i s t a n c e , r e can d i s r e g a r d t h e c u r v a t u r e of t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e , s e t g c o n s t a n t , and, because of t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e , i g n o r e t h e t e m p o r a r i l y s t i l l mall h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e v e l o c i t y . (We can e s t i m a t e and c o r r e c t t h e e r r o r later.) W e t h u s make t h e work c o n s i d e r a b l y e a s i e r . For t h i n p a r t of t h e synergy curve, we a r e i n t r o d u c i n g t h e f 01lowing d e s i g n a t i o n 6 r
x : h o r i z o n t a l c o o r d i n a t e of t h e t r a j e c t o r y p o i n t

y r v e r t i c a l c o o r d i n a t e of t h e t r a j e c t o r y p o i n t

t : time
dx ---dt

xt

h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e v e l o c i t y

y' =

d ~ ' -dt -

v e r t i c a l coaponent of t h e v e l o c i t y

d : a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n of t r a j e c t o r y curve
r h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n

dx' --dt dy ' ----dt To begin with t

v e r t i c a l component of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n

d ~' = a nin Cn ----dt

g,

d i v i d i n a (135) by (136), we o b t a i n

W e s h a l l i n t r o d u c e a new l e t t e r f o r

g -, a

l e t as s a y

f i r t h e m o r e , s i n c e n o z z l e and f l i g h t curve have t h e stme d i r e c t i o n , d~ 7' --; s e c OCP dx x

5

tg a

S u b s t i t u t i n g (139) and (138) i n (137) g i v e s u s

That i s a homogenous d i f f e r e n t i a l equation between t h e v a r i a b l e s y? and

x l . The e o l u t i o n i 8 a

i a an i n t e g r a t i o n c o n s t a n t . Taking (139) i n t o account, t h i s caa a l s o be w r i t t e n r

xtf

(tg&

aec OC)

C.

(143)

This equation g i v e s u s t h e connection between t h e h o r i z o n t a l component of t h e v e l o c i t y and t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y . From it, r e can a l s o e a s i l y f i n d t h e c o m e a t i o n between y 1 o r v a n d & .

It i s r

Since cos 8C sin and s i n c e

a ={

Xi
, this

,
---7x
C

c0sPoc + 1 d 1 L --------C O B oc With r e f e r e n c e t o cos C X

f o l l o w s from (143).

i s a mixed q u a d r a t i c equation. W e can

exclude t h e v a l u e cos OC = 0 . What remains i s r

Furthermore, from (143), t h i s f o l l o w s r

tg Ocr
t h a t is
1

43;

= c.xlf

From (145) and (147), t h i s f o l l o x s

F'rom (136) and (146) follows

dt = . acosa

dx'

-(C XI-f 2a

+ C-1 X' 9 d X'

Taking (138) i n t o account, t h a t i s

tzq

(C - a-g

%'l-t

- $"I-f

z'ltt -LC-'--

- z;l+l
1 9

a+g

--

8 a-g

-(x'l-af

- x,y21)

- --(x*s+tf
a+g

-#

As soon a s t h e f l i g h t i s h o r i z o n t a l , tgCX becomes = 0. Then, according

t o (147)~ it f o l l o w s # a t

If r e e u b e i t u t e t h a t i n (151), r e o b t a i n t h e equation which i n d i c a t e s

a t what a l t i t u d e t h e t r a j e c t o r y becomes h o r i z o n t a l .
f i n a l l y s e t cos

-- I f ,

i n it, we,

according t o ( 1 5 ~ ) and ( 1 4 9 ) ~ r e p l a c e C and x i by x i and

Eo, and

w0 for

xo = vo and, f o r t h e sake of b r e v i t y , w r i t e

B fox t g g o

s e c a o , r e o b t a i n t h e equation r

which i n d i c a t e s how g r e a t v e l o c i t y vo must be r i t h a c e r t a i n f l i g h t a n g l e (CJ;o) i f , (yl

- yo) rn h i g h e r up,
40' GOO 33' - 20" 1140 2340

t h e t r a j e c t o r y i s t o become

h o r i z o n t a l merely under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y .

I am h e r e g i v i n g a t a b l e f o r y i
a,== -

- yo

100 km and a = 35 m/sec 9

c,,

60' 170

50' 300

10' 5703 rnlsc.k

NOW, r i t h 6 counter-pressure of 35 m/secg and an angle of a s c e n t = 60, t h e v e l o c i t y vo = 170 m/sec i e a l r e a d y a t t a i n e d a t t h e

s i n a C , a t which b must be eb 191 f f ; with vo 600 m/sec and 40'9

hekght of yo = 485 m, s i n c e yo =
e s t i m a t e d according t o p.

--vo

a0

yo becomes = 5.7 km. From t h i s , one r e a l i z e s how shallow t h e spaces h i p must ascend i n o r d e r t o g e t i n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a t t h e atmospheric

l i m i t i n t h i s ray.

Cy1 - y a = 100 km; a c t u a l l y ,

we can e x p r e s s y o by vo, t i o n s , we g e t
t

e had simply s e t Neverthelesa, another t h i n g must be considered r W we do n o t have t o g i v e

- jO) a definite

value; we a r e r e a l l y only i n q u i r i n g about y l . Accordingly, i n (153),

sin^^

,,

and b; then, a f t e r a few transforma-

Opposite (153), t h i s formula b a s i c l y ehows u s n o t h i n g new. I t f o l l o w s (assuming t h e atmosphere y l = l a 0 t o 140 Ion high) from (153) a s well a s (154) t h a t t h i s t y p e of a s c e n t can only be considered f o r space-ships t h a t a r e a b l e t o f l y through t h e zone between 7 and

la

Eao

a l t i t u d e a t an a n g l e of l e s s than 3S0. A r o c k e t should never f l y f a s t e r than a t t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y following from (31), which h e r e would be very high; i.e. (according t o p . l i P ) , t h e a p p a r a t u s would have t o be very b i g and heavy. I f t h e question i s pursued by c a l c u l a t i o n ,

it i e found t h a t when s t a r t i n g t h e b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t would have

t o be

*g --> F

8 kg/om9.

But with very b i g machines, only hflrogen w i l l

be used, and hydrogen r o c k e t s have a s p e c i f i c weight of c c 0.993. I n o r d e r t o have a b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t of 8 kg/cm9, such a machine would have t o be over 980 m long. Such machines w i l l n o t be b u i l t i n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e , It i s doubtful whether it w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o b u i l d them a t a l l .

Fig. 74

The only t h i n g l e f t t o do with model E with i t s b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t of 1 t o 1.5 kg/cm2 i s t o ascend s t e e p l y a t f i r s t and then u s e t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e t o bend down t h e t r a j e c t o r y curve, a s Fig. 74 i n d i c a t e s , W e ascend 14 km high a t 60; then r e i n c l i n e t h e a x i s 55O t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l and, i n t h e sequel

,'c o n t i n u e

t o keep it i n c l i n e d a few degrees

l e s s than t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t u n t i l it h a s an i n c l i n a t i o n of PO0. From t h e r e on, t h e a s c e n t c o n t i n u e s i n a r o c k e t l i n e up t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l , a t which t h e space-ship l e a v e s t h e atmosphere e n t i r e l y . This downward i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e a x i s c a u s e s an aerodynamic d r i f t A. I t must compensate f o r a d i f f e r e n c e i n d i r e c t i o n A m which i s s m e l l e r t h a n t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e a n g l e of 80 and t h e a n g l e a t which t h e space-ship would have t r a v e l l e d a f t e r t h e aaue p e r i o d of time i f it had continued, on a r o c k e t l i n e , i t s way began a t t h e end of t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n (where i t s a n g l e of t r a v e l was 600) and g r e a t e r than t h e d i f f erence between 60 and t h e a n g l e a t which t h e apace-ship would have had t o t r a v e l a t t h e same time i n o r d e r t o reach a f l i g h t a n g l e of 20 on a r o c k e t l i n e a t a s p e c i f i c p o i n t i n time. I n g e n e r a l , f o r spaces h i p s weighing 300-5000 t o n s ,

A C C

1i e s between 33@ and 2 0 , with model

E, we can s e t

(erpreased i n a r c measure). As i s well knom, t h e f o r c e k, which a body of masa m with a v e l o c i t y v opposes t o a change i n i t s d i r e c t i o n of motion, amounts t o t

Now, when t h e axis ie s e t on a ~ l ~ n tt h ,e a i r r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s

by a c e r t a i n amount L w-hich, according t o p r e s e n t aerodynamic r e s e a r c h , A A 1i e s between and That crauses a l o s s i n i d e a l propulsion ( v ~ ) ,

- -.
10 6

which i s obviously given by t h e formula r

I f we here set A-k

l4.5 m dt. k and A L = --- and designate an average value 8 '

vxk = then t h i s

between t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l v e l o c i t y on t h i s curve a s v , follows from (156) and (157) r

For example, f o r vm = 1800 m/aeo and

0.524,

we g e t

For t h i s p a r t of t h e curve, I f i r s t c a l c u l a t e d t h e l o s e i n mas8 without t d i n g vxk i n t o account according t o formula (100). I n so doing,

I used t h e graphic method t o represent v and y by t; t h e same w i t h

t h e auccceeding i n t e g r a t i o n . From t h a t , I calcula4ed t h e i d e a l propul eion and, f i n a l l y , added vXk to it t

I n tlie f l i g h t ttau QC= 80. up t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l , I a g e k d e t e m i n e d

-.r

t h e loam k atus aoaording t o (100).

I n so doing, I replaced v according

t o (144) and (146) by x, l i k e w i s e t according t o (150) and y according t o (151). F i n a l l y , I again i n t e g r a t e d t h e whole by t h e graphic method.

I have examined twelve d i f f e r e n t cases i n t h i s way. With model E , I found q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a t , a t t h e end of t h e second s e c t i o n of
, was 700 t o 1100 m/aec (with t h e three-stage apacet h e synergy aurve, v o w l a r g e we made t h e f i r s t and ships, 3 0 0 4 0 0 m/sec) g r e a t e r than vp. H seaond s e a t i o n s makes l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e j t h e erne with t h e a c t u a l f i n a l

v e l o c i t y (P-4 km/sec). high counter-pressure,

The r e s u l t a l s o depended l e s s on t h e magnitude t h e space-ship must ascend more

of the counter-pressure than I had empeoted. That may be because, with a t a r t , and then l o s s i n propulsion occnra when it benda over

3) I n t h e t h i r d aection of t h e synergy curve, t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e

c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h does n o t change. W e use t h e same formula q u a n t i t i e s e a s those of formulas (138) t o (134) on p. 233 and r e f e r t o ( 1 ~ 8 ) . W find
t

.*.--

TI& has been pointed out t o me t h a t t h e space-ship would ascend b e s t on a pure rocket l i n e since, i n s o doing, o o e t X = 1 is conetant, whereas, with t h e synergy curve, t h e nozzle must repeatedly make an angle with t h e d i r e c t i o n of t r a v e l .

This question i s e a s i l y c l a r i f i e d , i f we v i s u a l i z e t h e eynergy formula (112). As can be seen, t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e f u e l s does n o t depend only on cosOcbut a l s o on v, and (especially a t t h e beginning, which i s t h e main t h i n g here) v i n c r e a s e s f a s t e r i f we 1e t t h e vehicle ascend 1ese steeply. This i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t , f o r m a l l values of QC t h e cosimime-piffersl i t t l e from 1, whereas, with a given counter-pressure, t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y i n c r e a s e s a s t h e s i n e of t h e angle of ascent (which i s considerably f a a t e r ) .

It i s t r u e , i n t h i a p a r t of t h e w ~ y , t h e most ideal l i n e of a s c e n t would d e v i a t e somewhat from t h e h o r i z o n t a l , and t h a t in t h e d i r e c t i o n of a pure rocket l i n e . But, a s I found by t h e graphic method, the deviation i a so small ( g r e a t e s t a1 t i t u d e d i f f e r e n c e 8 kzn, gain i n v e l o c i t y 1 . g m/sec) t h a t I assumed t h i s p a r t of t h e r a y a s horizontal off-hand, i n order t o make t h e matter f e a s i b l e .
Concerning t h e apparently i l l o g i c a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n by t h e uee of d r i f t , I have already s t a t e d what i s necessary on p. 2.72, Actually, it is n o t ; becomes coneiderabl y connected ri t h 1oases because, i n s o doing, cos M greater.

Furthermore, t h e following is analogous t o (13%) t

From (160) and (161), by e l i m i n a t i n g d v and i n t e g r a t i n g with r e s p e c t t o t and p, t h i s follows r

S i n c e t h e f l i g h t takea p l a c e i n a i r - f r e e space and a i s c o n s t a n t , here r

Unfortunately, t h i s i n t e g r a l cannot be c a l c u l a t e d i n a c l o s e d fona, b u t it is v e r y e a s i l y e v a l u a t e d by g r a p h i c o r mathematical means. (with power s e r i e s expansion, it is advantageous t o i n t r o d u c e a new argument

3 = iG.1

Depending on t h e counter-pressure and t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y (v*),

I found t h e i d e a l propulsion i n t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n of t h e synergy curve t o be 80 - 140 q g r e a t e r than t h e a c t u a l propulsion. I f v3 i s t h e f i n a l

velocity, then

4 ) The f o u r t h s e c t i o n of t h e synergy curve i a a r o c k e t l i n e again.

As we s h a l l soon aee, however, it d i f f e r s b u t l i t t l e from t h e a r c of a

c i r c l e , and we make no g r e a t mistake i f r e u s e t h e following conaideraW e d e s i g n a t e t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e space-ship above t h e dh ground a s h, t h e v e r t i c a l component of i t s v e l o c i t y as h1 = its d t
t

tion as a basis

h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y as w, and, f o l l o v i n g (188), we s e t

a t which g , , , i s supposed t o be t h e mean v a l u e of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o

gravity. W e n o r d e s i g n a t e t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y as vz' t h e h o r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n a s b, and t h e time t h a t h a s passed s i n c e c i r c u l a r v e l ~ i t y was reached a s Z

We can now r e g a r d b as approximately c o n s t a n t , then

furthermore,

and from (184) t o (166) we o b t a i n

and rrince d t

d f ? therefore

The s i n g l e dh a r e n o t a l l p a r a l l e l t o each o t h e r (although t h e c o s i n e of t h e a n g l e . h i c h t h e y make with each o t h e r always remains c l o s e t o 1). Therefore r

I f we d e s i g n a t e t h e a l t i t u d e a t which c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y was a t t a i n e d a e ha, we f i n d

t

I f , i n t h e f i r s t approximation, we h e r e s e t b = 35 m/sec2 ( t h a t i s a ) and i n t e g r a t e up t o t h e p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y , we g e t r

I f r e had assuned b = 34 m/sea have obtained

I

P which i s d e f i n i t e l y too l i t t l e , we would

7=

96.7 s e c ,

For b = 99 m/sec 2 difference.

, we would have

obtained cr mere 9.5 h a s a l t i t u d e

As a r e s u l t of t h i s t y p e of a s c e n t , t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y would have

4 . 4 h m ascent) o r 9 . 3 m/sec (with 9.5 km) become 12.6 m/sec (with a 1

s m a l l e r than i f t h e r o c k e t had remained on t h e h o r i z o n t a l ; y e t t h i s l o s s i n v e l o c i t y i n i t s e l f i s n o t aonnected with a l o s s i n energy, That i r a p p a r e n t i n t h e f a c t t h e t , 14.4 Ion h i g h e r up, t h e p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y

I n a l l , however, t h e l o e s in dm work conditioned t h e r e b y i s s t i l l considerably l e s s , so t h a t t h e l o s s

1 .

is also 1 9 . 6 m/sec smaller. Nevertheleas, according t o (ll~), a s a r e s u l t of t h e r e d u c t i o n of v e l o c i t y , t h e r e i s a l o s s i n energy which 1 dA

f i n a l l y amounts t o about
1000

i n propulsion from t h e c i r c u l a r up t o t h e p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y amounts t o s c a r c e l y 1 m/eec.

On t h e o t h e r hend, with f i n a l v e l o c i t i e s of 15

- 17 km/sec,

which

oould occur i n f l i g h t e t o d i s t a n t heavenly bodies (although t h e y might n o t have t o ; i n t h i e connection compare Chapter 81), t h i e l o s s i n p r o p u l s i o n could no l o n g e r be ignored. But h e r e we oould f u l f i l l t h e requirement of burning a t high v e l o c i t y by t h e f o l l o w i n g a r t i f i c e r

When t h e r o c k e t t r a v e l s a t about 10 km/sec, we s h u t o f f t h e f u e l s .

Then it d e s c r i b e s an elongated e l l i p s e *ose p e r i g e e i s n o t f a r from t h e p l a c e where c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y was a t t a i n e d . When, a f t e r i t s r e t u r n ,

it i e s t i l l about 1000 Ion away from t h e p e r i g e e , we g i v e g a s a second

time. Now t h e second t h r u s t a l s o occurs a s c l o s e t o t h e e a r t h a s p o s s i b l e .
I have found by t h e g r a p h i c method t h a t , with a counter-pressure of

35 m/secP,

t h e l o s s i n p r o p u l s i o n between t h e c i r c u l a r and t h e f i n a l

v e l o c i t y remains below 8 m/aec i n t h i s way; i n any c a s e , it can be neglected,

I t s t i l l remains t o be examined whether we have t h e r i g h t t o s e t

t h e h o r i z o n t a l a c c e l e r a t i o n aa c o n s t a n t and equal t o a, with f l i g h t up t o t h e parabol i c v e l o c i t y . For b t o (167), we f i n d
35 ra/secP a n d

= 95

sec, according

I f we d e s i g n a t e t h e a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y curve
aa

OC and t h e l a s t value of CC as cc1' then obviouely

For h i

450 Jsec,

this results in

So we were a c t u a l l y a b l e t o assume b a s being constant. No* we a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n concerning t h e most advantageous curve of a s c e n t f o r space-ships. t o 700 m/sec. I n t h e f i r s t and second s e c t i o n s of t h e synergy curve, t h e l o s s e s i n p r o p u l s i o n t o g e t h e r amount

1100 m/sec;

in the third 80

140 m/sec; t o g e t h e r 780

1340

Since, i n most f l i g h t s , t h e t r a j e c t o r y can be i n c l i n e d toward t h e

e a s t , a propulsion gain of 350 t o 460 m/sec must be s u b t r a c t e d , s o v x must be 320 1000 m/sec g r e a t e r than the f i n a l velocity1). This, f o r

t h e same f l i g h t goal, i s g r e a t e r s o n e a r t o t h e , e a r t h than f a r t h e r up. For example, a t an a1 t i t u d e of 138 h, t h e p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y would b e 11,140 m/sec; whereas, a t an a1 ti tude of 1400 Eon, it amounts t o only 10,010 m/sec, and a t 1850 km a mere 9800 m/sec.

Yet, t h e s a v i n g on f u e l i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y . I n o r d e r t o a t t a i n parab o l i c v e l o c i t y on t h e synergy curve, a space-ship r e q u i r e s an i d e a l propulsion of 11,500 a s c e n t , according t o (70) and (80), w i t h a counter-pressure of 4 0 m/seo 8
an i d e a l propulsion of 18,700 m/sec i s r e q u i r e d , with a counter-pressure

- 12,040 m/seci

in order t o a t t a i n it i n v e r t i c a l

of 35 m/sec8, save 960

an i d e a l propulsion of 13,500 m/sec i s necessary. So we

8030 m/sec with a s c e n t on t h e synergy curve. The s a v i n g i s

s t i l l g r e a t e r with h y p e r b o l i c vel o c i t i e s .

Another advantage of t h e synergy curve i s t h e f a c t t h a t we can go

I _ _ -

'TJ-NOORDUNG,

who h a s e l s o examined t h i s q u e s t i o n , g e t s a f i g u r e roughly 800 m/sec higher. The reason could be because h e h a s made no u s e of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of bending over t h e f l i g h t curve with t h e h e l p of a i r r e s i s t a n c e . Concluding from h i s d i s c o u r s e , h e appears t o have assumed t h a t t h e space-ship ascends v e r t i c a l l y a t f i r s t and then, above the re1 event p a r t of t h e atmosphere, i s given a new t h r u s t p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e previous one.

much lower with t h e counter-pressure. W e can g r e a t l y reduce it e s p e c i a l l y i n p l a c e s ( f o r example, n e a r t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y and i n t h e second

section), whereas, i n v e r t i c a l a s c e n t , every second t h a t t h e a s c e n t

l a a t s l o n g e r than n e c e s s a r y i s connected w i t h a . . l o s s i n propulsion of

3 4 m/sec.
There a r e two more important advantages, one of which i s t h a t , with e l l i p t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s , t h e p e r i g e e , i.e. t o f a i l , retro-shot t h e p o i n t of t h e t r a j e c t o r y n e a r t h e e a r t h , l i e s j u s t above t h e atmosphere. Then, a s m a l l , h a r d l y i n t h e apogee ( d i s t a n t from e b r t h ) s u f f i c e s t o s h i f t t h e p e r i g e e s o f a r i n t o t h e atmosphere as i s neceasary f o r l a n d i n g ( c f . Chapter 14). On t h e o t h e r hand, with v e r t i c a l a s c e n t , c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n v e l o c i t y have t o be made, which i s j u s t as d i s advantageous from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of s e c u r i t y as from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e u s e of f u e l . I f , however, a r e t a r d i n g s h o t is f i r e d i n t h e apogee, t h e space-ship can h e r e be brought i n t o t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y with a minimum u s e of f u e l . ( ~ m p o r t a n tf o r r e a c h i n g e t h e r s t a t i o n s t h a t a r e r o t a t i n g about t h e earth. I t f o l l o w s from a l l t h i s t h a t it would

not

cause a l o s s i n propulsion i f f u e l s were brought on t h e synergy curve t o a a t a t i o n r o t a t i n g about t h e e a r t h and h e r e space-ships were r e f u e l l e d which c o n t i n u e t o f l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . Cf. p. 2 ~ ~ 9 . )

As a f u r t h e r advantage of t h e synergy curve, I am mentioning t h a t ,

on it, t h e space-ship can e a s i l y be brought i n t o a t r a j e c t o r y which a l l o w s it t o c i r c l e t h e e a r t h and remain i n t h e e t h e r any l e n g t h of time. With s t e e p a s c e n t , however, i t e i t h e r soon f a l l s back, o r must f l y f a r away, o r must make very remarkable d i r e c t i n g s h o t s i n t h e apogee. ( ~ e s i d e s ,we s h a l l s e e i n Chapter 14 t h a t , with every s t e e p a s c e n t , d i r e c t i n g s h o t s have t o be f i r e d i n t h e apogee i n o r d e r n o t t o be exposed t o t o o high counter-pressure when landing.) With f u t u r e f l i g h t s t o d i s t a n t heavenly bodies, t h e following

advantage of t h e synergy curve w i l l be very important. Here, t h e launchi n g l o c a t i o n may be i n t h e temperate zone, whereas v e r t i c a l a s c e n t would have t o s t a r t i n t h e t r o p i c s .

- If,

when c i r a u l a r v e l o c i t y i s

reached, t h e burning is i n t e r r u p t e d , the space-ship t r a v e l s w i t h o u t f u r t h e r l o s s of f u e l around t h e e a r t h on a g r e a t o i r c l e which touches t h e geographic p a r a l l e l of l a t i t u d e of t h e l o c a t i o n of ascent. The p l a n e of t h i s g r e a t c i r c l e c u t s t h e p l a n e of t h e e c l i p t i c a t two p o i n t s . Thus, f o r every l o c a t i o n of t h e temperate zone, t h e c a s e occurs t w i c e i n t h e c o u r s e of g4 hours t h a t a s t a r found n e a r t h e e c l i p t i o l i e s i n t h e p l a n e of t h i s g r e a t c i r c l e . I f one s t a r t s a t t h i s moment and t r a v e l s on t h e g r e a t c i r c l e with v
P

7890 m/sec u n t i l t h e e a r t h ' s c e n t r e i s

approximately between oneself and t h e goal and then a p p l i e s t h e remaining p r o p u l s i o n , one reaches t h a t s t a r . I used t h i s p r o p e r t y o f t h e synergy curve, f o r example, when I d i d t h e mathematical p r e l i m i n a r y work f o r t h e f i l m , *'The Woman i n t h e Moonw. Required r a a a s t a r t i n c e n t r a l Germany and a l e n d i n g on t h e moon. Theee comparisons made between v e r t i c a l a s c e n t a d a s c e n t i n t h e e y n e r p curve a r e a l s o v a l i d f o r oblique a s c e n t , even though n o t t o so g r e a t an e x t e n t . Oblique a s c e n t becomes more economical, t h e more it approaches a s c e n t i n t h e synergy curve; t h i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e i d e a l oaee.
I have discuaeed t h e synergy problem h e r e because v a r i o u s c r i t i c s

a r e making awkward assumptions concerning t h e a s c e n t from t h e e p e r g y s t a n d p o i n t and l a t e r claim I have eatirusted t h e m a t t e r t o o o p t i m i r t i c e l l y . For example, one s a y s a I n o r d e r t o g e t a r o c k e t t o c i r c l e t h e e a r t h 1) propulsion i e r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y it up v e r t i c a l l y t o t h e d e a i r e d a l t i t u d e ( l e t u s s a y 650 km). T h i s f i r a t thrurst would r e q u i r e 3100 =/re0 1)
2 ) G r a v i t a t i o n and a i r r e s i s t a n c e d e s t r o y an a d d i t i o n a l l a 0 0 m/eec and,

when t h e r o c k e t hals come t o a s t o p a t an a l t i t u d e of 650 h, 3) a l a t e r d

i ) g~ iving t h e

--

f i g u r e * a. d a t e d by t h e c r i t i c .

t h r u s t of 7800 m/sec i s needed. Together t h a t makes 18,100 m/eea.

But,

i n r e a l i t y , t h e same goal o m b e reached with an i d e a l p r o p u l s i o n of 8600 m/sec i f one ascends on t h e synergy aurve u n t i l one t r a v e l s on an e l l i p s e whose apogee i s 650 km high and then f i r e s an a c c e l e r a t i n g s h o t in t h e apogee.
I need n o t mention f i r s t t h a t t h i e c r i t i c was quick t o

judge t h a t I could n o t be taken s e r i o u s l y as a s c i e n t i s t , f o r I d i d n o t even know what propulsion is r e q u i r e d t o l i f t a body t o an a l t i t u d e of 1000 I a n and g i v e i t c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y a f t e r t h a t . I be1 i e v e , however, t h e presumption t h a t I could n o t be taken s e r i o u s l y a s a m i e n t i a t was again of no a v a i l . The well-known b a l l i a t i c a e x p e r t , H. LORENZ, Danzig, h a s made similar errors. DIUWITZ-WEGNER, again, e l u c i d a t e s i n "Urnecha~'~ (~ook Around) r

I n o r d e r t o l i f t a v e h i c l e o u t of t h e e a r t h ' r sphere of g r a v i t y one would have t o impart 6,370,000 mkg p e r kg t o it. But our most e f f e c t i v e e x p l o s i v e s and f u e l s ( i f t h e oxygen needed f o r burning i s f i g u r e d i n ) h a r d l y c o n t a i n one m i l l ion m/kg of thermo-chemical energy p e r kg. Therefore, according t o DALLWITZ-WEQJER, a v e h i c l e which must i t s e l f t a k e a l o n g i t s f u e l s i s impossibly i n a p o s i t i o n t o l e a v e t h e sphere of a t t r a c t i o n of t h e e a r t h . I n r e a l i t y , however, it i e

nof

a m a t t e r of t h e r o c k e t t a k i n t a1 ong

i t s f u e l s . I t e j e c t s them n e a r t h e e a r t h and only t a k e s along p a r t of

t h e i r energy which was converted i n t o energy of motion by t h e rearward t h r u s t . But t h i s energy of motion (even according t o EINSTEIN and

HASE~~RL weighs ) as good a s nothing. Beginning, a t t h e l a t e s t , from

t h e 8 t h minute, t h e r o c k e t f l i e s i n t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y rpace l i k e a s h o t p r o j e c t i l e , I f only, a t t h e beginning, i t can be provided with t h e

neceseary q u a n t i t y of f u e l ( t h i r must n a t u r a l l y be a m u l t i p l e of t h e f i n a l maas), it can make t h e t r i p t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. I n 'Yaechinenkonetrukteur", BOLZHAZTSEU, on t h e other hand, attempta t o prove by e i m i l a r considerations t h a t t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y of a r o c k e t can never be g r e a t e r than 8.0. Namely, i f t h e i n i t i a l mass equalled m 1 and t h e f i n a l maee equalled 0 , then t h e average mass would be m .
I f t h e masa i s hurled downward r i t h t h e v e l o c i t y o, i t s impul ae downward is m . c . The impulee upward must be j u a t ae g r e a t , and t a*- 1 m i s simply 9 moo. But he f o r g e t 8 t h a t t h i s oannot be done by awmation but here t h e

-a

formula e.dm

= m-dv must already be i n t e g r a t e d and the work performed by

t h e f u e l s e j e c t e d l a e t no longer only equals ----.dm*o; with t h e v e l o c i t y

f i n a l l y increasing t o i n f i n i t y , the work 1ikewise becomes r e l a t i v e l y infinite.

Fig. 75 .

I t i s i n no way s p l i t t i n g h a i r s i f I seek t o account e x a c t l y f o r

every m/sec t h a t could perhaps be eaved.

-I

have d r a m two curves i n

Fig. 75 whose a b s c i s s a e r e p r e s e n t t h e v e l o c i t y when burning s t o p s . The o r d i n a t e s of t h e dash-dotted curve (-*-.-a) correspond t o t h e mass mo ratio r e q u i r e d f o r model E t o a t t a i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e v e l o c i t y when

---1

t h e burning i s s h u t o f f . The o r d i n a t e s of t h e s o l i d curve (

correspond t o t h e a l t i t u d e (measured i n e a r t h r a d i i from t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h ) t o which t h e r e s p e c t i v e v e l o c i t y i s a b l e t o h u r l t h e spaces h i p . The dash-dotted curve i s a harp l i n e ; t h e s o l i d curve i s a
rC-

hyperbola of t h e t h i r d degree which h a s t h e v e r t i c a l v = d 2 g r (broken line :

- - - -)

a s asymptote. From t h e ever f a s t e r i n c r e a a e i n t h e t h e a l t i t u d e reached i n c r e a s e s from 12.8 Iaa t o

l a s t km/sec a r e t h e most g a i n f u l . For exemple, i f I add 800 m/seo t o a v e l o c i t y of 500 m/sec, P5.6 Ism; t h a t is, it doubles. On t h e o t h e r hand, i f I i n c r e a s e t h e v e l o c i t y from 11 km/sec t o 11.8 km/sec,

I i n c r e a s e t h e a l t i t u d e reached

t o i n f i n i t y , f o r , i n s o doing, it i n c r e a s e s from a f i n i t e t o an i n f i n i t e f i g u r e . From t h e r a p i d r i s e of t h e dash-dotted l i n e with h i g h e r v e l o c i t y we see, however, t h a t h e r e t h e i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y i s gained by a r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g l o s s i n substance; t h a t is, we must a l s o work t h e h a r d e s t f o r t h e l a s t km/sec. C e r t a i n l y , I cannot a c t u a l l y c a l c u l a t e t h e mass r a t i o o r t h e f i n a l e do v e l o c i t y a s a c c u r a t e l y a s it might appear from t h e s e formulas. W n o t e x a c t l y h o w t h e exhaust v e l o c i t y and it need vary by only 10

to

r e e u l t i n d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r o p u l s i o n , with t h e eeme mass r a t i o , t h a t would be g r e a t e r than t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n propulsion between v e r t i c a l a s c e n t and a s c e n t on t h e synergy curve c a l c u l a t e d here. The e x a c t development of t h e theory, however, h a s s high r e l a t i v e v a l u e : I can compare t h e s i n g l e typea of a s c e n t with each o t h e r and g i v e account t o myself how auch a f l i g h t can b e s t be c a r r i e d out, aptrrt e n t i r e l y from t h e " i n n e r b a l l i s t i a s of t h e rocket", i.e. vel o c i t y and t h e propulsion apparatus. from t h e eIPlaurt

p u e s t i o n s of Control 1)

L e t t e r i n d e x f o r Chapter 13 g
t

f o r c e of a t t r a c t i o n

h : a l t i t u d e above t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h
m : n a s s of r o c k e t

r r r a d i u s of t h e e a r t h s : c e n t r e of g r a v i t y

x, y, z t space c o o r d i n a t e e
A : rearward t h r u s t
L r c e n t r e of t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e ( c e n t r e of r e s i s t a n c e )
P r c e n t r e of rearward t h r u s t
t

f l i g h t angle

1)

S t a b i l i t v of t h e b r o w

To begin with, I am c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r o c k e t as a r i g i d body i n which t h e e f f e c t of a c t i n g f o r c e s can b e thought of as b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d i n one p o i n t . By t h e l e t t e r L and t h e phrase, c e n t r e of r e s i s t a n c e , I am d e s i g n a t i n g t h e p o i n t on which t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e a c t s , by S I d e s i g n a t e t h e c e n t r e of i n e r t i a o r c e n t r e of g r a v i t y , and by t h e l e t t e r P and t h e phrase, c e n t r e of rearward t h r u s t , I d e s i g n a t e t h e p o i n t on which a f o r c e can be thought of as acting,which i s as g r e a t

as and h a s t h e e f f e c t of t h e rearward t h r u s t .

1) I brought t h i s c h a p t e r in normal p r i n t s i n c e i t i s e a s i l y understood. The layman, however, may s k i p it.

L e t u s l a y a l i g h t , r i g i d s t a f f (say a cane s t a l k ) on t h e sinew of

a bow and s h o o t it. It w i l l n o t keep i t s d i r e c t i o n b u t d e s c r i b e p e c u l i a r

l o o p s s i m i l a r t o a s p i n n i n g l e a f . I t would a l s o d e s c r i b e t h i s curve i f we d i d n o t s h o o t it b u t dropped it from a s u f f i c i e n t h e i g h t . Aerodynamics e x p l a i n s t h i s a s f o l l o w s (we can d i s r e g a r d t h e e f f e c t of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y ) r The c e n t r e of i n e r t i a S l i e s i n t h e middle of t h e s t a f f (of. Fig. 76). For t h e s a k e of c l a r i t y , I have drawn t h e s t a f f i n t h i s f i g u r e e x c e s s i v e l y s h o r t and t h i c k . The c e n t r e of r e s i s t a n c e L, on t h e o t h e r hand, l i e s i n t h e f i r s t f i f t h when t h e s t a f f f l i e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i t s asis and moves down t h e d o t t e d l i n e t h e f a r t h e r , t h e g r e a t e r t h e a n g l e between t h e a x i s of t h e s t a f f and t h e head wind becomes. When t h e s t a f f i s a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t , t h e c e n t r e of r e s i s t a n c e l i e s i n t h e middle and i n f r o n t of t h e c e n t r e of i n e r t i a . The forward-pushing f o r c e a c t s a t S and t h e backward-pushing f o r c e can be thought of a s ooncentrated a t L, As s a n be seen, t h e whole s t a f f i s c o n t i n u a l l y i n an u n s t a b l e s t a t e and hence b e g i n s t o r o t a t e . To p r e v e n t t h i s , t h e r e a r e b a s i c a l l y two methods r

Fig. 76

Fig. 77a

Fig. 77b

1) W e r h i f t t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y ahead of t h e c e n t r e of reaiatance. W e make t h e f r o n t of t h e r t a f f heavier, ray by a t t a c h i n g p o i n t o r a p i e c e of e l d e r i n f r o n t (of. Fig. 71s).

8

heavy metal

a) W e a h i f t t h e Centre of r e s i s t a n c e back of t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y
by f i x i n g a u i t a b l e l i g h t f i n 8 t o t h e r e a r end (of. Fig. 77b). I f r e s h i f t e d t h e oentre of g r a v i t y of t h e s t a f f somewhat f a r t h e r forward but n o t a r f a r aa i n d i o a t e d here, then it oould occur, with f l i g h t in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e axir, t h a t t h e c e n t r e of r e s i s t a n c e l i e 8

in f r o n t of t h e c e n t r e of

with f l i g h t perpendicular t o it,

it could l i e behind t h e c e n t r e of gravity. In t h i r care, it would n o t

be poasible t o rhoot t h e s t a f f from a ainer, but i f r e dropped it, it would g l i d e d o m r a r d a t s c e r t a i n angle, nesnely t h e steeper, t h e f a r t h e r forward t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y l i e e . T h i s i a t h e s t a t e of an aeroplane. So h e r e t h e b a r i c condition f o r s t a b l e f l i g h t i s t h a t i t s c e n t r e of g r a v i t y muat l i e i n f r o n t of t h e middle and behind the f i r s t f i f t h of t h e aerodynamic ntpporting aurface. I f we had s h o t t h e arrow i n a i r - f r e e space, i t s i n c l i n a t i o n would have been e n t i r e l y i n c i d e n t a l , a i n c e t h e r e i s no a i r r e s i s t a n c e . I t would have followed t h e r o t a t i o n impulee received when shot with a oonstant number of revolutions; i f it had received no r o t a t i o n impulse,

it would have k e p t i t a a r i a d i r e c t i o n independently of form and weight

diatribution. I f r e had s h o t it i n atmospheric, b u t g r a v i t a t i o n - f r e e apace, it would have continued f l y i n g i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e and t h e d i r e c t i o n of i t s a r i a would n o t have changed.
On t h e other hand, i f we rhoot an arrow in stmoapheric and g r a v i t a -

t i o n a l apace, it a l r a y r s e t s i t s a x i s i n t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n and f l i e r with t h e t i p upward st f i r a t and domward a t l a a t .

P) S t a b i l i t y of t h e Rocket
What was s a i d concerning t h e arrow a p p l i e s t o t h e non-burnina; rocket. With t h e b u r n i n g rocket, a few o t h e r t h i n g a must be noted. I f t h e r o c k e t were a b s o l u t e l y r i g i d and t h e r e s u l t a n t of t h e rearward t h r u s t could be thought of a s a c t i n g a t one and t h e same p o i n t , t h e r e would b e not h i n g t o add t o our e x p l a n a t i o n s concerning t h e arrow. Then t h e r e a r ward t h r u a t would only r e i n f o r c e t h e r e s p e c t i v e motion in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e axie.

Fig. 78 But now t h e g a s e s atream from n o z z l e s , and i f t h e r o c k e t i n Fig. 78 t u r n s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e arrow, t h e g a s etreem s t r i k e s a t a and produces a p r e s s u r e which works a g a i n s t r o t a t i o n . But t h i a p r e s s u r e n a t u r a l l y s t o p s i ~ n m e d i a t e l ya s soon as t h e t u r n i n g motion s t o p s , and, i f one wanted t o t u r n t h e r o c k e t from t h e new p o s i t i o n back t o t h e old, t h e n o z z l e e would n o t only be a h e l p b u t even a hindrance, whereas, f o r exemple, a i r r a f t s would a g a i n a u t o m a t i c a l l y p u t t h e r o c k e t a r i e i n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t . So, i n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e n o z z l e s have a a t a b i l i z i n g o r a t l e a s t rotation-impeding e f f e c t , and t h a t t h e more, t h e l o n g e r t h e y are. (Mont with models A and D, and l e a e t with models B end E.)

O t h e r w i s e , t h e g a s in t h e n o z z l e s w i l l never burn q y i t e uniformly. That w i l l causes r o t a t i o n impulses, so t h a t , even i n a i r - f r e e space, we must provide s a f e t y devices, a1)hough t h e y would n a t u r a l l y be superf l u o u s with n o z z l e s working t h e o r e t i c a l 1 y c o r r e c t . I n s p i t e of t h i s e f f e c t of t h e nozzle, however, t h e r e i s

no

essential

d i f f e r e n c e between a r i g i d r o c k e t and an arrow. Hence, I w i l l c a l l such s r o c k e t an "arrow r o c k e t v . I f such an arrow r o c k e t f l i e s o b l i q u e l y ,

it i s d e f l e c t e d by t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y p a r a l l e l t o i t s e l f and d r a m
o u t of i t s d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t . Fig. 79a i n d i c a t e s t h e f o r c e s by arrow segpenta which occur when t h e r o c k e t f l i e s de f a c t o i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l direction H . The l e t t e r s a r e explained a t t h e b e g i ~ i n gof t h i s uhapter.

Fig. 7 9

Fig. 79a

Hence, t h e head wind no l o n g e r s t r i k e s i f i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n ( c f . Fig. 79). Now t h e aerodynamic u p l i f t of t h e f i n s w i l l b e r t r o n g e r than t h a t of t h e t i p . The t i p w i l l t u r n domward f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r ( j u e t

as r i t h t h e arrow) u n t i l t h e r o o k e t s h o o t s downward s t e e p l y , i . e .

in

oase it h a s n o t a l r e a d y l e f t t h e atmosphere. I f t h i r rouket were suddenly t u r n e d domward by an o u t s i d e f o r c e , innnediately an opposing f o r e e would a r i s e t e n d i n g t o s e t t h e a x i s i n t o t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n a g a i n ; b u t , in f a c t , t h i s f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n i t s e l f w i l l bend downward i n time and, t o p r e v e n t t h i s , r e must a f f i x s p e o i a l s t e e r i n g meahanisma which, r i t h

i n e l i n a t i o n of t h e rocket, a c t on t h e finm s o t h a t t h e y s t e e r o p p o s i t e t o t h e i n c l i n a t i o n (cf. Fig. 808-c).

Fig. 808-0

The d i f f e r e n c e between r o c k e t and arrow beoomes b a s i c i f t h e r o c k e t does _nof r e p r e s e n t a r i g i d eysttm and i f it t r a v e l s under a c c e l e r a t i o n u n t i l i t s f u e l s a r e exhausted. (What I have t o p u t f o r t h now appears, on t h e whole, t o be u n b o r n t o t h e r o c k e t manufacturers. The reason could be because t h e auetomary r o c k e t s u s u a l l y aecend under a c c e l e r a t i o n f o r only a few t e n t h s of a eecond. I n t h i s connection, a l e o compare "Die R&eteU, Vol. 1928, p. 5.) Such a r o c k e t w i l l e t i l l ascend v e r t i c a l l y even i f we t i e a chain o r a heavy weight G (I?ig.81) t o the

Fig. 8 1

end of t h e g u i d i n g s t a f f w . Now, i f t h e connection i s s u f f i c i e n t l y f l e x i b l e , t h e f r o n t r i g i d p i e c e simply i n d i c a t e s t h e t r a j e c t o r y and t h e rear p i e o e i s b e i n g towed a l o n g s i m i l a r t o a mgon drawing 1 o r 2 t r a i l e r s by t h e pole. The weight G can be h e a v i e r than t h e e n t i r e r e s t of t h e r o c k e t , As soon a s t h e connection i e r i g i d , s t r a i g h t - l i n e a s c e n t h e r e i s impossible f o r aerodynemis reasona, j u s t a s with a t a i l r o c k e t no arrow-like f l i g h t with t h e t i p forward i s p o s a i b l e a s soon a e it no l o n g e r burns. I n t h e t a i l r o c k e t i n Fig. 81 r e d i s t i n g u i s h t h e head
K, t h e r i g i d g u i d i n g s t a f f w, t h e f l e x i b l e connection B, and t h e t a i l

weight G.

Fig. 8%

Fig, 8 3

With t h e t a i l r o c k e t , t h e tendenay t o t u r n t h e t i p downward i s n o t a8 marked as with t h e arrow r o c k e t , Once it f l i e s on a s l a n t s o t h a t t h e head wind no l o n g e r s t r i k e s it i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n and i f t h e weight i s h e a v i e r than t h e head K, obviously a t o r s i o n a l moment a r i s e s which t e n d s t o s e t t h e r o c k e t v e r t i c a l l y ( ~ i g .8%)''. Naturally, i f t h e upper r i g i d p a r t i s suddenly turned from i t s f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n , it r e t u r n s t o i t s former p o s i t i o n l i k e an arrow; i n t h i s connection, compare Fig. 83. According t o t h i e , I do n o t c o n s i d e r it impossible t o b u i l d t a i l

i r Therefore
fins.

--

..

r -

I . -

--.-

I have provided m y model C w i t h on1J very mall s t e e r i n g

r o c k e t s t h a t r e a c t t o sudden d e f l e c t i o n s of t h e f r o n t p a r t l i k e an a r r o r b u t t o long-lasting ones i n t h e oppoaite way ( e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e t a i l i t s e l f is a l s o constructed l i k e an a r r o r but i s l a r g e r and heavier than t h e head and t h e guide piece). I b e l i e v e I have a l s o observed t h i s phenomenon with some powder r o c k e t s constructed by myself i n which long, f l e x i b l e willow ~ r i t o h e sserved a s tail1).

I do n o t wish t o say any-

t h i n g about it, however, before concluding exact experimental research. Neither do I wish t o follow t h e matter t h e o r e t i c a l l y any f u r t h e r i n t h i s place, f o r mere theory appears t o me t o be somewhat grey here. What i s involved i s opposing an e x a c t l y given and continuously a c t i n g q u a n t i t y t o an average value of various instantaneous deviations. That

i s a t a s k of t h e type of t h e Peteraburg problem i n which the p r o b a b i l i t y

theory has n o t y e t apoken t h e l a s t word.

y supposition should f i n d confirmation, t h a t would be a If this m

most favorable condition f o r the construction of meteorological rocket8 of t h e type of m y model C because, i n so doing, t h e immediately t o be discussed and, i n any case, q u i t e expensive a c t i v e s t e e r i n g by gyroscope could be dispensed with.
9)

Active S t e e r i n g

( S t e e r i n g by ~rgroaom~aes)

If t h e arrow rocket i s t o burn longer than a few seconds, t h e s t e e r ing m e t be a c t i v e , i.e., i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. 80a-c. Perhaps, it rill be objected h e r e t h a t t h e f l i g h t of an aeroplane a t t h e same angle i s q u i t e s t a b l e , if only t h e f r o n t end i a weighed down a b i t more and stands ateeper than t h e r e a r end. Among other depending on t h e p o s i t i o n of the a x i s , the f i n s must by themselves execute s u i t a b l e moveinents somenhat i n t h e way

G.

thereby d i d t h i s idea occur t o me.

t h i n g s , c h i l d r e n ' s paper ewallows a r e h o r n as well a s g l i d e r s and s i m i l a r d e v i c e s which f l y completely by themselves without t u r n i n g t h e t i p downward. But, i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e models mentioned f l y a t almost uniform speed, whereas, with t h e r o c k e t , t h e v e l o c i t y changes extremely f a s t ; it i s erroneous t o t h i n k t h a t t h e a s c e n t a n g l e of an a e r o p l a n e i s independent of t h e v e l o c i t y (i.e., i n t h i s case, of t h e p r o p e l l e r t r a c t i o n ) . Secondly, with a rocket, r e a r e u s u a l l y d e a l i n g with a round body which can r o t a t e about i t s a x i s ; t h i s makes aeroplanet y p e f l i g h t s t i l l more d i f f i c u l t . Thirdly, with an aeroplane, t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y muat remain i n almost t h e same p o s i t i o n with r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t h e o r e t i o aerodynamic s u p p o r t i n g s u r f a c e ; with a burning r o c k e t , however, thir rill be d i f f i c u l t t o r e a l i z e f o r re(rRons of c o n s t r u c t i o n , Hers, ~ c c r ~ r i t in y fli~hi t s guaranteed on17 i f t h e c e n t r e of r e s i s t a n c e , from t h e very beginning, i s p l a c e d so f a r t o t h e back t h a t , even i f it s h i f t s , t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y s t i l l does n o t change, which i s p o s s i b l e o n l y with arrow-type c o n s t r u c t i o n ; i n t h i s case, t h e geometric p o s i t i o n of the c e n t r e of g r a v i t y h a s p l a y room equal t o 1/5 of t h e whole t h e o r e t i o
1ength of t h e a x i s w i t h o u t changing t h e g l i d e angle. F i n a l l y , i n t h e

f o u r t h p l a c e , it w i l l h a r d l y be p o s s i b l e f o r r e a s o n s of c o n s t r u c t i o n t o make t h e rearward t h r u s t a c t o t h e r w i s e than i n t h e r o c k e t axis. I n t h i s case, with rearward t h r u s t which can m o u n t t o a m u l t i p l e of t h e weight, a t a b i l i t y i s n a t u r a l l y a s s u r e d only with weight d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e arrow o r w e a t h e r - m e type. For t h e s e reasons, I f a v o r arrow-type weight d i s t r i b u t i o n and a c t i v e f i n c o n t r o l with f i n roakets. W e can a c h i e v e a c t i v e s t e e r i n g by automatic means i f we i n s t a l l a gyrocompass on t h e r o c k e t , whose p o s i t i o n c o n t r o l s t b e p o s i t i o n of t h e f i n s . A gyrosoope, r h o a e a x i s can f r e e l y e d j u s t i t s e l f with r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r o c k e t , w i l l seek t o keep i t s p o s i t i o n i n space even i f t h e r o c k e t r o l l s . The s t e e r i n g a p p a r a t u s of model E and t h e l a r g e r forms of model
B, f o r example, oould look as follows r

(ID c a s e t h e r e a d e r is n o t acquainted with mechanical drawing, I rill e x p l a i n : The upper f i g u r e shows t h e a p p a r a t u s as i f we had b i s e c t e d it from t o p t o bottom and looked a t i t from t h e s i d e ; t h e
lower f i g u r e shows t h e a p p a r a t u s as seen from above i f t h e t o p cover of t h e gyroscope chamber i s thought of as l i f t e d off .)

Fig.

84

Gyroscope K r o t a t e s i n a h o r i z o n t a l , vacuum c a s i n g H, which can r o t a t e about t h e a x l e g g ; r o t a t i o n about t h i s a r l e starts an e l e c t r i c 1 a c u r r e n t ; gl m d gp a r e suspended in a r i n g which i t s e l f can r o t a t e about t h e a x l e gg g4 and, i n s l a n t e d p o s i t i o n , s t a r t s e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s ; t h e s e c u r r e n t s a f f e c t t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f i n s ; a t t h e same time, t h e e x t e n t of s t e e r i n g r e q u i r e d can a l s o be r e g i s t e r e d . motor which t u r n s t h e gyroscope. With v e r t i c a l l y - a s c e n d i n g model R, only one such gyroscope i s r e q u i r e d ; with t h e models t h a t a r e t o ascend on a s l a n t , two gyroscopes
. a r e needed whose a x l e s m r ~ a ts t a n d p e r p e n d i a u l a r t o each other.

M i s an e l e c t r i c

Here, t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t by t h e gyroscope i s thought of s o t h a t a t gg and gg, depending on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e gyroscope a x l e o r t h e r i n g , a w i r e d i p s i n t o a t u b e with mercury t o

varying depths (cf. Fig. 85 a). I n so doing, t h e o u t s i d e f o r c e s a f f e c t ing t h e gyroscope a r e minimal i n any case, so t h a t it w i l l s c a r c e l y make any precession o s c i l l a t i o n e . Another poosibl e solution (cf. Fig. 85b) would be t o send t h e c u r r e n t through a poorly conducting wire a, r i g i d l y connected t o t h e rocket, where it r o u l d then continue t o flow through t h e copper bracket b, connected with t h e gyroscope.

Fig. 85a

Fig. 85b

Here, t h e r e s i s t a n c e due t o f r i c t i o n and t h e precession o s c i l l a t i o n s rould be more marked. Nevertheless, t h o f r i c t i o n a l r e s i e t a n c e could be compensated f o r by, in addition t o t h e firm baacket b, a t t a c h i n g say movable bracket c which, depending on whether t h e bracket r o t a t e s i n one d i r e c t i o n or t h e other, c l o s e s an e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t in one d i r e c t i o n o r t h e other. By electromagnetic means, t h i s c u r r e n t could e x e r t a f o r c e on the gyroscope which i s equal and opposite t o t h e f r i c t i o n a l resistances. These control mechanisms can be t e s t e d beforehand by l a b i l e l y supp o r t i n g a s u i t a b l e model of a rocket with adjusted s t e e r i n g apparatus and placing it i n t o a wind tunnel (cf. Fig. 8 5 0 ) . Here, t h e c r i t i c s have l a r g e l y misunderstood me. I t i s thought t h a t
I had t h e i n t e n t i o n of s o l i d l y connecting a l a r g e , heavy gyroscope t o

t h e rocket, by which t h e axis of t h e r o c k e t would be h e l d f a s t i n space.

Aa is a l r e a d y known from rimilsr experiments with a i r c r a f t , t h a t i s

imponaible. 1) A gyroscope t h a t i s t o r e a l l y n o t i c e a b l y r e t a r d t h e r o l l i n g movements of t h e r o c k e t r o u l d be t o o heavy t o t a k e a1 ong, S) Such

a gyroecope r o u l d continuously p e r f o m p r e c e s s i o n o s c i l l a t i o n s and

make e x a c t s t e e r i n g impoaaible. Well, t h a t was n o t my i n t e n t i o n , and

I reconmend t h a t t h e gentlemen concerned read t h e books which d i a c u s s

t h e m a t t e r more o a r e f u l l y .

P model of r o c k e t ; d = t h i n s t e e l support r e p l a c i n g P; f P s p i r a l rods; S s p r i n g s e r v i n g t o balance t h e f r o n t p a r t ; m = r e g i s t e r i n g apparatue.

Fig. 85c.

GAIL a l s o doea n o t s e e c l e a r l y i n t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l gyroncopea. I n ''Stone from t h e Moon" ( ~ e r ~ s t a Publ. dt House, Breslau,

l e t t o 6th e d i t i o n ) h e m i t e a verbatim ( t h e u n d e r l i n i n g i s mine)
t

"The docking maneuvera were about t o begin. The c o n t r o l gyroscopes began t o hum and whine; t h e space-ship turned slowly u n t i l t h e r o c k e t n o z z l e pointed e x a c t l y t o Aatropol. %ell, adjunted it t o t h e motion of Aetropol. Apart fram t h e f a c t that I would never have allowed t h e c o n t r o l
-

a few b r i e f d i s c h a r g e 8

b r a k i n g s h o t s t h a t more and more reduced t h e f l i g h t of t h e s h i p and

gproacopee t o atop, t h a t , f o r v a r i o u s reasons, I r o u l d never have s e t

t h e n o z z l e e x a c t l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of Astropol, t h a t t h e d i s c h a r g e s would have had t o be a c c e l e r a t i o g shots_, and t h a t , h o p e f u l l y , my gyro-compasses w i l l n o t hum and whine, I would, above a l l , l i k e t o remark concerning t h i s t h a t t h e c o n t r o l gyroscopes a l o n e cannot t u r n t h e space-ship a t a l l . I t can o n l y r o t a t e i f e i t h e r , according t o
HOWMNN, t h e occupants climh a l o n g t h e w a l l s i n a c i r c l e ( c f . Fig. 59)

o r i f a n o t h e r o b j e a t i n s i d e i s r o t a t e d o r i f t h e n o z z l e works. The gyrocompasses, on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e i n o a r d a n i c suspension and can, t h e r e f o r e , never r o t a t e t h e body of t h e space-ship hy counter-pressure. C o r r e c t l y , t h e passage concerned should have s t a t e d r scopes operated, a few b r i e f d i s c h a r g e s followed, while

" The

gyro-

t h a t took

p l a c e , t h e n o z z l e t u r n e d toward Astropol. F i n a l l y , a f e n hundred m e t r e s b e f o r e t h e d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e e q u a l i z a t i o n was completely achieved, and s o on". N a t u r a l l y , GAXLtS r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s more impressive. For t h e r e s t , it i s n o t a bad i d e a t o r o t a t e t h e space-ship t o a new p o s i t i o n by t h e c o u n t e r - e f f e c t 8 t h a t arise when wheels a r e made t o r o t a t e . As f a r a8 t h e space-ship no l o n g e r performs any r o t a t i n g movements, t h i s method of r o t a t i o n is d e f i n i t e l y p r e f e r a b l e t o r o t a t i o n
by nozzles, f o r example, as HOEFFT s u g g e s t s , f o r they e a s i l y cause

r o t a t i o n t o c o n t i n u e i f t h e t h r u s t i s n o t completelyequalized and, b e s i d e s , always work w i t h a l o s s of substance. -This method i s a l s o b e t t e r than t h e method of climbing about along t h e w a l l s suggested O H M A N N ( c f . Fig. 59), f o r , i n t h e l a t t e r case, p r e c i s e adjustment by H would be p o s s i b l e only i f t h e space t r a v e l l e r s remained hanging a t t h e r i g h t p l a c e u n t i l t h e n o z z l e s had worked. (1f t h e r e were two, it would be t h e o r e t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e f o r both t o reach t h e hammock without r o t a t i n g t h e apace-ship, i f t h e y f i n a l l y crawled toward each o t h e r ;

i n p r a o t i c e , however, t h a t would h a r d l y be completely f e a s i b l e . )

I n our case, t h e y can, from t h e very beginning, p o s i t i o n themselves

as t h e y wish.

I would n e t make t h e s e wheels aa heavy a s GAIL s u g g e ~ t s , only e u t

of a metal r i m and b i c y c l e apekea, and l e t t h e navigator s e t them i n motion by hand by means of a crank with cog-wheels. f e r t h e m a l l mass ef t h e space-ship. This w i l l s u f f i c e Rapid r o t a t i o n , aa could perhaps

be necessary near heavenly bodiea, w i l l n e t be achieved i n t h i s i n t h i s case, one can u s e t h e gas f i n s and t h e nozzle conneatiens
4.

Gas Fina

Fine p r o j e c t i n g outward, as i n Fig. 798, f o r example, can enly work i n t h e atmosphere. I n a i r - f r e e space, en t h e e t h e r hand, enly f i n s l i k e those in Fig. 78 o r Fig. 80 a r e of u s e which run p a r a l l e l t o t h e gas stream and, x i t h r o t a t i o n , e x e r t pressure on t h e gall streem. Fina ef t h i a type a r e mainly used in hydrogen r o c k e t s d i c h must operate i n t h e h i g h e s t s t r a t a of t h e atmosphere e r in completely a i r - f r e e space. Cencerning t h e qveation whether t h e s e f i n s do n o t burn up, t h e following can be s a i d
t

I f they continnously exerted t o e much pressure on t h e gas, they would

burn up; i f , on t h e other hand, they stood off too f a r from t h e gas

cause f r i c t i o n and, hence, i n the upper s t r a t a of stream, t h e a i r ~ o u l d t h e atmosphere, *ere the r o c k e t already f l i e s very f a s t , they would l i k e w i s e burn up. Now, in t h e elongation of the jacket of the r o c k e t ( a s research with f l y i n g m i s s i l e s has taught) only l i t t l e a i r i s encounh ered, and t h e gas stream again apregds out so much a s t o touch t h e a i r enly f a r t h e r behind t h e rocket. Usually t h e f i n 1 i e s between gas and atmosphere i n r e l a t i v e l y cool space where t h e a i r i s strongly r a r i f i e d . Beeidea, with dynamically-cooled nozzles ( a f . pp.
$

, 41)

t h e upper

l a y e r of the gas stream i e cool and somewhat l e s s i n motion. Neverthelesn, such gas f i n a w i l l have t o be supplied with a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y ef c e e l i n g

-In the film, "The Wran i n t h e Moon", t h e space-.hip x i t h such wheelrr a t m y auggeetien.

'I

r o e furnished

f l u i d s i n c e they w i l l , a t times, be i m e r s e d more deeply i n t h e gas or t h e air. Even i n t h e h i g h e s t a i r s t r a t a , a t an a l t i t u d e of about 100 Inn, t h e model B alcohol r o c k e t has a v e l o c i t y of only a440 m/sec. Here, t h e r e i s l i t t l e danger of well-cooled sir f i n s burning up, but, because sf t h e low a i r r e s i s t a n c e , a i r f i n e alone would be i n e f f e c t i v e ; hence,

I planned t o u s e a box-type frame s i m i l a r t o t h e former box k i t e s , which

can e x e r t pressure on the gas stream. Nothing i n p a r t i c u l a r can he said about t h e a c t i v e s t e e r i n g by means of gas f i n s , I f they a r e pressed agains t h e gas stream, they s c t u a l l y produce haphazard r o t a t o r y movements. Concerning p a s s i v e s t e e r i n g by means of gas f i n s i n completely a i r f r e e space, i t can be said t h a t they a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t an elongation of t h e n e z z l e wall, What was s a i d i n p. 256 about s t a b i l i z i n g t h e f l i g h t by t h e nozzle wall ( a l s o compare Fig. 78) appliefl in s t i l l g r e a t e r measure t o gas f i n s . In a i r - f r e e space, t h e r e a r e ne such s t r o n g l y d e f l e c t i n g f o r c e s a s i n t h e atmosphere. There, c a s f i n s connected with a control gyroscope a r e s u f f i c i e n t , Yet, here d e f l e c t i n g f o r c e s rill n o t be completely absent ( c f . p. 257 ). Beai des, t h e occupants w i l l never be q u i t e motionl e s s . With models B and E, t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y l i e s above t h e c e n t r e of rearward t h r u s t , from r h i c h follows1) a c e r t a i n tendenay t o r o l l which can only be combatted by t h e use of gas f i n a ,

Naturally, only because of t h e mentioned i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in t h e burning..

5.

Other S t e e r i n g P o s s i b i l i t i e s

At one time, HOEE'FT suggested d i s p e n s i n g with f i n s e n t i r e l y and i n s t e a d f i x i n g f o u r o r more s w i v e l i n g n o z z l e s t o t h e r o c k e t and v a r i o u s l y opening o r c l o s i n g t h e remaining ones by mews of t h e r e g u l a t i n g r o d s d e s c r i b e d on p. 47, which can h e p r o j e c t e d t o v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s . These r e g u l a t i n g r o d s could be manipulated by a gyrocompass. When one n o z z l e i s c l o s e d somewhat, t h e r o c k e t w ~ s t u r n t o t h a t s i d e s i m i l a r t o a b o a t which i s rowed more weakly on one s i d e . For r o c k e t s t h a t can t r a v e l i n a i r - f r e e space from t h e s t a r t , a s t h e

model E hydrogen r o c k e t , f o r example, t h i s s t e e r i n g should s u f f i c e . Besides, i t ha^ many n o z z l e s which can he c l o s e d by means of r o d s anyway and t h e s e can a c t u a l l y b e employed f o r a c t i v e s t e e r i n g . That i s why
I a1 s o provided them f o r t h e manned model E space-ship sugcested i n 1939.

Several t h i n g s m i s t be observed, however. I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e r o c k e t would h a r d l y burn as s t e a d i l y i f t h e r e g u l a t i n g r o d s had t o be advsnced t o v a r i o u s d i s t a n c e s now here, now t h e r e . Secondly, my g a s f i n s a r e n o t h i n g l e s s than b a l l a s t . They r e p r e s e n t an e l o n g a t i o n of t h e n o z z l e wall and i f we s e t them s l a n t i n g outward we can, by u s i n g them, accomplish t h e a r t i f i c e of making t h e n o z z l e o u t l e t l a r g e r than t h e l a r g e s t cross-section of r o a k e t (which, t a k i n g i n t o account a i r r e s i a t -

ance i n a s c e n t , muat n a t u r a l l y remain l i m i t e d ) , Third, and f i n a l l y ,

t h e f a c t must a l s o be considered t h a t l e n d i n g on water by parachute, which we must pre-suppose today b e f o r e we can s e e c l e a r l y r e g a r d i n g t h e t r a n s f e r of h e a t due t o f r i c t i o n of t h e a i r ( c f . Chapter 14), oould be c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s dangerous i f t h e t h i n , e l a s t i c g a s f i n s s t r u c k t h e water f i r s t . S t r i k i n g t h e s u r f a c e of t h e water w i l l be c o n s i d e r a b l y more dangerous, however, i f t h e r o c k e t immediately touches down on t h e r a t e r x i t h ' t h e e n t i r e broad n o z z l e s u r f a c e .

I cannot c h e r i s h t h e theught of a l s o applying t h i a s t e e r i n g t o

r o c k e t s t h a t a r e supposed t o burn w i t h i n t h e atmosphere. The gyroscope can always work only i f t h e r o c k e t h a s a l r e a d y been turned from i t s p o s i t i o n . So, a r o c k e t would b e 6 e n b t a n t l y h u r l e d t o a l l s i d e s , although it would always r e t u r n t o t h e f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n again; I am a f r a i d t h i s w i l l happen a t a tempo which w i l l h a r d l y be b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e space-ship. For example, t h e l i q u i d s i n t h e tanks w i l l r i s e i n such v i o l e n t waves t h a t t h e work of t h e pumps w i l l be s e r i o u s l y endangered. And such r o l l i n g w i l l c e r t a i n l y n o t be e x h i l a r a t i n g f o r t h e occupants. The i d e a might sooner be f e a s i b l e i f , b e s i d e a gyroscope, an i n s t r u ment s i m i l a r t o a pendulum o r seismometer were used f o r r e g u l a t i n g t h e n o z z l e s , which i n f l u e n c e s them a s soon a s t h e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n s of a r o l l i n g motion appear. The d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n of such an instrument and t h e p r e l i m i n a r y experiments i n t h i a r e s p e c t would, however, pose i n c r e d i b l e d i f f i a u l t i e s . I happen t o know because I myself am i n t e n s e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e theory of t h e seismograph. N a t u r a l l y , I would be h o n e s t l y d e l i g h t e d i f t h i s t y p e of s t e e r i n g proved s u c c e s s f u l . I do n o t f i n d t h e a i r f i n s on my r o c k e t e s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e 1) Other S t a b i l i z a t i o n Suggestions

UNGE and GODDARD had t h e i d e a ( i n thisr connection, a l s e compare

Vol. 11) of f i r s t d r i v i n g t h e r o c k e t from a gun. I n s o doing, it i s n a t u r a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o a t t a c h f i n s . Complicated c o n t r o l gyroscopes would l i k e w i s e n o t endure t h e high counter-pressure d u r i n g t h e shooting, n o r a r e t h e y e t a l l w i t h i n t h e i n t e n t i o n of t h e gunners concerned. Hence, they propose t o g i v e t h e p r o j e c t i l e i t s e l f (GODDAIU)) or a turbine wheel b u i l t i n t o t h e n o z z l e a r o t a t i e n about i t s a x i s . N a t u r a l l y , j u s t

o r t h a t m a t t e r , BOEF'T h a s r e c e n t l y suggested models wbich, b e s i d e regul a t a b l e n o z z l e s , a r e a1 s o f u r n i s h e d with f i n a ; u n f o r t u n a t e 1y , however, t h e r e are a l s o u n r e a l i z a b l e . Cf. Vol. 1 1 .

as w i t h a cannon b a l l , such r o t a t i o n c a n n o t p r e v e n t movement of t h e

a x i s , o n l y r e t a r d it. The a i r r e s i s t a n c e , nsmely, h a s t h e t e n d e n c y t o s e t t h e r o c k e t a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which i t i s s h o t , and t h e s p i n n i n g e f f e c t o n l y c a u s e s t h e a x i s t o t u r n a s i d e and r e l a t i v e l y s l o w l y d e s c r i b e a cone. I n s o doing, a t l e a s t t h e s e t t i n g h o r i z o n t a l of the r o c k e t i s b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y slowed down. How g r e a t t h e f i r i n g a c c u r a c y of such m i s s i l e s can b e n a t u r a l l y o n l y numerous e x p e r i m e n t s can show. I am n o t p o s t e d i n t h e m a t t e r ; t h e l a s t experiments I know o f a r e t h o s e i n Meppen i n 1907. But I c a n n o t c a l l t h o s e e x p e r i m e n t s encouraging.

Fig. 8 6 L i q u i d - p r o p e l l e d r o c k e t s do n o t come i n t o c o n ~ i d e r a t i o nf o r shooti n g from a cannon f o r r e a s o n s of r e s i s t a n c e . Yet, even i f I wanted t o s h o o t an e x p l o s i v e r o c k e t from a gun, I would n o t choose t h e method of s t a b i l i z a t i o n by r o t a t i o n b u t would a t t e m p t t o s t a b i l i z e t h e m i s s i l e by a f in-1 i k e appendage, I would f i x a p i p e t o t h e j a c k e t of t h e r o c k e t of a l e n g t h t o f i t i n t o t h e cannon b a r r e l and f o u r t i m e s
as l o n g as t h e r o c k e t . I would pack t h e powder r e q u i r e d f o r t h e
hot

i n t o t h i s p i p e , s o t h n t i t would a l s o s e r v e as a c a r t r i d g e , and t h e r e s t of t h e s p a c e I would f i l l w i t h a m e t a l b o l t p r o j e c t i n g up from t h e b a s e of t h e cannon. I would f i r e t h e r o c k e t from a smooth h a r r e l ( ~ i g .8 6 ) .

6)

C o n t r o l of t h e Vel o c i t y

As a l r e a d y s t a t e d on p , 123, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n can h e d i r e c t l y measured by t h e c o u n t e r - p r e a s u r e produced; t h e c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e a g a i n

i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p u l l o r p r e s s u r e which any body e x e r t s a g a i n s t

i t s support.
W i t h simple, v e r t i c a l l y - a s c e n d i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l r o c k e t s , f o r

example with model C, we need o n l y r e g i s t e r t h e counter-pressure. Here, t h e counter-preasure h a s n o t h i n g t o do with r e g u l a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y o r with t h e steering. W e w i l l simply f a s t e n a weight t o an e l a s t i c s p r i n g and, by means of a p o i n t e r , r e g i s t e r i t s r e s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n on a r o l l e r r o t a t e d by clockwork. A f t e r t h e r e t u r n , from t h e curve f o r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e curve f o r t h e v e l o c i t y can e a s i l y be found, and from t h i s t h e a l t i t u d e . Here, an e r r o r occurs because t h e t r a j e c t o r y beads now t o t h e * i g h t , now t o t h e l e f t , s o t h a t we a r e c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d i s t a n c e t r a v e l l e d and n o t only t h e a l t i t u d e with t h i s measurement. I n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s e r r o r , t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r could be f a s t e n e d t o a gyrogcope whose a s l e t u r n s f r e e l y . I f t h i s gyroscope were a d j u s t e d e x a c t l y h o r i z o n t a l 1 y , we would a c t u a l 1y o b t a i n on1 y t h e v e r t i c a l component o f t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n . Natural 17, b e f o r e f i n d i n g t h e v e l o c i t y , t h e g r a v i t a t i o n would have t o be s u b t r a c t e d from t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n ; i n Lhe f i r s t approximation, t h a t oan be equated t o 9.81 m/sec2. I f , under assumption of t h i s d e c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y , t h e With long-distance r o c k e t s and manned r o c k e t s , a l t i t u d e reached h s s been found, from t h a t i t can then be c a l c u l a t e d more a c c u r a t e l y , e t c . i n t h e north-south we w i l l n o t o n l y r e c o r d t h e v e r t i c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n b u t t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n and east-west d i r e c t i o n a s w e l l . Furthermore, we
w i l l n o t only r e g i s t e r t h e d a t a of t h e ~ c c e l e r a t i o ni n d i c a t o r s , b u t

we w i a l u t i l i z e them f o r automattic s t e e r i n g of t h e r o c k e t . For t h e purpose, we s h a l J a t t a c h t h r e e mercuky accel e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r s ( c f . Fig. 4 7 ) , p l a c e d a t r i g h t a n ~ l e st o each o t h e r , t o a m r o s c o p e i n Cardanic suspension. These a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r s p r o v i d e c u r r e n t s which a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e d i r e c t i o n and which can b e r e g i s t e r e d by means of c u r r e n t meters. The a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r s must work very accurate1 y ; f o r t u n a t e l y , they can be

checked on a w h i r l i n e arm beforehand. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e c u r r e n t s can i n f l u e n c e needl e m which r e g i s t e r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n on a uniformly moving paper s t r i p . The r e a d i n g on t h e c u r r e n t meter again would be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y . I f t h i a c u r r e n t meter, f o r i t s p a r t , so i n f l u e n c e d a c u r r e n t a# t o make i t s s t r e n g t h p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y , then, i n t h e same way, a second c u r r e n t meter could i n t e g r a t e t h e course. The v a r i o u s c u r r e n t m e t e r s and e l e c t r i c i t y s o u r c e s must n a t u r a l l y no l o n g e r hang from t h e gyroscope a p p a r a t u s . They could be connected t o t h e mercury a p p a r a t u s only by l i g h t , t h i n wires. Here x e a t f i r s t obtain t h e s i n g l e c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e c o u r s e ( I c a l l thm I , y,
2);

t h e y could be r e g i s t e r e d again. ~ e s i d e s ,3 t i n s t r i p s

could be moved forward on r o l l e r s r ( c f . Fig. 8 7 ) ; t h e forward motion could c o r r e ~ p o n dt o x, y, z. The lower edge of t h e t i n s t r i p s is h o r i z o n t a l , t h e upper forms any curve; t h e a x l e of t h e wheel z lrhich

runs on t h e upper edge i s b e i n g drawn a g a i n s t it. S i n c e t h i s wheel can only move up and down v e r t i c a l l y , t h e d i s t a n c e of i t s a x l e from t h e
lower h o r i z o n t a l edge w i l l r e p r e s e n t a very d e f i n i t e f u n c t i o n of t h e c o u r s e x, y, z. R o l l e r z again could i n f l u e n c e r h e o s t a t s , e t c . N a t u r a l l y , i n t h i s way, f u n c t i o n s of t h e v e l o c i t y and t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n , among o t h e r t h i n g s , could be formed.

Fig. 87
These s t r i p s could s e r v e a g r e a t v a r i e t y of purposes. For example, with t h e i r use, an a p p a r a t u s could be c o n s t r u c t e d which i n d i c a t e s

e x n c t l y where t h e r o c k e t i s s i t u a t e d . Namely, i n t h i s way, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y c o u l d b e found and t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r c o u l d b e u s e d f o r c o r r e c t i n e t h e d a t a . Assuming t h a t , i n some way, we have obtained t h e t h r e e space coordinates with r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h (r, y, z ) , t h e n we l e t xa, y2,

E&

form. W e can do t h a t ,

f o r example by s h i f t i n g t i n s t r i p s u n d e r a r o l l e r i n t h e r i g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o x, y , z. Then, we m e c h a n i c a l l y add t h e s e e f f e c t s ( s a y by s e n d i n g t h r e e c u r r e n t s of t h e i n t e n s i t y r2, c u r r e n t m e t e r ; $ t ya

a 1 p-. This

ye,

z0 throuph a j o i n t

z2 = hO) and, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t o t a l e f f e c t ,

run an e q u i l a t e r a l h y b e r b o l a u n d e r a r o l l e r ; t h i s givecr t h e e f f e c t :
g = go.r

e f f e c t must t h e n b e d i v i d e d i n t h e r a t i o o f t h e

t h r e e d i r e c t i o n c o s i n e s , t h a t i s i n t h e r a t i o x r y r z; f o r example, r e can d i v i f l e a c u r r e n t p r o p o r t i o n a l t o g i n t o t h r e e b r a n c h e s and 1 1 1 i n s e r t r e s i s t a n c e s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o - j ~ - , -7-, 2-which a r e s i m p l y a c t i v a t e d by t h e apace components. With t h a t t h e problem i s s o l v e d , exert effective forces propoftional f o r t h e t h r e e c u r r e n t s can e a s i . 1 ~

ex,

g ,

gZ on t h e t h r e e weighto. N a t u r a l l y , nnmerous o t h e r solutions

a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e . T h i s ~ p p a r a t u sc o u l d b e u s e d o n l y n e a r t h e e a r t h . I t becomes c o n s i d e r a b l y more complicated if t h e change of t h e f i e l d o f g r a v i t y due t o t h e movement of t h e e a r t h and t h e r e s t of t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s i s t o be taken i n t o a c c o u n t . From t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r y of r e l a t i v i t y of EINSTEIN and t h e t h e o r y of RIERfANN'S c u r v a t u r e s , i t c m b e concluded t h a t , i n t h i s c a s e , t e n d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n a l s t r i p s w i l l
be r e q u i r e d .

Aimine w i t h Lonp;-Di s t a n c e Rockets -N a t u r a l l y , that t y p e of a p p a r a t u s c o u l d a1 s o be u ~ e d for the of r o c k e t s . F o r example, w i t h l o n g - d i s t a n c e r o c k e t a , automatic s t n e r i ~ g remarkable f i r i n g a c c u r a c y c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d by t h e u s e of similar

a p p a r a t a s . The r o c k e t would have t o b e s t e e r e d s o t h a t it a s c e n d s in a s t r a i g h t l i n e u n d e r a s p e c i f i e d a n g l e ( n o t i n t h e s y n e r m curve;

an a p p a r a t u s making t h e l a t t e r p o s s i b l e could be c o n s t r u c t e d , b u t i t

i s t o o compl i c a t e d and heavy f o r s m a l l e r unmanned r o c k e t s ) .

For s t r a i g h t - 1 i n e , o b l i q u e a s c e n t , t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r s would have t o b e a d j u s t e d b e f o r e t h e f l i g h t so t h a t one of t l ~ cs p a c e c o o r d i n a t e s , x, y, z, f a l l s e x a c t l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t . The o t h e r two would have t o b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o it. I f t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o i n t e r s i n d i c a t e a c o u r s e d i f f e r i n g from 0, t h e c o n t r o l s would have t o b e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e produced c u r r e n t s o t h a t t h e r o c k e t r e t u r n s t o t h e 0 - p o s i t i o n a g a i n . Here I would 1 i k e t o o b v i a t e a misunderstanding. A f t e r what I have s a i d a b o u t t h e f i n s , i t c o u l d be assumed t h a t o n l y r o c k e t s of t h e a e r o p l a n e t y p e w i t h c a r r y i n e s u r f a c e s can ascend o b l i q u e l y on a s t r a i g h t - l i n e t r a j e c t o r y . I n a c t u a l f a c t ,
any r o c k e t w i t h

fin^ can o b s e r v e a l i n e a r , s l m t e d t r a j e c t o r y ; i t i s

only t h a t , i n t h i s c a s e , t h e r o c k e t a x i a may n o t b e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t b u t must p o i n t solnewhat upward, s o t h a t a component perpend i c u t a r t o t h e t r a j e c t o v a r i s e s which j u s t c a n c e l s o u t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n component ( c f , F i g . 74, 8 0 ) . That i s e a s i l y achieved w i t h pyroscope ~ t e ~ r i n g as , I have j u s t d e ~ c r i h e dit. Natural1 y , by t h a t t y p e of gyroscope a p p a r a t u s , t h e p l a c e of d e s c e n t of a r o c k e t w i t h c a r r y i n g s u r f a c e s can h e r e m l a t e d q u i t e a c c u r a t e l y . I n a d d i t i o n , w i t h such l o n g - d i s t a n c e r o c k e t s , a t y p e of el e c t r o m a , p e t i c b a l a n c e c o u l d be i n s t f i l l e d between t h e c u r r e n t p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y and t h a t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a l t i t u d e , which, depending on i t s p o s i t i o n , opens o r c l o s e s t h e supply cocks between p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s and f u e l t a n k s s o t h a t t h e p r o p u l s i o n i n c r e a s e s when, a t a c e r t a i n a1t i t u d e , t h e v e l o c i t y h a s n o t p e t reached a p r e s c r i b e d amount and d e c r e a s e s i f , a t t h e r e s p e c t i v e a1 t i - t u d e , t h e v e l o c i t y

i s t o o g r e a t , and f i n a l l y s t o p s completely, when a c e r t , a i n

v e l o c i t y h a s been r e a r h e d . I f t h i s b a l a n c e were b u i l t i n , t h e r o c k e t c o u l d b e made t o c o n t i n u e f l y i n g a t a s p e c i f i e d a1 t i t u d e w i t h a s p e c i f i e d v e l o c i t y i n a s p e c i f i e d d i r e c t i o n . The a c c u r a c y o f f i r e of t h i s r o c k e t would b e as g r e a t aa d e s i r e d i f o n l y t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e s e c o n t r n l a p p ~ r a t u swere a u f f i c i e n t l y ~ reat. .'&?other way woul d h e
t.o

h z v e t h e file1 R # h u t o f f aomewhat e a r l i e r

i f a h i g h e r v e l o c i t y was a l r e n d y reached f a r t i l o r dorm, and v i c e v e r s a . I n any cacre, i n t h i s way t h e r o c k e t can be made t o b e g i n i t s f r e e f l i g h t a t t h e p r e s c r i b e d a l t i t u d e u n d e r t h e p r e s c r i b e d a n g l e of f l i g h t w i t h t h e p r e s c r i b e d v e l o c i t y . I n t h e a t e e r i n g of r o c k e t s , a number o f f o r t u n a t e c i r c u m s t a n c e s c o i n c i d e which a r e l a u k i n g w i t h a e r o p l a n e s and t o r p e d o e s , I n t h e fir;st p l a c e , w i t h my 1i q u i d propelled rockets, the lift-off

i s f r e e of impact. bloreover, t h e

h n r n i n g of an nnmanned r o c k e t l a s t # o n l y two m i n v t e s , s o t h e a p p n r a t u s have n o t i n e t o g e t o u t of o r d e r ( f o r eaample, t h a t such a p p a r a t v s f a i l on a e r o p l a n e s I s a t t r i b u t a b l e , f i r s t , t o t h e durat i o n of the f l i ~ h arid, t second, t o t h e v i b r a t i o n of t h e a p p a r a t u s , by which t h e secondnry a c c e l e r ~ t i o n sa r e v e r y g r e a t i n comparison t o t h e u s e f ~ i l a c c e l e r a t i o n 1)

I n t h e r e t u r n , i n any c a s e , d e v i a t i o n s o c c u r b e c a u s e of t h e a i r
movement. How g r e a t t h e y a r e depends, i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , on t h e t y p e of l a n d i n g , With parttchilte l andinp, t h e y a r e s m a l l e r than qome f l p e r s r j z h t e u p ~ c t ,Tn t.!,e f i r c ~ t yl
o f
QPP,

fiescent f r o v R n fil t i t u r ' ~

IOC! T n fires n o t e ~ s e n t i n l l y l a s t l o n g e r then d e s c e n t from ar!

a l t i t u d e of 10 lorr, f o r t h e u p p e r a i r s t r n t a o n l y o f f e r l i t t l e r e q i q t f l n c e t o t h e r o c k e t and o r e q t ~ i c k l ypassed throngh, Second1 y , t h e movement of t h e up?er a i r s t r a t a could be e x t r e m e l y uniform. 3iece(&t from t h e i n a c c u r s c i e s caused by t h e l a n d i n p ) , I am f i , m ~ r i n fw i t h a s t e e r i n g of 5 p e r thousand i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i p h t and 2 p e r thousand p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o it.

I t w i l L a l r e a d y be known n,fter a few m e t e o r o l o ~ i c a l r o c k e t s have

ascended, m d then a c o r r e c t i o n can h e made. For theqe reasons, I do n o t reckon wjth a p e n , <e r divercence than a t t h e most 5 km with lancling by parachute. The deviat.ion of t h e r o c k e t p r o j e c t i l e when I anding i s s t i l l much s m a l l e r because it pasqes throurh t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t of t h e atmosphere i n l e s s than 15 seconds and because, in any c a r e , i t w i l l he l a r g e r and h e n v i e r than a mail rocket. Fhathermore, h e r e a very s p e c i a l circumstance i s added : If t h e payload of t h e r o c k e t p r o . j e c t i l e i s placed i n t h e head, t h e empty t a n k s a f t e r t h e f u e l s a r e exhnufited and t h e f i n s a c t l i k e t h e t a i l of an arrow. I f t h e r o c k e t i s s t r u o k by

a s t r o n g s i d e wind, it mainly d r i v e s o f f t h e t a i l . Hence, i t t u r n s

t h e head somewhat i n t o t h e a i r stream, and t h e acrodynamic d r i f t produced therbby i n p a r t compensates f o r t h e e f f e c t . The d e v i a t i o n

i s n o t even a s g r e a t a s t h a t of a body of t h e s i z e and s p e c i f i o

weight of t h e payload a l o n e would be a d , even i n t h e s t r o d ~ e s t h u r r i c a n e , w i l l a t t h e most emount t o t e n s of metres. I could produce t h e mathematical proof of t h i s s t a t e m e n t only a f t e r a thorough development of t h e arrow theory, and t h a t I do n o t wish t o do h e r e f o r rertsons of space. Therefore, t h e r o c k e t p r o j e c t i l e wil J be f e n s i b l e a t t h e moment i n which we succeed i n aiming a c c u r ~ t e l yenough a t t h e launching itself.
7)

-em-.---,--

The Bocket P r o j e a t ile , -

Herewith, I come t o speak about a t o p i c concerning nrhich n o t much

i s a a i d b u t about which one appears t o t h i n k more, Various p a r t i e s

have a l r e a d y asked me whether I c o n s i d e r a r o c k e t f e a s i b l e which,

i n c a s e of war, c o u l d c a r r y 2000-3000 kg of p r u s ~ i ca c i d o r any o t h e r p o i s o n o u s g a s i n t o enemy c i t i e s o r p o s i t i o n s .

I, p e r s o n a l l ? , would n o t h e who1 l y a v e r s e t o t h e development of

such a weapon. And t h a t , b e c a u ~ eI d e s i r e j u s t i c e and peace.
1) I n t h e p r e ~ e n tt e c h n i q u e o f war, it i s i l ~ u a l l yt h e c a s e t h n t

t h o s e who d e c l a r e war o r c a u s e t h e government t o d e c l a r e war stay f a r from t h e f i r e themselves

knew
1

t ono or

t o t h e exceptions!),

and I

c e r t a i n l y b e l i e v e wars would n o t o c c u r s o e a s i l y i f t h o s e concerned "The f i r s t one t o g e t h i t i a you y o u r s e l f t f . And i f t h e y a c t u a l l y were t h e f i r s t . N a t u r a l l y , t h e enemy would r a t h e r s a v e i t s r o c k e t s and t u r n . t o t h e governments and f i n a n c i e r s of t h e opposing c o u n t ~ gi t s e l f , w i t h o u t which t h e n a t i o n concerned would, i n a e h o r t time, b e a l e a d e r l e s a mass a s k i n g f o r peace. I n any c a s e , t h e enwould n o t raete n i l 1 i o n s of r o c k e t s on t h e army w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d i n t r e n c h e s and, f o r t h e most p a r t , s t i l l armed w i t h g a s masks, I t w o ~ ~ lr d a t h e r send i t e r o c k e t s a g a i n s t mrni t i o n s f a c t o r i e s , railway interchange points, etc. Here a coxmnunist c o u n t e r e d by s a y i n g t h a t one crow d o e s n o t p i c k o u t t h e e y e s of t h e o t h e r , and t h e 200-300 p e o p l e which a r e t o n 1 1 e t h e world a c c o r d i n g t o R a T H ' A U would n o t k i l l each o t h e r . I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t , i n a a s e a r e v o l u t i o n broke o u t anywhere, t h e y would
s t i l l a s s i s t each o t h e r .

- I am n o t enough of

a p o l i t i c i a n t o be

a b l e t o e x p r e s e a judgment c o n c e r n i n g t h i s s t a t e m e n t . I, f o r my p a r t , do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s o l i d a r i t y of t h e l e a d e r s (if such e x i s t e d

a t a l l ) c o u l d p r e v e n t them from d e ~ t r o y i n geach o t h e r . I t i s s t i l l

p o a ~ i b l et h a t l e a d i n g c i r c l e s do n o t l i k e t o s e e a r e v o l u t i o n i n c o u n t r i e s governed i n a way similar t o t h e i r s , from where of danger from r e v o l u t i o n b u t o n l y o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r
it, could

a l s o s p r e a d t o t h e i r o m c o u n t r y . I n o u r c a s e , it i s n o t a q u e s t i o n power.

I t h a s a l s o been o b j e c t e d t h a t such a weapon c o u l d n o t b e u s e d i n

a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e Geneva Convention. I be1 i e v e , however, t h a t e w e rienc'e t e a c h e s s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r l y t h a t s t a t e s c a r e v e r y l i t t l e a b o u t t h e Geneva Convention bf o n l y t h e y t h e m s e l v e s a r e i n p o s s e s s i o n of a weapon n o t p e r m i t t e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w . (perhaps, with t h e e x o e p t i o n of Germany, b u t even t h a t o n l y "perhaps." I t was t h e Germnn c h a n c e l l o r h i m s e l f who, i n 1914, spoke t h e words, "Agreement8 a r e s c r a p s of p a p e r when a n a t i o n i s f a c e d w i t h a c h o i c e o f b e i n g o r n o t being1' .)
8) JOHN C. LIVENS h a s s h o r n t h a t war w i t h m e t d weapons i s i n n o

way more humane t h a n g a s w a r f a r e .

a ) When a t t a c k i n g t h e a r m i e s of t h e enemy w i t h t h e l a t t e r , t h e r e

i s more o p p o r t u n i t y o f j u s t p a r a l y s i n g t h e enemy s o l d i e r s .
b ) Gas w a r f a r e c a u s e s l e s x wounds and p a i n t h a n weapon w a r f a r e and

makes fewer i n v a l i d s . hIost g a s e s n e v e r make a 1 ife-1 onz c r i p p l e o f anyone. c ) A ga8 war w i l l presumably b e d e c i d e d v e r y q u i c k l y . The n a t i o n s w i l l s u f f e r fewer p r i v a t i o n s on a c c o u n t of it, t h a n i n a p o s i t i o n a l war and, b e c a u s e o f t h e s h o r t e r d u r a t i o n , n o t as many v a l u e s w i l l b e d e s t r o y e d and fewer p e o p l e w i l l p e r i a h .
3) A s I Ree t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n today, a c e r t a i n p r o h s h i l i t y

e x i s t s t h a t a new world war w i l l b r e a k o u t i n 10-20 y e a r s , i n which t h e w e s t e r n powerR ( ~ r m c e ,England, Amcrica, and p e r h a p s a l s o Germany
and ~ c a n d i n a v i a )w i l l f i c h t on one s i d e and R u s s i a , Japan, China, and

e v e n t u a l l y I n d i a oq t h e o t h n r . I n s o do in^, w i t h t h e h i t h e r t o e x i r s t i n g methods of w a r f a r e , t h e C e n t r a l h i r o p ~ a ns t a t e s would have n o c h o i c e b u t t o j o i n one of t h e p a r t i e s and t h e r e w i t h s e r v e t h e n a s concentrat i o n a r e a mrl t h e a t r e of war, f o r t h e y a r e t o n weak t o r e n a i n n e u t r a l

and defend themselves a g a i n s t both p a r t i e s . (I came t o t h i s v i e w p a i n t throuch s t u d y i n g t h e pamphlet on geopol i t i c s . ) Now, i n o r d e r t o save t h e s t a t e s concerned from t h i s f a t e , t h e r e a p p e a r s t o me t o b e only one means, namely t o p u t w a r on a hesi.9 on which no army and no c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e a a t a l l a r e r e q u i r e d f o r waging war. f i r o p e a n s t a t e s t h e n s e l v e s possessed it, t h e o t h e r s would h e a f r a i d t o v i o l ~ t et h e i r n e u t r a l i t y ; i f t h e p a r t i e s waging war themselves possessed
. ; .

Such a means would b e t h e r o c k e t p r o j e c t i l e , f o r example. I f t h e C e n t r a l

it, t h e y would a l r e a d y have s e t t l e d t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s b e f o r e t h e i r

a r m i e s had a o n c e n t r a t e d and begun t o shoot.
4 ) I d e s i r e t h i s weapon b e c ~ u s eI d e s i r e peace. I n my opinion, war

can be prevented only by c r e a t i n g weapons which t h e p u b l i c r e s p e c t s and with which it does n o t w i ~ ht o become acquainted. Unfortunate7 y, Rome ~ o r of t romance c l i n g s t o w a r f a r e w i t h f i r e -

ams. (TO b e sure, t!le p r e s e n t yenerqtian had enough from t h e l a s t qar. The coming g e n e r a t i o n , however, w i l l know wsr only from books and cinema p i e c e s and w i l l again b e i n a mood t o wage war.) But it m ~ k e s
a d i f f e r e n c e whether one a t t a c k s t h e e n w y on a n o b l e s t e e d o r a
m a s t e r l y a e r o p l a n e and, i n s o doing, e a r n s medals of bravery and performs d e e d s . o f heroism, o r whether one w a i t s i n some c e l l a r a t home whether t h e enemy's poisonous g a s w i l l e n t e r o r n o t . This form of waging war is void of a l l romance and, hence, w i l l n o t p r a i s e d and n o t desired,
5) Besides, I would welcome t h e rep1 acetoent of t h e present-day

c o s t l y a m i e s hy t h e cheaper c o n s t r u c t i o n of r o c k e t s , which does n o t keep so many people away froin work.

For t h e r e s t , I muat again and again answer such i n q u i r i e s by

s a y i n g t h n t , a t p r e s e n t , I myself consider t h e u s e of my r o c k e t a s a lonp-distance m i s s i l e a s e x c > _ u . . Although a l a r g e c a s m i s s i l e need n o t , by f a r , h i t t h e t a r g e t a s a c c u r a t e l y a s a shrapnel o r a ?re lade, today p r e c i s i o n mechanics i s s t i l l n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o b u i l d tile s t e e r i n g a p p a r e t u s with t h e accuracy r e q u i r e d . I b e l i e v e t h e goal can never be achieved by p e r f e c t i n g h i t h e r t o e x i s t i n g methods; as f a r aa t h e accuracy of c u r r e n t r e g i s t r a t i o n and gyroscope adjustment i s concerned, completely new i n v e n t i o n s would have t o be made. Even i f t h e problem of a c c u r a t e r e g i a t r a t i o n of t h e n c c e l e r a t i o n components were completely solved, t h e who1 e a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r would s t i l l always have t o b e a t t a c h e d t o t h e m r o s c o p e ; I w i l l be happy i f I can a t t a i n a f i r i n g accuracy of 10-90 Irm with long-distance r o c k e t s on s h o o t i n g d i s t a n c e s of 1000-lEOOO Ian,

I have been approached with t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t gyrocompasses

f o r example, a l r e a d y e x i s t today which can be a d j u s t e d more ' a c c i ~ r a t e l(~ t h e one by SC~#TZ) and t h a t l a r g e p l a n t s fire engaged i n m a n n f a c t u r i n ~ gyrocompasRea on a l a r g e s c a l e . The economic r e s u l t s of t h i s i n d u s t r y make p o s s i b l e t h e e r e c t i o n of well equipped f a c t o r y l a b o r a t o r i e s and t h e payment of s k i l l e d personnel who can d e d i c a t e themselves e x c l u s i v e l y t o improvements i n t h i s area. Whoever f i n d s himself o u t s i d e of t h o s e c i r c l e s and hence can u s e only a mall f r a c t i o n of h i s time f o r t h e s t u d y of t h e gyrocompass cannot e a s i l y e n t e r i n t o competition with t h e s p e c i a l i s t s . I a l s o l a c k t h e knowledge of many d e t a i l s and p r a c t i c a l experiences made with them. Hence

I cannot say whether and on t h e b a s i s of what physical

laws

s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e c o n t r o l gyroscopes could be b u i l t . N e i t h e r can

I i n v e n t anything in t h i s f i e l d because I l a c k t h e n e c e s s a r y prelimin a r y knowledge. I can s a y only t h i s much with c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h e c o n t r o l gyroscope described h e r e i s , i n any c a s e , n o t s u i t e d f o r t h a t k i n d of p r e c i s i o n . So I c o n s i d e r m y rocket unsuitable f o r a r t i l l e r y purposes a t p r e s e n t . P o s s i b l y it w i l l be d i f f e r e n t i n 1-2 decades. As s t a t e d , t h a t is m y wish.

8.

O r i e n t a t i o n of t h e E t h e r - S h i p i n Space
* . 1 1 _ . 1 -

--

On t h i s t o p i c , I n a t u r a l l y need n o t t e l l t h e a ~ t r o n o m e ranything.

The layman can t h i n k of t h e m a t t e r a s follow8 r Any round o b j e c t , f o r example, an apple, i s placed on t h e t a b l e t o r e p r e s e v t t h e e a r t h and t h e o b j e c t # f a r t h e r away i n t h e r o o s a r e supposed t o r e p r e s e n t t h e s t a r s . If t h e observer bends down, because h e i n c l o s e r t o t h e apple, h e s e e s it h i g h e r i n comparison t o t h e o t h e r o b j e c t s , and t h a t t h e more, t h e lower h e bends down. I f h e stand8 on tip-toes, h e s e e s it
1 ower. I f he bendr over t o t h e r i g h t , t h e a p p l e a p p a r e n t l y moves t o

t h e 1e f t . I f he comes c l o s e r , t h e a p p l e appears b i g k e r t o him, and s o on. The apace t r a v e l l e r f i n d s himself i n t h e very same s i t u a t i o n with r e f e r e a c e t o t h e e a r t h and t h e n e a r p l a n e t s . The f i x e d s t a r e appear t o move along with t h e apace t r a v e l l e r 1i k e t h e moon moves with t h e walkers, f o r t h e y a r e so f a r away t h a t t h e " s l i g h t N s h i f t of p o s i t i o n i n t h e s o l a r system cannot produce any v i s i b l e a h i f t of t h e i r a p p a r e n t
1ocation.

Before t h e f l i g h t , t h e astronomer caa now c a l c u l a t e very a c c u r a t e l y where and how l a r g e the e a r t h must appear a t a given moment (cf. Fig. 88).
If it l o o k s l a r g e r , one i s t o o c l o s e ; t h e v e l o c i t y was t o o l o r . I f , on

t h e o t h e r hand, t h e e a r t h appears smaller, one

i8

a l r e a d y t o o f a r ; one

must p u t on t h e brakee. I f i t appears t o have s h i f t e d t o one s i d e , then one h a s moved t o t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t e t c . The s i z e of t h e e r r o r can be e x a c t l y estimated. from t h e e x t e n t of displacement o r enlargement of t h e e a r t h .
9) The automatic observance of -the m o a & ~ ~ d v t ~ t a & e o vu erl o c s v can *
-.-^ -I.-

be achieved a s f o l l o r r

As I showed on p. 8 5 , t h e r o c k e t t r a v e l s with t h e m o ~ advsntageonr t

v e l o c i t y when t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e e q u a l s t h e d r i f t . Now, we c s n t a k e t h e t o t a l a i r r e s i s t a n c e as h e i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e preRsure w i t h which a movable p i e c e o f t i n b a t t h e t i p i s f o r c e d downward. The wei~ht depends m a i n l y on t h e 1eve1 of t h e f u e l s i n t h e t a n k s . I f , on t h e one hand, we i n s t a l l f l o a t s i n t h e f u e l t a n k s which m a n i p u l a t e an e l e c t r i c r e s i s t a n c e s o as t o c r e a t e a c u r r e n t p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e w e i g h t and, on t h e o t h e r hand, l e t t h e p i e c e of t i n b s i m i l a r l y i n f l u e n c e an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s o as t o c r e a t e
R

current proportional

t o t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e , and i f we l e t b o t h c u r r e n t s n c t on two e l e c t r o magnets a t t a c h e d t o a b a l a n c e which m ~ n i p u l a t e st h e f u e l cocks, t h e n we can c a u s e t h e nonzl e t o burn f a s t e r when t h e v e l o c i t y i s l o w e r t h m t h e most advantageons v e l o c i t y , i .e. when t h e g r a v i t a t i o n i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e , m d t h e f u e l s u p p l y t o h e s h u t o f f when t h e rxir r e s i s t a n c e i s g r e a t e r then p r a ~ i t a t ~ i o n .

F i r . 88. C o r r e c t

F i p i f i g . T o o far w e s t

Note tile s i z e of t h e e a r t h ' s d i s c and i t s p o s i t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f i x e d tars. F i p s . 88-90. Accordinp t o t h e F r i t z Lana f i l m of Ufa, '5Voman i n t h e Illoon".

Fig.

00. Too c l o s e and t o o f a r n o r t h

With t h e manned machines, t h e a c r e 1 e r a t i o n c o u l d b e r e p l a t e d i n

a s i m i l a r way by N e m s of t h e acceleration i n d i c a t o r no t h a t t h e
c o u n t e r - p r ~ s s u r e n e v e r becomes t o o p r e a t n o r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n t o e s m a l l . I n f a c t , w i t h t h e manned m a c h i n e s , t h e aim nhould b e t o make them work a u t o m a t i c a l l y as much an p o s s i b l e , s o t h a t t h e a s t r o n a u t n e e d i n t e r v e n e o do from t i m e t o t i m e , a t t h e most. 1) T h e r e would be s o m ~ ~ cth ( r e p l l a t 3 i n g t h e f u e l , s t e e r i n r ? , d e t e r m i n i n e a1 t i t u d e , e t c . ) t h a t even two a s t r o n a u t s c o u l d n o t manage e v e r y t h i n g ; s o t h e c r e a t e s t p a r t would h a v e t o b e done a u t , n m a t i c a l l y . T h e r e f o r e , one r a t h e r h a s t h e whole work

done a u t o m a t i c a l l y ; t h e n t h e r t s t r o n a u t h a s h i s h m d s f r e e and can make h i e o b s e r v a t i o n s u n d i s t u r b e d . N a t u r a l 1 y, t h e mechanisms must b e s o a r r a n g e d t h a t t h e a s t r o n a u t can a t any time and i n any way infltuence t h e o p e r a t i o n of h i e machine. 2 ) The f a c t must n o t b e f o r g o t t e n t h a t i n g e n e r a l , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s i t u a t i o n s t o which man i s unaccustomed a t l e a s t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e machine w i l l v e r y l i k e l y work c o n s i d e r a b l y

more a c c u r a t e l y and cold-bloodedly than man.

Chapter 14 The Landing

Formula q u a n t i t i e s of Chapter 14. b a s e of t h e n a t u r a l 1o g a r i t h m s d e p t h of atmosphere u s a b l e f o r t h e b r a k i n g f l i g h t p a r a m e t e r of t h e c u r v e d e s c r i b e d by t h e space-ship

a i r p r e s s u r e a f t e r compression
a i r p r e s s u r e b e f o r e compression e a r t h 1s r a d i u s a l t i t u d e above t h e ground apparent a i r t e m p e r a t ~ ~ r caused e by t h e n o t i o n vel o c i t ~ r
7300-7400 m. C f .
(34)

air resistance
q u a n t i t y of h e a t absorbed through conduction q u a n t i t y of h e a t g i v e n o f f through r a d i a t i o n overall a b s o l u t e temperature

T1 : a b s o l u t e temperature a f t e r c o m p r e s ~ i o n
To : a b s o l u t e temperature b e f o r e compression
x : r a t i o between t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t w i t h c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e

and with c o n s t a n t volume

p
fi

: barometric p r e s s u r e

a : a i r pressure a t a l t i t u d e a
: a b s o l u t e temperature of a body h e a t e d by f r i c t i o n a g a i n s t

3
p

the air
: t e c h n i c a l mass of 1 m
t

r a d i u s v e c t o r (with r e f e r e n c e t o c e n t r e of e a r t h )

: STFFAhT-BOLT[GtW r a d i a t i o n c o n s t a n t

: t r u e a i r teinperature

: a n g l e of d i r e c t i o n (with r e f e r e n c e t o c e n t r e of e a r t h )

When meteors f a l l , we n o t i c e t h a t

1) The meteor does n o t s t r i k e t h e e a r t h with cosmic b u t only with

t e r r e s t r i a l v e l o c i t y . The .air r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s a s t h e Rglnare of t h e v e l o c i t y and i s so ,areat t h a t s m a l l b o d i e s can reach t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e with v e l o c i t i e s counted a t t h e most i n a few 100 m/aecr.
2) The meteor plows up i n t h e zone between t h e 100 and 75 Ion a l t i t u d e .

( ~ ~ p ~ r e nbecavse tly i i s \elocS ty IvaR converted i n t o beet due t o t h e a i r r e ~ i s t a n c e . ) F e l l e n meteors a r e red-hot on t h e s u r f a c e and ice-cold $ ? s i d e . The s u r f a c e shows c l e a r t r ~ c e s of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o u t e r l a y e r h a s melted and i a blown away by t h e a i r . L a r g e r meteors always form a b r i g h t t a i l which o f t e n remains v i s i b l e a f t e r t h e meteor i t s e l f

i s f o r l o n g ou-t of s i c h t . I n one case, a t a i l was observed which remained v i s i b l e f o r over an hour. The c o l o r of t h e t a i l i s t h a t of

of @owing i r o n vapour o r glowing e a r t h m e t a l s . T h i s s u p p o r t s t h e assumption t h a t it c o n s i s t s of t h e same m a t t e r a s t h e meteor i t s e l f and i s a c t u a l l y t h e torn-away upper l a y e r of t h e meteor. S p e c t r o s c o p e examination of t h e t a i l i s n a t u r a l l y extremely d i f f i c i l l t fiince it

is u s ~ ~ a l l oy n l y v i s i b l e f o r a few seconds. Hence, a s f a r a s I know,

no f a u l t l e s s s p e c t r o s c o p i c e x m ~ i n a t i o n shave been made.
3) On t h e b a s i s of d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s , it can b e s a i d t h a t t h e

t e m p e r a t u r e of glowing m e t e o r s must l i e between 10,000 a n d 30,000. I f t h e i r t e m p e r g t u r e were lower, we could s e e t h e n s h i n e b r i g h t l y o n l y i f t h e y were very l a r g e . But i n t h i s c a s e , l a r g e r p i e c e s would fa1 1 t o e a r t h . E s p e c i a l 1 y, t h e f a c t could n o t b e e x p l a i n e d t h a t w i t h p e t e o r showers o f t e n v e r y v i v i d usual J y n o t a s i n g l e p i e c e r e a c h e s t h e e a r t h . I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i r teinpernture were h i g h e r than 30,000,

a p i e c e of which something i s t o remain wrould h ~ v e t o shine

c o n s i d e r a b l y more b r i g h t l y than i s a c t u a l l y observed with f a l l en m e t e o r s . Tn one c a s e , a meteor of 6 3 kg f e l l which shone so b r i g h t l y t h a t i t was seen i n broad d a y l i g h t . I t s t e n p e r a t u r e was c e r t a i n l y over W,OOOO. These t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e s o - c a l l e d " e f f e c t i v e " t e m p e r a t u r e s . That

means : A b l a c k , s o l i d body would have t o be t h a t h o t i n o r d e r t o s h i n e j u s t a s b r i g h t l y a s t h e meteor. How h o t t h e meteor i~

jn

e can o n l y s a y t h a t it i s somew1~at r e a l i t y r e a a t u a l l y do n o t know. W h o t t e r . F o r t u n a t e l y , w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s , we do n o t need t o know. Perhaps such a c c u r a c y of s t a t e m e n t w i l l seem d e c e n t i v e t o t h e l a y a n . How can euch a c c u r a t e s t s t 2 e m e n t s b e made of t h i n g o which a r e i n c i d e n t a l l y seen f o r a few seconds? T h i s can b e c o u n t e r e d by s a y i n g t h a t , w i t h such high t e m p e r n t u r e s , t h e i l l u m i n a t i n g power of an a b s o l u t e l y b l a c k body i n c r e a s e s with t h e 4 t h t o 6 t h power ,g the t e d p e r a t u r e . When t h e a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e doubles

it shines

16-64 times a s b r i g h t l y ; when it t r i p l e s , i t i s 81-739 time9 a s b r i g h t . And meteors can b e observed t h a t a c c u r a t e l y a f terwarclr if e n a b l e one t o s a y n o t a hundred times b r i g h t e r o r d a r k e r .

At somewhat 1ower temperatures, t h e i l l u m i n a t i n g power i n c r e a s e s r e l a t i v e l y even f a s t e r ; f o r exaarple, around 1000 i t i n c r e a s e s a s t h e 10th t o l e t h poyer. At $000 a body s h i n e s s e v e r a l 100 times b r i g h t e r t h a n a t 1000.
A s thermodplamic

t e a c h e s , a f a s t - f l y i n g body i n t h e a i r must

h e a t up; how s t r o n g l y it h e a t s np, about t h a t we can say b u t l i t t l e today. The a p p l i c a t i o n s and formulas which I have been a b l e t o f i n d . i n s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e s o f a r do n o t b e a r s e r i o u s examintition. a ) I n c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g a p p l i c a t i o n i s o f t e n met :If t h e a i r i n a wind gun o r pneumatic l i g h t e r i s compressed, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e s . I f To i s t h e a b s o l u t e temperature b e f o r e comprenslon, po t h e p r e s s u r e b e f o r e compression, and x t h e r a t i o between t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t of t h e a i r with c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e and w i t h c o n s t a n t volume, then we know t h a t

The a i r i n f r o n t of a f a s t - f l y i n g body i s b e i n g compressed. The impact F r e s s u r e amounts t o

Here, v i n d i c a t e s t h e v e l o c i t y and )(l/ how many t e c h n i c a l u n i t s of mass a r e contained i n 1 m 3 of a i r a t atmospheric p r e s s u r e . For example, f o r atmospheric a i r nenr t h e e a r t h ' s ~ u r f a c e p, = 0.132. p r e s s u r e p i can b e from 0 t o 2 t i n e s
8s

The a c t u a l

g r e a t a s t h e i m p ~ c tp r e s s u r e .

According t o t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , one o b t ~ i n e

and

I t i n e a s i l y seen, however, t h a t t h e f i g u r e o b t ~ i n e df o r t h e a i r
temperature must be t o o low according t o t h i s example. I f we have rnolecillea n f i i r r i n g about i n a cloeed aptwe A ( c f , Fig. 91), t h e v e l o c i t y with which t h e y s t r i k e t h e p i s t o n i n c r e a s e 8 b u t l i t t l e i f t h e p i s t o n i s slowly moved in t h e c y l i n d e r . Here, t h e h e a t of compreeeion o n l y r i s e s bp t h e amount of work t h a t wae r e q u i r e d t o p u ~ h t h e p i n t o n forward. I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, we h u r l e d t h e p i s t o n i n t o

a space with f r e e l y f l o a t i n e mol ecnl e s ( ~ i 91) ~ . u n t i l they were a8 a t r o p g l y compressed i n f r o n t of t h e p i s t o n as e a r l i e r i n t h e c y l i n d e r ,

t h e y would obviauely s t r i k e t h e p i s t o n with considerably p r e a t e r v e l o c i t y ; t h e h e a t i n ? ie b a a i c l y g r e a t e r .

. .. ,. . . . .,... . ...,.. .. .. . .,'.' . . .: ,;.';. . . .: .: . .. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . ......,.. ........ .... .. . . , ,.. . . . . . , . ..,,. ,. .. .. .. , ,. . . . .. .;; .,... . :....T
. I #

..'.','.'..,'.'(~
I
.

.
,

.
I

I , ..

l . . . .
. ,

* ,

. ... ..-. . . .. . . . . . . . ... . .

... 4.:::::

.,.

Fig. 91

F~K. 98

289

The calculated quantitatively temperature; to heat

heating heating.

of

the

meteor of

again the

may extreme heat off air

be

consideratly ratification,

lower the spite of would the be

than air high needed

the

Because contains but it to cannot the

little give

ener_ the heat

in that

hence, the meteor

apparent

ter_perature.

b) The a is an not energy etc.). in those meteor the

Basically, of fraction to determine temperature at and all how

the heat of

following that the the of much of is beat latter 9-0,0000 the to know

application tr_usferred of friction factor . In from the to

is the that the first

completely l_eteor arises! fact placep was that we is

inadmissable equated the_ the to attempt have do heat

qu_utity certain made average know

meteors naturally into (air

how much we how

halted exist how much

motion as kinetic of to rapidly constant the the

converted energy heat

continues do much which net is

currents_ remains case, of the

Secondly, air are and and figures can in

produced In any

transferred very used as

meteor. with figures. the

change be

velocity

no

way

c) surface All the the to the the glow_ air part the

When of air

calculating a parachute, striking equivalent withdrawn by and being heat were from the

the I

temperature formerly reasoned must heat I_ and by

of

the as

air follows, to

in

the l the

hollow told extent myself that between energy implanted plus air. did heated what about 99 _. not If z

parachute of the Ulis rocket along radiated halted be easily

be equals

heated the

mechanical energy the light air its radiates of the air

difference and the of

braking the by the

dragged energy completely could heat of and, motion is

formation the

currents

forward by

incandescent and such not know be

streem

parachute but do it

temperature much energy this make the

calculated; we I actually assume arbitrary. being scientifically

besides, is lost. extremely claim of

would This

Naturally, does not

assumption slightest

calculation accurate.

d ) Another a p p l i c a t i o n i s based on t h e assumption t h a t an a i r stream which meet8 a bedy must a f f e c t t h e body a t t h e p l a c e s where it s t r i k e s it a s though t h e r e t h e a i r were s o much warmer than it mould b e i f it contained h e a t energy i n s t e a d of energy of motion.

Ar i s well known, a t e c h n i c a l u n i t of mas8 c o n t a i n s 9.81 kg. I n

o r d e r t o h e a t i kg of a i r 1"

, 0.24

c a l . a r e needed, and one c a l o r i e

corresponds t o work of a 6 mkg. Therefore, t o h e a t one t e c h n i c a l u n i t of mesa l o , say by f r i c t i o n , r e q u i r e s 1000 mkg. If t h e a i r moves w i t h a vel o c i t y v, each uniO of mass c o n t a i n s

9 -8

mkg of k i n e t i o

energy. The approaching a i r w i l l meet t h e body a s t h o u ~ hit were wanner. For slowly moving bodierr, t h i s f i g u r e i s degrees C e l ~ i u s

3 2000
v

c e r t a i n l y t o o high. According t o t h a t , g y r o s t a t i c thermometers r a p i d l y revolved i n a c i r c l e by a threcrd should show s e v e r a l t e n t h s of a degree more than i f suspended a t r e s t . That t h i s i s n o t t h e c a a s

I a t t r i b u t e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e thermometer b u l b i s s t n r c k by t h e
a i r molecul en from behind r e l a t i v e l y slower, s o t h a t t h e space behind t h e thermometer h a s a correspond in^ c o o l i n p e f f e c t . 1 %would he i n s t r u c t i v e t o experiment w i t h t h r e e e q u a l l y - s e n s i t i v e thermometers by l e a v i n g t h e bulb of one completely f r e e , p r o v i d i n g t h e bulb of t h e second with i n s u l a t i o n on t h e back, s o by a p p l y i n g p i t c h , and p l a c i n ~ t h e bulb of t h e t h i r d i n s i d e a spheric61 s h e l l which 4 s t u r n e d toward
'v

t h e wind ( c f . Figs. 93-96) and then e q o a i n g t h e thermometers t o am

a i r ~ t r e a mof known s t r e n g t h and comparing t h e i r readincn. So f a r ,

I have n o t heen very m x i o i i ~t o do t h i a ex?eriment, Por we a h a l l Roon
Ree t h a t a formula obtained a t t h e usual temperature i s n o t very ueeful f o r h e a t t r a n s f e r with f a s t - f l y i n g bodies.

F i c . 93

Fig. 94

Fig. 95

Fig. 96

The f a s t e r a body moves, t h e more s t r o n g l y w i l l t h e a i r b e h i n d t h e body b e r a r i f i e d and t h e l e a s w i l l c o o l i n g by t h e rearward a i r b e p o s s i b l e . Hence, one o f t e n f i n d s t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n i n s c i e n t i f i o

1i t e r a t u r e r

There, T i e t h e t e u p c r a t ~ ~ r of e t h e p r o j e c t i l e o r meteor, and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e a i r . Appl i e d t o mekeors, t h i s s t a t e m e n t r e s u l t s i n much t o o h i g h by

O

va (v+ -lIgdd-). only w i t h

figure^. The h e a t of t h e approach in^ a i r i~ e-ressed

r e f e r e n c e t o f r i c t i o n and t r a n s f e r by con-

d u c t i o n . With r e f e r e n c e t-o t h e r ~ d i a n th e a t , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e f r o n t a l a i r n a t u r a l l y behave8 l i k e c o l d a i r of t e m p e r a t u r e d e s i g n a t e +,he t . e r n p e r a t u r ~of t h e r n ~ t e o ras $

7. I f

we

, then

t h e t r a n s f e r . of

h e ~p t e r cmc, a c c o r d i n g t o STWAN BOLTWAb'NtS law, I s Imown t o h e

hrat,ura1 IS, t b e t i s prcnunrro,sing t h e t STWAN BOTdTX%W??tS latv i s c o r r e c t f o r metal va:,ors

at&.

L e t u s t a k e an a b s o l u t e l y b l a c k body, f o r

which it i s c o r r e c t . Bccorrlinp t o INRLRAUM, f o r t h e a b s o l u t e l y h l a o k body,

@',

5 . 3 ~ * 1 0 - ~ ' watt.cm'8'

d e g r e e s4

.
d =5*10'~',

I n o u r c a l c u l a t i o n , we a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y accura+,e i f we n e t

even i f t h e c o l o r i s c o n s i d e r a b l y b r i z h t e r , f o r , i n r e t u r n , t h e r a d i a t i n g surfacerr & r e l a r g e r t h a n t h e i r p r o - j e c t i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion; t h e two e r r o r s c o u l d compensate f o r each o t h e r . S i n c e v a n i s h e s be.side r e Finally retain

WAMSLEn and HINLEIN have fovnd t.he h e a t t r a n s f e r between a v e r t i c a l

metal w a l l m d s t a t i c a i r , w i t h s l i g h t t e r a p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s , t o b e

Therewith, t i s t o r e p r e s e n t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e a i r , i n o u r c a s e ( 7 - ) 0 I f v i s v e r y h i g h , we can i g n o r e b e n i d e v2 and 2009 2000 set t = I n a d d i t i o n , accord in^ t o m e t a l l u r g y , t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r PO00 p r o v e s t o b e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r o o t o f t h e a i r d e n s i t y , i.e. i f i s

9 ----

-----.

2 :

---

i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r o o t o f t h e a b s o l u t e temperature1) and d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r o o t of t h e a i r p r e s s u r e . With l a r g e t e m ~ e r a t u r ed i f f e r e n c e a , a n o t h e r f a c t o r i s i n v o l v e d which, a c c o r d i n g t o NUSTT-T,

i s about proportional t o

I b e l i e v e , however,-

t h i s member o n l y o r i g i n a t e s from c e r t a i n phenomena of flow, w-hich d o n o t i n t e r e s t u s s i n c e , i n any c a s e , t h e y a r e l a c k i n s h e r e . That, o t h e r tthings b e i n g e q u a l , t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r i a i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r o o t of t h e a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e can b e u n d e r s t o o d i f it i s

--=ere,

-- t h e r e a d e r must c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h between a b s o l u t e tampen-

a t u r e m d temperature difference.

reinembered t h a t , with equal p r e s s u r e , t h e d e c r e a s e i n a i r densi t;v i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e e b s o l u t e temperetllre, whereas, a t t h e same time, t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e molecules only i n c r e a s e s a s t h e r o o t of t h e a b s o l u t e temperature. The n m b e r of blows which t h e p l a t e w a l l g e t s from f l y i n g molecules and by which i t i s h e a t e d up i s , o t h e r t h i n g s being equal, p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e average vel ocityv of t h e molecules. So it i n c r e a s e s only with t h e v e l o c i t y , i.e. now a s t h e r o o t of t h e temperature, b n t , a t t h e same time, d e c r e a s e s a s t h e temperature;

A t f i r s t s i g h t , it i s a s t o n i s h i n g t h a t t h e h e a t t r a n a f e r i s supposed t o be p r o p o r t i o n a l only t o t h e r o o t of &lie d e n s i t y . I t should be aswmed t h a t t h e wall i s s t r u c k by a times molecuXes i f t h e r e a r e

e must n o t f o r g e t , howa times more moleculee i n f r o n t of t h e w a l l . W

ever, t h a t t h e r e can be t r a n s f e r of h e a t when t h e a i r touching t h e metal h a s a d i f f e r e n t temperature than t h e metal. For t h e a i r t o g i v e o f f h e a t t o t h e metal, t h e cold must again and again be conducted away from t h e metal and h e a t flow i n , and t h e s e phenomena of conduction and flow obviously proceed r e l a t i v e l y slower i n dense a i r , When c a l c u l a t i n g t h e h e a t i n g of t h e meteor by approaching a i r , i n s t e a d of t h e a c t u a l barometric reading, we rill have t o u s e o n l y t h e r o o t of t h e barometric reading, f o r t h e r e a t , however, we w i l l have t o s e t t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e number of molecules t h a t a c t u a l l y s t r i k e t h e meteor. I f a i s t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e meteor above the earth,

6 t h e a i r p r e s s u r e a t t h e r e s p e c t i v e a1 t i t u d e ,
I

-dBo
/

the

a i r p r e s s u r e of one atmosphere, then, according t o (941,

6 B
0

w-+

, a t which

we must s u b s t i t u t e H

7.4 Irm. Accordingly,

we w i l l g e t r

e can The number o f molecule# s t r u c k i n c r e a e e s w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y . W e q u a t e t h e a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y of t h e ~ i molecules r t o t h e v e l o c i t y of sound. Accordingly, t,he r a t i o of t h e number of molecules s t r u c k when t h e v e l o c i t y i s v t o t h e number of molecules s t r i k i n g a s t a t i o n a r y wall rill b e to

d a
obtaining :

330. l o r v >

330 J s e c ,

t h f s r a t i o amounts

-330.
V

W e must xu1 t i p l y t h e equation by t h i s f a c t o r . F i n a l l y , we

must s e t t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r o o t of t h e a b s o l v t e temperature, t h a t is, we must m u l t i p l y o u r equation by

@,LUu.

Here,

i s supposed tlo be t h e a b s o l u t e temperature of t h e meteor.

of

I f we wish t o know how much t h e meteor h e a t s up, we must equate Q t h i s formula and S of formula (177). W e then o b t a i n

If we apply t h i s f o m ~ l p t , o a meteor flyin!:

g e t values f o r

8 which a r e 5-7

a t 36 km/sec, we indeed

t i m e s t o o small. Therefore, t h e h e a t

t r a n s f e r n u s t he c o n s i d e r a b l y c r e a t e r than we had aasuaed, approximately

a thousand t i m e s as g r e a t . So we must s t i l l m u l t i p l y t h e r i g h t s i d e

of our formula by a f a c t o r which, a t 0, e q u n l s 1 and, w i t h 8 = 80,000,

equal.

1000. The s i m p l e s t f a c t o r o f t h a t t y p e would b e

(8 - ~ 5 3 0 )8- .1 0

T h i s f a c t o r i s l i k e l y t o o l a r g e f o r a v e r a g e v a l u e s . More s u i t a b l e r o u l d b e a f a c t o r which, t o beg,,in for t 20,000, w i t h , l i k e NUSSELT'S f o r m u l a , i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e 4 t h r o o t o f t and l a t e r i n c r e a s e s f a s t e r , eo t h a t ,

E

it t a k e s on t h e v a l u e 1000. I he1 i e v e , however, t h i s

wllole c a l c u l a t i o n i s n o t w o r t h such a c c u r a c y .

Note : I t c o u l d a l s o b e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e e r r o r o f 1000 o c c u r r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h r a d i a t i o n . P e r h a p s STYFAN BOLTZldANNIS l a w i s n o t v a l i d f o r g l o w i n g m e t a l o r r o c k v a p o r s a t 20,000. of t h e e q u a t i o n (180), occurs and, with meteors, 2000~ t h a t n o l o n g e r p l a y s a big r o l e . I can assrlrne T t t o b e a b o u t 1/25 of t. The c r u c i a l y o i n t i s t h a t t h e amount o f r a d i a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e t h e e f f e c t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e i t s e l f i~ some 1000 t i m e s a s g r e a t as i t s h o u l d h e a c c o r d i n ? t o o u r s t a t e d e n t , and t h a t (however h i p h t h e t r u e t e m p e r a t u r e may b e ) can o c c u r o n l y i f 1000 t i m e s as much h e a t i s a b s o r b e d t h r o u g h f r i c t i o n w i t h t h e a i r t11an we assurned. O n the right aide

'@

d o ~ l y be~ide ---

From t h e f a c t t h a t we can a c t u a l l y s a y some thin^ o n l y a b o u t t h e o b s e r v e d r a d i a t i o n and h a v e made no assrlmptions a b o u t t h e n c t u a l tempera t u r e of t h e m e t e o r , it f o l l o ~ v st h a t a l s o n l y t h e e f f e c t i v e tempera t u r e of t h e m e t e o r , t h a t i s , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e WI a b s o l u t e l y h l a c k body r o u l d h a v e t o h a v e i n o r d e r t o glow j u s t a s b r i g h t 1 y an t h e m e t e o r . I n f a c t , we n e e d o n l y t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e , f o r we o n l y wish t o know whet h e a t was r a d i a t e d f o r t h , o r b e t t e r , what h e a t was a b s o r b e d . Thus we l e t

S i n c e we n r e n o t c r t l c r i l a t i n g with g r e a t a c c u r a c y , we can s e t

Then we o b t a i n

-e w e

E l

R H v

5.
(29. 253)--90
A

As a l r e a d y a t a t e d , t h e f a c t o r we p e t a

i n eomewhat t o o l a r g e

f o r rocket r e l o c i t i e s . W e can c o r r e c t t h i s e r r o r by dropping

6. Then
-&,

S i n c e +@is t h e e f f e c t i v e temperature, t h e h e a t of r a d i a t i o n S

and t h e h e a t absorbed through f r i c t i o n Q mnst approximately eqrln.1 it. I f t,he ~ u r f a c es l a n t s i n t o t h e a i r ~ t r e c u aa n d w i s i t s a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n t o t h e d i r e c t +on of f l igh t, t h e numher of s t r i k i n g mol ecul e s with an a n g l e between 45O and 90" w i l l be approximately p r o p o r t i o n a l t o .in

a,t h e

h e a t a b s o i p t i o n l i k e w i s e ( s o we must t a k e Q =

&ainG
d.

Here we can i g n o r e t h e e r r o r we may have made with r e s p e c t t o

I f t h e s u r f a c e moves p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t , t h e r a t i o of t h e number of a i r moleculee s t i l l s t r i k i n g it t o t h e o r i g i n a l number w i l l equal t h e r a t i o of t h e v e l o c i t y of sound t o r. Here, we 330 f i n d t h e h e a t tran~fert o b e Q ' = Q 7 (I ~m equating t h e v e l o c i t y of sound t o 330. How g r e a t it a c t u a l l y i s i n t h e h i g h e s t l a y e r s of
t h e atmosphere r e can conclude only from experiments with meteorol-

ogical rockets; t h e e r r o r i s n o t large, a t l e a s t n o t i n i t s effects). For a n g l e s between O 0 and 45O we can s e t :

S t a t i n g OC i n a r c measure, t h a t i s approximately
st

0 sin

@+ : ! ) .

I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, we e x p r e s s CC i n a n ~ l e measure, we g e t

Q '
Theref ore,

Q sin

( + ---: loT
OC

Nor, t h i s i s indeed a v e v rough e s t i m n t e and can very well b e t e n

time^ too l ~ r g e o r t o small; b u t a t l e a s t it i s an i n d i c ~ t i o nof what

m a m i t u d e t h e t r m s f e r of h e ~ i t n c i d e n t a l l y can be with which we a r e d e a l i n g here. With a v e l o c i t y between 5000 and 15,000 m/sec, given by t h e f o m i l a t h e temperature o f

an uncooled s u r f a c e strucIc by t h e a i r stream a t an a n g l e Ot could b e

e) I

~m

d e r i v i n g t h e s e formulas so a c c u r a t e l y becsuse, of a l l t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n s known t o me, t h e y seem t o come c l o e e s t t o t h e t r u t h . physico-chemical

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n based on thermodynamic and c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which s e e k s t o c a l c u l a t e t h e o c c u r r i n g v i b r a t i o n of t h e meteor molecules from t h e number and f o r c e of t h e molecule c o l l i s i o n s . But t h e rest11t i s n e a r l y 100 times t o o l a r g e .

I t would ertill b e much t o o l a r g e even assuming a p u r e h y d r o ~ e natmosphere, a p p a r e n t l y because, w i t h such high v e l o c i t i e s , t h e laws of c l ~ s s i c a lmechanics a r e no 1onger v a l i d f o r t h e e l e c t r o n s . t h e atom.) Yith roclcets, t h i s temperature i s much above 5000. I f we wish t o p r e v e n t t h e r e s p e c t i v e s u r f a c e from h e a t i n g up s o s t r o n E l y we m r i n t (precisely 'considered, t h e y a r e no l o n g e r q u i t e v a l i d even f o r BOHRvS model of

p r o v i d e eno1:f.h c o o l a n t t o car-y aw8.y t h e h e a t s u a t l t i t y Q ' .

Tv . r i t e

of t h e h i g h temperccture

a,

t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r i s not,

~ 7 - g r e a tFor . e ~ m pc J , c o n s i d e r a b l y more h e a t can h e withdrawn from

a m e t a l w a l l by c e a n s of coolinp; w a t e r . A s s t a t e d by t h e thermal

e n g i n e e r , we a r e h e r e d e a l i n g o n l y w i t h qua1 i t a t i v e l y h i g h n o t q u a n t i t a t i v e h e a t i n g . Concerning t h e rlse of c o o l a n t , I would l i k e t o

sav t h e f o l l o w i n g a
If we want, t o s a v e on co-!ant,
s u r f a c e s t d o t h e a i r s&pJm(cf. v : e ~ w sa t i m t o ex-pose h o l l o w

F i z . 97). N m e l y , i f we exyoFe s l a n t e d

t the o r arched s u r f a c e s t o t,he a i r s t r e a w , t h e l a y e r of a i r n e ~ t>o w a l l , which has a o o l e d o f f t o t h e t w p e r a t u r e o f t h e w a l l , w j l l b e c o n t i n u a l 1 y h l o w away; , i n s t as 1ittl e do we succeed i n 1 e t t i n g t h e t t o a t e m p ~ r w t u r eno l o n z e r b e n e f i c i a l t o the w a l l . cool ant h e ~ up

S~ipposin we ~ t a k e a l o n g i c e as c o o l a n t , p a s s t h e h e a t e d ~ 6 0 l i n g water o v e r i t s o t h a t it thaws, c e t a l l t h e c o o l i n g w a t e r t o v a p o r i z e , and f i n a l l y 1 e t t h e steam p a s s a l o n g t h e w a l l s t o b e cooled and r e l e a s e

it i n t o t h e open when i t h a s t h e h i g h e s t temperattire p e r m i s s i b l e f o r

t h e w a l l s , With 1 kg o f i c e r e can a b s o r b c a 750 c a l , I f , on t h e o t h e r hand ( c f . Fig. 97), we conduct t h e steam i n t o t h e h o l l o w s p a c e of a s u r f a c e hollowed o u t l i k e an u m b r e l l a , it w i l l h e r e h e a t u p f u r t h e r by t h e i m p a c t of t h e m o l e a u l e s , I f t h e a i r stream h i t s t h i s u m b r e l l a i n a s u f f i c i e n t l y a x i a l d i r e c t i o n , it w i l l n o t b e a b l e t o blow away t h e s t e m . So t h e r e w i l l always b e a steam cushion i n f r o n t of t h e u m b r e l l a which w i l l f i n a l l y b e b r o u g h t t o o v e r f l o w t h e e d c e s of t h e u m b r e l l a o n l y b ~ f o l l owing s t e m . I n s o doing, t h e t e m p e r a t v r e of t h e o v e r f l owing steam w i l l b e ~ c a r c e l y1ower t h a n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e which t h e a i r must t a k e on i n such a h o l l o w umbrella. At 10,000 m/sec, t h a t i s c e r t a i n l y o v e r 15,000. L i k e l y even o v e r 20,000. h e a t , 1 kg of w a t e r vapor a b s o r b s over 9000 c a l , , With t h i s counting i n t h e

d i s s o c i a t i o n ; t h a t i s 12 t i m e s a s much as w i t h o b l i q u e o r convex s u r f a c e s . The c o l o s s a l h e a t i n g o f t h e vapor i n t h e h o l l o w s p a c e o f t h e p a r a c h u t e n e e d n o t c a v s e n8 concern, The s t i l l cool vapor b e h i n d

i t i t s e l f c o n s t i t u t e s t h e most e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t h e a t abs o r p t i o n by c o v d u c t i o n o r r a d i a t i o n . For example, it i s a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o burn a model o f my p a r a c h u t e from t h e concave s i d e wit17

a g a s b a r n e r ( w i t h p a r a l l e l flow).

iiaving d e t e r m i n e d t h e above, we want t o s e e whether t h e r e t a r d a t i o n by a i r r e s i s t a n c e can b e u t i l i z e d f o r l a n d i n g p u r p o s e s w i t h o u r machines

To begin w i t h , what i s concerned h e r e i s n o t a p i v o t a l q u e s t i o n . A p p ~ r a t l l sc o u l d be b u i l t which i n p a r t d e c e l e r a t e t h e i r v e l o c i t y outrn e l y by rearward t h r u s t , and e n t e r s i d e of t h e e a r t h ' s a t ~ o ~ p h e o

t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere only with t e r r e s t . r i a 1 v e l o c i t y . Then, however

would have 1 t o b e a0 t o 40 times a s g r e a t ; t h a t i s , i f t h e machines a r e t o c a r r y ( f i g u r i n ? i n tl7e i n c r e a s e i n weight due t o d i v i s i o n ) , t h e same paylosd, t h e y must be 20 t o 4 0 times as l a r a e and h e ~ q g before t h e a s c e n t as they need be i f we u t i l i z e t h e a i r f o r purposes of deceleration. Unmanned r o c k e t s can l a n d i n any d i r e c t i o n . Manned r o c k e t s , however, must n o t s t r i k e t h e e a r t h i n a v e r t i c a l drop s i n c e t h e b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e h a s l a t e r a l motion would then be t o o s h o r t . S i n c e t h e manped r o c k ~ t anyway, tl-e n o r e
40

i f it h a s ascended i n t h e synergy curve, it ap-

proaches t h e e s r t h on any curve of t h e second o r d e r which can e a s i l y be i n f l u e n c e d so t h a t its p e r i g e e f a l l s i n t h e upper l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere. Even i f t h e l a y e r w i t h i n which t h e parachute can o p e r a t e

i s assumed t o be only 7 km (above t h a t t h e a i r becomes too t h i n ,

below t h a t t h e s t r o n e d e b e l e r a t i o n endangers t h e passengers) and t h e r o c k e t approaches t h e e s r t h on a p a r a b o l i c t r a j e c t o r y , t h e b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e (more p r e c i s e l y , t h e way oovered i n t h e asslimed l a y e r ) i a over 800 km. Proof r p o l a r equation of t h e parabola a

I?

P ------1 + cos

cosp,-J--

P'

1.

(e : r a d i u s

v e c t o r , y r a n e l e of d j r e c t j o n , h : depth of atmo-

sphere l a y e r i n question f o r braking f l i r h t , r : e a r t h ' s radius, p z perameter of t h e perabola.)

For

r, we o b t ~ i n cos

P'

"

9 = O-

Braking d i s t a n c e t

I*yr = 840 km.

A l l t h a t needs t o be ~ c h i e v e dover t h e whole d i s t a n c e i s changing

t h e parn.bolic v e l o c i t y t o an e l l i p t i c v e l o c i t y . Then, when t h e r o c k e t p a s s e s t h e p e r i g e e t h e second time, i t w i l l p a s s through t h e atmosphere a t t h e seme p l a c e w a i n , ~t which t h e b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e w i l l he s t i l l l o n g e r s i n c e t h e e l l i p s e conforms s t i l l more t o a c i r c l e , e t c . I n s o move c l o s e r t o t h e doing, however, t h e p e r i g e e would n o t e ~ s e n t i a l l y e a r t h . That would go on u n t i l t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y would be reached. Then t h e b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e would be p r a c t i c a l l y e n d l e s s and t h e spaces h i p would descend i n a s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g s p i r a l .

I n o r d e r t o achieve t h i s g o a l , i t was m y c h i e f aim t o c o n s t r u c t

the apparatus
80

t h a t (with t h e exception of a few b r a k i n g ropes,

which would n a t u r a l l y have t o be cooled e s p e c i a l l y e f f e c t i v e l y ) only hollow s u r f a c e s a r e exposed t o t h e a i r stream, and t h a t an a i r stream t h n t i s everywhere f r e e of turbulence. Now, t h e r e i s only one such concave s u r f a c e i n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e r o c k e t , namely t h e bottom w i t h t h e n o z z l e s , So a l l t h a t i s r e q n i r e d i s t o g e t t h e bottom t o come f i r s t . That can b e achieved by a t t a c h i n g a p a r a c h u t e t o t h e t i p a s shown i n Fip. 97. Nat.urally, t o brake i s only a secondary purpose of t h e parachute, i t s primary purpose i s t o cause t h e r o c k e t t o l a n d bottom f i r s t . (T simply c a l l ed t h e d e v i c e "parachute" because no b e t t e r word b c a a r r e d t o me a t t h e time. I t mieht b e t t e r have been c a l l e d " d i r e c t i n g umbrella" o r "ad j u e t i n g umbrella1'. T h i s p a r a a h u t e cannot d e c e l e r a t e t h e l a s t 80 m/eec a t a l l ; t h e y must b e d i s s i p a t e d by means of r o c k e t p r o p o l s i o n , I t makes a d i f f e r e n c e , however, whether

r e must d e c e l e r a t e 8 0 m/sec o r 11 km/sec by means of r o c k e t propulsion1).) The hollow s u r f a c e of t h e p a r a c h u t e must n a t u r a l l y be cooled by i c e , water, o r water vapor. Nor, behind t h e r o c k e t a space with a i r t u r bulence i e c r e a t e d . T h i s a i r t u r b u l e n c e would e a s i l y blow a a i d e t h e r a t e r vapor i n f r o n t of t h e parachute, so t h a t t h e p a r a c h u t e would be d i r e c t l y h i t , now h e r e , now t h e r e , by t h e a i r stream i n e f f e c t over 80,000 h o t . To p r e v e n t t h a t , I am making t h e parachute c i r c u l a r i n ehape,'so t h a t t h e a i r t u r b u l e n c e does n o t s t r i k e it. The broken l i n e s i n Fig. 97 a r e uupposed t.o v i s u a l i z e t h e motion of t h e a i r .
I provided my f i r s t r o c k e t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e laeteorolopical r o c k e t s ,

with euch parachutes. I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y no b e t t e r way of l a n d i n g meteorological r o c k e t s than by mems of parachute. Secondly, we

till know t o o l i t t l e about t h e a c t u a l h e a t t r a n s f e r

w i t h aeroplane-type l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s ; a s I a l r e a d y s a i d , it could e a s i l y be 100 times a s g r e a t a s our formula i n d i c a t e s , which would make l a n d i n g by l i f t i n e s u r f a c e s g e n e r a l l y q u e s t i o n a b l e , a s I s h a l l show. For model E a1 so, I p l a n only parachute landing. If our meteoro l o p i c a l r o c k e t s do n o t make t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r appear i n a more f a v o r a b l e l i g h t than I expected h e r e (I am h e r e always workinp with t h e mogt unfavornble p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s ) , o t h e r l a n d i n g p o s s i b i l iti ea can be considered, VALIER, HOHtUNN, GAIL, ZANDER, and ZIOLKOIlrSKI v i s u a l i z e t h e land-

ing i n t h i s way r t h e upace-ship is b u i l t s i m i l a r t o an aeroplane

and l a n d s i n g l i d i n g f l i g h t upon r e t u r n i n g . HOHh1ANN and GAIL seek t o t o achieve t h i s c o a l by means of aeroplane-type l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s . HOHhWJN wants t o a t t a c h them t o t h e o b s e r v e r ' s nodule, whjch, i n h i s
r
C .
_ I -

.--.aAC-

- -*

irNOORDUNG h n s i c l y r e j e c t e d parachute l a n d i n e because h e r e k h e i d e a l p r o p u l ~ i o n i s i n c r e a s e d by t h i s amount. I n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y t h e question from t h i s viewpoint, however, one only needs t o f i g u r e o u t f o r what purpose more mnsa must be c a r r i e d along : IP i t t o achieve t h i s chanze i n v e l o c i t y of 80 m/sec o r t o keep t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s muff i c i e n t l y cool.

system, i s a l l t h a t f i n a l l y remains, w h i l e t h e whole r o c k e t burns up.

GAIL t h i n k s of t h e l i f t i n g s ~ t r f a c e sa s being a t t a c h e d t o t h e epindleshaped f u e e l a g e of t h e rocket, VALIER t h i n k s of g i v i n g t h e w&ole

r o c k e t more of a broadened-out, f l a t form t h a t reminds one of a b i r d with t h i c k wings (cf. F i p , 118, 119), H

O W h a s a l s o thought of l a n d i n g i n a d e o e l e r a t i n g e l l i p s e , a s I d e s c r i b e d it on p. 301

The most s u i t a b l e a1t i t u d e s of t h e p e r i g e e above t h e e a r t h can be found by t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n e i d e r a t i o n

1

Assuming t h a t , with normal a i r p r e s s u r e and s t a t i c a i r , t h e g l i d i n g f l i g h t i s most economical a t 108 km/hr = 30 m/sec,

( ~ i ss well-

known, t h e same aeroplane does n o t alwsys usc t h e asre amount of m e r e t o cover a d i s t a n c e of one km. I f it f l i e s t o o f a s t , the head-on r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s a s t h e square of t h e v e l o c i t y . Between t h e two t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n most advan t ~ g e o u sv e l o c i t y . )

If t h e space-ship
then

p i e r c e s t h e atmosphere a t BOO0 m/sec i n s t e a d of a t 30 m/eec,

formula ( a 7 ) a p p l i e s with regard t o t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e . Therefore

,dB0 t h e normal a i r p r e s s u r e . O b v i o u ~ l y , t h e aeroplane f l i e q hest ~t 9000 m / ~ e c i f L 3 , , = L9000' from which it followa t h a t

H e r e , p s i s t h e a i r p r e n m r e a t t h e d t i t * i d e in questinn,

According t o (34), t h e a l t i t m d e a t which t h e a i r prensure rrinka t o t h e 135,000th p a r t i~

s = 87 km.
Nat,uralYy, t h i s i~ only a r o u ~ hc a l c ~ ? l a t i o n ~ i v c e , in. reerlit.y,

:I i s n o t constnnt. Refore b u i l d i n ? t h e r i r s t space-ship, r o c k e t s o r .jet propulsion a i r c r a f t .

the e x ~ c t

connection b e t w e e n p and s would have t o he found from m e t e o r o l o r i c s l

111 order t o Iieep t h e v e h i c l e a t t.he d e s i r e d a l t i t u d e l o n r e r , t h e

l i f t i n & s u r f a c e s , ~ c c o r d i n gt o IInTQ,IIWN, could be placed
RO

t h a t the;y

d e p r e s s t h e v e h i c l e a t t h e bepinning and it does n o t again t e a r i t s e l f f r e e from t h e e a r t h luscanse of t 5 e c e n t r i f v ~ a lf o r c e . The i d e a o f l a n d i n g i n g l i d i n ~ f l i g h t h a s some a t t r a c t i v e f e a t u r e s a

1) Descent i n g l i d i n g f l i g h t a n s u r e s t h e ~ . s t r o n a u t grer.t freedom

i n choosing t h e l a n d i n g l o c a t i o n . For example, i f t h e s!>ace-ship e n t e r s t h e e i t r t h ' s at-~oa!,here with !>arabolic v e l o c i t v , it must thev cover some 20,000 km i n g l i d i n p f l i g h t b e f o r e c o m j n ~t o a dend stop.

I t can d e s c r i b e curves on i t s ~ l i d i n g p a t h and, i n s o doing, t h e

p i l o t can l a n d a t any p o i n t h e p l e ~ o e s . With parsbol i c v e l o c i t y , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d e s c r i b i n z c u r v e s i s only small s i n c e , on c u r v e s with r a d i i of c u r v a t u r e under ROO0 km, t h e counter-pressure would r e a c h unbearable 1 eve1 s due t o t h e cen t r i h g a l f o r c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r a d i u s of t h i s c u r v a t u r e d e c r e a s e s as t h e s q u a r e of t h e v e l o c i t y . For example, a t 5 km/sec, t h e r a d i u s of c u r i a t u r e i s only 1340 b . c w d e s c r i b e ever s m a l l e r Hence, toward t h e end, t h e xpace-ship

s p i r a l s and s o i t can l a n d e x a c t l y a t t h e p r e s c r i b e d p l a c e . There i s no p l a c e on e a r t h which would n o t be a c c e s s i b l e t o it, no m a t t e r where it e n t e r e d t h e ataosphere. One t h i n ? i s s t i l l t o be considered r When we c a l c u l a t e d t h e f i g u r e of 20,000 h,we assumed t h a t t h e space-ship had c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y a t t h e p e r i g e e of t h e cosmic t r a j e c t o r y . P r e c i s e l y considered, t h a t i s n o t e x a c t l y necessary. I t could a l s o be arranged t o have the space-ship ascend somewhat due i t s centrifugal force s h o r t l y before a t t a i n i n g c i r c u l a r velocity so t h a t

it would then g r a v i t a t e with c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y i n c o n s i d e r a b l y

t h i n n e r a i r . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e p a t h it would c o v e r i n s o d o i n g c o u l d b e unending; i n any c a s e , i t can c i r c l e t h e e a r t h and l a n d b e h i n d t h e p o i n t above which it e n t e r e d t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere.

I n h i s n o v e l , "Bridges Across I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Spacett, LUDWIG ANTON

w r i t e s t h u t , a f t e r e n t e r i n g t h e atmosphere of Venus, t h e m a c e - s h i p had n o t r e ~ p o n d e dt o s t e e r i n g b e c a u s e of
it8

enormous v e l o c i t y , s o

t h a t t h e o c c n p a ~ t sc o u l d n o t n e t i t p e r p e n d i c v l a r o r ti~rni t and cushion it w i t h s t e m i n o r d e r t h e f a s t e r t o d i s s i p a t e t h e c o m i c v e l o c i t y : t h e s t e e r would s o o n e r have broken. I n r e a l i t y , t h a t i s n o t how t h e m a t t e r s t a n d s : I f t h e a i r i s n o t t o o dense, it i s n o more d i f f i c u l t t o t u r n t h e s t e e r than i n f l i g h t u n d e r normal a i r p r e s s u r e and w i t h normal v e l o c i t y ; such a i r c r a f t can b e t u r n e d as d e s i r e d . I n s p i t e of t h a t , however, w i t h l o w a i r d e n s i t y and t h e
momenium t h a t it h a e ,
j t

can b e d r a m i n t o a n o t h e r p a t h o n l y

g r a d u a l l y . I t i s somewhat i n t h e p o s i t i o n of a bob-sleigh on an i c y road : it can be v e r y e a s i l y t u r n e d , b u t i t d o e s n o t immediately run i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which it was t u r n e d , I n parachute landings, t h e r e i s b a s i c l y no p e a t choice with r e s p e c t t o t h e p l a c e o f d e s c e n t . One can t i g h t e n t h e r o p e s of t h e p a r a c h u t e on one s i d e somewhat s o as t o choose t h e l a n d i n g p l a c e w i t h i n a r a d i u s of 1000-8000 km, a d m i t t e d l y much l e e s a c c u r a t e t h a n with a i r f o i l landing. Naturally, t h a t is e n t i r e l y sufficient, t h e more s o s i n c e ( a s a l s o i n l a n d i n g w i t h l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s ) one s t i l l h a s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s h i f t i n g t h e l a n d i n g p o i n t a s d e s i r e d by c h o o s i n g t h e c o r r e c t t r a j e c t o r y i n i n t e r p l e n e t a r y s p a c e , For example,
i f an e l l i p t i c f l i g h t i s u n d e r t a k e n , t h e e l l i p s e n e e a o n l y b e

changed somewhat i n o r d e r t o l a n d a t a d i f f e r e n t time and p l a o e . So, i n b o t h c a s e s , one can l a n d wherever one wishes, b u t l a n d i n g w i t h l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s h a s an a d d i t i o n a l p o s s i b i l i t y s o t h a t , from

t h i s viewpoint, it i s b a a i c l y t o be p r e f e r r e d . The advantages would weieh i n t h e b a l a n c e e s p e c i a l l y , i f wrong aim were taken with t h e t r a j e c t o r y i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, i f , f o r any reanon, t h e svace-ship veered from i t s p a t h , o r i f , a f t e r e n t e r i n g t h e atmosphere, t h e space-ship f r e e d i t s e l f once more c o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s ao t h a t

it d e s c r i b e d one more d e c e l e r a t i o n e l l i p s e than was planned and

d e s c e n t by parachute were p o s s i b l e only o u t s i d e of a 1000-Ian r a d i u s i n a repion u n s u i t a b l e f o r l a n d i n g o r a t l e a s t yeneral l y u n s u i t a b l e (more p r e c i s e g u i d i n g i s excluded h e r e ) , l e t u s say i n t h e southern p a r t of t h e P a c i f i c Ocean, on t h e Tibetan P l a t e a u , o r i n t h e p o l a r regions. F i n a l l y , t h e a d v t u l t a ~ e swould be a p p a r e n t i f t h e r e were n o t complete freedom of choice with r e s p e c t t o t h e l a n d i n g l o c a t i o n on t h e e a r t h ' s g r i d . ( ~ s s u m i nt ~ h e space-ship h a s c i r c l e d t h e moon o r i s r e t u r n i n g from a d i s t a n t p l a n e t , )
O) I n c e n e r a l , d e s c e n t with l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s does n o t make a s high

demands on t h e pace t r a v e l l e r ' s t a l e n t f o r mathematic-nhysical

- combinations and on h i s a b i l i t y t o make r a n i d d e c i s i o n s a s does parac h u t e landing. With a 1 i f t i n p ; - w r f a c e machine, he can reach most p o i n t s of t h e 1and in^ sphere by simple ~li d i n c f l i g h t ; ref1 e c t i on and c o n t r o l adjustments t h a t do n o t r e m l t from normal i n s t l n c t a r e

necessary on17 i n t h e border regions. h r t h e m o r e , i f t h e p i l o t

s t e e r e d i n c o r r e c t l y i n t h e beginning, h e c m u s u a l l y c o r r e c t t h e e r r o r a t t h e end s i n c e t h e s t e e r a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s more and more.
W i t h t h i s l andine, he sjmply f l i e s i n t l > e d i r e c t i o n h e wishes a s

with an aeroplane. S i n c e h e can s e e a l a r g e p a r t of t h e e n r t h benefith him, h e n a t ~ l r a l l yRees e x a c t l y where t h e intended l a n d j n g s i t e i s s i t u a t e d . Having a r r i v e d above i t , he descends i n a s p i r a l . I n p a r a c h i ~ t elanding, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e pi1o.L must make p r e e i s e combinations; a s l i g h t inadvertence can jeopardize t h e success

of t h e whole f l i g h t . The connection between p a r a c h u t e l r n d i n g arld d i r e c t i o n of f l i g h t i s n o t a s e v i d e n t a s t h e connection between erplanetary s t e e r i n g and p l a c e of descent. The t r a j e c t o r y i n i n % space must a l s o b e c a l c n l a t e d more c a r e f u l l y with r e s p e c t t o landing. N a t u r a l l y , a l l t h i s can be achieved, except t h a t , h e r e a l s o , w i t h l i f t i n g s u r f s c e s would b a s i c l y be p r e f e r n b l e. 3) I n normal l a n d i n g w i t h l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s , with v e l o c i t i e s below t h e c i r c u l a r and a certctin p o s i t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s , t h e space-ship p a s s i v e l y s e e k s t h e a l t i t u d e f o r moe; expedient f l i g h t . For example,
i f i t g e t s t o o low, t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s , and with it t h e

land in^

up1 i f t ; t h a t r a i s e s it h i g h e r again. With l i f t i n g - s u r f a c e l a n d i n g i n g e n e r s l , it a p p e a r s f e a s i b l e t o l e a v e t h e l a r g e s t p a r t of t h e s t e e r i n g t o air tomatic machines d u r i n g dead t r a v e l , whereas with p a r a c h u t e l n s d i n g t h e p i l o t (under hiph counter-pressure b e s i d e s ) watch e v e q t h i n g . must himself c o n s t ~ n t l y
4 ) Landing with l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s i s i n g e n e r a l more p l e a s a n t f o r

t h e passengers. Except when t h e border r e a i o n s of t h e l a n d i n g s p h e r e have t o be reached, tlie t r a v e l l e r s a r e never exposed t o e s s e n t i a l l y h i ~ h e rcounter-pressure than t h e normal f o r c e of g r a v i t v . I n p a r a c h u t e l a n d i n g , t h e i n i t l i a l s t a g e s come o f f q u i t e smoothly. Between 6000 and 2000 m/sec, however, t h e counter-pressure must be however, it dehigh under a l l circumstances. I n t h e beginning, t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e keeps t h e apparatiis suspended; be1 ow 6000 m/sec, c r e a s e s i ~ o t i c e a h l yand, i n s p i t e of t h e s l a n t e d p o s i t i o n of t h e p a r a c h u t e (which a1 ready presupposes c o n s i d e r a b l e counter-Pressure), t h e a p p a r a t u s soon g e t s i n t o d e n s e r l a y e r s . At 2000 m/sec, p u l l of g r a v i t y .

it f l i e s

. Oqly from t h e r e on can i t f r e e l y f o l l o w t h e a t an 41 t i t u d e of 50 h

5) The act11al l a n d i n g i s c o n s i d e r a b l v s i m p l e r w i t h l i f t i n g s u r -

f a c e s . An a p p a r a t v s equipped w i t h p a r a c h u t e f a l l s a t a b o u t 80 m/sec a t t h e end, and s h o r t l y b e f o r e t o n c h i n g e a r t h (more a c c u r a t e l y , t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e on which t h e a p p a r a t n s d e s c e n d s ) t h e p i l o t must g i v e g a s once more a t 100-150 m above t h e qround i n o r d e r t,o d i s s i p a t e a1 s o t h i s 1 a s t r e m a i n i n g v e l o c i t y , whi ch c a n n o t b e a c c o m p l i s h e d by p a r a c h u t e . I n s o d o i n g , t h e r o c k e t can o n l y descend on w a t e r . I f t h e p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s d n e s n o t .?;o on o r t h e p i l o t , f o r sonle r e a s o n , n e g l e c t s t o p u t i t i n t o o p e r a t i o n ( i t must n o t b e f o r c o t t e n t h a t , a f t e r a s t r e n u o u s and e x c i t i n g s p a c e f l i p h t and u n d e r a colinterp r e s s u r e o f 40 m/seca a t t h e end o f t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n p e r i o d , t h e p i l o t w i l l p e r h a p s n o l o n g e r b e i n p o s s e s s i o n of h i s normal e l a s t i c i t y and d e t e m i n a t i o n ) , a1 though t h e t r a v e l l e r s w i l l n o t p e r i s h , t h e f u e l t a n k s o f t h e r o c k e t w i l l b e squashed and wrecked. The l a n d i n g of an a i r f o i l a p p a r a t u s , on t h e o t h e r hand, p r o c e e d s l i k e t h e
J andiny: o f an a e r o p l m e 1)

These a r e m y oi~girin~ co sn c e r n i n g t h e l a s t p a r t o f t h e p a r a c h u t e landinfr. On t h e o t h e r hand, I c a n n o t a h a r e t h e m i ~ g i v i n y sof GERrrAW PUSOH-IPETDEnYILXEN t h a t a r o c k e t h a n g i n 5 from a p a r a c h u t e would b e g i n t o s p j n i f made t o brim. The v i r t u a l d e c e l e r ~ t i o nwhich t h e p a r ~ c h n t e i t s e i f undergoes due t o t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e (by v i r t u e of t h e ~ i r r e q i s t e n c e d n e t o t h e raass of the p a r a c h ~ ~ t ei ) n , n n d ~ rn J l c j - c l ~ n s t e r - - cen, p r e a t e r t h a n t h e virti. a1 d e c e l e r r t i o n o f t h e body of t h e r o c k e t d u e t o t h e 1-enrwarc? t h r u s t . Hence, the p a r n c h u t e s t i l l p u l l s t h e r o c k e t upward even when i t burns. Flow, t ! ~ ep a r a c h u t e p a r t s h o l d t h e body o f t h e r o c k e t by t h e t i p ; b e c a u s e o f tlhe l o n g l e v e r arm a r i s i n c from a s l a n t e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e r o c k e t , a e t r o n ~ t o r s i o n a l moment w o ~ i l dt e n d t o p u t t h e r o c k ~ ti n t o t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n ap.ain. The c e n t r e of r e a r w a r d t h r u ~ t I i e s c l o s e t o t h e c e n t r e of q r a v i t y ; s o , i f s e t on a s l m t , t h e t o r s i o n a l moment e n d a n g e r i n g s t * a b i l i t , v i s o n l y s l i ~ h t .The s p a c e - s h i p c o t ~ l ds p i n o n l y i f t h e l a t t e r t t o r n i o n a l moment were p r e a t e r than t h e former. I n a d d i t i o n , W e r e i s t h e poss i b i l i t y o f a c t i v e s t a b i l i z a t i o n by nlean- o f conta-01 q r o s c o p e s and t h e r e g u l a t i n g rods.
?700?JIPTG h a s o b j e c t e d t h a t 1e t t j n v tlie r o c k e t burn *en 1 a n d i n g by p a r a c h n t e would c a u s e b o t h r o c k e t and p a r a c h u t e t o burn up b e c a u s e t - h e ' a i r would bend t h e g a s s t r e a m and n a k e i t h i t t h e a p p a r a t u s .

:Tnturally, I a d p i t t h a t t h e roclcet,, w h i l e burninp: would h a v e t o p a s s t h r o u g h i t s own f i r i n g g a s e s . As f a r a R b u r n i n g up r o e s , we h a v e s e e n t h a t t h a t i s n o t s o e a s y w i t h l i q w i d f u e l t a n k s and w i t h t h e n t h e o t h e r hand, f o r my p a r a c h u t e c o v s t r u c t i o n i n d i c a t e d above. O p a r t , I would recommend t h a t N O O W G p r o d u c e a c ~ l c u l a t i o no f t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r f o r h i s suggested t r a j e c t o r y with parabol i c v e l o c i t y b r o u g h t a b o u t by means o f 1 i f t i n g s u r f a c e s .

6 ) A s f a r a s t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e pel-i_rree o f t h e cosmic t r a , i e c t o r y

i s concerned, w i t h p a r a c h u t e l a n d i n p t h e a i m r l u s t b e a c c u r a t e t o
a u , i f one w i s h e s t o l a n d a t t h e p r e s c r i b e d p o i n t . within 5 T

If one

i s s a t i f f f i e d j u s t t o land, then t h e a i m with t h e hyperbolic

trajectory
-17st

b e e x a c t t o a b o u t 15 km. I n ca.se hydrogen prepon-

d e r a t e s i n t h e u p p e r l a y e r s o f t h e atmosphere, t h i s f i g u r e w i l l b e c o n s i d e r a b l y more f a v o r a b l e . I n a d d i t i o n , hydrogen would n o t h e a t t h e a f f e c t e d s u r f a c e s s o s t r o n g l y . I f t h e p e r i g e e were t o o h i g h , t h e atmosphere c o u l d n o t d e c e l e r p t e t h e v e h i c l e s u f f i c i e n t l y and i t would v e e r awav from t h e e a r t h a z a i n . I f it w e r e t o o low, i t would d e c e l e r a t e t o o f a s t and t h e enormoils counter-preasnr-e would squash t h e p a s s e n c e r s . With e l l i p t i c v e l o c i t i e s , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t i f t h e
pace-ship s k i r t s t h e e a r t h 1 s a t m o s p h e r e a1t o z e t h e r and d o e s n o t

p i e r c e it t o o d e e p l y . Then it w i l l d e s c r i b e e v e r s m a l l e r d e c e l e r a t i o n e l l i p s e s and f i n a l l y l a n d anywhere. Where i t w i l l l a n d i f t h e aim i s even o n l y 20 km t o o h i g h t h e gods h o w . Landing by means of l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, i s q u i t e smooth even w i t h h y p e r b o l i c v e l o c i t y i f t h e a i m wae u p t o 2 t km t o o h i g h o r a r o u n d 8 0 Ian t o o low. I n a s t r o n g l y ~ l a n t e d . p o s i t i o n ,

a l i f t i n g s u r f a c e can carry 5 t o 8 times ss much a s i n a more f a v o r able position. I f one s h o ~ l l dhappen t o g e t i n t o an a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r 8 t i m e s as rare, t h a t i s i f t h e a i m was 16 t o 16 km t o o h i g h , by s t r o n g l y i n c l i n i n g t h e t i p downward t h e r o c k e t c o u l d s t i l l b e k e p t i n t h e atmosphere and p r e v e n t e d from f l y i n g o u t a g a i n . I n s o

d o i n g , t h e d r a g i s a l m o s t as g r e a t as t h e d r i f t , b u t t h a t d o e s n o t

matter. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e r e b y we a c h i e v e s t r o n g d e c e l e r a t i o n , s o
t h a t the h y p e r b o l i c v e l o c i t y soon changes i n t o an e l l i p t i c v e l o c i t y , and t h e r o c k e t can s t i l l b e k e p t i n t h e s p h e r e o f t h e e a r t h ' s g r e v i t ~ t i o n( h e r e t h a t i s s u f f i c i e n t i n o r d e r t o l a n d a t t h e p r e s c r i b e d p o i n t ) even i f t h e a i m was m a d d i t i o n a l 7 Ian t o o h i y h . The l n n d i n ~

i s s t i l l s u c c e s s f u l even i f t h e p e r i g e e was s o h i g h t h a t t h e d r i f t
a l o n e w a s n o l o n g e r a b l e t o keep t h e r o c k e t i n t h e e a r t h ' s s p h e r e o f attraction. km/sec.)

e ere I n a t u r a l ] y

only thought of hyperbolic v e l o c i t i e s

as c o u l d o c c u r w i t h s p a c e f l i g h t s and which l i e between 12 and 17

I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h o a i m was t o o low, t h e a x i s w i l l Man, however, e n d u r e s b e s e t s o t h a t n o d r i f t o c c u r s . A t t.he c o r r e c t a l t i t u d e , t h e d e c e l e r a t i o n due t o a i r r e s i s t a n c e would b e c a 2 m/sec. counter-pressure o f more t h a n 40 m/sec. So t h e space-ship could

t r a v e l i n a t m o s p h e r e 20 t i m e s as d e n s e w i t h o u t t h e c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e e n d a n g e r i n g man, t h a t is, t h e p e r i g e e c o u l d b e o v e r 20 knl lower.

u and more i n which t h e p e r i g e e T h a t makes an a l t i t u d e leeway of 40 h

may l i e . Y e t , even i f t h e v e h i c l e s h o u l d once t e a r i t s e l f away, b e c ~ u w eo f t h e e t e e r i b i l i t y , t h e r e a r e s t i l l p r o s p e c t s of reachinp; t h e planned I rnding place.

In s p i t , e o f a l l t h a t , l a n d i n g by p a r a c h u t e i s p o a s i t t l e , o h h e r v i s e I would n o t h a v e s u g g e n t e d i t jn a book i n which I wanted t o p r o v e

t h a t t r a v e l l i n ~t o i n t e r p l a n e t ~ r ys p a c e by r o c k e t i s n o t just a U t o p i a . P a r a c h u t e l a n d i n f w i l l o n l y be c o r s i d e r l r b l y Nore i n c o n v e n i e n t and d i f f i c u l t t h a n 1i f t i n g - s u r f a c e 1onding;. F o l l owincl; i s t h e r e a s o n
why I n e v e r t h e l e n s s u p y e s t s d p a r a c h u t e l a n d i n g and n o t a i r f o i l l a n d i n g :

I wanted t o show t h a t my p r o j e c t

js

fe~qible u n d e r &l._fir=-s$-ap--

c e s , and t h ~ o t n l p a p p l i e s t o p a r a c h u t e l a n d i n g . With a i r f o i l l a n d i n g , -. on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s t h e dancer o f t h e h e n t t r a n s f e r b e c o n i n g t o o a r e a t , T h i s i a n o t , j u s t pwb-ab.1.e. I f my f o r m u l a were anpi i e d t o

t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r , q u i t e p o s s i b l e f i p r e a worild be o b t a i n e d , b u t , a e

I a l r e a d y s a i d , t h i s formula i s e x t r e m e l y i n a c c u r a t e and u n c e r t a i n ,
and t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r c o u l d e a s i l y be 100 t i m e s as g r e a t . I n t h i s c a s e , a i r f o i l l a n d i n g would be i m p o s s i b l e . Even if we nucceeded i n c o n d u c t i n g away s o much h e a t by means of c o o l i n g w a t e r (even t h a t
i~ n o t c e r t a i n ) t h a t t h e LEIDENFROST s t a t e d i d n o t a r i s e n o r t h e

p l a t i n 2 burn t h r o u g h o r , w i t h hydrocen c o o l i n g , develop t e a r s and b r e a k s b e c a u s e of s t r o n g , uneven herttinp, we would r e q u i r e more coolingi. w a t e r by mnsq than t h e q u a n t i t y of f u e l needed t o d e c e l e r f l t e t h e c o m i c v e l o c i t y by refirward t h r u ~ t . HOAIIIANNtS i d e a o f n o t l e t t i n g t h e vapor of t h e c o o l i n g w a t e r f l o w o u t a t a l l I mufit r e j e c t completely. IiOHliLANN

h he

Reachibility

of t h e H e ~ v p n l y~ o d i e s )s u g ~ e s t s ,a f t e r t h e cool i n & w a t e r h a s a b s o r b e d t h e h e a t , simply c o n d u c t i n g it t o c o o l e r a r e a s o f t h e s n a c e c s h i p , where i t g i v e s o f f i t s h e a t "by conduction and r a d i a t i o n " , A g a i n s t t h a t I remark ; R y Pconduction" n o h e a t whatever can h e r e b e given o f f , o n l y absorbed. The c o o l i n g r i b s which HOHfiUNN su_rrpests a r e a l s o of no u s e h e r e , and, as f s r as r a d i a t i o n i s concerned, t h e t e m p e r ~ t u r eof t h e r a d i a t i n g body would have t o r i s e s o h i g h as t o b e a b l e t o g i v e o f f t h e absorbed h e a t by r a d i a t i o n , and n o b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l can s t a n d such t e m p e r a t u r e s . Moreover, HOWiAlW a p p e a r s t o h o l d t h e view t h a t i f o n l y t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s s t o o d s u f f i c i e n t l y f l a t , t h e h e n t t r a n s f e r r e d t o them would be s u f f i c i e n t l y small i n q n a n t i t y . I n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h a t (in
t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , compare formu1a.s (185 f f ) ) I b e l i e v e t h a t , even w i t h

a s u r f a c e s t a n d i n g wholly i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i ~ h t ,t h e r a t i o o f s t r u c k p e r p e n d i c u l n r l y must t h e h e n t t r a n s f e r t o t h a t of a s u r f ~ c e

a t l e s s t eqiinl t h e r a t i o between t h e speed of sound and t h e speed

of t r a v e l ; and t h a t can s t i l l be a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e f i g i r e . Nor i s

t h e r e n a r k made by someone e l s e a r r e a t comfort t h a t t h e space-ship l o s e s i t s v e l o c i t y o n l y slowly, whereas t h e meteor l o s e s it i n 1 0 seconds. I f t h e meteor l o s e s i t s v e l o c i t y i n 2 seconds, i t h e a t s n p t o 30,000. I f , by c o - t r a s t , t h e space-ship only comes t o a s t o n iv

1OOO seconds, t h e e n e r g a b s o r p t i o n w i l l p e r h a p s be 600 t i m e s l e s s . A s i s seen, I have allowed f o r q u i t e a l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e , b u t a c t u a l l y t h e meteor i s o n l y stopped i n 5-6 seconds and t h e space-ship o ,r even t h a t i s p e r h a p s i n a few 100 seconds. I say " p e r h a n ~ ~f~ n o t certain. I helieve, a t t h e berinnina, the heat t r a n s f e r will i n n o way be e s s e n t i a l l y s m a l l e r . S i n c e t h e r a d i a t i o n i n c r e ~ s e sa s t h e 4 t h power of t h e t e ~ f i p e r a t u r e , r e must d e v i d e 30,000 by then
we g e t 6000, which i s more t h a n s u f f i c i e n t t o d e s t r o y t h e space-

w;

ahip. Even i f t h e c i r c ~ ~ m s t a n c is e taken i v t o a c c o u n t t h a t t h e s?acea h i p f l i e s t h r e e t i m e s a ~ slow, whereby t h e a p p a r e n t h e a t of t h e a i r d r o p s t o 1/9, by only t h e n t h e f i g u r e o f 6000 would have t o be d i v i d e d

F=

F a n d t h e r e a u l t would a i i l l be 3500.

O n t h e o t h e r hand, HOH!ilAFFTfS suypeotinn t o a t t a c h a p a r a c h u t e t o t h e t a i l o f a space-nhip provided with l i f t i n g surface^ a n p e a r s t o me t o have v e r y rood p r o s p e c t n , There t h e p e r i f e e of t h e cosmic t r a j e c t o r y need n o t l i e s o low, t h e p a r a c h u t e a l r e a d y b r a k e s s u f f i ciently a t
8

h i g h e r a l t 3 t u d e , and t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e s o n l y h e a t u p

l i t t l e b e m u s e of t h e t h i n a i r . I b e l j e v e , i n t h i s way. it w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r w i t h a space-ship t o 1/100 of t h e amount i t would be i f t h e space-ship f l e w w i t h o u t a p a r a c l i l ~ t e . For t h e p u y o s e , t h e p a r a c h u t e would e x p e r i e n c e a i r r e s i s t a n c e r e l a t i v e l y 100 t i m e s as c r e a t a s a space-ship b n i l t i n t h e f o r n of a s t r e a m l i n e d body, and t h a t i s n o t d i f f i c r l l t t o achieve.

Up t o t h e c i r c v l a r v e l o c i t y , it i s mainly t h e p a r a c h u t e t h a t
b r a k e s h e r e ; below t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y , t h e 1i f t i n g s l i r f a c e s a l s o

c o u l d b e u s e d t o keep t h e s p a c e - s h i p a l o f t l o n ~ e r .N e ~ r t o cjrcalar v e l o c i t y , t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e s t r h i n on t,hel, f o r t h e r e t h e cpaces h i p tippenrs t o h a w n o weight. Be1 ow c i r c u l a r vel o c i t y , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s t r a i t : i n c r s r t c o n hilt now t h e h e a t t r ~ n s f e rd e c r e a ~ e s r a ~ i dy. j HOWSANN s u g s e s i , s compl e t e i y s a c r i f i c i n g t h e p a r a c h u t e a t

l a s t and l a n d i n p i n y l i d i n r r f l i y h t .
For n-e w o ~ l d l have
no 1 ;

i is

~ u g g e ~ ~ t iio s nt o c o o l i t

$0

l i t t l e t5at it f i n ~ l l y bnnis 7.y by i t s e l f . T h e r e T c a q n o t s R r P n ,

f

ttl

e c o n t r o l over t h e

ti

IF:

when t h l t t woald

happen. T wovld p r e f e r c o o l i n g t h e y - . r - ) c h u t e p r o p e r l y and sornehnw u n c o - l p l i n p it a t t h e ,giver# monent, b u t t h i s i s n a t u r a l l y o n l y a aeaondary q ~ l e s t i o n . ) A f t e r what was s a i d h e r e , I can a l s o - l o t a z r e e t o

HOIIIWPJfS s n p g e s t i o n t o u s e a convex form of braIciny d i s c s .

Fig. 98
Very l i k e l y , t h i s t thin: ~ ofe l a n d i n g would b e p o s s i b l e an& would

combine t h e main a d v a n t a g e s of p a r a c h n t e and a i r f o i l l a n d i n g . Some-

similar c o u l d a1 s o b e done w i t h my model E. Namely, tb-e

o b s e r v e r t R n o d u l e c o u l d b e p r o v i d e d w i t h 1 i f t i n g s d r f a c e s and f a s t e n e d s o t h a t i t f i n a l l y s e p a r ~ t e sfrom t h e r o c k e t and c o n t i n l i e s i n g l i d i n g f l i ~ h by t i t s e l f , while t h e r o c k e t l a n d s with t h e parachute.

Fig. 98 r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y of combjning t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f

b o t h t y p e s o f lending. The r e a r body of t h e r o c k e t i s r e l a t i v e l y

long, t h e l i f t i n g linlrfaces a , b end t h e t a i l f i n s c , c a r e double. The h a l v e s a r e connected t o each o t h e r on one edge by an a i r - t i g h t rubber band. Upon e n t r y i n t o t h e atmosphere, the oval parachute, which h e r e may be r e l a t i v e l y emall, hangs on t h e t i p , s o t h a t t h e n o x z l e descends f i r s t . The l i f t i n g and t a i l s u r f a c e s a r e olapped a p a r t exposing hollow s u r f a c e s t o t h e a i r a t r e m . As Boon a s t h e v e l o c i t y s i n k s t o below 7000 m/sec, t h e parachute is s a c r i f i c e d ,
. Then t h e t a i l f i n e c , c are f o l d e d t o g e t h e r , and b i s placed on a

t.he space-ship t i p a over i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e arrow and oontinues f l y i n g t i p f orward 1i k e a gl i d e r . S o much f o r .the l a n d i n g of manned apparatus. With unmanned machinee, n a t u r a l l y only p a r a c h u t e l a n d i n g comes i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . te o w r i t e a l o t about t h a t . The Actually, I c o n s i d e r it p r e n a t ~ ~ r b e a t would b e t o do r e s e a r c h on t h e c o n d i t i o n s of hecst t r a n s f e r with meteorologj c a l r o c k e t s and r o c k e t a i r c r a f t . Having obtained t h e r e e p e c t i v e f i g n r n r , t h e r e i s alwaye time t o r e f l e c t on how b e ~ t o manaRe l a n d i n g with manned rocketa. I actrral l y wrote t h i s c h a p t e r only t o show t h e s t a t e of our knowledge i n t h i s a r e a and t o prove t h a t d e c e l e r a t i o n by mean8 of %Ire atmosphere i s p o s s i b l e under a l l circumetancee.

PART

111.

Questiona of-Construction ---------Chapter 15 The Model B Alcohol Rocket 1) ( ~ f .P l n t e s I and 11) Index of t h e most i m p o r t a n t f o m v l a q u a n t i t i e s and abbreviat i o n s used i n Chapters 15

- 17.

A : t o t a l volume of pas flowing o u t d u r i n g one second A.R.

: alcohol rocket

b : actual accelerstion

bo : b i n t h e f i r s t second of p r o p u l s i o n

4
8 ,

I have used t h i s l e t t e r t o d e s i g n a t e both a i r p r e s s u r e

and a i r d e n s i t y . Confusing them i s impossible.

I

a i r p r e ~ s u r ei n kg/mP a t beginnine. of propulsion of a1 coho1 r o c k e t

b r r weight of f u e l

P1 : a i r
yr
iT

p r e s s u r e a t beg inn in^ of counter-pressure of hydroaen

rocket b a l l i s t i c resistance coeffici cnt

d : diameter of o u t l e t ; d a s index, e.g.

Fd, rd, cd : whatever

- . - --.--- ---

. *-

I brought Chapter 15 - 17 i n n o w a l p r i n t s i r c e they a r e n o t e x a c t l y d i f f i c v l t t o understand. Tlze layman, however, c m s k i p them w i t h o u t l o s s i f they should become t o o t e d i o u s f o r him.

is related to the outlet

e : b a s e of nntliral l o g a r i t h m s
F r l a r g e s t c r o s s - s e c t i o n of r o c k e t
Fd : width of o v t l e t F ,
: neck of n o z z l e

G : weight of r o c k e t a s f o r c e

g : a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y a t a l t i t u d e h o r s
go : a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y a t e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e

H . R .

: h y d r o ~ e nr o c k e t

spec. - he at ----.-. at xrspec, heat a t

constant pressure o o n ~ t a n tvolume

--------

L r f o r c e of t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e L'

r f o r c e of a i r r e s i s t a n c e when v e l o c i t v i s l e s s than G

I n r n a t u r a l logarithm
1og r common 1o ~ a r i t h m
in a mass of r o c k e t i n g e n e r a l

mo t mass o f f i l l e d r o c k e t i n g e n e r a l
mi
8

mass of empty roclcet i n g e n e r a l

m : a s index, e . ~ . Fm, pm, om, dm, r e f e r r i n g t o neck of n o z z l e

J J & mass of alcohol r o c k e t
732.1

mass of hydrogen r o c k e t To, po, do, r e f e r r i n y t o oven

0 r oven; o a s index, e.R.

t o t a l r e q n i s i t e rearward t h r u s t

p r pressure po : p r e f f s u r e i n oven pd : p r e s s u r e st o u t l e t

q z i n d i e a t e n how m a n y times one k i n d of f u e l i s h e a v i e r

than t h e other

Q : t o t a l f o r c e impeding t h e a s c e n t
r : earthge radius a : a l t i t u d e t o which a c e r t a i n r o c k e t would have t o ascend f o r a r e q u i r e d v e l o c i t y t o becone t h e most advantageous velocity

T : tenperrrture; i f n o t h i n g e l s e i s e x p r e s s l y noted, T i s
always r e l a t e d t o a b s o l u t e z e r o

Td : a b s o l u t e o v t l e t temperature
To r a b s o l u t e oven temperature

t
v vX
*

time velocity i n general ideal velocj t y

1 1

v, v1

v : most advantageol~sv e l o c i t y f o r a and d s

t
i

v a t beginning of p r o p u l s i o n

v a t end of p r o p u l s i o n

Vo : s p e i i i f i c volume of g a s i n oven

P r e l b i n a r y Remarks
I a h a l l b r i e f l y r e p e a t t h e main requirements w i t h r e s p e c t t o

model B which we a r r i v e d a t o ~ t h e b a s i 8 of our formvlas. a ) ae h i g h a h a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t a s p o s s i b l e

b) h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e a1 t i t u d e from which t o ascend

c ) a s t h i n w a l l s a s p o a e i b l e ; ea few metal p a r t s as p o s s i b l e ;

h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e v a l u e of

= o ' 5 n o t too high

i n s i d e pressure,

e s p e c i a l l y n o t i n t h e l i q u i d tanks; avoidance of jerky acceleration d) combination of a number of r o c k e t s e ) h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e o u t f l o r v e l o c i t y ; h i g h e s t pose5 b l e tempera t u r e i n t h e combustion chamber; u s e of s p e a i f i c a l l y l i g h t p r o p u l s i o n napes; l o r v a l u e f o r a s constant a s possible

3 , which
Po

should b e k e p t

f ) small a p p a r a t u s mvat ascend v e r t i c n l l y

e)

t h e v e l o c i t y must he r e p l a U C b l e ; t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y m * i s t be o b ~ e r v e da s a c c u r a t e l y a s p o s s i b l e

These requirements l a r g e l y stfind i n o p p o s i t i o n t o each o t h e r . The t a s k of c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t o f i n d t h e o p t i n ~ i nbetween a l l of them. I n Chapter 8, we d e r i v e d t h e theory of model B e It i s v a l i d f o r t h e case i n which 1) c i s c o n s t a n t s $) t h e r o c k e t f l i e s with t h e v e l o c i t y a t which t 3 e a i r r e s i s t a n c e become^ equal t o t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y and t h e r e s i s t ~ n c ec o e f f i c i e n t i s c o n ~ t a n t ;8 ) t h e r o c k e t ascends v e r t i o a l l p ; 4 ) 1 i q u i d f u e l s a r e used; and 5) t h e r o c k e t g e t s

i t s firmness mainly through r i g i d f i l l i n g . W e were a b l e t o make

t h e s e r e s t r i c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s s i n c e t h e s e requirements a r e a l l met with model B.
I n o r d e r t o show t h a t r e a c h i n c i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space hy r o c k e t i s

p o s s i b l e , it w i l l be expedient t o d e s c r i b e such nn a p p a r a t ~ l s . As 1 elrid a t t h e hecinnina, I w i l l n o t go i n t o detczil. I n mg drawings I have only i n d i c a t e d t h e most e s s e n t i a l . I simply drew one lonpi t t r d i n a l s e c t i o n throvgh both r o c k e t s seen from t h e c u t s u r f a c e and two c r o s s - s e c t i o n s . The h o r i a o n t a l dash-dotted
('--*-*-*--me."

) lines

between 1o n g i t u d i n a l and c r o s s - s e c t i o n marked by Greek 1e t t e r a i n d i c a t e where t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n l i e s . What b e l o n g s t o t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t i n r e d ink. The p u r p o s e of model B i s f o r r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e height, campoeiit i o n , and t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere, f o r l e a r n i n g t o Iolow t h e curve f o r rocket). As a l r e a d y mentioned, t h e a c t u a l a p p a r a t u s c o n s i s t s of t h e a l c o h o l

(A.R.) I have d r a m i n b l a c k i n k , rrfiat b e l o n g s t o t h e hydrogen r o c k e t ( H . R . )

more a c c u r a t e l y , and f o r c o n f i r m i n g and improving

o u r c a l c u l a t i o n s a b o u t o, T, p, e t c . ( e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e hydrogen

m t h i c k , and r o c k e t and t h e hydrogen r o c k e t . I t i s 5 m l o n g , 55.6 c

weighs 544 kc. Of t h a t , 6.9 kg f a l l t o t h e hydrogen r o c k e t . I n addit i o n , t h e r e i s an a u x i l i a r y r o c k e t ( c f . p. 337). R e l a t i v e t o t h e q u e s t i o n of m a t e r i a l , I have s a i d what i s n e c e s s a r y on p. 16 f f . I n t h i s s e c t i o n , I based t h e s t r e s s c a l c u l a t i o n s on m a t e r i l l of which a w i r e 1 mm2 i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n can b e weighted w i t h 6.7 dcu3 of t h e same substance. (Expressed w i t h u a e of t h e c o n c e p t of s p e c i f i c t e a r i n g s t r e n ~ t h ,t h a t would mean : t h e m a t e r i a l may b e s u b j e c t e d t o t h e same s t r e s s 8s a 6700-m-long
i t s own weight.)

w i r e of u n i f o r m

c r o s s - s e c t i o n h a n g i n g v e r t i c a l l y i s s t r a i n e d a t t h e u p p e r end by
A s I a l r e a d y e x p l a i n e d , a t such low t e n i p e r a t i ~ r e s ,

i r o n and # t e e 1 c o u l d be x n b j e c t e d t o up t o f i v e t i m e s t h e # t r a i n ; from t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o ollr e i p l a n a t i o n s i n C h a p t e r 7, would f o l l o w

a mass r a t i o f i v e t i m e s as rood. With t h e b r i t t l e n e s s of i r o n a t low

t e m p e r a t u r e s , however, i t s u t i l i t y i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . I n t h i s s e c t i o n , I wanted t o p r o v e t h a t flying t o i n t e r p l a n e t ~ r ys p a c e by r o c k e t i s f e a s i b l e ~ < ~ ~ - ~ l ~ ~ c ~ i r ~ , uT~ ha nt , iss~w th y ~ ~ I e ba _s q e d. m y c a l c u l a t i o n s of copper and l e a d . on s o f t b u t t o u f h a l l o ~ s

I n o r d e r t o show t h a t my r o c k e t can b e b u i l t u n d e r a l l circums t a n c e s , I am c h o o s i n y a m i x t u r e as p r o p e l l a n t which o n l y p r o d u c e s a t e m p e r a t u r e of 1400 t o 1500 C t o 17GG0 a b s o l u t e , whereas we can a c t u a l l y g o t o a l m o s t 4000b ( c f .

p. 40 f f ) .

I am h e r e d e s c r i b j n r a more complicated a p p a r a t u s t h a n would

a c t u a l l y h a v e t o be b u i l t . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , I w a n t t o show what k i n d of machine p a r t s a r e p o s s i b l e i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e i r mode of o p e r a t i o n , t h e i r F u r p o s e and nee. L a t e r I w i l l show by how f a r t h e s e a ~ p a r a t u scan b e s i m p l i f i e d . Secondly, I d e s c r i b e d t h e comp l i c a t e d model R and n o t model C (which, a s t h e r e a d e r may a l r e a d y
I s c o n s i d e r ~ b l ymimpler and more n n e f u l ) , f o r that have n o t i c e d , .

does n o t

C O ~ C ~ P qarded

i n t e l I ect,uitl prnper-tv.

do ?at, x3sb t o

c?j~vlpe t h e e x a c t p l a n s of model C. c e ~ e r e . 1 , my a i m i r t h i s hook was

A F ~ y

I n

tn

show t h a t

h:ov something

about t h e matter

e t no+ t o sny mlch as t o become r l i s p ~ r s i b l e

thereby. I p r e d i c t e d t h a t , soon a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s book, special i ~ t s and non-special i s t s would come ~ n d iwaediately a f f ia a l l ~orts of jmprovement~s. Tf I had s a i d e v e r y t h i n 2 T know, t h e end of t h e m a t t e r w o ~ ~ lhave d been t h a t t h e y woilld h a v e s a i d t h e 7 had b e t t e r m a s t e r e d t h e m a t e r i a l and hence t h e y shonld b e cons-11t e d . For t h i s renso7, T i n t e n t i o n n l l v l e f t t h e p l a n s s o t h a t my machine c a n c o t w e l l be b n i l t ~ c c o r d i n f rt o them. (~ence I ask t h a t

I n o t b e judged by m;y constrl:ction

drawings. P e r h a p s t h e nnemhar-

r a s s e d r e a d e r w i l l b e l i e v e m e i f I s a y t h a t t h e person who was a b l e t o t e c h n i c a l l y t h i n k through a l l t h e s e t h i n g s can, i f n e c e s s a r y , a l s o rnaIse d r a w i n a s a a c o r d i n g t o r e g u l a t i o n . ) I n t h i s e d i t i o n , 1 only aaid a b o u t a t h i r d of what J could h a v e s a i d , d e s c r i b e d u n n e c e s s a r i l y complicated and l i t t l e s u i t a b l e a p p a r a t u s , e t c .

SOWw e l l a d v i s e d t h e q e t a c t i c s were c m h e r e c o g n i z e d i f my model C ,

Fit.

17 (which c a n n o t b e b u i l t e x a c t l y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p l a n s

piven h e r e f o r r e n s o n s , a t p r e s e n t , o n l y known t o me) i s compared

. H . with R

I , Vol, I T , o r my assembled j e t p r o p u l s i o n a e r o p l a n e ,

P l a t e 111, w i t h R.II,

T , Vol. I T , and VALI'GII'S space-ship,

B, Vole 11.

F i g s . 116

t o 180, o r , f o r a u g h t J c a r e , t h e s i m p l e r o c k e t a i r c r a f t , F i g s . 1 2 1 t o 183, d e s i p n e d by myself w i t h R.H.

Xepeci a l l y HOEFFT i m n e d i a t e l y f o r c e d h i m s e l f upon me as e x c e c u t i n g practitioner.

Tn a l l t h e newspapers w i t h which h e i s a s s o c i a t e d ( a n d

t h a t i s q u i t e a n~unber, f o r h e i s t e c h n i c a l r e p o r t e r ) i t can b e s e e n t h a t h e h a s "improved" my s k e t c h e s p r e t t y w e l l i n e v e r y p o i n t . s o doing, h e l a c k a one t h i n g

1

- In

1 0 y e a r s of thorough p e n e t r a t i o n

( s u p p o r t e d by t h e n e c e s s a r y g i f t of combining) o f t h i s m a t e r i a l , t o d a y s p r e a d o v e r a l l t h e d i s c i p l i n e s of t e c h n o l o n . Tn t h e fundam e n t a l s , h e h a s s t i l l k e p t s l a v i s h l y t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n I gave him. With R,H.

I, f o r example, t h e improvemnnt i n c o n t r a s t t o q y model B

c o n s i s t s of t h e f a c t t h a t h e h n s h i s a p p a r a t u s b o r n e a l o f t n o t by

t2 a i r - s h i p s b u t by a s i n g l e meteorolo_rrical b a l l o o n . -. C e r t a i n l y a
c o l o s ~ a limprovement; only i t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t uy model C, i n v e n t e d

in 1912, allows t h e v e r y same performance u s i n g t h e s a n e f u e l and h a v i n g t h e same mass b u t a s c e n d i n g from t h e ground! R e s i d e s , i t i e c o n s i d e r a b l y s i m p l e r and c h e a p e r t h a n R . 1 1 . I. Concerning t h e o t h e r examples, I w i l l s a y what is n e a e s s a r y l a t e r . I c o u l d g i v e many more snch examples, I would only b e i n danger of s a y i n g t o o m d h . 1 hope
t h a t what I have s a i d h e r e , t o g e t h e r w i t h what I s t i l l have t o

n not r e p o r t a b o u t VALIlZi and HOEFFT, w i l l s u f f i c e t o show t h a t I a

e n t i r e l y d i s p e n s i b l e even y e t .

e.
General
1

The Alaohol Roaket

so

7700 m ( t h e a p p a r a t u s i s 1i f t e d t o 5500 m by means

of a i r b a l l o o n s ( c f . Fig, 110); t h e a u x i l i a r y r o c k e t r e q u i r e s U200 rn

t o a t t a i n t h e v e l o c i t y vo)

-a

F u e l s t 341.5 kg of w a t e r w i t h 45.8 ky: of a l c o h o l mixed i n ;

1,G7 kg of r e c t i f i e d a l c o h o l ; 9P.R kg of l i q u i d orgcen o r t h e correspondins q u m t i t y of l i q u i d a i r c o n t a i n i n g n i t r o g e n . I n t h i s c a s e , l e s s w a t e r i s needed. As r e g a r d 8 t h e i g n i t a b i l i t ? ~o f t h i s m i x t u r e , it m v - s t b e c o n s i d e r e d + * h a t it i s supposed t o burn under a p r e s s n r e o f 1 6 t o 1 0 a t m o s p h e r e s . F o r t h a t m a t t e r , upon i g n i t i o n ( c f . p.

383) p u r e a l c o h o l vapor i s added t o t h e oxygen,

Yozele r a t i o s r

E x h a u s t v e l o c i t y : A c o r d i n e t o C h a p t e r 5 ( I ) , we would find i t t o b e s o m e h a t more t h a n 1800 m/sec. Recause o f i m p e r f e c t i n n s i n e x e c u t i o n , a i s l i k e l y r e d u c e d t o somewhat above 1500 n/sec.
i n realit:

In order

t o f i n d a l o w e r l i m i t . of p e r f o r m a v c e , I o n l y s e t c equal t o 140C m/sec; c , and w i t h it t h e p e r f o m n n c e ,

i s decir:edlp m r e a t e r .
tank haa

1 , a r g e s t d i a m e t e r of roc?:et r 55.6 cm. The a l c o h o l - w a t e r t h e h y d r o ~ e n r o c k e t , The p r e s s u r e i n t h e o m p e n t r n k i s po t h e l i q u i d varor27inp.

an e x c e s r p r e - s u r e of 3 a t m ; l i k e w i s e t h e npnce i n it s e t a s i d e f o r

1 . 7

ah.

With t h e removal o f l i q u i d , t h e p r e s s u r e i s m a i n t a i n e d by p n r t o f

Weight o f p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s 16.2 kr, w e i g h t of f i n s 4 kg, w e i g h t of oxygen t a n k 1 0 kg, w e i g h t of pumps 8 A l l o t h e r p a r t s t o g e t h e r weigh 4 kg.

It?,

weight of t i p ,

e t c . 6 kz, t h i c k n e s s of w a l l approx. 0.4 ma, w e i g h t of a t o m i 7 e r 3 kg.

lye w i l l eqwate t > h i s r a t i o t o 9. B a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t of f i l l e d r o c k e t : 0.225 kg/cm2.

B a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t a t t h e end : 0.0232 kc/cm

The l e q g t h o f t h e burn i s 8 6 . t o 40 secovds; d u r i n p t h e f i r s t 15 t o 20 seconds, v i a observed e x a c t l y , l a t e r t h e a p p a r a t u s f a l l s behind t h i s v a l u e , s o t h a t p o & % ~ a t m remains t r u e . From t h a t ( f o r c =

1400 n / s e c ) ,

it f o l l o w s t h a t P/BI, = 34 m/sec.

I n one second, t h e f o l -

lowing m a w s i s e j e c t e d t

Combustion o c c u r s a s f o l l o w s ( c f . P l a t e T I )

r Jn s p a c e A, t h e

p i p e s C, 2.5 cm wide a t t h e hottom and 3.6 cm wide a t t h e t o p , do n o t r e a c h q u i t e t o t h e cover. Betwean t h e q e p i p e s t h e r e i s r e c t i f i e d a l c o h o l which is made t o b o i l by h a v i n g a pump, i n d i c s t e d by m n, network of p i p e s , pvmp h o t ?as c 0 n t t t i n i . n ~oxygen i n t o a s n i t ~ b l e which r i s e s i n t h e a l c o h o l i n f i - > e buhbles. The a l c o h o l vapor e s c a p e s t h r o u ~ ht h e p i p e s C. I n t o t h e s e , cone-sha-ed p i p e s D p r o j e c t fro.1 t h e o q p e n chamher, whose w a l l i s p e y . f o r ~ t e d , a s T s t a t e d on p.

8.

The p T e q m u r e i n A i s somewhat o v e r po a t m ; i n t h e oKpgen c h ( ~ z t e ri t

i s po

i1.5

afm, s o t h a t t h e oxygen s q u i r t s orit i n f i n e j e t s o r

drops1).

The e n d s of t h e a c p i p e s h a v e an i g n i t i o n mechanism G t o ~ e t

t h e m i x t u r e on f i r e . S i n c e mnoh more oxygen f l o w s o u t than is needed f o r c o m b ~ ~ s t i o n we , o b t a i n a p.as t h a t c o n t a i n s 95

P&

oxygen and, which

a t 30 a h . ,

i s a b o u t 700 h o t . The p i p e s C c o n t i n u e i n s p a c e B (E).

Here t h e y are s u r r o v n d e d ' on t h e o u t s i d e by t h e a l c o h o l - w a t e r ,

i s f o r c e d i n i n t h i n spray through narrow pores.

Desc~.ip~ ion of ---

-----"*

t h e Alcohol --. R o c k e t ( c f . P l a t e I ) t The t i p a f o r m s

a s p e c i a l p a r t of t h e apparatus.
( t h e dynamometers b, b ' ) .

I t i s t u r n e d u p s i d e down l i k e a

h a t o v e r t h e two r o c k e t s and i s h e l d i n p l a c e by e l a s t i c s p r i v g s

I t c o n s i s t s o f t,wo o r n o r e p a r t s whose form

99).

r e s e m b l e s t h e peel i n g o f a d i s e c t e d o r a n g e o r t h e p a t c h e s o f which

a l e a t h e r b a l l i s sewn t o g e t h e r ( c f . Fig.

They a r e g l u e d t o g e t h e r

by means o f c o l l o d i o n . \'hen t h e f i l e l s o f t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t a r e e ~ h a u s t c d , t h e c o l l o d i o n i s i g n i t e d (how n e e d n o t i n t e r e s t u s h e r e ) by t h e same s p a r k t h a t i g n i t e s t h e hydrogen r o c k e t ; t h e r e u p o n , t h e t i p f a l l s a p a r t ( b e t t e r t o say, t h e g a s e s which s u r r o u n d t h e hgdropen r o c k e t f o r c e i t a p a r t ; t h e y c o u l d a l s o f o r c e open a p a r a c h v t e p l a c e d h e r e ) and t h e ' h y d r o r e n r o c k e t i s r e 1 e a s e d ( c f . Fig. 100).

iT

. T h i s c o n t r a d i c t a *at i s s a i d on p. 346. The f u e l p o r e s n l ~ o ~ v l d l i e e x a c t l y i n t h e l e e s h e l t e r o f t h e oxygc-, p o r e s . T h i s i d e a was n o t y e t p a t e n t e d when I d e s c r i b e d model B f o r t h e f i r s t time.

. ---

----

F i a . 99

Fig.

100

On t h e i n s i d e , t h e s e t i n s h e l l s h a v e a i r - f i l l e d c a v j t i e s ( c )
which a r e t o k e e p t h e t i p from s i n k i n g jn c a s e i t f a l l 8 i n t o t h e w a t e r . S i n c e , a t I000 t o 3000 m/sec, t h e a i r i n f r o n t of t h e t i p a l r e a d y h e a t s u p s t r o x i y l y , some s i m p l e cool i n p d e v i c e (say a wind w h e e l ) must b e p l a c e d il s p a c e c ( n o t shown). I t s work i s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n s i d e o f t h e a i r c a v i t i e s comes i n con t a c t w i t h ,just-va!,orlxed hydroyen which a s c e n d s a1 onr. t h e hpdronen r o c k e t from j t s n o z z l e , h e r e bends a r o u n d t h e t h i n w a l l

and e s c a p e s i n t o t h e open t h r o v l ~ ha t y p e o f s a f e t y v a l v e a t K.
The s p a c e p r o v i d e d f o r t h e hydroyen r o c k e t i s 30 cm i n d i a m e t e r ,

whereas t h e hydrogen r o c k e t i s o n l y 2 5 cm i n d i a m e t e r ;

RO

a 2.5-cm-

wide s p a c e remain^ a l l around, which i s f i l l e d w i t h hydrogen g a s

and is once more d i v i d e d by d. The a i r s p a c e wotild e x a c t l z f i t

t h e t i p o f t h e hpdroeen r o c k e t , i f t h e l a t . t e r d i d n o t 1 i e 1 cm
1 over.

( f ) are crlshions made o f e s r i e c i a l l y s u p p l e m a t e r i a l ( s a p

s o l i d i f i e d n a t u r a l g a s , which, s h o r t 1 y b e f o r e s o l i d i f y i n g , was drawn o u t t o t h r e a d s o r b e a t e v foamy by means of a p a r a f f i n r o d i n a hydrogen e n v j ronment). Between t h e c i l s h i o n s space n i l s t n a t u r a l Xy remain f o r t h e e s c a p i n g hydrogen vapor. e i s t h e t a n k f o r t h e a l c o h o l w a t e r . I n i t +!:ere

i s a f l o a t ?, t h e p u r p o s e

of

which we w i l l d i s c u s s

l a t o r . The ~ r e n s l - r e i v e i s 3 atm and i s m a i n t a i n e d by t h e pumps m n pumping h o t g a s i n t o t h e d o u b l e bottom h ; t h e g a s r i s e s from h e r e thrortgh nllmerolls small onen incrs. The pre9sur-e
i .s

re9:l n t e d a 1 1t o n a t i c -

a l l y . If it. qholild e e t t o o h i p h , a ~ a f e t yvalve a l l o w s g a s t o f l o w o f f t h r o u g h K. Through v a l v e s -y and ~ i p e c o, t h e a l c o h o l - w a t e r p l and p s , b o t h mixture flows a l t e r n a t e l y i n t o c h a ~ h e r s p i p e k, ivhirh i s r o n n e r t ~ r l t o the a t o m i z e r Z.
of

which

h a v e a second out1 e t t,o K on t o p nnd a t h i r d one a t t h e bottom t o

Theqe chnnhers J ikepumps. The v a l v o s open

i h a~ ve a e dou?.le f l o o r

i:

thro?~p;h whose !,ore.g l i r r o w i ~ er r a R cornjny: pe act

8s

from m n ri-0s. Theye chambers pi,

and c l o q e i n n way always t o c a u s e one c h a ~ b e rt o be r e y l e n i s h e d

from e-9 slco!:ol-water

t h e o t h e r , u n d e r a p r e s s u r e of 80 t o 23 atsn., pumps t,he t o t h e c t t o m i ~ e r . ( v a t u r a l l y , b e f o r e 1i f t o f f , b o t h

a r e f u f l i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e f v e l c o n t e n t of t h e a p p a r a t u s . ) S i n c e t h e p r e q s u r e i n p l , p* ~~~~~~~atea conai d e r a h l g and t h e l o w e s t pressure

i.9

no looser s u f f i c l e n t t o give the apparatus its r i g i d i t y ,

yeqt

and a l s o b e c a u s e o f t h e i r fonn, t h e s e chambers nvist b e r i g i d ; i n

co-tract t o the of t.he ~ o c k e t , t h e y mnst b e made r i g i d by means
i s 1

of m e t a l s n p p o r t s . The oxyren s t r e n m s i s u n d e r a pressusure of 18 t o

21 atm. The p r e s s v j r e i n room A

a t ? . lower; n e v e r t h e l e s ~ ,t h e

p a r t i t i o n betwcen t h e two must h e s t r a i r h t and t h i r , hence i t i s a~i:>portcdhy t h e w i r e s q which h a n c from t h e r e i n f o r c e n c n t s o f p. The v p p e r s u r f ~ c e of t h e oxygen room r e s e m b l e s a 1 1 0 1 - i ~ o r ~ e t~ lo lncated e l l i ~ o i d .S i n c e t h e c r o s s - s e c t i on of t h e r o c k e t i s c i r c u l a r , t h e s p a c e p2 e x t e n d s down f a r t h e r ~t two o p p o s i t e p o i n t s , a t which p o i n t 8 t h e v a l v e s og a r e sitivrrted which condlqct t h e d i l 1 , t e a l c o h o l frnw p 2 t o t h e a t o n i c e r . The l i q u i d p l accuimllrttes jn t h e i - i d d l e a t k. The

o q g e n must be k e p t a t a p r e s s u r e of 21 atu. by m ~ ~ o r i z a t i o nI.t v a p o r i z e s , i n t h e f i r ~ rl t ace, h e c a u s e t h e much iiotl,er room A is s i t v a t e d below i t [ c f . P1st.e I T ) . But t11is a1 one would n o t b e s v f f i c i p n t . Secoqdly, h o t p a s mvst b e blown i n , i n t h e wav s t a t e d , by mema of t h e
primps

m n. T h i s h o t g a s c o n t a i n s w a t e r vapor which, on

t h i s o c c a s i o n , forms i c e c t - y s t a l s t h a t f l o a t on t o p o f %he o m g e n ; h e n c e t h e y do n o t a f f e c t t h e p o r e s of t h e a t o m i z e r , b u t i n c r e ~ ~ urle sonewhat,.

- The

o q g e o room a1 s o h a s a f l o a + , i n g d e v i c e g, whose func-

t i o n it i s , above a l l , t,o make t h e f u p l aonsrrmption keep n a c e w i t h t h e oxypen consi~mption. Throlygh c o o r d i n a t i o n of t h e f l o a t s i n tohe a l c o h o l and i n t h e o v g e n room, t h e s n f e t p v a l v e as well as t h e vRpori z a t i o n of t h e oxycen i s b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d by e l e c t r i c a l means. (1t

i s l i k e w i s e s i t n a t , e d at, K . ) i s forced i u t o t h e atomizer.

I f t h e l e v e l of t!,e

oxyven f a l l s t o o

s l o w l y , t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e oxygen room i n c r e a s e s and ao more o v a e n

The wind t a n k W i s connected w i t h t h e d i l u t e a l c o h o l i n t h e atomi z e r by t h e p i p e k. I t s purpoqe i s 1) t o e n s u r e % h o t t h e whole speoe between t h e p i p e s E i s f i l l e d w i t h d i l i l t e a l c o h o l and I) t o m a i n t a i n t h e p r e s s u r e a t a c e r t a i n l d v e l . Both c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d n o t b e a c h j e v e d by p l , pe a l o n e . The p r e s s u r e i n 'Y i s a1 a o m a i n t a i n e d by t h e pumps

m n pumping h o t g a s i n t o it. I n a d d i t i o n , i t h a s a f l o a t g which, bbove a l l , r e g u l a t e s t h e a c t i o n of pump8 pl, p2. W i s s i t u a t e d below

t h e n o z z l e of t h e hydrogen r o c k e t and m ~ x s tt h e r e f o r e b e p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t t r a n s m i s s i o n of h e a t . I?

i s epc-shaped.

A space I remains

between W and p l where, l i k e w i s e p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t h e a t f l u c t u a t i o n , a r e found t h e kretrument~t h a t r e g u l a t e and r e g i s t e r t h e work o f t h e a l c o h o l r a c k e t . Furthermore, t h e r e 4s a s o u r c e of d i r e c t c u r r e n t e l e c t r i c i t y as c o n s t a n t as p o s s i b l e and a small g e n e r a t o r . The pumps rn n o p e r a t e a s f o l l o w s ( c f . Fig. 101) t A small p i s t o n

pump ml pumps a l c o h o l a l t e r n a t f e l y i n t o t h e t,wo t a n k s m2, ma a d s t e a d i l y i n t o t a n k n. The t a n k s ma, ma ( a s ply pp t h e n l c o h o l ) pump o q g e n t o n. P i e c e s of sodium a r e p l a c e on t h e bottom o f m2, When t h e v a l v e s m4, mg and me, m

m3.

resp. a r e opened, oxygen e n t e r s

and r a i s e - s t h e sodivm p l e c e s . As s o o n as t a n k mg o r m

is f u l l , 3 t h e s e v a l v e s a r e c l o s e d nnd a l c o h o l f l o w s o v e r t h e oqypen throngh

mg o r mg. T ~ i . t i o n f o l l o w s by e l e c t r i c o , l means. The c o m b n s t ~ o n js a s s i s t e d by t h e preserrce of s u i t a b l e porotis b o d i e s ( c f . p. 20) 1)

--*..-..*I--..

-.-.---

- I I~I U B ~ take Rome r e n a r k s r e g a r d i n g tlrese pumps. As can be Been, w i t h models A, C, and n, I h a v e a l t o g e t h e r d i ~ p e n s e dw i t h t h e s e dangero~r s and u n r e l i a b l e a n p a r a t u s . I b r o n ~tl ~ them w i t h models B and E hecnuse o t h e r w i s e I would h e r e h a v e had t o d e s c r i b e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t models. Rut t h a t d i d n o t a p p e a r w o r t h w h i l e t o me. These model8 a r e n o t meant t o h e t a k e n v e r y rreriously ( t o e x p r e s s it d r a s t i c a l l y ) . As T have r e p e x e e d l y s a i d , t h e r e b y I would o n l y l i k e t o show t h e p o s s i b l e equipment of a r o c k e t t h a t u s e s l i q u i d f u e l s . F o r t h a t purpose, i t need n o t b e as w e l l conat~r?lctedt h r o u c h o u t as it could i n a s e r i o i ~ scBse.

Fie;.

101

The oven 0 ( i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , a l s o c o a p a r e P l a t e I T ) d o e s n o t b o r d e r d i r e c t l y on t h e j a c k e t s u r f a c e ; r a t h e r , t h e r e is a t h i n w a l l t i n between which i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e j a c k e t by weans of n e t a l b r a c e s ( n o t shown) and i s t h v s h e l d i n t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o i l . L i q r i i d from t h e a t o m i 7 e r f l o w s between t and t h e j a c k e t , v a p o r i z e s h e r e , and eo I n so doing, p r o t e c t s t h e w a l l o f t h e oven a r n i l l s t hilrning. The Trapor e s c a n e s i n t o t h e oven a t L between t h e a t o m i z e r and t+he j a c k e t . vapori7ation,
KRR.

i t r e m a i n s c l o a e t o the w s l l e i n t h e oven, and s o , w i t h s t r o n g

t h e w a l l s themselves fire inst-lnted a q n i n s t t h e h o t TO ? r e v e n t t o o much l i q u j d from v a ~ o r i a i n gand t h e w a l l t froxu

b u r n i n g n p h e p i n n i n g a t t h e t o p , a thermocouple e l elllent i s s i t u a t e d

at. TI which c ~ n q e s more l i q u i d t o f l o w i n when t h e t e n p e r n t u r e h e r e

r i s e s too hiph. The s p a c e between t and t h e j a c k e t is w i d e r a t some p l a c e s . Here t h e l i o r l i d r u n s down; h e r e a l s o i s found a PI o a t which impede8 t h e s u p p l v o f 1 i q u i d when i t r i s e s t o o h j gh, tl*-.cs preven t i n r t h e l i q u i d from o v e r f l o w i n g i n t.he oven.

- The

Rpace between t h e

j a c k e t and t h e s u r f a c e t i s o n c e more d i v j d e d i n t o two p a r t s ,

Q and

R, by a w a l l u whicb r u n s a l i t t l e below Fm. When t h e f u e l s are e x h a u s t e d , f i r s t t h e l i q v i d i n R and t h e n t h a t i n Q i s v a p o r i z e d

by h o t g a s e s from m n . By t h i s a r r a n g e a e n t , ml becomes m~lch snlal l e r t h a n i t would h e i f oven and n o z z l e were I i n e d w i t h f i r e p r o o f m a t e r i a l on t h e i n s i d e , and ( a c c o r d i n g t o C h a ~ t e r7 ) t h a t i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e

advantitqe. T h a t a l s o makes i t n o s s i b l e t o 1 . e t t h e n a s e s c l av.

PARS

alonp

t h e v e t s l , which r e t a r d s then l e s s than s a y aasbestos o r f i r e p r o o f

The n o z z l e of t h e a l c o h o l r o c l r e t i s e i t h e r s i m p l e and round a c i r c l e , as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e s k e t c h , o r it i n d i v i d e d i n t o 7 o r more p a r t s ( c f . F i z .

RS

18) which r i s e from a common oven. With sr:lall

a p p a r a t u s !snch as model B) t h e fo-mer i s p r e f e r a b l e : with 1 a r p e r ones ( c f . P l a t e IV) t h e l a t t e r . The f i n s a r e o n l y i n d i c a t e d i n t h e s k e t c h . A l t o g e t h e r t h e r e are f o u r s y s t e m s o f 2 f i n s each, which a r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d by c r o q s w a l l s . They a r e ~ t t a c h e dt o tl-e p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s . The e n d s can b e r o t a t e d about the axle

x . .

Tn a s c e n t , t h e f i n s a r e f o l d e d down and i n t h i s

way e f f e c t s t a b i l i x a t i n n and c o n t r o l , s i n c e t h e y can b e m a n i p ~ i l a t e d from I . I n d e s c e n t t h e y f o l d hack and this c a r y t h e a p p a r a t l i s ( c f . F ~ E . 102). Tn t h i s wav, t,he p a r a c h u t e i s s u p e r f l u o ~ l s . The f i n s and f i t t i n p s weigh 4 kg.

Fip. l o g After t h e jettisonin?, t h e alcohol-water

tank can b e f i l l e d w i t h

a i r . F i r s t , t h e c o c k s mvst b e o ~ e n e dand a i r a l l o w e d t o p a n s t-hrough t o d r y and clefin t h e tank. When f i l l i n g l a t e r , n e c e s s a r y p r e c a i l t i o n s m u s t b e t a k e n . The o i r m i l s t f i r s a t p a s s throtigh t h e oxyyen room i n a p i p e t o cool it o f f p r o p e r l y . O t h e r w i s e , w i t h h i g h hydrogen c o n t e n t ,

an e x p l o s i o n c o u l d o c c u r b e c a u s e o f the hen* o f compression. I n t h i s

way, it i s p o s ~ i h l et o h a v e t h e r o c k e t ] w i n ? down a i r samples. A mark on t h e r e g i s t e r i n g s t r i p ( c f . p. 271 ) must c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e t i m e of t h e f i l l i n g .

I t m i g h t b e w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g how I e n v i s a g e f i n d i n ~ t h e rocket
p a r t s a f t e r d e s c e n t . The l a u n c h i n g s i t e m u s t b e chosen eo t h a t t h e a u x i l i a r y r o c k e t and t h e a l c o k o l r o c k e t l a n d i n t h e water and t h e hydrogen r o c k e t i n i n h a b i t e d a r e a s . The o u t e r w a l l i s f i t t e d w i t h c i r c u l a r d o o r s whose edges engage t h e o u t e r w a l l , as Fig. Behind them i s a c o n t a i n e r w i t h a b a l l o o n b ( o f . Fig. 103 shows.
104) suspended

by a r o l l e d - u p c o r d a. S i n c e t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e o f t h e c o n t a i n e r

i s 9-10 atm.,

t h e halloon

js

q u i t e compressed; i n t h e open it becomes 105); on

1 0 t i m e s a s l a r g e . The d o o r t u r n s on t h e h i n g e A ( c f . F i g . t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e i t i s s o l d e r e d s h u t from L t o it i s c l o s e d a i r t i g h t . Behind t h e s o l d e r e d j o i n t , i n JC,

L1. F o r t h e r e s t ,
there is

a c i d ; t h e s p a c e K i s d i v i d e d i n t o chambers by means o f c r o s s w a l l s .

The n c i d c o r r o d e s t h e s o l d e r , by which t h e d o o r swings open a f t e r a

few h o u r s , s i n c e t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e i s g r e n t e r ; t h e r e u p o v t h e b a l l o o n s l i p s i n t o t h e open.

Fic.

103

Fic.

104

F i g . 106

From t h e p l a o e of d e s c e n t o f t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , c o n c l t ~ s i o n scan b e d r a m r e g a r d i n g t h e motion of t,he

hither l a y e r s o f t h e otmosnhere,

and from t h a t r e g r t r d i n g d e s c e n t of t h e hydrogen r o c k e t . The f o l l o w i ~ ~ r pe ;:p~lat,in d~ e v i c e s nnd p r e c i s i o n i n s t r r r m e n t s a r e foilnd on t h e ctlcohol r o c k e t r

1) A n - e f f i c i e n t and c o n s t a n t s o v r c e o f d i r e c t c r r r r e n t e l e c t r i c i t;..
2 ) The .oa,trol

mroscope.

3) The a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c n t o r .

4) The f l o a t s which r e q i s t e r t h e l e v e l o f t h e a l c o h o l and t h e

rolense ~ l e c t r i c c u r r e v t s v h i c h , ir p a r t , r e g u l a t e oxygen. They ~ l s o t11e p r o p o r i , i o n o f a l c o h o l and oxygen and, i n p a r t , q r e used f o r es ~cs r i b e d u n d e r P. t h e ~ p ~ a r a t d#
5) P r e e s u r e gauges which r e g i s t e r t h e v a r i o u q j n s i d e p r c , ? s u r e s .

One s ~ s n tl s o b e placed under t h e t i p .

5 ) The i n s i d e Tres,uure which t e n d s t o blow o f f t h e t i p i s n n t i l r a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e o u t q i d e

is r p ~ i s t e r p d . Tf
p,jr

L, So t h e

s p r i r f s b al-e u n d e r ttc.nsion. T h i s t,ensjon n c t i ~ r s t e sc u r r e n t . : and tht- c u r r e n t s o f 5 and 6 a r e - 1 T i t ~ b l : ~ added, t h e y

o f t h e a i r r e s i t a n c e L.

pive

1 1 s

a pictu:-e

7 ) These c u r r e n t s and t h o s e c o r r e q p o n d i n p t o t h e s t r c t e o f t h e
1 ; q i - i d a c t nn e l e c t r o l n a f m e t s which a r e s u i t a b l y ~ t t a c h e dt o t h e

ends o f a b a l a n c e be?m ( n a t u r a l l y , l i k e p o l e s s t n n d o:sposite

each

o t h e r ) . T h i s , hy i t s p o s i t i o n , s t r e n g t h e n 8 o r weakens t h e a c t i o 2 o f t,he pumpn m n and t h e r e b y t h e a c c e l e r ~ t i o r . S i n c e , n e a r t h e eart,R, weirrht i s a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n of t h e s t ~ t e of t h e 1 i q u i d end since

i s bein!? observed i f L = CI ( c f . p. 88 ), t h e r e f o r e t h i s

a p p a r a t u s r e u s e s t h e r o c k e t t o o h c e r v e v.
F ) q e v e r a l t h e v o f v - a v h s ( b e s t o f a l l the?-.-ocouple e l e n e n t s ) a l s o

he1 on? t o t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t ; one of t h e n i s p l n c e d i n f r o n t of t h e

t i p i n o r d e r t o r e p ; i s l , e r t h e h e % t o f compression of t h e a i r .

C h a p t e r 16 The Model B Hydrogen Rocket

1) General

r \pith t h e a l c o h o l r o c b e t , t h e a c c e l e r a f i o n a t l a s t i s some-

what s m a l l e r t h a n would c o r r e y o n d t o

v.

Thus t h e a l t i t u d e a t which

t h e a l c o h o l r o c l r e t a t t a i n s t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y i s somewhat g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a l t i t u d e we would o b t a i n a c c o r d i n u t o c o m 7 1 a ( 4 7 ) .

(I estimate t h e a l t i t u d e at 3

-6

Tim ? = e a t e r . )

A d v a n t a ~ e s: 1) With

t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , p o becomes c o n s t a p t . 8 ) With t h e hydrogen r o c k e t , t h e b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t can b e lower. o f t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , s1 and ( a l l y i s . F o r c = 1400 m/sec,

-sl)

- In

t h e arrentngernent

depend on how p r e a t c a c t u a l -

r e find that

dl =

88.2 ktg/m2. An a l t i t u d e

sl of c a 56.2 bm would c o r r e q p o n d t n t h a t .
p o e q u a l s 9 atm. F'uels : 1.36 kg of hydrogen, 1.94 kc of o?ygen, I7ozzle p r o p o r t . i o n : F = F ( s i n c e pd) d 7.55 cm; d/d, = 9.31. 10.95j d = 25 cm; To = 1700

C.

dm

pl);

i& 1 + 3 R R - Fd/Fm =

3 h a u s t velocity r W e would f i n d c = 4A00 m/eec. c = 3400 m/sec.

F o r t h e same

reR8o.l 8s w i t h t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , I h e r e e s t i v a t e c t o o m a l l :

Vp above, t h e hydrogen i s u n d e r an e x c e s s p r e s s u r e of 0.12 a t m . ( t h e r e w i t h t h e hydrogen r o c k e t would n a t u r a l l y b u c k l e from t h e a i r re~istrmce a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , i f i t were n o t s i t u a t e d i n s i d e t h e

a1 coho1 r o c k e t ) . Whil e t h e hydrogen r o c k e t works, t h e ground p r e s s u r e

o f t h e hydrogen m o u n t s t o 0.11 atm. i n t h e f i r s t second, l a t e r

somewhat l e s s , S o t h e hydroqen t a n k rlust endure excess p r e s s u r e of

0.84 atm. I t s wall could be m ~ d ee x t r m e l y t h i n .

TYeipht o f t h e hydrogen room a n d t h e ti!,
t

33

c.

Oven and atomizer : l e n g t h 1.05 m; i n ~ i d e p r e s s i l r e 3 atm.; weight 0.466 kg.

Instruments
t

1 . 5 kg.

Pump, oxggen r i n ~ ,pad r e i n f o r c e m e n t s : 0 . 5 kg. Bozzle and i t s j a c k e t F i n s : 0.3 ky. Parachute : 0 . 5 kg. m m
t

0.3 kg.

1
0

3 . 6 0 kg;

mo = 6.90 kg;

fuels

3.30 kg.

~ ;1 r1 . 9 1 f i 5 1

log

y=
1

0.8885;

In

,
r l
0

= 0.650.

A c c e l e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e f i r s t second : r l m 200 m/sec8 = 200 m/sec2j = 8.90 kg* -, bo dt M O Om/sec

0.408 kg/sec.

S i n c e t h e inrride p r e s s u r e and t h e o u t l e t p r e s s u r e remain c o n s t a n t , t h i s f i g u r e a l s o remains c o n s t a n t .

3 . 8 0 kg

burn in^ p e r i o d

0.406 kg/sec

8.15 seconds.

W i t h ' t h i s i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y , t h e r o c k e t would r i s e r o u g h l y 1960 km,

= 0,0198 atm,, from which t h e n o z z l e r a t i o d i s c a l c u l a t e d s i n c e p o = 3 atm. p d i s b e s t found from t h e f o r m u l a 1

Outlet pressure r p

Here

R) D e s c r - t i o n of t h e Hydrogen R o c k e t ( ~ f .P l a t e I )
The t i p a i s c o n s t r u c t e d similar t o t h a t w i t h t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t . I n d e s c e n t , i t u n f o l d s and a l l o w s t h e p a r a c h u t e found i n s p a c e f u n d e r t h e t i p t o open lip. H e r e t h e t i p l a t e r r e m a i n s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e hydrogen r o c k e t . On t h e i n s i d e , t h e t i p i s l i n e d w i t h p o r o u s c a n v a s b e h i n d which w a t e r r u n a down, T h i s w a t e r i s s i t u a t e d a t c and

pump e s q u i r t s i t t h r o u g h a p i p e t o t h e t i p , where it r u n s down a l o n g

t h e walls. The l e t t e r s on t h e diagram tor*-eqpond t o t h o s e of t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , The oxygen i s e n c l o s e d i n a c i r c u l a r r i n g similar t o t h a t i n Fig.
1.5, where it v a p o r i z e s and t h e n f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e p i p e s

E . It

i s u n d e r a p r e s s u r e of 3.1 a t m . The hydrocen i s p u t u n d e r a p r e s s u r e

o f c a 5 atm. by t h e pumps p l , ring, within pe and s u r r o u n d s t h e p i p e s E on t h e o u t s i d e . S e r v J n p as wind t a n k i s t h e h o l l o w s p a c e i n s i d e t h e oxyEen whioh t h e oxygen p i p e s a l s o b r a n c h o u t .

- Here

the

oxygen room can be u s e d f o r t a k i n g a i r samples s i m i l a r t o t h e a l c o h o l s ? ) i s found t h e r e room, p r o v i d e d 1) a i r o r any o t h e r g ~ (coronium and 8) t h i a

pa^

can h e f i l l e d i v t o t a n k s , which can h e d i s p u t e d on p2 t h e p i p e s

t h e b a s i s of t h e a t o m i c t h e o r y . I n s i d e t h e pumps p l ,

which conduct t h e f u e l g a s ( i ) l i e i n a type. of f i l t e r S, whiah a l m o s t r e a c h e s t o t h e c e i l i n g . Reason : t h e h e a t i n g g a s e s c o n t a i n w a t e r , -which p r e c i p i t a t e s as soon a s i t comes i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e hydrogen. S i n c e i c e i a h e a v i e r than l i q u i d hydrogen, t h e s e i c e c r y s t a l s would s i n k t o t h e bottom and p l u g t h e ? o r e s o f t h e a t o m i z e r i f t h e f i l t e r d i d n o t d e t a i n them. For t . h i s r e a s o n a l s o , t h e o u t f l o w from t h e pump which i n t h i s 1,2' way n e v e r e m p t i e s compl e t e l y and accumr~l a t e s the i c e c r y s t a l s contained i n t h e hydrogen i n s p i t e of a l l p r e c a u t i o n s ( c f . Fit, 106). room i s somewhat h i g h e r t h a n t h e 1 owest l e v e l of p

Here oven and n o z z l e s a r e surrounded by l i q u i d hydroqen. The f i n s

w a r e b u i l t accord in^ t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e p a f i n s (p. 266 f f ) .

They can s l i d e up m d down a l o n g t h e wall and n r e h e l d by h i n g e s a,
a'

( c f . Fig. 107).

Fig.

107

Construction should make allowance f o r t h e f a c t t h a t j e t t i s o n i n g should t a k e p l a c e w h i l e t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t i s s t i l l working. Otl.erwise counter-pressure would occur upwards. I n s o d a i n a , t h e l i q u i d s would be l i f t e d a f t e r l e a v i n g t h e v a l v e s and n o t reach t h e propulsion a p p a r a t u s . On P l a t e I , t h e pumps m n have i n p a r t have i n p a r t been omitted b e c ~ u s et h e y would confuse t h e diagram.

3) Precrision I n e----..--. t r u m e n t s of t h e Hydrogen Rocket --- - .-. I

_ L
I -

- - -- -

1) E l e c t r i c b a t t e r y and 8) Control gyroscope a s with t h e alcohol r o c k e t , only a p p r o p r i a t e l y

s m a l l e r and l i g h t e r .

3) S i m i l a r l y a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r s .
4 ) A p ~ a r a t u st o i n d i c a t e t h e l e v e l of t h e I i q u i d . Here t h e i r

only s i g n i f i c m c e i s

r e g i s t e r i n g devices, f o r , with t h e

hydrogen r o c k e t , r e g u l a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y i s done only by t h e

5) P r e s s u r e gauge.

6 ) As i n t h e cRse of t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , t h e p r e ~ s n r et o which

t h e t i p i s s u b j e c t e d is taken up by t h e s p r i n g s b and r e g i s t e r e d . The a p p a r a t u s mentioned under v i s n o t observed.

8) Thermographs, e t c .
9) On t h e hydrogen r o c k e t , t h e d e v i c e f o r j e t t i e o n i n g t h e t i p i s

7 is lacking here, f o r t h e velocity

s i m i l a r t o t h a t on t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t . Here it i s n o t r e l e a s e d
by t h e f l o a t , however, b u t only i n d e s c e n t by t h e chronometer.

Chapter 17 Capaoity of Mefeorologioal Rookets w i t h L i q u i d Fuel6

1) The A u x i l i a r y R o c k e t o f Model B --.-...-. --.* .--.---.

As I a l r e a d y s a i d on p. 269, i t i s n o t a d v i s a b l e t o s h o o t r o c k e t s w i t h l i q u i d f u e l s from a cannon. Because of t h e c o u n t e r - p r e s s u r e , model R t o r e a c h t h e m o s t a d v a n t a g e o u s i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y as soon

--

it
a R

i s b e t t e r t o l a u n c h them by r o c k e t p r o p u l s i o n . Also, i t i s w e l l f o r
p o s s i b l e , o t h e r w i s e t h e a p p a r a t r ~ swould h a v e t o work a g a i n s t i t s own w e i g h t t o o 1ong. F o r r o c k e t c o n d i t i o n s , t h e i n i t i a l a c c e l e r a t i o n m ~ ~ a t a l s o b e rea at. The b e s t r a t i o of p/m0 f o r t h e s t a r t w h i l e o b s e r v i n g would b e a b o u t 2.6
t

1. N a t u r a l 1 y, p would a l s o f l u c t u a t e around t h e

same v a l u e , which would b e a d i s a d v a n t a g e a f t e r what was s a i d i n C h a p t e r 5. From (2) we r e n d o f f a With a g i v e n chemicsl c o m p o s j t i o n d Fd the r a t i o i s g i v e n bg Moreover, i f m Fd 0 must become l a r g e r , and from (1) i t f o l l o w s F m '& t h e e x h a u s t v e l o c i t y i e t h e g r e a t e r , t h e

--

of t h e outflowing gases, d i s t o become s m a l l e r Po d &ha*, w i t h g i v e n and Po g r e e t e r p ;Yo is. p d V o

r .

'

i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f p o and t h e ~ r e a t e r ,t h e

s m a l l e r by n a t u r e t h e s p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f t h e o u t f l o w i n g gae and t h e h i g h e r i t s t e n p e r a t u r e . Hydrogen f l owa o u t f a s t e s t . F i n a l l y , t h i s follorvs from (1) r c becomes t,he g r e a t e r , t h e s m a l l e r pd we can make A way woiild b e

r-.
0

a ) by n o z z l e s w i t h r e p 1 a t i n g r o d s ( c f . f i g . 2 5 ) ,
b ) o r by s e t t i n g t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t on t o p of a n o t h e r a l c o h o l

r o r k e t w i t h an a . d d i t i o n a 1 n o z z l e aqd g r e a t e r r e a r w a r d t h r u r t , With model R, t h e l a t t e r

i,s

p r e f e r a b l e . 1 n e e d n o t Rny much h e r e a b o u t

t h i p a u x i l i a r y r o c k e t , I f t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t o f model R works, t h e a u x i l i a q r o c k e t i s s u r e l y f e a s i b l e . Concerning I t s c o n s t r u c t i o n c f , Fig. 108. I t i s 1 m i n d i w e t e r , r e a c h e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y u p t o t!le pump rooms o f t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , and h a s 4 r e c e s s e s f o r t h e finsl of

t h e alcohol r o c k e t . The orggen i s found i n room a, which f i t s i n t o t h e n o z z l e of t h e alcohol r o c k e t , The c o n s t r u c t i o n must be a s simple

as p o s s i b l e . The a u x i l i a r y r o c k e t weighs 820 kg when f i l l e d , m d

works f o r 8 seconds; t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n which it imparts t o t h e alcohol r o a k e t a t t h e beginning amounts t o 100 m/sec8, b u t l a t e r beoomes l e s s because of t h e i n c r e a s i n g a i r r e s i s t a n c e . Perhaps worth mentioni n g a r e metal r i n g s l a i d around t h e o u t s i d e of t h e alcohol t a n k of t h e alcohol r o c k e t and c o n s i s t i n g of 4 p i e c e s h e l d t o z e t h e r by hooks b j t h e y a r e j e t t i a o n e d t o g e t h e r with t h e a u x i l i a r y r o c k e t (Fig. 109).

Fig.

108

2) The Aaaent --.-- of Model C

If

; is

observed, f o r

Go

500, so = 7000, a = 1700, t h e curve

whi.ch r e p r e s e n t s p/m0 a s a function of s look5 a s follows :

If t h e r o c k e t i s a1 lowed t o s t a r t c o u p l e t e l y on i t s own power, it

must f i r s t a t t a i n t h e most advantapeous v e l o c i t y . I n s o d o i n g , t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n m d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r w a r d t h r u s t and w i t h it p must n a t u r a l 7 y b e ~ r e a t e r .I f t h e r o c k e t i s l a t e r allowed t o f a l l behind

v somewhat,

t h e c u r v e f o r P and w i t h it f o r po r u n s as f o l l o w s t

As can b e seen, t h e r e a r w a r d t h r u s t

h e r e i s a l m o s t c o n s t a n t and

t h e v e l o c i t y i s c l o s e t o t h e most advantageous v e l o c i t y .

h he

propulsion

lasts 18 seconds, which i s 10 s e c o n d s l o n g e r t h a n w i t h t h e u s e of an

a u x i l i a r y r o c k e t ; t h e p r o p u l s i o n becomes s m a l l e r by 76 m/sec and n a t u r a l l y a l s o by ;,.) This circumstance i s very riseful t o u s i n t h e construct i o n of s i m p l e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l r o c k e t s of t h e t y p e of model C. F o r manned a p p a r a t u s , t h i s k i n d of a s c e n t i s n o t s u i t a b l e s i n c e t h e c o n n t e r p r e s s u r e would b e t o o higll a t t h e end. Manned a p a r a t v s ~ u s have t r e , p l a t i n g rods.

3) S i z e and Air R e s i s t a n c e
W e saw t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i a i e n t , t h e b e t t e r t h e r o c k e t i s a b l e t o pernetrate t h e a t n l o ~ p h e r e . The b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t
is larp-e

--

1) I f t h e r o c k e t i s l a r g e i n a b q o l i l t e s i 7 e , o r n t l e a ~ lonc. t
2 ) If t h e ~ p e c i f i c w e j g h t o f t h e F u e l s 4s g r e a t .

T f we mayre t.he r o c k e t l o n g , we m i s t t a k e a a r e t h a t t h e a i r resist-

a n c e d o e s n o t b u c k l e it. W e oan a c h i e v e t h a t i f

a) As w i t h model C, we l e t t h e f u e l s f l o w orit 5%
f u e l t a n k s hang down l i k e a t a i l .

amd l e t t h e

b ) I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, we l e t t h e f u e l s f l o w o u t a t t h e b o t t w ,

w e must n a r ~ et h e a p p e r a t u s c o r r e s p o n d i n ~ l yt h i c k , as I e x p l a i - e d on

p. 31.

c ) A n o t h e r mems o f a c h i e v ' n g a f a v o r a b l e r e 1 a t ; n n s h i p between v c e c o n s i . s t o f cnrr;ying b a l l i s t i c c o e f f j c i e n t and a i r r e ~ i s t ~ ~ would t h e r o c k e t u p t o a s n i t a 1 ) l e a l t i t u d e b e f o r e . s t a r t i n g it. T h a t would a l s o f a v o r a b l y i n f l l i e n c e t h e n a a s r a t i o , f o r t h e f v e l t a n k s would n o t need t o b e under s o high a nressure. With models C and E t'vis i s n o t n e c e s s a r y , bu.t model B i s c a l c n l a t e d t o start from an a t t i t n d e o f 5500 m above khe s u r f a c e of t h e w a t e r . The apparatuw i s l i f t e d t o t h i s h e i g h t b e f o r e h a n d bv a c a b l e suspended from two d i r i p i b l e s ( c f . F i g . 110). I f it i s svppoaed t o s t a r t from

as l o n g , s e a l e v e l it m n s t h e t ~ v f c e
and heavy, s i n c e h e r e

in

o t h e r words 8 t i m e s a s l a r g e

/ ! )

i s twice a n large.

I f , i n h o t h c a s e s , t h e g a s f l o w i n g out, a t Fd

were of t b e spme

t e m p e r a t u r e and composStion and i f it, plowed o u t w i t h t h e v e l o c i t y c, t h e r a t i o between t h e l a r g e s t crosas-section F and t h e c r o n s - s e c t i o n 2 of t h e o u t l e t Fd would n o t change ( c f . p. 4 4 ) . Now, F i e n t i m e s

time^ s m ~ l l e r ,h e n c e dm t.he s p e c i f i c volume o f t h e e x h a u s t zas is v t i m e s g r e a t e r , is

small e r , c i s t o remain t h e s m e ,

6 and pd are n

n 3 t i m e s s m a l l e r , and t h e a b s o l u t e vol~imei s n3/n

times smaller.

Fd would a l s o h a r e t o become n 3 t i m e s s m a l l e r ( j u s t l i k e F). But, w i t h po r e m a i n i n g t h e same, d opt) likewise (since

Ro is D
'0

a c t u a l l y n times smaller,

PY

r e m a i n s t h e same), and Fd m m ~ s t become

s m a l l e r . I f To r e m a i r s t h e wime i n both caseci, t h e a b s o l u t e t,emperature and t h e s p e c i f i c volume of t h e e x h a u s t r a a a r e n- t i m e s s m a l l e r i n

X

x- 1

Fd t h u s h a v e t o become s t i l l s m a l l e r . --. would *a F F F d d become g r e a t e r and F = -8w o r ~ l dd e f i n i t e l y becolne s m a l l e r . T h a t F F* t h e second c a s e ;

- would F

c i v e s u s an advantame : The f u e l s remain i n t h e oven lonmer, and t h e oven ( t a k e n a b s o l u t e l y ) can h e s h o r t e r .

If t h e a d v a n t a g e o f makivr

"d -p0

s m a l l e r were n o t made u s e o f , p o and

w i t h i t t h e w e i g h t o f t h e p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s would become s m a l l e r . I n d e e d , c wollld t h e n a l s o becoine somewhat s m a l l e r s i n c e , w i t h e i v e n T, l e s s c o o l a v t worlld be needed ( c f . p. 41). T h e r e i s

ow

optimiim between

t h e two ways, which crtn b e found hy u s i n g t,he c r i t e r i o n on p.

59.

4 ) Comparison o f t h e Alcohol Rocket and t h e Hydrogen R o c k e t ... -. --*-.--. . * . -.-------.

------

---

- ---

Now I want t o i n d i c a t e , a l t h o u g h o n l y roilghlp, why, w i t h v e r y low

a i r d e n s i t y , t h e hydroyen r o c k e t p r o v e s t o b e s u p e r i o r .
W e saw t h a t

,-- can
0

become t h e g r e a t e r , t h e s m a l l e r

Po

becomns.

If we d e s i g n a t e t h e w e i y h t o f t h e f u e l s a s b r and t h a t of t h e empty b r k r o c k e t a. ml, g i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y v a l i d , a t which k is a p r o p o r -

5-

t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r . Now, w i t h a p u r e a l c o h o l r o c k e t , t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y q times henvier.

fill in^ i s

I f I use c a p i t a l s f o r the alcohol rocket

and s m a l l l e t t e r # f o r t h e hydrogen r o c k e t , a c c o r d i n g t o a l l a t was s a i d u n d e r 8, I cnn w r i t e :

Furthermore, i n t h i n a i r , according t o (9)

and ~ c c o r d i n gt o ( 6 )

C -

i s a given f i g u r e . So,

in

t h i s c a s e , hy e j e c t i n g a l l f u e l s , t,he

hydrogen r o c k e t asslvnes a h i c h e r ve1oc;ty. h r we n o t e t h ~ t ,f o r smnll 6-,-:

I n d i s c u s ~ ti h~i s ~ forwrla,

Since q >

i'
"

t h r ~ l rn'!nl

f i ' ? i n u ic + o I>e *bac.rr:,~~~r>cietl here.

Furthermore r

T7et-e I n q i s j n c r n ~ * ~ is. ; e.,

cnr.qi~,n+,, In ( 1
21

+ F)

br
1

;~cre??es from 0

- Bvher

b r.

br iqcr?~qe~ ~,r h i c ?nl0nr.s $'lot decrea~na, I t.he v h o l e ex?resqior, itp?ronche.s t h e -7nlue of 1 and t h u s mil-t become

&

s m a l l e r than - - . > 1. T h i s n a t u r a l l y a n p l i e ~e l l t h e inore t o the s m a l l e r

eqre3sion

So f o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e hydrogen r o c k e t i n c r e a s l n z l y recommends i t s e l f the smaller

bo becomes.

i s i n s t r u c t i v e . From Fig. 44a "lo we r e n o g n i z e jl!at t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i h l e r a t i o depends on t h e p r e s 1 s u r e . With a s p e e i f i e d v e l o c i t y and t h e a w e form ( o f r o c k e t ) , however,
I n + h i s connection, Fic. 44a-c

t h e i n s i d e pre,qsure increases ? r o p o r t i o n a l l y w i t h t h e o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e . So, t h e t h i n p e r t h e o u t s i d e a i r , t h e s m z l l e r a r e t h e f o r c e r which t e n d t o c a u s e t h e r o c k e t t o b u c k l e o r c o l l a p s e and t h e s m a l l e r i s t h e i n s i d e p r e s s u r e n e c e s s a r y f o r r i g i d f i l l i n g . Accordin: t o , C h a p t e r 8,

--

r e p r e s e l - t s a n e a r l y l i n e a r f u n c t i o n of t h e r e c i p r o c a l v a l v e of ml t h e a i r p r e q s u r e . A t t h e same time, we s e e t h a t , w i t h t h e h y d r o ~ e n r o c k e t , t'le mans r a t i o i n z e n e r a l and e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e b e g i n r i n g i s muoh s m a l l e r . The s o l i d c u r v e r e f e r s t o t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t and t h e brol-en curve t o t h e hydropen r o c k e t . F i r . 44b shows t h e connection beiween t h e mass r a t i o and t h e i d e a l s p r o p u l s i o n . With t h e liydropen r o c k e t , t h i s c u r v e n n t u r a l l y r i ~ e more a b r u p t l y s i n c e , w i t h t h e same mass r a t i o , i t s ~ e r f o r m m c eis h i r h e r due t o t h e h i g h e x l ) a i ~ a tv e l o c i t y . S i n c e t h e g r e a t e s t n w s r a t i o deperqd.: on t h e ou$eide a i r p r e s s u r e and t h e i d e a l p r o p u l s i o n on t h e mass r n t i o , i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , o f h e r t h i n , ? s b e i n g e q u a l , t h e i d e b l p r o p u l s i o n depends on +,he o u t q i d e a i r p r e s s u r e . Fi?. 1 4 c shows t h e dependence of t h e i d e a l p r o p L l s i o l ~ on t h e o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e d i r e c t l y . Fron t h a t Ire g a t h e r t h a t t h e a l c o h o l r o c k e t performs b e t t e r w i t h h i g h o u t s i d e p r e s s u r e and t h e hydrogen r o c k e t performs b e t t e r w i t h low o u t s i d e p r e q s u r e .

There currer, however, only r e l a t e to the ideal propulrion. Vithin the rfaerphera, fba aloehol rocket naturally rmainr mperior longer becaure it t r lea8 m e d d by the a i r reriakPce. b) Beeaura of fhr lev apecific weight of the f i l l i n g ef the hydregrr reoket, the ride preamre i r mall. ?hi8 i r hperfrurt advantage beemre t h o r e b the rac01erati.n a m becore greater (of. pp.185, 869 ) u d the pnprrlaien l r r t r f e r r rhorter peried.

) If m1 = M t h r Me> me. This e i r o l n t u o o baa the fellowing effect r I f , f e r rrrpale, the recket i r k c a r e r.girtering inatnunemtr ef r o r r k i n weight amd yet i n k be b o n e d e f t by mether recket m d h a a e r o t k be k e heavy, hydrege f i l l h g i r k be r e c m r d o d , e n r 4hugh u J e e h e l racket ef equd -pw weight r e d d perfera bettor. If, rith medal B, w e replaced the hydrega reoket by u doohel reaket ef the rrme velume, tho l a t t e r reuld pufelm better. With equal t e t d parferaurce, horenr, the new appwrtur rwrld have k be a t l e u t 6 * h e r u heavy u medal B, u d ria e t e q kg ef b & e g m r e a r e r a h g rraghly 100 J q rlcehol u d 480 kg a m .
d) FLnJly, tho boharier ef +he metalr a* 4he taiperrture e i l iquid hydregr murt be meted. T h q besrae hard u d b r i t t l e (ef. Fig.. ~11). I f I ly r crbe with em edge of 8 a r tihe table, ly r glarr red 1 w +hi& and 50 a lamg m it rt the riddle, u d attempt t e bmd the *TO r d r d m r e thq tvrrch tbe b b l e (sf. Pig. ill), the glwr rod breakr. With r @an# thread O.i r fr climetar ( i t i r e b t a h d rapidly rtretehing k a u d e r e r B g l u r ) the e s p e r k m t i r ermily aerap1i.L.l. With fho rooket, r n r t a n t b a d k g e l 1 ormr bermre ef fLe ehamgkg a i r r e r i r k r e e u c l b r i d e proamre. T b e o r e t i a d l ~ , t h q a d d be rlmert oaapletsly a n i d d by aerrertly o d d a t k g the r t r r g t + ef the material a t e v e q p e k t , yet, i . the kehaioal o a r t n s tiom, eertafr kperfeo%ienn would r l v r r m r i r . The r r i a fleetiam. 8%-d i m a defimite relatiewhip t e the ktrl r i s e ef the rppwbtrr u d w e $he l e r r iugeremr rtth b r i t t l e rrtuial, the f l i i u e r fbe r J l r .

F i g . 111

riduably. R u e a r e . I r e r e i t u t e r i a l l i k e pure f l a x i b i l i f y t h a t i r roquirod, the highor e m be the d

1.4,

The loam tho & a trail.

It l a perrible f a r liquid to be -opt a l u q f r w the r d m r t i r ehamber ef redel B, by d i r h e beeraen r a l l e r , Thin drawbuk deereuen
Pe kcraarer, Pa ria the r r e e i r d e r m o e ef the o u r t i o a abambu, t h e r e v tha r e l e c i e ef the gar deerearner. R e r e l e e i i y rSII .lieh the ( u flew Urough Fm i r ( d r a t ) L d e p r d a ~ t . f pe r d pq r 4 w i t h p, L e r u c hg, , F b e e r e a camriderably r a l l e r . In r e b b g , 1 &epr ef liquid vaperise better r i r c e they r c r a k k tho eambmrtia dambor l o ~ g e r .b) !hey alne w e r i s e be%ter beemre d r r r e gar # i r e r eff r e r e brat C h u r u e gu. a ) Alre beramre, w i t h high p,, thoy meed met abrerb a8 mueh heat i . erder t o raperise. d) The m e q a u % i f i ef liquid -opt a l n g detraetn lor. f r r fbe u h u r b releoity l wi* hSglrer k r i d e prermre p, beeurme, la r e & k g , a e U i f e r a o e betuwa the rpeeifio weight ef fhe liquid u d t h a t ef tho gar beerem l o r . That i a k ray : +he p a flewr fhreu* F m r i t h the r e l e r i w whieh i r d e p r d r t roly a pe*Ve. In the f i r r t place, a &ep ef l i v i d of We rere, tbe greater p beoomer, f e r a ) i f , im r e deing,

s,

r eartrim r i s e impeder

a rtreun ef d r r u g u l e r r Qbm a r k e r af

e ern ge t . the t h i n gu u d , reaeadly, it i r =apt almg f r r t e r . I f w highert e r i t i e a l p r e r r u e e t the mixture with pe, TO weald #1y be k t e r e a t e d t t b e tanperatare u d shemicd eomperitiea eZ the r a t t e r t h a t flew8 threugh , , F and the p e r t i e n whether it i r l i q u i d e r gareeur would be irrelevant.
6) Forr ef the A h i s e r

The atemiser Z m o l d be l i g h t e r i f the liquid8 a r r o l l u the e q g m w i t h medel B flowed e u t ef h u g k g , cone-shaped piper, I de mot boliere ( f e r tho reaaenr mantienel im Chapter 3), hewever, t h a t f b e eembuatien would be ua thereugh in thin m y aa it i r Ifim the fuel i 8 breught k from the peripheq. In the l a t t e r care, the krperfectiena ef curburtien . r e m u t u * l l ~ equalisel. That i r why, w i t h the r e r i e u r l ~ eencoited medelr C u d D, I planned oenductkg the fuel ir emly f r r r the ride. Acfrally t h i s quertien i r n e t t e e i n p e r h u t r i t b apparatus i n d i c h eqgem u d fuel a r e breught i . a l t e n a t e l y , f e r here r e caa ref up t h e s o s t l e a f o r r a t e r i a l A in the l e e s h e l t e r ef t h e a e s r l e r f e r material B. Thur tho aemburrtien gar i r h.gegemeur ruder a l l c i r c t m a t u c e r u d there weald be d i f f i c u l t i e r k evercome only when, f e r the Z i r m t t h e , bringing l i q u i d frm cero-rhrped atemiserr kk a hef atream ef e ~ ~ g e n heated by r e m r ef a gar f l r ~ r e , I t i r u awkward r r r u g e a r t ef medel B which r i n u l t u e o u r l ~ urea reme-#hapet# atamiserr en$ a t m i s e r rexslea attached n the ride, Since I d m n e t istoad t e build medel B but -17 ranted to explaim the meat iaipertsat s r r u g a e a t r it, I ured the eppertunity te .hew be*.
3) b p e r t u c e ef the P u p a

k the fuel r e a , fhe premmre i m auppeaed to be high; Lr t h e fuel

tub, hewever, 1.r prermre muat proveil. The pump8 pl, pa a r e impertut beraare they humemioe fhere two requirmsltr. The ImperWae ef fh'd pvrpr i s r r e r r e r wifb the r i s e ef the . p p . r a k r r large a p p a r r k r
imhermtly h a r i the required b d l i r t i e ceefficiemt, r e r e c u build them rider. h r e & k g , the b r i d e proamre of the h e 1 bmkr re(lllired t e keep t h r r i g i d aooerdkg ta Chapter 7 derrearer. f. a p p u a k r with a b a l l i n f i r c e e f f i o i r r t ef ever 1.1 Jqg/cm8, it i r alme k p e r k r t a r t p, beewer large, u d t h a t the mere, the ( ~ r e a t e r the b e l l i r t i e eeeffieiamt. With the hylregrr, recketr, the pump8 l o r e i n i n p e r t a c e i f the weight ef the irafraarente carried along i u great i m r e l a t i n t e the weight ef the fuel tmkr. IB the medel B hydrogem recket, f e r example, I drew than amly f o r tbe rake ef the principle; they de n e t even h e r e s r e the propulrion 400 m/reo. I f the m i g h t of the hrtrumentr i r r e l a t i r e l y m a l l , the parpn on hydregem recketr b e c n e e r p e a i d l j effective. I c u a i l . r the prenarre-cbember pump8 pi, pa a rather f e r t u r t e t e a b i c a l nelutiom ef thin preblam. Pintom pplpr rapn6t perribly de the jeb.
8) D i d r i m ef the Hesole
A farther rearem why, with large rocket8

t W i t h recketr ef t h i s pd type, re csll divide the nossler i n t e 7, or 19, e r mere part8 (cf. Fig. 18). That deer net r e i r e the even, nosale, u d p&p neetion higher thu with mall apperatua. Here, heweror, it har l e r r weight because i t m relatien te the fuel level i r m a l l e r e (I+ i r of a e rare imperme t u o e f e r the r r t i e -- 88 i f r e had racceeded im rhertenimg oven, 1 ' meszle, u 1 p q r of medal B.) With medel d , the hy&egm recket i n met amclord i . the aleohel recket but r i t e om k p ef it (cf. P l r t e 4).

P0 w i t h that, -) e u be greater i n the fellerimg

=a -(er, ' "1

i f r e dinpanre

Tho mppor -1

ef the alcehel reaket hsr oxtmrienr t h a t f i t i n k the

mezzle e t the hydregem reeket. Perribly, a rpeaial t i p osn be pl8ted ever the hydregsr recket f e r the rrrcmt, which iacrearer i t 8 r e r i r b u a e in the l e r e r l a ~ e r r ef the aberphere u d i a jettiaened together d t h the alcehel recket. Here, it i r better to plrae chunber I &eve the hydregm rocket, just under the paraabute. The n a b rearea f e r placimg it re l e v i . medd B n r to proreat the hrdregm teak frem raggim~ ruder the effeet ef rocelerrtien. That deem n e t apply here. The regulating r e l a take ever the r e l e ef the uuiliw rocket.

W e cane t e meh g i u t rockets rhea u object of rpeaifirally l u g e r m l weight i 8 t m be b e n e d e f t ; muat here a d e f i n i t e m i m k r p n value. ' 1 If mi i r large, re m r t r u e 8 r r u t l j r &Ire be l u g e . S.cb r large reoket,

a) becatlee ef i t 8 high b a l l i a t i o ceefiicient, already hrr a very high edrtmtaggeeua relecity te begin w i t h , which perhrpr it deer met a t t a i n 4uri.g the *hmle flight. b) The bride prermre e t the t a k a i r roletirely I n c) ~ e P, r , F with the dceh.1 rocket, pd i r close

u=.

t e m e &*+sphere, it n e t mere. Accerdimg k what w a r asid e r p. 339, a), b), md a) were the maf. reareme t e r having am e l e ~ a t o d lmbhirg r i t e ; t h a t memr t h r t it i r n e t irperfamf f e r t h i r recket k r t e r t f r m a high leoatior. It atarta mere cnvemieafly from rea level. I f the t d u a r e r i g i d l y f i l l e d ritb a i r , t h q c u well a t u d the da8h e t the waver. The recket l i e 8 f l a t om the water, the rear 8 t k i . g r r e r h a t deeper (cf. Fig. t l l ) . Thur a rhip aeuld earily take it im tor, which, rt the mame t h e , n u l l haw k a the liquid garor i . well-immlated cwtainerr simoe t b q could only be f i l l e d i . immediately befere the u c m t . Im the f i l l e d r k f e , the appustur taker r vertical peritiem r o s e t e r a s c r t (cf. Fig. 113). Te preremt i c e frem fermhg em the h ~ d r e g mrecket, it rherld be a c l e r e d i .

a @everef paper which i a net to ramaim but i r p r l l d apart a t the momsat ef lsurehing. A t the m-ent whom t h i r recket aaerges from the r a t e r , it w i l l rock r i o l m t l ~ ,but a a t nheuld n e t matter much mince the g~roncepecemtrel dl1 reon rteady it.

Fig. i l l

Fig. 113

Medel C C r e ccur easily be b u i l t in a length t h a t -abler it t o a t a r t from the gremd (cf. Peiat 3 ef t h i r a r p t e r ) . Whet I m e t e c n c e n i m g frkimg a recket a l o f t by recur ef airahipn applien exclusively t e model B. I enly momtien a i r beebare, t rrne rmnpaper a r t i c l e r , q werk ru preamted t e mean that ererf *pparatar, avea model E weighing 4!88000 kg, i m h be l i f t e l 5000 r by meue ef b d l e ~ ~ .

I f the rocket were net mbject t o the a t t r a c t i e n ef the wq u d l t e a i r r e a i r f u c e , we would be perfectlf f r e e t e make the -fie
? I

u large rs

r e pleered. The lever the a i r prer.rre ard fhe feror of

gravity, the mere e f f i c i a t i r the recket. The recket i r the apprw g r i r t e apprratan f e r rlrcucimg k t t e r p l u e t a q rpaee*
11) F i l l i n g the e d r e g a Rocket

Wha f i l l i n g the h~drogarrroeket, merearary prreaatiemr must be

talc-.

The inaide excear prermre ef the hydregea tuk m r t f i r r t

be b r e w * t e a level rhea* r a t i e t e thaf wkieh it w i l l be q e r e d t e l a t e r i r equal t o t h e r a t i e ef i f r preremt melalrr ef e l a r t i c i t y t e t h a t a t the tcoperatmre e f l i q u i d hydrogem. T b a it amrt be o e e l e l eff by p.rpk8 im mere u d mere freshly-rrperised hydregem. 0 8 1 7 rha it apprexiaately ha8 t h e t-perafpre ef t h e l i q u i d hylregm r y it be f i l l e d in. S t a r t i n g Medal B
15 aec.rdr befere t h e acted start, the m a l l pump mi i r made t e

eperste. 5 recendrr before t h e s t a r t , the g m e r a t e r m a t begin n r k i r g . The reckeC a t a r t 8 sr seen err the o q g m md the d c e h e l mixture i 8 A u d B have begum t e bum, which i r achieved by mecun e i the i-itiom P ~ W 0.

Fer hi = r + 70 h,

7 F h 1 ameuntr

t e 11,160 m/aeci f.r

hi =

r + 140 h, 11,106 m/sec. F'roa t h a t , t h e parabol i e velocity f o r

J t i t u d e a betteem 70 m d 140 km i a fetmd by k t e r p e l a t i e n . It rill be reem from what war said so f a r t h a t it i o peeaible te reach t h i e velecity. For example, i f the d c e h e l rocket give8 the hydrogen rocket a prepulsion ef 3000 m/aec ( a l a r g e alcohol rocket propele 3400 m/aec with the t h e hydrogen recket rt over 4000 m/rrec) a d c hydregem rocket (actually, t h e exhaust r e l e c i t y ceuld memat t o 4300 m/&eo), them t h e fellexing applier te the hydregcn rocket r

t h a t value can be exceeded by adding mother atage, Se m y apperstun ccu very well a t t a i n cwiuic velocity.

Concerning t h i s , t h e l i t e r a t u r e an r o c k e t r y i a markedly vague. Vwiour sufhora e r e making repeated attempt# t o r e t up simple c r i t e r i a and a number of mechanical f o r t h e evaluation of Fuelr. H O E ~ T engineerr, f o r example, have a p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r i n q u i r i n g i n t o t h e i n n e r energy c o n t e ~ t of a kilogram of a f u e l composition; NOORlgUNG w a i n holdr t h e v i e r t h a t t h e f u e l which containa t h e most energy p e r l i t e r i s t h e best. Other author6 u s e o t h e r norma of evaluation, b u t it i a n o t worthwhile t o d i a c u s r them. To begin with, t h e knowledge of t h e f u e l energy d o n e i s no use t o us. W e murt know how much of t h i n etnergy CM be converted i n t o exhaust velocity. A combination of a c e t y l e n e w d oxygen, f o r &:ample, c o n t a i n s oonsiderably more chemical energy p e r l i t e r aa well a s per kilogram a s say a combination of d c o h o l m d o q g e n , y e t , within t h e atmosphere, alcohol r e s a l t a i n a higher exhaunt velocity. Natuely, i n t h e acetylene flame we have two p a r t s of carbon dioxide and one p a r t of r a t e r vapor. But, a t t h e rame temperature, carbon dioxide i s more than twice a s heavy 8s hydroyen; eo it would have t o be heated considerably *lore i n order t o produce t h e same ovt-flow velocity. Taken by i t s e l f , because of i t s lower h e a t absorbing capacity(uhich follows from i t s g r e a t e r molecular weight), t h e cnrbon dioxide would h e a t up correspondingly p o r e with t h e ssme supply of e n e r g , b u t water vapor i s a l s o present. A t rruch high temperatures, t h e water vapor disintegratew. I n so doinp, it again absorb3 t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e developing heat, so t h a t t h e ges i a n o t a s lifit as t h e combustion g ~ 8 of the alcohol flame, which cona i a t s mainly of undisrociated water vapor. This 8 i t u a t j o n m n l d n o t chaope even i f we ar.de t h e noxnle wider
a t the hottov~than we asstuned i n Chapter 5 . I f , i n a i r - f r e e spsce,
we have ouch a g r e n t l y widened nozzle, t h a t w i l l cause a s t r o n z

r e b a t i o n ef the gar preurpre tram the e v a up t e the outlet utd with it r decline i n dinreciatien, a m PIROlfET (of. LEY r "The Peraibility ef Imterplaaetery ravel") her ahem reme time we. & long r r the recket treveln within t h e rtaerphere, herever, and 88 long en i t a velecity deer net ezceed the erbrnut volecity, the prenrrare st the e u t l e t eumet rink beler the preamre ef the eataide a i r baameo the e u t i r e rpeee behind the recket i n f i l l e d the exhaart garerr. Aceerdhgl~., the degree ef dirnecirtien e t the e u t l e t w i l l al-n be high, It i r n e t ear i n t a t i o n t e re1 t the d l ef the nezele but te achieve high exheart r e l e c i t i e r ) hence r e rill prefer J c e h e l k ecet71 me. The high d i r r e c i r t i a g cepecitr ef r r t r r -per a l r e explain# the peculiar f a c t that, with aa open blerpipe, the acetylene f l a ~ e ir hetter, where.., whem burning i n r clesed, preruurized even, the flame ef the eqhrdregen blerpipe i s better. The w e t y l a e flame e e n r i r t r ef 81.6 $ carbon dieride, which i n mere d i f f i d t t e U n aeciete, and enly 18.5 $ wetar -per, rbere dirreciatien hero deer n e t carw er much weight (U with the eqhydregam f l m e which delirera pure r r t e r n p e r . I f i t r diurec1eti.n i a inhibited bl. higher preamre, th* higher *.erg7 aentent ef the eryhrdregem i n mere evident.

It i n trrre, NOORXXJNG rwr quite c@rrecfly, nWifh the o e n d i t i o ~

t h r t the h e l a c m be u t i l i z e d equally wellw. (A comditim which, f e r the rearen8 already expllriaed in oenrectien with roetylane, deea n e t apply t e the anulriea ef ceJ, &at in gareliae e r benzene mggeated by him.) bnmring, h@wetor, t h a t it doe8 epply t o tr. different helm; er, u t i l l better, l e t a& compere the fuel. . l ywith regard k the exhaurt arrerp cunteined kn e l i t e r . Thi8 i r prepertienal t e the apecific weight m d the a p w e o f the erheont releoity. Se, eecerdirg t e NOOBDUNG, two fuel* weald be ef the ram6 d m @ wheme * * o t u e equal.

Lot a8 arrume r e hare a f'uel I h e a e

With t h i 8 h e l , r e waut t o fill a simple r o c k e t Which c m h e l d -tor equal t e 9 timer i t s empty weight. W e could p u t half of 9 1% a r 4 1/8 m e f t h i r h e 1 i r t o i t a f u e l taaka a d , recording to (6), i t 8 i d e a l 1 prepul r i e n weald be
1

If, a t h e e t h e r h a d , r e h d a f i e 1 r i t h s p e c i f i c weight I I and

exhaart r e t e c i t y 1414 m/mea, here d r o

Aceording t e NOOEIWNG, t h i r f u e l n a l d o q a d t h e f i r r t - r e n t i o n e d i n d u e . The tmk. e f our rmcket would hold Po9 = 18*mi a f a i r h e 1 .ad here t

The d i f f e r e n c e would be r t i l l g r e a t e r if r e d i d n o t nric r i t h a rinrple kt r i t h r twe-stage roaket. Asmming t h a t fbe m p t y lewer r o c k e t i r 10 timer s r heavy rs the m p t y upper ene slrd each holdr 9 timer i t 8 e m weight e f r a t e r . The c e p i t a l l e t t 6 r r r e f e r t e t h e l e r e r sad t h e m a l l l e t t e r 8 t o t h e upper reoket. With t h e l i g h t e r of t h e twe a r m e d hid r 8

With the heavier fuel

, r e reuld have

Therefere, r i t h the aeeond fuel, r e abtain 1OJO =/arc = 11.7 than r i t h the f irat-entiened.

lea8

The rearon *by NOORlllRJG'S c r i t e r i a d i d net work eut i a becaame

net c c a , but c.1.
I . ; -

1
reuld ham h d t e be cenatant; er, aince

at r h i c h k (*he f i l l i n g f a c t o r ) r e p r e s e n t r a constant t h a t depends en t h e s t r u c t u r e of the rocket, we would h a r e had t h e c r i t e r i o n

New, t h e f i l l i n g f a e t e r k i n t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t w i t h d i f f e r e n t r o c k e t r , r e t h a t , with d i f f e r e n t rockets, r p e c i f i c weight and out-flew v e l e c i f y CUT k f a l l y dgfferent weight with r e r p e c t to each ether. For t h i n reason a l m e , t h e r e i r n e nimple a r i t e r i e n which, e v m theugh e n l j with r e s p e c t t o t h e i d e a l prepulrion, veuld t e l l u s *ether one t m e of f u e l i n baaicily preferable. The m a t t e r becerer r t i l l more canplicated i f t h e pcmetratien of t h e atnerphere, t h e b a l l i r t i c c e e f f i c i e a t r h i e h depends on t h e s i z e and shape of t h e rocket, end t h e degree of dienociation o f t h e exhaust gaa, rfiich depends en t h e nozzle r a t i o , t h e oven pressure, t h e npeed of t r a v e l , and t h e p r e a r u r e of t h e o u t s i d e air, are a1 s o taken i n t o c a l c u l a t i o n . The d e s c r i p t i o n e f t h e model B alcohol snd hjdrogen r o c k e t s aad t h e i r compariren above r l r o e d y provided us with a rample. The d i a a i m i l a r i t y

m i r y t h e i o r r m l a s (43) and (100) rheuld be compared, There i n

n h p l y ne f u e l which, rith r u f f i c i o n t v a r i a t i o n of dl the formala q u a o t i t i e e , weald be m p e r i o r f e dl o t h e r f u e l r . Such a f u e l would a t once hare t o b e t h e heaviest, h i g h e r t i n energy content, l o a r t d i r r o c i a b l e , m d , i f t h e m a t t e r i r t o be p r a c t i c a l l y f e n r i b l a , a l r o

t h e cheepoat, moat atable, and l e a e t dangereur; it m u l l h a m t e r a k e t b e l e r e r t clmandr en t h o a o s r t r u a t i a n material. B a t eaah of fhe h o r q f u e l r i r excelled e t b e r r i n rome p o i n t r , and r i n a e t h e r e p r e p e r t i e r a a r q d i f f e r e n t weight r i % b reapeat to errah e t h e r d t h d i f f e r e n t a p p u a k r r , one type of fuel rill be mare m i t s b l e rffh f h e one, and tho o t h e r more m i t a b l e with t h e e t h e r apparatur. The 0817 rearenable thing t h e r e a k e t b u i l d e r can de i m t h e following: He f i r a t aketdaor t h e plaa of a roaket in rough outline, W i n e i n t e c a r i d e r a t i a n tho g m a r a l b a r i o r e q u i r m e n t r ef omartmatian arising from t h e the*ry ef r o e k e t v aad whiah I have a l r e i a p a r t derived i n f h i r boek (high s a r r r a t i o , aroilaooe of r e b f e r c a e n t a , m i t a b l e b o i l e r ppnpr, appropriate b a l l i n t i e eseff i c i e a t , etc.). The queation ef t h e r i s e and oen8truation of t h e f u e l t m k r and ef t h e f i n e r neamraaemtr ef t h e aoaburtion apparatur i n l e f t e p m t o r t h e p r e s a r t . T h n he a d d a t e r t h e performance of t h e upper roeket with r a r i o u r f u d a . Having feunil f b e beat f u e l , he a d c a l a t e a t h e f u l l weight ef tho rocket and now conriderr it a m t h o pwload of t h e n e x t l a r g e a t rocket, with r h i c h he proceedr in t h e r u e manner. Abeve dl, t h e f u e l f e r t b e different reckote murf be t e n t e d r e p w a t e l y , f o r r e a l r e a w raw w i t h r e d e l B Bhat t h e dmandr en t b e f u e l a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f o r t h e upper aad lower rocketa. 0. t a p r e rill above dl ( i l though n o t exalorively) r t r i r e f o r high energy aont ent, r h e r e a r below r e dl1 aim fmr higher r p e a i f i t weight. (1a no doing, i f e.lr happa&t h a t , a f t e r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f u e l ef t h e l * r e r me, r e w i l l race r a r e o h a g e t h e f u e l f o r t h e upper one tatting t h e d a l e into acoemt.) F i n d l y , r o rill derign t h e whele apparatus.

The mbtter boomer r t i l l r e r e oanplicated if tho o o a t m u r t be taken i n t o acoeunt. The mechauical emgineer and h e a t teahniaicra rill be p r m e t o cheore the f u e l which i n oheapert per oalorie. Nor, fho eheap f u e l # u m d l y r e m l t i n a l o r exhaurt v o l e c i t ~ ,and mince t h e

l a g a r i t h i m ef t h e maan r a t i o i a approximately i n r e r n e l y proportional t o f h e exhaust v e l o c i t y , t h e maam expenditure w i t h higher daaslrcln rill i n c r e a s e t o mch an e x t e n t t h a t the m a t t e r a m r vhole rill ba canriderably more expenaim i n a p i t e of t h e l o r s p e c i f i o a e r t of t h e f u e l . The c u c m t ef a c m d e - o i l rocket, f o r example, whiah p e r f o w r a m 1 sn ilodel C would be roughly 4 t h e m a m expenrire. Nererthelena, even i f t h e exhsaot b l o c i t 7 e f t h e h e l m i r equall y high, c a r e m n t be t a k a in t h e oalculation, f o r t h e l i q u i d oxygm m m t dl80 be p a i d f o r ; t h a t mean8 faking i n t o account whether t h e a r a m t i n to t a k e p l a c e near t h e oxygen f a c t s r y and h o r mnch time t h e f a e t o r y need. t o produce t h e required q u a n t i t y of o g g e n , in a t h e r rordn, how much o q g e ~ vaporisen m u s e d b e f o r e t h e r o c k e t i r filled. In the troponphere, b a n ~ f n e , 40 methrl aloohol, aad 90 ethyl alcehol, f o r example, r e m l t i n n e a r l y t h e r a r e a r h w n t veloait;r. (In t h e ntratorphere, t h e ce&ditionn e m 1 4 a h i f t momerhat i n favor of t h e bansine,) Of t h e s e t h r e e l i q u i d a , bensine i r t h e cheapeat and rthyl aloobol t h e deareat. Se r e w i l l an. b e m i n e 3

If t h e maleculee of benaine contain en t h e average 8 a t m n e f owboa, auabuation occurn according to t h e fonmalr t

One kilagram of our *el combination rill aontain 88.8 5 bencine and 77.8 $ e a g e n . With methyl alcohol r e would h a t e 15 alcohol and 97 ~ / a 5 oxygen, w i t h e a y l aloohol 18 i/a r l c o h e l and 58 1/11; 8 osygen. With t o l y s a l e v e l of pricen, rood elaehol r o u l d b e t h e oheapemt. (The f a c t would a l a o h a r e t o bo o o n a i d e r d t h a t t h e n o z z l e -1s a r e n o t a f f e c t e d aa a t r o n g l y rhen J e o h o l i r umed; rith benzine, r c e r t a i n nurplue of o q g e n would h a r e fo be used t o make c e r t a i n
b t f h e paention t h a t t h e h e a v benaine vapor bum8 up complatdr.) E

a r i s e s whether t h b preoent p r i c e 8 would rauain i n e f f e c t ria vigorous mail rocket t r a f f i c . Methyl i l c o h o l , f o r exmple, i s a c t u a l l r so cheap only because i f i8 n o t being used i n l a r g e q u e n t i t i e a . With g r e a t e r demand, t h e p r i c e would r i s e considerably, 80 t h a t f i n a l l y ethyl alcohol, \rhich can be produced ia -7 q u a a t i t i e s , o r ( i f alcohol t a x i s c a l c u l a t e d ) f u e l slcohol, methylated by mean8 of some wood alcohol, w o u l d be t h e cheapest. I f , with my f i r s t meteorological sad long-distance rockets, I w i l l n e v e r t h e l e s s u s e benzine, t h e reason i r because it makes the preliminrrry e x p e r i r ~ e n t more ~ oonvenient and cheaper. I n t h e f i r s t plaoe, r i t h benaine c e r t a i n questions a r e already c l e a r e d up which, e ~ p e c i e l l y with methyl elcohol, would s t i l l have t o be investigated. Secondly, with ithe experhsaatrr on atomization and combustion, t h e c o l o r of t h e flame i n d i c a t e 8 whether t h e benzine is well burnt up, which i a n o t t h e case with alcohol 1)

15) ~ k ~ p l i f i c s t i o n in s Model B

W e could simplify t h b o v a considerably i f r e placed l e a s value on achieving high f i a e l v e l o c i t i e u . W e caa l e t t h e oven border d i r e c t l y on t h e jacket and aimply t i n e t h e l a t t e r w i t h asbestos, nhich re moisten before t h e launching. A f'urther s i m p l i f i c a t i o n would c o n s i a t of simply l i n i n g t h e nozzle with material t h a t caa endure t h e f i r e f o r 3/4 of a minute. For s i ~ o i l u reaaona, it i a i m p o s ~ i b l et o s t a t e a i o p l e c r i t e r i a f o r f o r t h e optimum d i v i s i o n with multiple-atage rocketa. If one a p p l i e s c r i t e r i a published on f h e t o p i c t o concrete cases, they do n o t prove theneelves. There i a enly one r a y out a c a l c u l a t e a number of p o s s i b l e cases. I till m i t e in d e h i l on t h e t o p i c i n t h e second volume.

I f , r i t h t h e alcohol rocket, i n s t e a d of t h e f o l d i n g f i n e , a o l i d f i n e provided on17 x i t h a control were used, r parachute would be needed and t h e propulsion b e reduced by another 100-900 m/aec. An a Jtiapparatus with a l l theoe s i n p l i f i c a t i o n e would s t i l l reach m tude of over 850 km. Suah an apparatus cannot, however, g i v e uo my infonuation about t h e movment of t h e higher l a y e r r of t h e a h o a p h e r e , f o r t h e time during which it h e r t h e t a n g e n t i a l motion of t h e higher l a y e r s of t h e atmoephere is r e l a t i v e l y too s h o r t i n comparison t o t h e time during which it ha0 t h e l a t e r a l motion of t h e lower l a y e r a of t h e atauorphere.
W e could J s o diapenee w i t h the pumps pi, pa and t h e r i n d tank

i f we k e p t t h e alcohol-water tank a t the p r e s m r e between t h e atomizer pipes. I n ro doing, i t 6 -118 r o u l d n a t u r a l 1y beeerne thick, but we r o u l d have t h e advantage of being a b l e t o make t h e r o c k e t narrower i n shape. W i t h t h e same f u e l consmption, t h e b e l l i s t i e c o e f f i c i e n t could be g r e a t e r ; with t h e a s a s b a l l i s t i a c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e f u e l conatamption could be lower. If t h i s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n were c a r r i e d would equal 1800 Jmec and t h e r o c k e t ( f i g u r i n g in el) r o u l d out, r i s e aomewhet over 100 h . In order t o ascend, it would now need nothing but t h e pump. m n l ) , t h e a t m i n e r 2, t h e alcohol tank r i t h

t h e double f l o o r h and r p r e s s u r e gauge, r b i e h r e g u l a t e 8 t h e aupply of f u e l gamer, and a s a f e t y valve, and an o q g e n tank w i t h t h e asme accessory p a r t r . I n addition, t h e r e would be t h e control gyroscope, t h e parachute momewhat moistened beforehand m d t h e j e t t i s o n i n g dewice. Cooling t h e t i p i n no longer necearary here. The period of a s c e n t and f a l l of t h i s apparatus would n o t be q u i t e 8 minuter. X t would deacend a t t h e most 10 km from t h e p l a c e of a6cent; hence it would be e a s i l y found, t h e more s o s i n c e t h e approximate d i r e c t i o n i n which t o look f o r it r o u l d be Jmom. So r e c u l dimpmse w i t h every a d d i t i o n a l a i d i n l o c a t i n g it. W e would obtain a r e l a t i v e 1 7 be A . i s eeen r i t h 1node1a A, D, and C, t h e pump. rn n c m a l ~ o diepenaed r i t h .

8Lpple .pp.ratu.

(althoug;fi using 6 t h e 8 more f u e l ) ria Ule name

peribrmance a8 model B (which, becauae larger, e m aaomd f r a an d t i t u d e of O 3 km) i f we placed t h r e e r i m i l a r l y aimple rocketa ane above the other a s f o l l o r r r an alcohol-water rocket a t t h e bettom, a rocket lrhich ure8 l i q u i d methane gar a8 f u e l and r e t e r acr coolant i n t h o middle, and a hydregm rocket on top.

Model8 A and C u e b a r i a l y d i l l aimpler. In C even t h e f i n a ern be &epped*

16) The Adventages of Liquid h e l a

The adrantage8 of l i q u i d f u e l 8 over t h e previeualy ured explorivea are t h e f o l l o r i a g t s) The v e l o c i t y can be regulated. m 0 b) beowe8 greater.

=
1

c) The exhaust v e l o c i t y ( e r p e a i a l l j with t h e hydrogen rocket)

become8 greater. Firrt, b e c w s e t h e out-flowing gaeen are l i g h t e r ; necond, beoauaa t h e prepelling f o r c e of the f u e l 8 i s b e t t e r u t i l i s e d by m i t a b l e nosalea; t h i r d , because t h e nozzloa a r e under balanced presmre.
d) The operation i m l e a 8 dangerous.
17) D i r i r i o n of t h e Rocket

a) Lemr dead materiel i a towed along. b) The r i n g l e rocket. t h e i r vu-ying purporerr. can be b u i l t d i f f e r e n t l y i n accordance with

1 a l r o regard the following a s m y inventions a the v e l o c i t y regulator, the j e t t i ~ o n i n gdevice, fhe pump chrullber, vaporisation by forcing In ef fine l i q u i d bubblea. The formulae (36) to (61) and (61) to(171) a l r e appear t o be new. Likeriae the reaearah i n t o natural
phenomena in connection with eounter-presnare trnd the reseeroh cen-

aerning t h e r p e r g y problem.

P u f IV* Peraibil itiem o f U8e

Pommibilitiem ef Urinn the Beakof l i e s a l t

Foraala quantifier o f Chapter 18 The index figurer r e f e r t o point. indiaated i n Fig* 184. o a out-flow rolocf fy braekefed number8

e a baa. of neturdl legarithar

g a acoeleration due t o $ r e v i e ( a m r t a a t sf 8.81 r/.eo

a)

h a a l t i t u d r above the ground

C a dirtanpe aovered during dimmipation o f fire energ7

E a t o t a l mrrw

B a eomrfaat from (34)

PI r a p p u a t ratio o f #
P

(7400 r)

t
t

energy due t o p o r i t i o n air denrity

I mhall w r i t e about t h e h i a t o r y of t h e rocket and fhe w e e r of i t r

a p p l i a e t i o n DO far i n Vol. XI. Here I would l i k e t o r e p o r t only en t h e w e a r of s p p l i a a t i o n of t h e r o c k e t which can a t i l l be opened up.

1) The Vertioally-Amending Rocket

a) The m e t e o r o l o r i o d r e c k e t i r aaed f o r reoearch i n t o t h e h i g h e r

l v e r a ef t h e atmosphere. Ihe a c c e l e r a t i o n of a r o c k e t i s so small t h a t it can a s r r y with it a e n a i t i v e p r e c i s i o n instruments. With m a l l m e t e o r o l o g i c d roaketa whiah a r e t o a h p l y ascend v e r t i a a l l y p a a t t h e l i m i t 8 of t h e e a r t h l r atmosphere t h e following meaauranenta OM b e tsIcent The r c a e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r 8 ( c t . p. 123) g i v e ue a curve indioating t h e r e l a t i o n between counter-presaure and time both during a s c e n t and deaoent. F'rosa t h a t , by i n t e g r a t i o n , r e caa d e r i v e t h e v e l o c i t y a t a specified moment 04 t h e f l i g b t . From t h a t again we conclude t h e a l t i t u d e a t t a i n e d a t t h e time (of. p. 272). I n 80 doing, we have a c e r t a i n aheck on t h e d a t a of t h e a o c e l e r s t i o n indicator., f o r we muat obtain t h e .me value t o r t h e h i g h e s t a l t i t u d e reached from t h e d a t a recorded during aacent aa from t h o r e during descent. A f u r t h e r check would c o n s i n t of observing t h e r o a k e t t e l ercope 1) d u r i n g f l i g h t and recording t h e agio of observation

') That aan be done with t h e zenith t e l e a c s p e of ZmSS

O n a body in r a p i d motion, s barometer w i l l hardly show t h e t r a e

air p r e a r u r e beoaune of t h e turbulenca. Nor do t h e readings ef a thennometer corrempond t o t h e true sir tanperature. Dn t h e o t h e r hand, m aapty msteorological r o c k e t borne by a parachute f a l l s r e l e t i r e l y slowly b e l o r S O bm, so t h a t preaaure aad tanpereture of t h o a i r can h e r e b e measured d i r e c t l y . Above, t h e r o e k e t n a t u r a l l y f a l l 8 t o o r a p i d l y in a p i t e of t h e psrrchate. During anoent, t h e a i r r e a i r t a n c e e g s i n a t t h e t i p of t b e r o c k e t could b e iaesared (of. p. 331 a p p a r a t a r No. 6). Naturslly, with t h e b e r w e t r i c reading8 during t h e dement, t h e v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e to the air would a l a o h a r e t o b e taken i n t o account; it could be found b;r mema of a type of wind ~ would have to etand almert i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of wheel. ( 1 % blader f l i g h t l e a t it turn too faat.) By oompering t h e barometric reading8 during deacont with t h e sir r e a i r t a n c e t o r h i c h t h e t i p xra subjected a t t h e aeme a l t i t u d e during ascent, t h e r e s i s t a n c e coefficient f o r r e l o c i t i e u above 100 m/reo urn be obtained with great aeeurrcr.
\

Up above, t h e empty f u e l tanka can be f i l l e d with a i r . While t b e a i r aamplea a r e being taken, t h e piaton rtrolcea of t h e pump a r e counted, and from t h a t and t h e readinge of the p r e s s u r e geuge a f t h e it tsllk,ooncluaionr can be dram ar, t o t h e a i r d m a i t y . In t h i a oould, above dl, be determined whether t h e composition of t h e sir above i a # i i n i l a r t o t h a t below o r whether t h e peroant r e t i e between i t r a i n g l e component. i a d i f f e r e n t . N a y 8atronomerr clad meteorologi8ta 8ramae t h a t t h e r e muat be r e l a t i v e l y more hydrogen and l e a 8 oxygen i n t h e bfglier layers of t h e atmorphere. Subatancee could even e x i r t i n t h e upper layer. of t h e atoloaphere which e r e n o t found ou t h e ground, am, f o r exsmple, c e r t a i n n i t r o g a n r a d nitrolryl campound8 .hi& o m form only under t h e i n f l u e n c e of r t r o n a u l t r a - v i o l e t ray8 a ~ 800x1 d d i a i n t e g r s t e w a i n , o r f h e hypothetical eoronium gas. The p i p e through which t h e a i r rmnplea a r e dram i n m a l d have to p o b t

exact17 l o r n ; only t h m r e u l d it b e p o r r i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e from t h e f a l l i n g opeed with n r f f i c i e n t accuracj. whet r e l a t i v e compresrion t h e a i r undergoes i n f r o n t of t h e mouth of t h e pipe. The pipe would a l r o have t e be cooled carefully. I n sn crtaorphere w i t h r e l a t i v e l y much hydrogen, t h e campreasion would cauee t h e hydrogen t o m i t e w i t h t h e e q g e n . Becaure of t h i s comburtion, t h e f i g u r e r obtained would b e completely wrong.
If, on t h e a t h e r hand, t h i n p i p e were cooled more e f f e c t i v e l y t h r a t h e air i n f r o n t of t h e parachute, oxidation r o u l d occur h e r e

and t h e r e t a r d a t i o n of t h e fall due t o t h e a d d e n i n c r e a s e i n t h e voluaae of a i r in f r o n t of t h e parachute would i t r e l f be t h e b e a t guarantee a g a i n s t t h e a i r in f r o n t of f h e p i p e of the pomp being cornproreed m d heated beyond t h e conducive mearure.
I would l i k e t o c-ent on an objection here. Fear hati been exprerred t h a t t h i r i ~ f l m m e b l ea b o s p h e r e could catch f i r e due t o

t h e h o t axhaoat garee of t h e r o c k e t and canree very p e c n l i o r catantropher. A t l e a a t t h e c m p o r i t i o u of t h e top l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere r o u l d be b a s i c a l l y chsllged thereby, perhapr o w n i n g a n o t inconaequcmtial i n t e r r e a t i o n in nature. I do n o t r i r h t o g i v e m y f u r t h e r e x p l m a t i o n in t h i a plaoe why t h a t i r t h e o r e t i c a l l y imporaible. Proof t h a t t h i r a c t u a l l y does nothsppenr i r ahom by t h e f a c t t h a t meteors and r h o c t i n g r t a r r p i e r c e t h i 8 l y e r almost d a i l y without i g n i t i o n occurring, although t h e t a i l of t h e r e formations is conr i d e r a b l y h o t t e r than t h e exbeuet garea of q rocket.
From the sir r e n i a t a n c e readings a t t h e t i p during t h e s e c a n t

we would a t f i r s t b e a b l e t o f i n d t h e retiiotaace c o e f f i c i e n t f o r very high v e l o c i t i e r only i n c l u r i v e of t h e hydrogen e f f e c t . A f t e r various arrcmtr te d i f f e r e n t a l t i t u d e r , however, r e r o u l d be a b l e t o r e p a r a t e t h e actual r e s i s t a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t from t h e hydrogen

e f f e c t , (The hydrogen e f f e c t could make t h e a i r appear up t o 4 f imes a s dense a e it a c t u a l l y i e , although, according t o p. 101 f f , t h a t r c a r c e l y changer t h e perfonning capacity of t h e rocket.) Since a l l t h e r e quaatitierr mutually sapport and complement each o t h e r , they can l a t e r b e v e q a c c u r a t e l y determined by i n d i r e c t c a l c u l a t i o n . To me it appears 68 an e s p e c i a l l y f o r t u n a t e circumstance t h a t r e e r e making d i r e c t meawrernentr of e x a c t l y those aepecta which e r e of apecial i n t e r e s t t o us *en b u i l d i n g rocketr. Naturally, during fhe asceut, r t a t e of t h e l i q u i d , i n s i d e preraure, temperature, etc., e r e a l r o recorded; in ao doing, it appears especiall y advsatageoua t o me t h a t t h e out-flow v e l o c i t y c, increased by t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y and t h e a i r r e r i e t a n c e , can be found from t h e l i q u i d decrease- and t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n and t h a t , moreover, from t h e i n s i d e Pd can be p r e r r n r e srtd t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n , e a apparent r a t i o H1 between -Po conrtructed aa it r e r e , which, f o r t h e conetraction of rocketa, i e Pd more iarportaat t h ~ n the actual This is a l r o obtained i f t h a

-.
p0

comporifion, t m e r a t a r e , m d excers presaure of t h e o u t f l o w i n g gases u e compared with c and t h e f r i c t i o n eto. i a taken i n t o account. Place of d-ercent r Although t h i r r o c k e t appears t o r i e e v e r t i c a l l y , it doer n o t f a l l a t the erne p l a c e from r h i c h it racended. I n t h e f i r a t placrs, t h e l a y e r e of a i r moving aiderapa influence it ( t h e horizontal component of i t a motion i r aa good a a e x a c t l y e g a d t o t h e l a t e r e l motion of t h e higher l a y e r r of t h e w b n ~ s p h e r e )Secondlr, ~ a deviation occurs f o r c o m i c reaeonas, Viewed from t h e i n t e r r e c t i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l with t h e e a r t h f a a r i a , due t o t h e e a r t h i n r o t a t i o n , t h e rocket mover en r g r e a t c i r c l e dram about t h e celestial aphere, At t h e beginning, t h i s c i r c l e n m r exact17 from r e n t t o e a e t b u t l a t e r deviate8 toward t h e equator, unle88 the p l a c e of a r c e n t i t a e l f r s a 6%the equator ( o f , Fig. 114)-

Furthemore, t h e angular v e l o c i t y of t h e r o c k e t with reference t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h i r smaller t h m t h e angular v e l o c i t y of t h e p o i n t on t h e e a r t h ' s surface above which t h e rocket is j u a t s i t u a t e d . Thet oauses a deviation toward t h e r e s t . I n Fig. 115, t h e arrow cosnectr t h e geographical point. over r h i c h t h e rocket f l i e a . Thir curve i s e a s i l y cal culated, which f a c i l i t a t e s l o c a t i n g t h e rocket.

R m t h e d i f f e r e n c e betwoen t h e c a l c u l a t e d and t h e a c t u a l p l a c e of desoent, the norememf of t h e higher l a y e r a of t h e ataorphere i s found) with t h e condition t h a t t h e control was correct. This can be t e s t e d beforehand l o o s e l y supporting t h e model with the same gyroscope c a r e f u l l y sdjuated e a r l i e r and p l a c i n g it i n a unifona stream of a i r (cf. Fig. 8 5 ~ ) .
S i m i l a r l y , many queetione a t i l l u n c l s r i f i e d today could a l r e a d y be enawered by t h e uee of such eimple meteorological rockets, f o r example t h e question regarding t h e heavyride l g e r , regarding c e r t a i n ehort-rave ray6 in ran o r r t a r l i g h t , and otbere. S i n c e t h e r o c k e t can b e t t e r be r e n t where one winhee thaa a meteorological balloon, unanswered queutions i n connection with the formation of thunderstoms, Uie occurrence of b a r s a e t r i c maxima and minima, snd t h e l i k e could be i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h t h e u s e of rocketa. Naturally, it cwmot b e p r e d i c t e d t o d g whether t h i s research rill a l r o l e a d t o control of t h e r e s p e c t i v e n a t u r a l phenomena, b u t it i r

probeble. U n t i l n o r t h e r e war, a a a r u l e , only one atop from the knowl e d g e of s n a t u r a l procear t o i t r control. l o t (mly model B could r e r r e ar a vertically-cracendkrg meteorolegi c a l rocket, but amaller ~ p a r a t a s l i k e model8 A and C m u l d be r t i l l b e t t e r m i t o d f o r t h e purpere.
b) The Beconnainraace Rocket, A rocket arcending 80

40 km

ceuld be equipped with a motion-picture camera to m a k e it photograph t h e l a n b c a p e before it. I n c a r e of w a r , m c h a r o c k e t could r e p l a o e especially t h e c a p t i v e balloons, w i t b t h e advantage over them t h a t t h e ancould n o t nhoot it dom.

P) The Lon&-Diatance Rocket

Aa I a l r e a d y a s i d on p, 154, auch rocketa can n o t only f l l high b u t f a r sr well. Concerning control I have m i d rbat i a neceerary
on pp. 260 t o 280,
a)

Geogrqphkd Rocket. This rocket could be equipped w i t h a

photographic camera and made t o f l y over unknown, hard17 r c c e a r i b l e a r e a s m d photograph o r s u r r e y fhea p h o t o g r a n a n e t r i c d l ~ , For exmple, much would ba gained f o r t h e exploratien of i n l a a d Africa, t h e Tibetan plateau, t h e p o l a r regionr, Gremlsnd, etc., if one hsd a complete bird'a-eye-vier photograph of t h e r e s p e c t i v e region, it could r e r v e aa a map and preliminary guide f o r t h e research expedition.
b) The Mail Rocket.

r o m Berlin t o d e l i v e r f a r t m r i l For example, such a r o c k e t f l i e r f New York i n l e s a than h a l f an hour. The p l a c e of deacent o m t o d w be determined exact t o d t h i n a redinn of c a 10 km, t h e more 80 i f before t h e a t a r t t h e 16~11ching center i r telagraphically infomed of t h e rind conditions at t h e p l a c e of a r r i v a l .
-

Long-dirrtmce rocketn could be uued to

L e t u r ray t h e r o c k e t i r aimed f o r t b e New York harbor. Then rn aeroplsrre would have t o t a k e t o the a i r st t h e d e r t i n a t i o a i n o r d e r t o o b r e r r e where t h e rocket dercendr. Naturally, t h e r o c k e t a r r i v a r e x a c t l y on t h e reaond end, t o g e t h e r with i t 8 parachute, i n r f s i b l e from a long d i r t s a c o . I f t h e aeroplane i t r e l f csanot b r i n g t h e r o c k e t in (rhould it drop on t h e water), t h a t i e r e a d i l y acomplirhed rith aa aquaplane, f o r t h e rocket f l o a t r e a s i l y r i t h empty f u e l tslrkr and i r r e l a t i v e l ~ l i g h t a f t e r l o r i n g i t r f u e l r j a t l e e e t it can, i n a r h o r t time, i n d i c a t e where it f e l l 80 t h a t mail vehicle8 can d r i v e up and f e t c h it. The d e l i r e v c o r t r rill in no r y be high. The p r o p e l l a n t s ueed rill b e keroreae and l i q u i d o q g e n , aad about 30 40 peuce cap b e of t b i r propellant. If, w i t h 8 4000-I~E-flight, t h e figured f o r 1 p r o p e l l a n t i r f i g u r e d ar amounting t o 10 timer t h e payload, re g o t 3 4 pf. of p r o p e l l a n t per d e c a g r m of payload. According t o q c a l c u l r t i o n , t h e t o t a l c o s t of d e l i v e r y ( f i g u r i n g in depreciation and mnortisation of t h e machine, wager of f u n c t i o n a r i e s , guarantees a g a i n r t l o r e , eta.) r i t h undivided mail r o c k e t s i n n o t q u i t e 1 p f . p e r gram, r i t h t r o - r t a g e rocketa 4 10 p f . per gram.

Since, according t o *at m a r a i d i n Chapter 11, t h e n a i l r o c k e t can make it. f l i g h t i n lea. than 1/3 hour, t h e c a b l e and r a d i o s t a t i o n e xi11 n o t o f f e r it any r e r i o u r oempetition, q u i t e a p a r t from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r o c k e t d e l i v e r s t h e w r i t i n g i n t h e o r i g i n a l and p r e r e r v o r t h e recreay of aorreepondence. The machine (380 i r q u i t e cheap. What i r involved i n e s s e n t i a l l y t h e rimple work of a copper-aaith. Berider, i f properly h a d l e d , it CM a8cmd over 100 t k l l e ~ . For example, rith r c o r r e c t l y - b u i l t o q hydrogat nossle, I achieved a barn l a s t i n g lll minutes. W i t h a l a r g e rocket n o ~ s l e t O -- 80 timer a r l a r g e , a i r f i g u r e can e a e i l y be

multiplied by 10 because t h e dynlueic cooling (cf. p. 4 1 ) can be c a r r i e d out much more e f f e c t i v e l y . Since a mail rocket burnr a t t h e most f o r

minutea a t a time, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s in 100 arcenta.

The only expenrive p a r t of theee mail rocket w i l l be t h e control device, but t h a t could be t r a u r f e r r e d Prom m e rocket t o the other.
On t h i a occasion, I muat comment on a grave e r r o r of VALIER and

GAIL. I n t h e book, w I n t o Outer Spa@. by Rocket Powerw, p. 76/77, t h q

describe a mail rocket t h a t is t o carq a payload of two hundredweight. To prevent it from cauring damage upon l m d i n g , it i a t o b u r e t a p a r t beforehand, s o that t h e l e t t e r o land r e p a r r t e l y by parachute. But t h o eepty rocket aosrcely w i g h a a s much aa t h e ps~rload. So i f we had r e n t on17 SO kg of l e t t o r r inatead of 100, we could have aaved t h e rocket, according to h i m , (The d e l i v e q c s a t e per deoagrea of payload would be errsentially no hig;her erea w i t h emaller apparatus, f o r , with r given d a u r t velocity, the perfonaance of' a rocket ~ l a i n l y mo depends on t h e r a t i o ; 00 a smaller rocket would uae correspondingly m.I l e s s fuel .)

I c a r 1 7 mention this incidentally. I cun f i g u r i n g w i t h a paylead of 30 kg m d a l m d i a g weight of f i a t under 60 kg.

Furthennore, t h e r e two authors e t a t e t h a t s normal l e t t e r would coat l e a 8 than SO Qd, rbich i r correct. Twenty pennies a r e e c t u a l l y l e r r than 50 IM. I f i n d t h i a eatimate much toc, cautioar, n o t l e a s t in coaprriaon t o VAL$A@Spredileotion f o r propagating idea. on other o~ceaime.
c ) The Rocket P r o j e c t i l e .

Concerning the use of t h e rocket a s a

p r o j e c t i l e , I have already s a i d what i s required i n Chapter 13.

3) The Rocket Airplane

It i n well-known among e x p e r t s i n aeronautic8 t h a t t h e performance b u t a l r o t h e dimensionr sad weight of t h e p r o p e l l e r a i r p l a n e a r e f e e t epproaohing t h e i r limit. I f we disregard t h e p o r r i b i l i t y of a f a n t a s t i c , thoroughly r e v e l u t i o n a q invention, t h e aeroplsae i n i t r p r e s e n t f o m t r i g i d ringa, f ~ 8 0 l s g 0 o r b o a t fuselage, lrad motor with p r o p e l l e r b a r l i m i t e d p o r r i b i l i t i e s of develoyuent. Ve can herdly expect t o g e t c a r r y i n g aurfaaee with a b e t t e r r a t i o between u p l i f t snd drag, and p r o p e l l e r a a r e d i f f i c u l t t o improve. The e f f e c t o f inproving t h e p r o f i l e s and forms of t h e winga, t h e f o m s of t h e fumel a g e , and t h e ef2iciency o f t h e motors and p r o p e l l e r s i s t o inprove t h e flying performance only by o l i ttl s 1,or thousand. 3methixlg can s t i l l be achieved b j dok~;: a ' i rwith ~ whole p a r t e o f the aeropl w e ; thue, f o r example, by throwing away the fuselage, r e g e t t h e "wingron17 aeroplanen o r nringle-wing aeroplanen, among ofhera. But even t h i n , in i t 8 p r e r e n t fona, could .lread;r be near t h e limit of i t 8 p e r f e c t i n g capabil i ty. Only t h e aeroplane v e l o c i t i e r eould a t i l l b e increased i f t h e path of f l i g h t t e u l d be moved to higher and more r a r i f i e d l a y e r u of t h e afmoephere. Nevertheloes, 5 p r o p e l l e r is n o t m i t a b l e f o r d r i v i n g much aeroplaner. F i r s t of a l l , it might b e d i f f i c u l t t o b u i l d p r o p e l l e r a t h a t c o d d convert an acceptable m o u n t of t h e f u e l energy into motion of t h e aeroplane i n such t h i n air. Building r o t o r 8 t h a t work well in much thin a i r could a l r o c w e e rome d i f f i c u l t i e r . Moreover, t h e working c a p a c i t y of t h e motor would hare t o be increased enomourly. Neaely, r i t h supersonic rpeedr, t h e r a t i o between drag and u p l i f t becomes r o r e e ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e p u l l of t h e p r o p e l l e r would hsve t e be g r e a t e r r h i l e c a r w i n g t h e same load. S i n c e t h e d i r t e n c e covered i n

one second i a t o be collsiderably increaeed, such a motor would h a r e 40 produce an unearth1y number of horsepower; with t h a t would n a t u r a l l y a n f e i l an enormous weight.
l i

garoline motor,

Fig. 116
( ~ u n i c hI1l u s t r a t e d Preas) Abore a l l , achieving v e l o c i t i e r considerably higher than those
we have reached until today w i t h p r o p e l l e r s w i l l hardly be p o s s i b l e

because of t h e c e n t r i h r g a l force. I t io e a s i l y shorn t h a t , with too high t i p velocity, t h e p r o p e l l e r blades mart simply t e a r o f f . I n s o doing, p r o p e l l e r s i z e plays no r o l e ; improving t h e material only a
very mall one. Hence, f o r a i r c r a f t t h a t a r e to f l y more than 550 kr/hr,

otber means of propulsion rill have t o be nought.

Such a meaaa of propulsion is t h e propul eion appsratua of l i q u i d propelled r o c k e t s described i n t h i s book. The r e l l - h o r n inventor, GANSWINM, was t h e f i r e t t o t h i n k of u s i n g t h e r o c k e t motor. Be made h i e f i r a t euggeetione before 1870. GMSWINDT thought of making compressed a i r f l a x from a t e e l cylinder# and, l a t e r , of a a i n g d y n m i t e
few s c h o l a r s (cf. Vol. 11) wrecked h i s plans. The suggest ionsl of t h e engineer, GdEDICKE
c a r t r i d g e e ; that a s r o l l ae t h e opposition of
tt

(in 1918 he published t h e thm popular journal,

Wan Plies Vithout

Hazat'dn, in t h e Baephestos Pub. House, Ranburg 36, under pseudo~yn

s t i l l do n o t appedr fealrible i n their form a t t h e time. A t present, especial17 VlLIEB i n a t t r a c t i n g much a t t e n t i o n with h i e plan, "F'rau Aeroplane to S p a c e S h i p n (I already r e l a t e d eomething of
of CP-S) t h e hiator;r of h i e invention on p.
208).

VALIER'S p l m i n f i r a t t o

b u i l d simple aeroplane6 rhich, beside t h e p r o p e l l e r , U a o have l i q u i d propollael rocketa b u i l t i n t o t h e c a r r y i n g m r f a c e s . Then t h e p r o p e l l e r &a t o be dropped dltogether, t h e c a r r y i n g s u r f a c e s a r e t o become

araller aad m i l l e r , a d t h e structure i s t o become more and more

campresred u n t i l f i n a l l y a rpaca-ahip similar t o m y model C t t a e r ahape (of. Hgu. 1i6

- 110).

Fig. 117 (~dosicrhI1l u a t r a t e d P r e a r )

VILIEIL'S plan8 a r e v e q a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e layman. The etep-by-step

chaage f r a t h e knom ( t h e aeroplane) t o t h e u n b o r n ( t h e apace-ship)

reermr natural. Berides, with an invention r e r r i n g , &ore all, p r a c t i c a l purpoaer, obtaining funds f o r preliminary experiment. a d derelopmentr re-r t o be e a a i e r then with a pure rocket apace-chip nerving r a t h e r more a c i m t i f i c parpoaer m d t o d v a p p e a r i n ~ f a n t a s t i c t o moat people.

Fig. 118 (bfunich I l l u r t r a t e d ~ r e r r )

I myrelf d i d n o t take t h a t course but, from t h e f i r r t , r e s t r i c t e d q a e l f t o t h e apace-ahip t h a t had merged fram t h e meteorological roaket. 1 war guided by t h e following conriderationr t
a) We quertion i r whether t h e charrge from t h e r u r o p l m e t o rpacer h i p rill be p o r r i b l e st all. & I d r e a d 7 rhored on p. a88 f f , in

rapid f l i g h t t h e rocket may h e a t up 80 rtrongly by f r i c t i o n of the a i r 88 t o meke t h e change from t e r r e s t r i a l t o c o r i o r e l o c i t i e r with longitudinal m r f a c e r whithin t h e atmorphere altogefher h p o r s i b l e . I u n o t r y i n g t h a t it amrt be 80, on1J t h a t it could pomribly be no. I war u u i o u a t o prore, however, t h a t t h e rpace-ship i r c e r t a i n l ~

p o r r i b l a . Moreover, i f one W a r a c l o r e r look rt Pigr. 119 and 180, one reor t h a t a i r a p p u a b r am r c t u a l l y be ured n e i t h e r 68 aeroplane nor a8 apace-rhip. Aa an r e r o p l a a e it lack8 t h e c o r r e c t a e r o d p m i c Porn of t h e o a r w i n g nuriacar and t h e r i g h f proportien of i t 8 part.. For 4 apaoe-.hip w a i n it. n o a r l e m r f a c e i r t o o mall ( t h a t i 8 recogrrirsed i f it i n c a a p u e d with model E , P l a t e IV, o r m y model C, Fig. 17). Berider, t h e c o n r t n t c t i o n of apparatur i r n e t mi+ a l e f o r r w t i c a l a r o m t . Tot, it would h r r o t o arcend from t h e water v e r t i c a l 1 7 a t f i r r t ( c i . p. 848 f f ) . S t a r t i n g from s lurnahing Quarter deck a8 represented i n Fig. 1aOb i r e n t i r e 1 7 imporaible. The air r e r i r t a n o e would be t o o g r e a t and t h e oontrol could n o t be uniform. F i n a l l y , it r o u l d be d i f f i c u l t t o i n s t a l l f u e l t a n k s in t h i s apparatur t h a t can be j e t t i r o n o d . & undivided, 1iquid-propell ed r o c k e t cannot reach i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space and, hence, cannot represent a space-ahip. I t i r a l r o p r e c a r i o u s t o have a manned apace-rhip a l r q y e borne by t h e same propalrion apparstas, *ether it xeighr a00,000 kg o r 3000 kg.

Fig. 119 (Munich I l l u s t r e t e d rear)

VlLIEB d i d n o t have a two-stage rocket i n mind. Thir spparatur, i r t o awry o u t &pace f l i g h t e without j e t t i s o n i n 6 t h e empty p s r t r (1). But ovm i f h e had thought of d i v i d i n g t h e rocket, t h a t would have been d i f f i c u l t to do with t h i r machino. The t a i l , f o r erample, aould n o t be d i r i d e d f u r t h e r becaure it i a t o o rhort. For s e t t i n g t h e whole on top of a second rocket, t h e a i r f i n s would be completely a r e l e a r and i n t h e my. They cannot work r e gaa f i n a ( c f , p. 266) and t h e l r r t r o c k e t of o apace-#hip no l a n g e r need. a i r fin., f o r it boginr working on1J a t a1ti tudes above 150 Iun.

It is n o t e x a c f l y a reeonmendation f o r VALIBRtS technical a b i l i t i e r t h a t he still haa n o t graaped t h e a e t h i n g s after occupying himaelf with thm f o r t h r e e yearn, a f t e r r t u q i n g t h e writinga of G O D I M W , EIOEMNW, and m r r e l f , and a f t e r a correspondence with me about than &hat c d d w e l l coraprire 130 typed pager ( c f , Vol. 1 1 ) .
Aamming t h a t t h e development from t h e aeroplane t o t h e apace-ship occurred r e l a t i v e l y ainoothly and by rtepa, except perhapr f o r one p r e l i m i n q a t s g e of t h i s v e h i c l e (I w i l l ahor l a t e r t h s t even t h a t would have t o be eburdonned c a n p l e t e l y does n o t aqply), t h s t and t h e a c t u a l rpace-ahip b u i l t on t h e b e s i r of t h e theory only The rocket r r i r p l m e i r n o t t h e pro1 h i n s t~ a g e of t h e apace-ship but a a i d e invantion, d t h o u g h it w i l l perhapr be p r a c t i c a b l e .

Cancerning s a f e t y Ln the ohsnge from t h e aeroplane t o apace-ship, I wiah t o make t h e following remark 1 There can n a t u r a l 1 7 be no t a l k of m y rocket barning up mince it only roaches i t 8 f u l l v e l o c i t y outr i d e of t h e e a r t h V r a b o r p h e r e and l a t e r dercende by parachute. That can be r a i d on t h e b r r i r of r e f l e c t i o n . For t h e r e a t , t h e f o l l o x i n g e m be s a i d on t h e t o p i c of r a f e t y r
At, present, artronomy i n t h e moat c e r t a i n end b e a t known n a t u r a l

ecience of all. That cannot be over-emphaeized with reference t o lay-

men. One need only compare a p h y r i c i a n l a p r e d i c t i a n concerning &he occttrence of an e a l i p e e of t h e sun o r t h e appearance of a comet.

Fig. 1tOa

With a apace-ship i n e t h e r apace, t h e mathematical conditions a r e p r e c i s e l y given and t h e connections between t h e l a m of n a t u r e a r e rimple and calculable. And a c t u a l l y no unknown element e n t e r s i n t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n regarding t h e working of t h e s i n g l e machine parts. (with exception of t h e a t m i a a t i o n and c m b u r t i o n of t h e l i q u i d i n t h e propuleion a p p u a t u r . Thir i r s t i l l n o t adequately known, a t l e a s t i n p a r t ; t h a t i r rbJ I placo so much weight on i t s exact r e r e s r c h before b u i l d i n g t h e f i r r t rocket.) The a i r r e s i r t m c e with v e r t i c a l a r c e n t i r r e l a t i v e l y well b o r n by t h e observation of p r o j e c t i l e s ; b e r i d e r , i t only p l y 8 r minor r o l e with l a r g e r rockets. Hence, m y prediction8 concerning t h e rpace-.hip in i n t e r p l a n e t a q space rill

come t r u e as s u r e l y as a prophesied e c l i p s e of t h e sun,aad my state-

illentr concerning t h e technical d e t e i l r a r e , in t h e main, about &a r e l i a b l e a s t h e rtatmuentm of a machine b u i l d e r concerning planned 1ocoaotive model.

Fig* 1tOb

On f h e o t h e r hand, w i t h t h o rocket a i r p l a n e r e a r e dealing with

t h e u p l i f t of carrying mrfaae8, etu.4 i n r h o r t , with s e r o d p a m i c r , in vhich t h e mathmnsticd conditionm a r e drvr given only 8s e x p e r i e n t i a l average d u o 8 of procerrer t h a t a r e extruuely complicatd r s d a r e d i f f i c u l f te m r v e y i n d e t a i l . T h q m y n o t b e t r s n s f e r r d off-hand to e t h e r r e l a t i o n r h i p r of r i s e and velocity. Hence, a damire
i n t h e expectation8 plaaed on t h o rocket r i r p l a a e i r n a t u r a l l y p o s s i b l e
just a m it r r r with the f i r s t aeroplurer. What do we Jmor t o d y , f o r

example, about t h e behavior of a carrying m r f a c e

8%nrperronio

v e l o c i t i e a o r about t h e development of h e a t due t o f r i c t i o n of t h e a i r ? To me, t h s way from t h e aeroplane t o the apace-rhip doer n e t appear r o m t h e known to t h e unknown but, a t t o be a rtep-by-step movement f beat, a detour a c r o r r t h e unknown t o t h e h o r n . Hence I war s ~ e f ? & nlo t t o mix up t h e quertion of t h e rocket a i r p l a n e r i t h t h a t of t h e rooket to i n t e r p l a n e t a q space, f o r , i f t h e rocket a i r p l a n e fail., t h e u n f e r r i b i l i t y of t h e rocket t o i n t e r p l s n e t q apace i t r e l f i m r t i l l f a r from proved. I w8r content t o l e t VALIIB s t a n d &a t h e r o l e inventor of t h e r o c k e t airplane, although I have l i k e x i a e collaborated i n t h e working o u t of t h i n idea. Othermire t h e two would be c o n s t s a f l y confueed. I wn l e a v i n g t h e h o l e r e ~ p o n r i b i l i t yof propagating t h i o idea t o hin. Aa a w r i t e r , it i s n a t u r a l l y much l e s r harmful t o him i f one of h i s ideaa does nof prove feaeible. On t h e other hand, ae a p h y s i c i s t , T must keep from
W i n g r a r h claim8 and r t r i v e to make only ruggemtione whore feaei-

b i l i t y i a establirhed.
A l l t h e raue, I am supporting VILIER in h i e work. Since h e i n n o t s a p e c i a l i s t , I worked out t h e theory of t h e r o c k e t a i r p l a n e a t h i n requeat and, among o t h e r t h i n g r , oalculated a model f o r him. For even though I do n o t regard t h e r o c k e t a i r p l a n e r r p r e l i m i n a q a t a g e

of t h e rpace-rhipt I a t i l l expect r r r i o u r advantages f o r apace-ehip conetraction to come from developing t h i n r i d e invention. a ) Aa I already said, t h e propulrioa apperatur, o r t h e r o c k e t motor i s a c t u a l l y t h e on17 p a r t of t h e rpsce-#hip whoae operation we cannot O n the completely p r e d i c t on t h e b a s i r of our p r e s e n t experience.. b a r i r of our atomization and combuation experiments with combustion enginee, we have maturally oome t o t h e p o i n t where we can say t h a t it w i l l c e r t a i n l y work, this way o r t h a t way. But how it rill work b e s t we j u s t do n o t know y e t . I t would b e d e s i r a b l e t o have several

hundred r r u p l o r of t h i r machine snd operate it d a i l y under o b r e m t i o n of t h e p'ilot. l b u r much more experience aould be gathered and c a r t 1 7 p r e l h i n q experimentr avoided.
b) W e can only hope t h a t , in no doing, rornething can b e l e a r n t

regarding the behavior of c a r r y i n g eorfacen a t auperaonic speed, h e a t i n g of t h e r s l l a by f r i c t i o n of t h e air, etc. Perhapr t h e r e m l f r rill ahow t h a t a i r - f o i l landing ( c f . p. 304 f f ) i r p o r r i b l e , r h i c h , as I rhored t h e r e , would coneiderably f a c i l i t a t e rpace f l i g h t . c) The i d e a of t h e r o c k e t a i r p l e n e i a b e t t e r a b l e t o popularize rocketry than i r t h e i d e a of t h e m a i l rocket. Unfortunetely, VALIXR has n o t f o l l owed a l l m y advice, nor doer h i a propagszlda a o t i r i t y appear t o have been s u i t a b l e a t a l l timer, Be h a s n o t penetrated the material very deeply (I rill r h o r t h a t repeatedly). Whoever doubt8 t h e f oarribil it7 of t h e rocket a i r p l a a e o r t h e r o c k e t apace-ahip merely on t h e b a a i r of VALIER'S r e p r e r e n t t i t i o n r would do well n o t t o throw o u t t h e baby with t h e bath. Agai. and again I r a r a b l e t o d i r p e r s e engineerr' and p h y r i ~ i r t . ~ objection8 t o VJLIEEttS p r o j e c t . F i r r t , I would l i k e t o rhow h e r e how I conceive of t h e a i r p l a n e and then r h o r what VALIER he8 mggerted and why I agree with him mggertione, I can only g i v e a g e n e r d view over, I would g l a d l y p r o r i d e i n t o r e r t e d parronn with exact e z p l m a t i o n e a t any time. rocket do n o t here5 hewdetailed

The following conditionr apply t o t h e mode of operation of t h e rocket a i r p l a n e r

1) It can,f l y much f a s t e r t h m the p r o p e l l e r airplane.

a l s o f l y famter. According t o .hat rar r a i d on p. go7 f f , only in t h i r w v can t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of f u e l be helfefficient.

9) So t h e aim murt be t o achieve conaiderable v e l o c i t i e r quickly.
4) Tbe main p o r t i o n of t h e f l i g h t muat b e covered a t a conmiderable

a) In general, it

a l t i t u d e . For, according t o what -6 r a i d on p. 83 f f , conriderable n l o c i t i e r can be a t t a i n e d o n l r i n t h i n air.

5 ) Hence,

it m a t arcend i n a very r t e e p carve (rimilsr t o t h e

) order to reach t h e neaersary a l t i t u d e r o c k e t l i n e r in Figr. 744 1 ~ in quickly.

6) Conrmquentl~, t h e r o c k e t n o a z l e r m o t be ao s t r o n g t h a t

timer t h e f u l l weight of t h e v e h i c l e could r f i l l hang from them. Am important a d w t a g e over t h e p r o p e l l e r a i r p l a n e following from i r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r o c k e t a i r p l a n e ean t h a t , mong o t h e r thing., arcend end dercond v e r t i c a l l y while hanging by i t 6 n o r t l e r .
7) With regard t o r f a r t i n g and laading, r e need n o t keep r l a v i r h l y

t o t h e a m p l e of t h e p r o p e l l e r a i r p l m e . The abrupt change from a r c o n t i n g l i d i n g f l i g h t t o v e r t i c a l a r c e a t would have t o be made r o m e r o r l a t e r w.W i t h amaller mechiner, t h e i d e a could b e conridered of h a r i n g t h e a i r p l a n e r t e n d on f o u r r h e e l r before t h e rtart (of. Fig. la$), t o each p a i r of d i c h the e l e n t o r r could b e a t k c h e d . I f t h e r e r t u d r a r e long enough, t h e apparatur caa ascend from t h i r po4idion. Daring f l i g h t t h e r t u d r would then harm to b e folded back, u .horn in Fig. l a g . I f a i r rtart rhould n o t prove good due t o the turbulmcm produced t h e eshaurt gamer, t h e a r c a n t would have t o b e made from a l m c h i n g pad a m reprmronted in Fig. 183, ( ~ b ~ $ o u r l yam , rerodpanic p r o b l r

~ i g .i a i

Fig. ilH!

Fig* i P 3

i r involved h e r e elro. T e r t r could be aondueted w i t h mall modelr

i d e n t i c a l i n ahape.) The lranching p d f i n a l l y r t a n d r elmort v e r t i c a l . Thir t ~ p e of a r c e n t m a t be canridered with l a r g e r rocket a i r p l m e r because it i r imporriblo t o meke t h e four r f u d r on which mch mrrr i r t o otand r u f f i c i m t l y l i g h t . One of t h e e r r o r o found in Fig, iPO i r t h a t t h e launching p d is too ahallow. The t i p of f h e g i g e n t i e rpacer h i p would f l o p down a t the end of the p l a t f o m , (Provided it would reacrh t h e m d of t h e platform st all witheut l e e r i n g the For

t h a t u t t e r , it could k p o r a i b l y h e r e t h e speed a t t h e end e f t h o platform r e q u i r e d t o rske it f l o a t in the p o r i t i o n indicated. With TO^ l a r g e mschinea, arc&. from t h e water would be moat expedient. Here t h e e l e v a t o r with t h e r t u d r would h e r e to be h e l d down by memo of chainr (of. Fig. 1S3s); t h e chainr would a l r o b e required becauro they alone cur hold t h e apparatus in a v e r t i c a l pernition if t h e nozzle. do n o t i g n i t e a t t h e rmme time. & roan as all t h e n o c a l e r burn, t h e a p p a r a t a r would l i f t i t r e l f fram t h e water together ritb t h e chsina, which could then be jettisoned.

Fig. it38
I caaoot recommand t h e type of a r c e n t mggerted by H O -

(cf.

8hlkPVol. 11). I n t h e f i r r t place, t h a t would r e q u i r e eompletol~. eoas r t a r t i n g of t h e nozsler. Secondly, eren in t h e most t a r o r a b l e case, t h e apparatus would g l i d e on t h e r u r f a c e of t h e m t e r fu rome time, at which l a r g e r waver would r h a t t e r t h e thin w a l l , and t h e maahine could n o t become air-borae at all because, st t h e in8tarrt i n which only the r e a r edge touches t h e water, a t o r r i o n a l moment would w i r e which would hurl t h e t i p i n t o t h e r a t e r .

I n l a d i n g , t h e a e r o p l m e would f l o a t st lower r e l o c i t i e r b e a w a e of t h e mnaller weight and hence it could land i n g l i d i n g f l i g h t .

8) The need of a t t a i n i n g a higher v e l o c i t y and t h e p o r r i b i l i t ~ of

arcending without s t a k e - o f f run p u t a g r e a t e r l o r d on t h e oarqing

r u r f a c e r sad n e c e a r i t a te compact c o n r t r u c tion. Tho r e l a t i r e l y 1i g h t b u i l d of today'r p r o p e l l e r J E i v m a w o p l a n e r r e r u l f r from t h e necer-

.it7 of alrehdy f l o a t i n g a t l o r r e l o c i f y . Heaca I m g g e s t b u i l d i n g t h e rocket a i r p l a n e without a furel.ge, e r r e n t i a l l y c o n s i s t i n g of only a a i n g l e t h i c k c a r r y i n g surface. Thir c a r r y i n g s u r f a c e i a t o accammodete t h e nozzler provided with r e g u l a t i n g rodr, a r i n d i c a t e d i n Fig. ab, a8 well as t h e p i l o t r l room. The intervening space i r t o be f i l l e d w i t h propellaa-. I t might a l s o be f e a s i b l e to f i l l t h e s u r f a c e r of t h e e l e n t o r s H with fuel and u r e it f i r a t (cf. p. 266). That f a c i l i t a t e r v e r t i c a l ascent, b u t t h e h o r i z o n t a l c e n t r o l becomes more u n s t a b l e t h m with unreighted elerrrtora. The control cabin must be a i r t i g h t end, i f poaaible, permit s c l e a r v i e r on el1 aidee; hence, t h e bottom m a t be of g l a a r p l a t e . That can be covered with v i r e uetting t o protect it.
9) With t h i s compact type of c o n s t r u c t i o ~ , Cie nechenical advsrhtage

i s l o s t which birds aud lightly-buil t rreroylmles draw frod v e l o c i t y

differcmcea i n p1at.y r i n d ( c f . e.g. WISXER a Science of Flying power). A t higher a l t i t u d e s , t h i s mechanical advantage would b e l o s t anywey, f o r t h e a i r movenent becoues uniform higher up. Besidee, h e r e t h e lose favorable u p l i f t conditions a t aupersoaic rpeedr must be taken i n t o account. Even i n t h e b e s t instance, I only f i g u r e with an angle of g l i d e of 1 a 5. The g r e a t e r expenditure in f u e l i r t h e p r i c e r e must pay f o r t h e increaae i n v e l o c i t y .
10) The f l i g h t would proceed amnewhat aa follows r

A.

Steep s a c a n t in a curve similar t o t h e r o c k e t l i n e s descrjbed

on p. 227 f f . A t an a l t i t u d e of 1 0 t o 40 b, t h e carve changes t o a horizontal l i n e ; during this part of t h e f l i g h t , t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n ehould be a s high a s possible. A t t h e end of thim p e r t of t h e ray, f u l l v e l o c i t y of t h e megnitude of t h e enhavat v e l o c i t y c ehould be reached.

B.
C.

Horizontal f l i g h t w i t h a v e l o c i t y cloae t o c 1)

S h u t t i n g o f f t h e motor; dencent in g l i d i a g f l i g h t .

S t e r t i n g t h e j e t a once more, uprighting t h e apparatun, d e c e l e r a t i n g t h e v e l o c i t y , and l s n d i n g v e r t i c a l l y . Fig. 184 rcrheplr t i c a l l y nhows t h e t r a j e c t o r y of a rocket a i r p l a n e . I d i d n o t draw it t r u e t o nature, o t h e r v i s e 1) i t would have been too lor, P) t h e n a t u r e of t h e portion C would n o t have been apparent. Actually, it i r s curved l i n e t h a t hardly drop8 a t t h e beginning. 9) The p o r t i o n D would n o t have b e m virrible,

D .

11) (frroline, kerorene, o r alcohol could aerve aa fuel. Beside

t h a t , l i q u i d o q g e n would h a r e to be c a r r i e d along. If one r a t e d to u t i l i z e t h e atraorpheric air in combustion, t h e pumpr required r i t h t h e low d m r i t y of t h e air and t h e enomour q u a n t i t y of fuel t o be b u r n t would be too l a r g e and too heavy. The i n j e c t i o n and coabuntion of t h e s e stuff8 would be a i m i l a r t o t h a t with my rockets. The f u e l tank0 r o u l d have t o be under exceer p r e a m r e . Hence, v i a complret conrtrilctioa of t h e r o c k e t a i r p l a n e , t h e p r i n c i p l e of
c 7

.-.*----

'I I have 1 i k n i . e inreatigsted t h i s p a r t of t h e f l i g h t , r i n c e t h i n book i r auppored to contain a complete theory of t h e rooket a i r p l a n e i n which t h i n cane must d u o be taken i n t o account. According t o t h e q n e r g y p r i n c i p l e , it i r to be expected f h a t t h e rocket a i r p l a n e w i l l work b e t t e r i f t h e f u e l s which it r t i l l h e r a t p o i n t 1 w e i r n e d i a t e l y u t i l i s e d under t h e h i g h e r t p o r r i b l e a c e e l e r e t i o n , because it t h u s burn8 a t a higher velocity. I rill r e t u r n t o t h i r l a t e r .

r i g i d f i l l i n g (pneunatio s t r e n g t h ) oamld a l r o be applied. In a i r v, almoat a m much fuel could b e taken along ar with r l i q u i d - p r o p e l l e d roaket, about 6 7 timer a s m c h br weight a8 t h e machino.

1 1 9 )W h m c s l c u l r t i n g t h e f u e l conrumption, t h e following are approximete guide l i n e r t With very l a r g e machine., it could b e r c e e r h a t higher. With t h o r e being conridered, it ournot be higher, f o r h e r e t h e v e l o c i t y murt n o t a o e e d t h e r r l u e 3 (cf. Chapter 8). At t h e a l t i f o d e of 10 Irr, t h e air r e # i r t a n o e (cf. p. 170) r o u l d be n o t i c e d ar moat incoavenirnt. Here t h e aeroplane would h a r e a v e l o c i t y of 560 m/rec and t h e f l i g h t d i r e a t i o n rn i n c l i n a t i o n of about 50. toward t h e horizontal. I n t h i r a m c a t , 4/10 of the t o m i d e a l propulrjon would be l e r t through air r e r i r k a c e and g r a v i t a t i o n . I f , s t t h e end of t l t i s r t r e t c h , t h e v e l o c i t y i r mpposed t o be
On d i s t a n c e A, the initial acceleration i r 10 m/reea.

1=
a t which

1.67.c,

mo must equal 4.5'

O n the

m1 (of. p. 60).

map, t h e p l a c e of a r c m t rould be a d i r t w c e of 60 150 h from t h e end p o i n t of a i r curve. Fornnrlar (135) t o (159) apply t o . t h e f l i g h t om r t r e t c h A
With t h e rapaining f u e l , t h e rocket a i r p l a n e then t r e r e l r t h e d i s t r a c e B r o t h a t r i a i o n r k a t l y kept equd to c. Here only t h e drag i r overctme. At t h e rame time, t h e rooket a i r p l a n e i s e t i l l being i a 8 l i f t e d 80 t h a t it dry8 ramsin8 a t t h e a l t i t u d e i n rhiah, v

v e l o c i t y of c h / r e e , t h e r a t i o between dreg ead u p l i f t i r t h e moat a d m t q e o u a . Since t h e mssr i n r t a s d i l r decrearing, it m e t r t e e r to ever higher 1qJerr of t h e atmorphere; y e t t h i r rime of r few knr p l v r no r o l e worth mentioning on mch r long r t r e t c h .

Since t h e drag p amount6 t o 1/6 of t h e weight, according t o t h e l a w of h p u l r e , the following must be true t

From t h a t f 01 1ow8

W e can f i n d t h e iengtb of d i s t m c e B, i f we t a k e B

- (ta- tl)*o.

The calcrrlatiolrr f e r d i r t a n c e C u e made e e q the f a c t that, with non-operating nosaler, we u r e fba theorem of t h e c a n r e r m t i a n of m e r w (cf. Chapter it). A t t h e beginning of t h i r r t r e t c h C, t h e 1 rocket .irpl.ae ha. t h e k i n e t i c e n e r n = -81 .cP end t h e p o t a n t i d e n e r m Pa

~ p * g * h where ~, ha r e p r e r s n t r t h e 8 l t i t u d e of t h e vehicle

above t h e ground. So i t r t o t a l inherent m e r w i r

Aa I r a i d on p. 307, with t h e c o n t r s l r r o t c o r r e c t l y , t h e reroplane mrt r i n k r o t h a t it a l r q y r f l i e r in t h a t l y e r of t h e rtmorphere \ in which t h e u p l i f t r r t i o i r t h e morf f r v o r d l e w i t h t h e w l o a i t f it h r r at We time, If p i r t h e f o r c e needed f o r propulrion and C t h e . dirtrrrce covered during d i r r i p a t i o n of t h o aorm Ea, then o b r i o u r l y

( h e r e r e m v equate t h e d i r t m a e en t h e rrp rith t h e actual d i r t a c e covered), I f we r o t p . I . . , we obtain

I

W e c e l c u l r t e t h e period of f l i g h t on t h i r r t r e f e h r e followr r Obviourlr

dl3 =

- pr-dt.

l b t h o r m o r e , according t o (103),

Therein aeropl.oe.

M is

constant dependent on t h e c a n r t r u a t i g n of t h e i m t h e air d m r i t y . Thir followr (197) r

-7

(34) thir followr r

Ifg

deaignatee t h e air d e n r i t y on t h e earthf B r n r f r c r , f r o m

h = H ( l n ~1 . p ~

) = H (lnpo

- ++ a
ln

l n v).

(108)

From t h a t , thir follow8 br d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

From t h a t , u r i n g (195) and (196) in t h e elimination of dE and dh, t h i r follorr :

I f we m b r t i t u t e t h e exheuet v e l o c i t y c = 1500 Jaec, highemt a t t a i n a b l e maer r a t i o to be m, -- = 7.8,

4

asaume t h e

ma

and f i n a l l j m b a t i t u t e

p =

we f i n d t h a t

Thm, f o r t h e l o n g e r t f l i g h t diafsace, re f i n d t h a t
A = 100 h;

B =

450 h;

C = 800 ;bn.

So t h e f a r t h e r & a t t a i n a b l e f l i g h t d i r t a n c e r o u l d be A
1360 h z .

+B +

For t h e period of f l i g h t r e would obtain :

If we 8 . t

vS = S O m/reo,

ta

- t1

1950 m/mec.

For rJ = 30 m/eeo,

t3

f a = 3950 roc. Thirr f l i g h t would l a s t rough1J @a hour.

r a i d on p, -385, t h e f l i g h t on t h e s t r e t c h B c a n t r u l i c t n t h e r e q u i r m a n t of burning a t a high re1ocit;r. L e t u r nappose we had continued f l ~ i n g w i t h t h e higherrt 8 ~ ~ 0 l e r a t i 0 I ab t p o i n t (1); t a k i n g t h e sach,iixe_ i n t o account, t h a t could be q u i t e conriderable, f o r , a t t h i a high velocity, t h e r o c k e t a i r p l a n e would quick17 reach higher a l t i t u d e r even w i t h a ehallow a n g l e of a s c e n t and, o t h e r thinga being equnl, w i t h an a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e of 10 t o 11 ta, t h e value of 7 doubl em. Therefore, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n need be r e r t r i c t e d only on account o f t h e paerengerr.
An I alro*

Lnuming t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n amount. t o 30 m/aeca and, f o r our calculat i o n , n e a t b a t e t h e d e c e l e r a t i n g influence. t o be l m/aeca ( ~ e r h a p . t h a t i r too l o r a f i g u r e a i n c e a t t h e beginning t h e rocket a i r p l a n e f l i e a on a t r a j e c t o r y i n c l i n e d Po upward. To compensate f o r t h e e r r o r I w i l l rolrnd o f f d-ward). 1 ; t h i ~ care, bxp = M m/rtca. Since

V~

= 750 m/rec,

rp

- rl

= 660 m/sec. Name17 h e r e

Thua, va would have equalled 3160 m/nec and

and t h e n t r e t c h B of t h e rcy would have become

The aeroplane would have had t o a l b b another 0

10 km i n order t o

r
I

f l y under t h e most a d v a n t q ~ e o u sconditions w i t h t h e new velociCy and t h e e n a l l e r masa. I f , i n t h e previous example, p o i n t 1 had cm e l t i t u d e of 50 Irr, p o i n t 8 haa an a l t i t u d e of roughly 60 b . Therefore, t h e p o t e n t i a l energl i 8

t h e k i n e t i c energy would b e

sad, according t o (194), re f i n d t h a t

Thue, t h e whole f l i g h t d i s t a n c e would b e expreseed in f i g u r e a rounded o f f t o h d r e a of 100 JQI a

In t h i a case, t h e rooket a i r p l a n e f l i e 8 f a r t h e r with t h e same queati* of fbel. In a d d i t i o n , t h e aame f l i g h t d i a t m c e r o a d be corered in a

a h o r t e r time. Neverthelear, one r s o a r k may n o t be 8l together m p e r f l u o u r bere. With mch high r e l o c i t i e a , r e do n o t know how g r e a t t h e h e a t foxmation rill b e due t o t h e sir f r i c t i o n and whether r e rill be a b l e t o control it. I am n o t a f r a i d of minor h e a t formation; on t h e c o n t r a q , it haa two a d m t a g e a a
1) It makes a r t i f i c i a l h e a t i n g of t h e oboerrer'a cabin st higher

1) The r t e u derived from t h e cooling of propulsion i f r e l e t it flor o a t *rot@ e r p e c i d l y convenient i n t h e e i r c o u k n c e water raporise a t room t a p e r a t a r e . So r e a m far the e c o n q i r concerned, elthough a e o r y of rocketry.

r r t e r provider a good l o t t h e n o s s l ~ . m a t $s , that rr cur l e t Ute oooling cam Ira- rome f u e l a t l e a a t n o t w i t h regard t o the

Another meadion rhiah w i l l likewire have t o be e a r n r e d in t h e f b t u r e i r rhether t h e nozsler can a e t u d l y a k . d burning f o r 9 minuW8; t h e r o l u t i m r y be t o have t h e rockef airplane born f o r a s h o r t time only aad repeatedly l e t t h e ~ o s s l e r oool off f o r rome t h e o r t o e p i p it ri t h a1t e r n a t e l y working noszl en. f l i g h t distance increarer aa t h e rqunre of t h e oshuaat r o l o c i t y urd d i r e c t l y 88 t h o u p l i f t r a t i o . Wring k e r o r m e we would o b k i n erhanrt v e l o c i t i o r around 1800 m/nec and f l i g h t diatencer of Z1450 hm; a r i n g w e l i n e o r ethyl J c d r o l u h a u o t r e l o c i t i e r of up to 1000 m/rec end . k t t h a t would be the atmoat f h a t f l i g h t d i r t m o e r of up t o 9000 h could be achieved with a aimple rockef rirplaue. If r i a i o n r s i o r here aad t h e r e dream of ororring the A t l u r t i o Oceen (VALIER, f o r a m p l e , w r i t e r in a p r o c l u a t i a n t @@Such uahiner would m . g e dirtancen q y a l t o t h a t f r n Ehrope t e America .w; HOl!FFT e l a h a the r u e f o r h i e R.B.v.), t h 6 t muat be relegated t o t h e realm of fabler. Without propulrion rocketn vhiah cam be jettironed l a t e r o r nimilrr a u x i 1 i . r ~meurn t h a t c.p certain17 n o t be echievod.
5 0

...

... ..

I) One e m , a t the s o r t , uuffer from cold during t h e l a r t qunrter t o

h a l f hour before landing. Wlt t h e p r o b l r of freesing w i l l n o t be n r care, t h e f l i g h t w i l l be undertaken no ar t o l a a d acute, for, in u io daylight, urd above 7 h t h e ma i r d r e w q u i t e rur.

For longer d i s t m c e r , it w i l l p r e m m b l y be b e a t to construct t h e rho1 l spparatur of a j e t propul r i o n aeropl m e r (af P l a t e 1 1 1 , Fig. c), t h e l a r g e r (Fig. B), r e a r one of which playa t h e r o l e of a propulsion rocket r i m i l a r t o t h e rlcohol r o c k e t of model B. When i f 8 f u e l r a r e exhaurted, t h e c o - p i l o t stationed a t H guider it to e a r t h i a gliding f l i g h t while t h e forauort aeroplane (main aeroplane* Fig. A) continuer in so10 n i g h t .

Fig. D r h o r r one r i d e of f h e main aeroplane with t h e upper w a l l removed and t h e o u t s i d e nocsle out i n the middle. Fig. E daorr t h e rame machine p a r t in profile. P reprerent8 t h e pump chanberr, h e r r having t h e form of c ~ l i r r d r i c a lp i p e r a d , a t t h e rame t h e , rerving t o reinforce t h e f r o n t edger. 0 a r e t h e even&, w t h e c o l l e c t i n g and feed piper, F t h e noaaler; t h e r e rid- t r a n a v e r s a l l ~ , a t f i r r t , u n t i l they touch each other end then t h q widen v e r t i c r l l y . Therefore, rll ttte n o r s l e r end in a r i n g l e nozsle chamber ahaped l i k e a t r i a n g u l a r p r i m i n t o which t h e f r o n t edge of fbe u a s i l i w y aeroplane f i t a , A8 i r reen, f h e rodr of f b e main aeroplane, .hose b c t i o n it i r t o hold t h e r t a b i l i s i n g m r f a c e r & r i a 4 f r e e f l i g h t , a r e a o n r m i m t l y l a i d over t h e f r o n t p a r t of t h e a u x i l i a r y aeroplane end fartoned there. That maker a a o l i d conneetion po8aible ( f o r c o n t r a s t , cf. R . R . 6 o r B.H 7, Vol. 11).
I have l e f t o u t r e g u l a t ing rodr becaure h e r e they do n o t meet
t h e r e q u i r m e n t r of t h e c r i t e r i o n en p. 60

True, t h e r i d e aperture angle of t h e n o e s l e chambar i r awkward. I do n o t believe, however, t h a t it rill h u m t h e e f f e o t of t h e rearr u d t h r u r t , I f t h e n a s s l e r eperatwl in a r i d e vaouum rpsoe, t h e out-flow re1 o c i t ~ would . 1i k e l ~ be . 10 80 $ lower thrrr w i t h 7. nossl er.

Here, however, t h e gaaer m e r e l ~ .e n t e r a c f l i n d r i c d vacuum c w l e d t h e rocket airplane, a t whore edger t h q a r e rtopped. I n 80 doing,

they d i r e c t l y s e r v e aa a prop f o r t h e on-aaming gases. Fig. F showa t h a t t h e air jacket h e r e p l a y s a r o l e s i m i l a r to t h a t of t h e l e s a convergent extension of t h e nozzle and t h e gee f i n s of t h e hydrogen r o c k e t of s o d e l B. I have only dr8Un the flow l i n e 8 hapharsrdly here. A t p r e n m t , t h e i r c r a r s e i e a c t u a l l y n o t y e t h o r n . According t o what w a s s a i d on p. 267 concerning gaa f i n e , t h i a e f f e c t could be strengthened i f t h e elevator6 were brought f o r r a r d t o t h e edge of t h e nozzle. Hence, I do n o t consider t h i a form v e q convenieat f o r reaeons of aonstruction -- 6s compelling.

--

For t h e r e s t , t h e l a s t word h e r e i s n a t u r a l l y reserved t o experience with n o a s l e ~of t h i s form. If it ehould n o t prove i t s e l f , the s o l u t i o n sketched in Fig, G i n still possible. Here t h e nosalee a r e placed one crbove We o t h e r i n p a i r s . Thie forrn h a s t h e disadvantage t h a t t h e apparatus cannot c a r r y aa m c h f u e l . Perhapa, however, one aircumstcnce helpe a8 oat: I believe, with such long pipes, t h e oven can be dirpenaed w i t h , s i n c e here t h e f u e l a have s u f f i c i e n t time t o burn. I n t h i r case, t h e n a t u r a l t h i n g t o do would be t o consolidate atomizer, ovena, and noszleai i n a s i n g l e cone-shaped apparatus md i n s t a l l it a s shorn i n Fig. G. l e a v i n g t h e aolution of t h e problem with t h i n apparatus open in p a r t . I consider it p r a a a t u r e t o work out conatruction p l a n s in d e t a i l before t h e n a t u r a l lawn which m a t be observed are thorough1y h o r n .
spr

A s is apparent, I

I hare n o t i n d i c a t e d the conatruction of t h e a u x i l i a r y aeroplane here, aince we do n o t s e e t o o c l e a r l y on t h i r point. I n p r i n c i p l e , it should be conceived o t l i k e t h e alcohol rocket of model E (cf. P l r t e IV).
Now t h e question a r i s e s whether, a f t e r t h e f u e l 8 a r e exhauoted,

such a lerge m d ~~~~~~~~built aeroplane as t h e u u i l i e r y aeroplaae crzr r t i l l land in g l i d i n g f l i g h t , I f t h i r rhould n o t mcce&d (here it i r once again evident how problcmrtia t h e whole idea of t h e rocket a i r p l a n e still i r t o w ) one could n a t u r a l l y think of a parechute landing with a retro-rocket (a8 w i t h t h e alcohol rocket of model E), Nererthelerr, I f i n d it more connendeble to ume numeroom, mall, unmanned propulrion rocketr which l s n d r i n g l y by means of parachute r a rolotion r h i c h could r l r o be conridered with apace-rhipr, Then t h e launching e i t e would asfurally h a r e t o a e e t c e r t a i n conditions ( l s r g e m t e r nrrface o r st least m a r e a s u i t a b l e f o r t h e dercent of t&e a e c o n d w rocket, l a r g e meadow, n o t too much f o r e r t o r cultivated land, etc,), The place of dercent of t h e r e secondary rocketr i t r e l f ceuld r l r o be controlled only t o rithia r radium of 10 hp, h i c h would r t i l l Purther l i m i t t h e a r a b i l i t y of the overaesr rocket airplane.

S c h a r r c b i n e coald oaafortably c r e r r t h e A t l a n t i c Ocew, and, i f l i q u i d h ~ d r o g e nwere d r r o ured in w e main a e r o p l m e (indeed only berid* aeetylearo, .hiah rill prove t o be b e t t e r higher up than in t h e lower staonphere, o r gasoline), it could reach m y point & e a r t h r i n c e it could a t t a i n c i r c u l a r velocity.
If one doer n o t d a h t o f l j a r far er aa undirided rocket a i r p l u m

could go in t h e u t r u n e

C8607

t h e r t r e t c h B must be rhortened f i r a t ,

If it drop. o u t c o l p l e t e 1 ~ , then

2
1
&

= 4.6 and, f o r o = $600 Jreo,

t h e f l i g h t d i r t s a c e i r r p p r o x ~ t e l y1000 h r .
S t i l l r h o r t e r f l i g h t d i r t s n c e r a r e achieved if, from t h e
VBV

beginning, the v e l o c i t y is n o t forced up t o r = c. Thai e r p e o i a l l y t h e d i a t m c e covered during t h e d i n r i p a t i o n becomer correapomdingly rhorter

&en

with rocket a i r p l m e r vhich & e r.

n o t auppored t o f l l far,

heavy f r o n t e l a r e a l o a d i n g should b e aimed f o r i n o r d e r n o t t o l o s e t o o much f u e l t o a i r r e s i s t a n c e a t t h e beginning,

- Here t h e weight

of t h e motors, u%ich make up n o s t of t h e weight of t h e p r o p e l l e r - d r i v e n aeroplane, h a r d l y p l a y s a r o l e ; t h e p r o p u l s i o n a p p a r a t u s a r e very l i g h t and i n c r e a s e t h e weight by s c a r c e l y 000

500 kg.

U t i l i z a t i o n of t h e f u e l s t A r o c k e t a i r p l a n e weighing 4000 kg with payload b u t w i t h o u t t h e p r o p e l l a n t a would r e q u i r e 94,000 kg of propell a n t s t o f l y 1700 km. As s t a t e d , I b e l i e v e t h a t r i t h t h e p e c u l i a r l y compact c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h e pnemnatic r i g i d i t y as well a s t h e r e l a t i v e l y h i c h s p e c i f i c weight of t h e p r o p e l l a n t a it can a c c m o d a t e s o much f u e l .

- With

t h e p r o p e l l e n t , one can f i g u r e 1 kg g a s o l i n e t o 4

kg oxygen. So t h e f l i g h t would r e q u i r e 4000

19,gOO kg oxggen. T h i s f u e l would c o a t 3000 payload would be 5

- 5000 M.
ilr
E

- 4800 kg garnoline and 20,000The payload could r a p i d , t h a t would still The v e h i c l e j u e t

4.6.

&;~ountt o 600 kg, s o t h a t t h e c o s t of t h e p r o p e l l a n t s a l o n e p e r kg of

- 8 M.

Since t h e delivery
"'0

b e a r e a s o n a b l e nun. For a 800-km f l i g h t , payload of -00

d e s c r i b e d (provided t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t a v a i l a b l e apace) could c a r r y a kg b e s i d e e1,POO kg of p r o p e l l a n t . Here t h e c o s t of t h e p r o p e l l a n t p e r kg of pcqyload would be only 1.00 M . N a t u r a l l y , i f I were t h e b u i l d e r , I would n o t i m e d i a t e l y b u i l d a v e h i c l e with a c a p a c i t y of $8,000 kg (although, i n l e n g t h and width, t h e v e h i c l e would h a r d l y be l a r g e r than a middl e-sized monoplane of today).
I would f i r s t experiment with t h e atomization and combnetion o f l i q u i d s ( c f . Vol, 11) end examine t h e exhaust v e l o c i t i e s of r o c k e t

nozzles. Then I would b u i l d t h e m a i l r o c k e t anc: r i t h i t a c q ~ ~ i r th ee n e c e s s a r y experience. Only +en t h e % a i l r o c k e t works s a t i s f a c t o r i l y would I b u i l d wide, f l a t r o c k e t s s i m i l a r t o JUNKJ3RtS all-wing a i r p l a n e

i n o r d e r with it t o o b t a i n t h e needed experience concernins t h e behavior

of such a p p a r a t u s a t supersonic v e l o c i t i e s .

Only .hen everything functions f a u l t l * r t ~ l ~ in ~ )a l l t h e s e preliminary rtagea would I b u i l d a amall pi1 o t l ere, automatical1~-control1ed model f o r t h e r o l e purpose of doing rerearch on t h e s t a r t i n g and landing of rocket a i r p l a n e r (length of t h e studs, r a p i d i t y of ascent, etc.). Then I would b u i l d a l a r g e aeroplane according t o t h i a p a t t e r n which can c a r r y a men a l o f t and r i s e .some 50 km. I n e t e r d of r h e e l r , I would use 4 pontoons a t t h e beginning and ( r o ar n o t t o h a r e t o make t h e pontoon8 too l a r g e ) r e t t h e rho1 e on a raft when a t a r t i n g . L a t e r I would try l m d i n g with d e e l e on land, With t h i r aeroplane I would, above a l l , i n v e s t i g a t e t h e behavior of t h e c a ~ r y i n g eurfacea a t v e l o c i t i e r upwards of 100 m/rec. Basically, t h i r experience can a l s o be acquired by other memo. JOHANNES WINXLER, Brerlau, suggerted 1e t t i n g a i r from a funnel-shaped n o s s l e flow again& a c a r r y h g tmrface a t auperaonic velocity, Naturall y , that i a poreible only up t o 460 m/rrec; t h e a i r cannot be forced o a t f a s t e r t h a t that. Dr. BUSEMdlW i r a t presemt conducting t h e ~ e experiments a t t h e Aerodynamicr I n e t i t u t e in a(lttingen. I do n o t know

' ) I t i a evident fran Fig. 134 t h a t t h e j e t - p r ~ p e l l e dwroplone m a t aacend l i k e a rocket (otherwire we would have r c ( 9 r 5 , Cf. p. 92 ), 60 r e cannot b u i l d it before r e have t h e neceerary experience regarding the ascent of rockets.
IDaddition, t h e propulrion apparatnr u r i n g l i q u i d i t e l s i r indirpeneable f o r rocket airplane., (1n t h e f i r s t place, t h e required mas8 r a t i o s cannot be obtained with porder rocketr and, eecondly, it i r impoarible t o b u i l d a porder rocket t h a t i r r a f e t o operate, a s t h e numerourr rocket expl orione t h i a year have taught. Cf, al so Vol XI.) Before it i e used i n rocket airplenea, however, it must be adequately t e a t e d i n umnanned spparatur.

t h e r e r u l t s a t t h i r time 1)

A.B. SCHERSCHENSICP would l i k e t o incresee our knowledge i n t h i 8 a r e a by ahooting h e a v p l m e nodelr from catapul t r m d pbotogrsphing

them during f l i g h t i n t h e aame rry a s i a curtormaq w i t h p r o j e c t i l e & . R u n t h e r e photographr, conclariona can be &em regarding occurring forces. Neverthelea., I belie- r e rill be a b l e t o dirpenre with experiment8 w i t h manned modelr of t h e rocket a i r p l a n e i t r e l f .

f would a l t e r t h e rocket a i r p l a n e rith one occupant i n so f a r a8 t h a t might p r o m necersary. I would them inmediate17 b u i l d t h e 18,000kg r e h i a l e according t o this model, f o r I do n o t b e l i e r e in t h e p r a c t i c -

a b i l i t y of a rocket a i r p l a n e whore moat advantageour v e l o c i e i r 5(400 m/rea. W e can achieve mch a high moet adrantageour velocity only i f m 1 7 t h e weight in r e l a t i o n to t h e p r o f i l e i r r e v g r e a t , and t h a t aaa o be fhe c a r e with h e e v mewhiner. Nor m a l d it be a great help if r e made t h e carrying aurtacea thinner, f o r here t h e a i r r e r i a f a n c e doer n o t depend only on the crone-uection but d o o on the line- c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n againat fhe wing 8 n r t a e e P ) . m i n g a r c a t , t h e rocket a i r p l a n e muat be regarded a8 a flattened-out l i p i d - p r o p e l l e d rocket
m a d if, w i t h the l a t t e r ,

Ti

i r n o t much g r e a t e r than

r t u c k i n the a i r , no t o rpeack. beoome too great.

-

m,t h e

LS, it r u i n . a

dead weight would r l a o

-- 3

In t h e r e a n t i n e I h a m beam informed of aeamrementr a t r a n i ~ and mperronia v e l o c i t i e r ( ~ e ~ o r of t r National Advisory Coanittee Aeronauticr U.S.A. NO, a07, 1984, and No, 955, 194W), T h q were conducted on thin profile. and r e r u l t e d in a lift-drag r e t i o dom t o n 0.1. Thir r e . a very c s a t i o u r ortimate of mine.

'I

I) S t r i c t 1 7 apedcily, thi. conaider&tion m a l d no longer be n l i d f o z ruperaonic .peed#; r e e r e here s i a p l y dealing with e d l tslae of T.

Camarina the rocket airdear sad the a r o ~ d l e r - d r i v e nairplane a

A.

Adventage8 of fhe rocket airp1-e

1) H I Q ~ v ~00it7 i

a ) Imnenae
it8

operating e f f i c i a q of t h e motor in corpariron t o

weight.

3) Maker porriblo hearj. wing loadbg urd thereby compact

conotrpction.
4) F l i e r a t high altituder, a t which irrogrdler rovment of the

a i r c u r i o 8 1088 roight and, i n care of war, the rocket airplane i r unarrailmble onmy weapon8 (and, becatlro of rookot r i r p l m e r of the i t r rpoed, uaarrailebl e a l r o

=w)
5) Largely independad of the weather. It doC8 n o t u t t e r t o

the rocket airplane, for oampl e, r h a t the ;eather ir l i k e i n region8 over a i c h it mart flj. What i r daagerour i r only a i r highly ahargod w i t h e l e a t r i o i t y ( t h ~ ~ ~ l d e r a t o m a ) a t t h e place of arcent or foe a t the lnnding piece. Precwtimrr cur be taken agsinrt t h a t telegr.pbi8 weather reports from the place of laading.
6) The rocket s i r p l r s e om hang by i t 8 nos2lan, i r thnr reaur.6 rgainrf a t a i l rlide, and caa aromd v o r t i c d l y .

B .

Diradmntegor of the rocket rirplaae a

1) Iacrrrit;f of hermetically roaling tho p i l o t ' r cabin and

u t i f i c i d l y prodnobag the air he breather (bocr;ose of the nitrorj.1 campomdm proreat in tho atrato~phere).
1 ) Bigher fli-ght cortr.

4) Liquid o q g a murt be available a t t h e place of u c e a t aad

naturally a l r o a t the normal l a d i n g plaoe.

Objectionr t o t h e Idea of the Pocket Airplsae Most of t h a a r e baaed on mirepplicationr of t h e energy concept wid a r e refuted by what rrrr r a i d in Chepter l2. Of t h e r e a t , I need only mention a a i n g l e one a t t h i r place. WtSAUX crad Major BAVEU p o i n t out t h a t a fsat-flying aeroplane cannot describe any curbecsuee of t h e high counter-preaaure. Thst can be countered by raying m it f l i e s t h a t t h e rocket a i r p l a n e need deacribe no c u r r e r a s long a r o f a s t . I n my caae, t h e involuntary r o t a r y movementa rill only be mall, f o r it f l i e s above t h e c i r r u a clouda where turbulent a i r movements a r e acsrcely t o be expected. Beaider, t h e a i r i s ao thin t h e r e t h a t it only gradually f o l l o r a l a t e r a l a i r notion (cf. p. 304) o r an awkward met of t h e controlr. I n aocent and landing it does indeed g e t i n t o denser, tarboleat l ~ e r of r a i r , but here again i t 8 v e l o c i t y i r only of the aame m a p i t u d e aa t h a t of t h e urn& aeroplanes. Shortly before landing, f o r example, it rill hardly exceed 800 ka/hr. And with its cornpaat conntruction, turbulent &irmovementa cannot

harm it s a they do a l i g h t l y - b u i l t propeller-driren aeroplane. Since it on17 f l i e r rlorl;l* a t lart, it cea dercribe correa aad e p i r a l e st t h e end of a t r e t c h C, r o t h a t it can dercend st t h e intended lnnding p l a c e j u a t aa well aa an aeroplme.

VUIIER'S r u g ~ e s t i o n e . I would nor l i k e t o r u b j e c t them t o a

c r i t i c a l examination. Figs. 116 aad 117 reprensllt aeroplane# with propeller. and rocketo. There rocket. aas f a c i l i t a t e atcu'ting t h e aeroplaae aince they quickly bring it t o a high velocity. Berider, they can be of d u e rhen t h e r o t o r fail.. Ia high flying, they eon r a i r e t h e c e i l i n g of t h e aeroplane by 500 1000 m and i n c r e a r e t h e f l y i n g a p e d ( a t the ooat of

t h e f l y i n g range, it i n t r u e ) by a few ha/hr. In momenta of dsnger, auch n o r s l e r repreeent an e f f e c t i v e help f o r t h e motor provided they h a t e n o t already used up t h e i r f u e l a t t h e atart-off (danger of side81ipping, etc. ).

A l l i n a l l t h e s e nozzle8 r e p r e s e n t a convenient secondary ~ p p a r a t u s

of t h e vehicle. I can r e a l l y n o t s e e it a s some kind of preliminary s t a g e of the r o c k e t a i r p l a n e , Also, they rill l i k e l y help t o extend our t h e o r e t i c a l howledge b u t l i t t l e . The only t h i n c t h a t can be l e a r n t from p r a c t i c e i s t h e mode of operation of t h e s e nozzles (provided t h e i a b o r a t o q experiment preceded i t ) ' ) .
me&
A l l t h e other innovations, such

a s increasing the number of nozzles, v e r t i c a l s t a r t i n g , etc., g~adually but abruptly.

are not

VALIER conceives of e f f e c t i n e the gradual change by only neking t h e

fuel-carrying winp;s thj.cker and f i r s t doubling t h e number of s i d e nozzles w.d then t r i p l i n g them. He f o r g e t s , however, t h a t he thus a r r i v e s a t unusable intermediate forms, Fig. 118, f o r exeunple, could no longer r e a l l y s t a r t i n t h e way aeroplanes do. I rnyself suggested t o V&IER s t a r t i n g from a platform (cf. Fig. 123) s i n c e he r o u l d have nothing t o do with ~ t a r t i n g a s I represented it i n Figs. 121 and l23a. But i n t h i s case a l s o , t h e f u e l consumption would i n c r e a s e by so much and the veloc i t y so l i t t l e ( t h e construction i s s t i l l too l i g h t ) as t o make one doubt whether t h i s v e h i c l e w i l l ever be b u i l t . Concerning writes
t

pili.

118,

VALIER

"One again t h e r o c k e t motors a r e being rtrengthened w d inc:-eased

i n number, s o t h a t t h e p r o p e l l e r can now be dispensed with. W e obtain t h e so-called rocket a i r p l a n e , a machine t h a t s t i l l s t a r t s off l i k e an aeroplane and f l i e s using t h e e f f e c t of c a r r y i n g surfacesrt. It i s n o t q u i t e c l e a r t o me how he conceives of t h e "aeroplane-type s t a r t " of a machine t h a t weighs i n t h e neighborhood of 600 kg p e r

of r i n g surface.

I t would be p o s s i b l e t o s t a r t off with t h e use of a s t a r t i n g platform.

Yet, t h e machine i s s t i l l n o t q u i t e s u i t a b l e a s a rocket a i r p l a n e , f o r , a s i s seen a t f i r s t s i g h t , h e r e

yo

i s s c a r c e l y 100 m/sec with v e r t i c a l

ascent, wbich, a s we saw, is much t o o l i t t l e . I do n o t b e l i e v e t h e

--

---

The numerous experiments with powder rockets a r e a s good a s u s e l e s s scientifically.

'I

machine would f l y even 100 h . VALI'ER t h i n k r ef f l y i n g a t r e l o c i t i e r f l y t h a t famt, b u t of 300 r / r e c with a i r machine. Naturally, it then 3% w i l l moat nurely g e t a t r a a d d i n t h e atmosphere. Beaides, with Y SO0 m/reo, t h e u t i l i e a t i o n of p r o p e l l a a t r i r s t i l l v e q uor a t i r f a c f o q . Dircurring minor awkward d e k i l r of the c o n r t r u c t i m f o m r m g g e r t d i r n o t n e c e r r q . VALIW i r no engineer, h e only l e t r h h r e l f be c a l l e d that. Since my angineer could n a t u r a l l y avoid t h e r e drarbackr of conrtruction, they a r e n o t eamential t o t h e qaert i o n whether t h e rocket a i r p l s n e is possible. ( ~ e r o I am thiakilig of the t h e nezrlea a r e attached, f o r 0 1 e, in which connection I r e f e r t h e reader t o l h a t r a m r a i d on p, 397. I t i r d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e t h e ry t h e turbulence of the erhaurt gaeer i n t h e oven i s represented with t h e p r i n c i p l e of d ~ n a ~ cooling, ic etc.) Concerning Fig., 110 ma 140, I h a r e already r a i d what i r neceaaary.

111 in dl, it can be r a i d t h a t the rocket a i r p l a n e doer n o t l e a d

f r m t h e creroplane t o t h e rpace-ship, but it is a proarising r i d e iaven tion. R e o e n t l ~ ,HOEFFT of Vienna ham J r o caused much t a l k with h i s planm f o r a rocket a i r p l a e . I rill r e p o r t concerning HOQITtS auggeationa in context i n t h e reeond volume, The idea of tho pir tank i r r e l a t e d t o t h a t of U l e rocket airplaae.

It i r a l u g e , thick-walled rar rocket with or without armor p l a t e t h a t i r t o f l y i n t o enemy a i r f l e e t r i n order t o destroy them ?3y gumf i r e , impact, incendiary, and turbulence.
Since, today, nothing c e r t a i n c m be @aid about t h e rocket a i r plane, n a t u r a l l y r t i l l l e s r can be r a i d about euch a w a r rocket. Hence it i r mperfluour a t t h i n place t o do more than mention t h e idea. Before I conolude t h i r chapter, I cannot help but emphacliee t h a t

t h e f i r a t s t a g e s of my invention of t h e rocket rill c e r t a i n l y y i e l d a revenue. W e l e a r n about t h e f i n a n c i a l significance of t h a t f a c t from L E Y ' S popular compilation, nThe Possibility of I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Travel ( ~ a c h m e i a t e rand Thal Leiprig, 1908). I n it, the we1 l-known

Vienna engineer, WID0 v. PIRQUE!l r r i t e a (p. a 0 f f )

nIf, f o r t h e solution of my problem, a method prover e f f e c t i v e j it rill n o t be applied immediatelr, but f i r s t a comparison with o a e r e x i a t i n g methoda w i l l be undertaken sod t h e one chorren which provee
t h e moat adrsntageoas w i t h r e s p e c t to performance, expenditure and risk.

I n thir connection I must make a ubort oxcurrion i n t o the f i e l d

of teahnical econoq. In general, r e can mbdivide technical atructurea, r h e t h e r macrhiner, buildingn, bridgea o r highrat.., factories or trculrp o r t a t i o n facilities, etc., i n t o two l a r g e grotapr. Group I. atotap of t h e i n d i v i s i b l e u n i t s o r t h e unfinished f u t i l e works. For example, i f t h e c o n a t ~ c t i o n of a tunnel or bridge i a begun b a t acmnot be completed, the whole expenditure f o r the half-finished tunnel o r bridge i r r g r t e d becauae t b e r e r v i c e a b i l i t y of h a l f a bridge thaf reacher only t o 6be middle of t h e r i v e r o r ef h a l f s tunnel e q u d r zero.

Group of t h e d i d a i b l e o n i t a o r the completed a c t i v e rorka. If, for t h e work i n expenditure made in t h e example, a h i g h w 100 km i n length i a t o be renewed and diacontinued a t 50 br, t h a t doe. n o t represent s of t h e c o a t of the 60 km, mince an improvement haa been t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s of t h e reapeative region, etc.

W i d d by t h e viewpoint of i n d i v i n i b l e and divisible technical r o r k r we 6nce more r a n t to coneider t h e preaent problem of apace navigation. I n no doing, r e m a t r t a t e t h a t t h r e e o r f o u r d i f f e r e n t atager c m be diatinguiahed which c m be a t t a i n e d i n nucceraion.
1) The meteorological aggregate. Camcorned i n a p r o j e c t i l e t h a t

makea it poaoibl e t o l i f t a meteorological apparatus t o an . I tituda of aome 100 a00 k t m aad l e t it r e t u r n t o e a r t h again undsasged meana of e parachuteSuch s p r o j e c t i l e can be uaed a t any p o i n t deaired

on t h e e a r t h w emrfaae. Requir-ent w r e c st an a l t i t u d e of ca SO ~ o s .

v e l o c i t y va of c e 1OOO t o 1800

l o n g - d i r t m c r projectile1) i n u a e N f o r coping w i t h f u r t h e r a t r e f a h e r of fhe e a r t h f r m r f s c e -- m w 600 km m d higher. Requirement I n l o c i v ra of 4 -- 7 km/rec (depending on t h e r m g e of t h e overspanning arc). Nakrrall7, t h e a r e of t h i s aggregate i n l i k e r f a e n o t t o be restricted t o (yp;l npecific p o i n t on t h e eerfh8a mrface,
3) The moon aggregate i n m p p o ~ e dt o be muitable f o r c i r c l i n g t h e

P)

me

mow, f o r example, and i n thua t h e preliminucg atage t o p o i n t 4. Beqrrirement t ca 1 1 h / a e c outside of t h e ataorphere,

4) The manned i n t e r p l a a e t q aggregate. Requirement t c a 1P t o 17

km/rec

r, ( r o e

par. I),

I f r e had found, f o r exapple, t h a t t h e so-called WDROUET Tunnel P1mw i n n u i t a b l e f o r l e a r i n g t h e earth, re would have had t o oak

I do n o t a47 %eteorologicrl rocketw and n l o n g - d i ~ t m c erocketw, etc., d e l i b e r a t e l y mince I raat to make another attempt t o l e a v e opm t h e choice of method,

ourrelnr i n t h e l i g h t of our foregoing 8tud7 on econamicr r 1 1 thin rolution a a i n d i r i r i b l e o r a d i v i r i b l e technical work 3 W e f i n d t h a t it i r e n t i r e l y u r n i t a b l e f o r molring p r o b l a ~ 8I U D ~ XI r i n c e i f r a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o the r e t e o r o l o g i e a l aggregate and eapecial1 7 t o t h e long-dirtrulce p r o j e a t i l e i a r e r t r i c t e d to the r t a r f i n g tunnel rhieh ha# a f i x e d l o c a t i o n and i n n o t even cnringable.
If, however, one proceeds aceording to t h e p r i n o i p l e of t h e mu1 t i p l o s t a g e roaket, it i r q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t matter. I t i r thon a d i r i r i b l e t e c h n i c a l work and can a l a o be ueed f o r a t a g e r I and 11. Thir econamic e d m k g e of t h e r o c k e t cannot be eplphraised and underlined enongb mince thereby t h e a a t a a l i s a t i e n of t h e r o c k e t i n r t r i p p e d of every econo~ic riak.

Using t h e r o c k e t p r i n c i p l e aa sheis, each of t h e a t a g e r mentioned h a r p r a c t i c a l value aad pays f o r i t r e l f . Therefore, in c o n t r a r t t o our example of tunnel o r bridge conatnact i o n , it doer n o t m a t t e r from t h e r f s a d p o i n t of i n t e r e s t on investments if tl~e meteorological rocket p r o j e c t i r ha1 fed f o r s few year8 o r perhapr t h e long-distance r o c k e t bogs down f o r revera1 r e e r a b e c w e e they r r e aelf-aontained arrd economically independent u n i t s and y i e l d revenue by themaelver, Porthermore, it ie d so c l e a r t h a t t h e c r e d i t balance of t h e a i n g l e r t a g e a considerably f a c i l i t a t e s carrying o u t t h e neceaaery experimental and construction work f o r meatering t h e n e x t rtage! With t h i n another emphatic appeal i r made t o t h e publia to m e r g e t i c a l 17 support t h e actiral i r a t i o n of t h e meteorologicel rocket, which r e a l l y prevents n o t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e r , t h e more ao r i n c e it r e p r e a e a t r t h e f i r s t wrung of t h e daring l a d d e r t o space f l i g h t ,

An has j u r t been proved aad smpharixed, t h a t goal csn only b e reached

i n t h i s way without sap econouic r i n k worth mentioniag#". Thue f o r PIIZ$JZT. His etatementr imply 8 c e r t a i n accuration of VALIER who r o u l d l i k e t o iarmediately implement t h e expenrive and, i n f inancisl-technicdl r e s p e c t s , probl m a t i c , r o c k e t airplane. h t a a l l y , even motor-powered air t r m s p o r t e t i o m i s n o t y e t p r o f i t a b l e t o d w . would r i e l d revenue a# Whether the neteorologieal r o c k e t P I R F aaeumea, I do n o t dare deoide. The mil rocket, however, rill c e r t a i n l y be p r o f i t a b l e . JPrt t h i n k what it meam t o be a b l e t o a m d l e t t e r . in t h e o r i g i n a l in l e a s than h a l f an hour from B e r l i n t o Moscow f o r n o t q u i t e a p-7 p e r decagrrsr o r from *ope t o America f o r n o t quite 8 pence g e r decsgrem. Aa f o r t h e preliminary experineat8 t h a t would s t i l l have t o be made, I would d e f i n i t e 1J r e q u i r e l e a s than 10,000 M t o finance t h a n (ef. epilogue), ~ e r e a e until n o r hundredr of thoaeande have been blown i n t o the a i r a t VALIERIS h a t i g a t i o n r i t h o u t e r r e n t i a l l y bringing u r n c l o a e r t o having s rocket a i r p l me.

Chapter 19 The E Model Formula Q u a n t i t i e r

g r a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y

go

9.81 m/aea

h t h e i g h t above c e n t r e of e a r t h

p : p a r m e t e r of t h e t r a j e c t o r y curve

r : d i r t s n c e covered

t r time
v r v e l o c i t y of rocket vh
v
t

rmidual velocity v e l o c i t y a t neutral p o i n t between e a r t h and moon

aurface of t r i a n g l e pasred through by t h e radiur m c t o r maarr of e a r t h

MI

Ma : ma' of moon
T t absolute temperature
:u~gle betweem t h e d i r e c t i o n of motion m d t h e horizontal

E r numerical e c c e n t r i c i t y of t h e t r a j e c t o r y curre
Q

r radiua vector of t h e t r a j e c t o r y c u r w
t

m g l e of d i r e c t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y ourrtr

Concerning t h e proepecta t h a t e r e opening up f o r q~ invention, what i r talked about moat today i r the p r o j e c t t o rhoot a manned rocket i n t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y rpace o r even onto d i r t e n t c e l e r t i a l bodierr, although thir quertion i r a c t u a l l y l e s s up-to-date than t h e question of t h e meteorological rockets, the rocket a i r p l a e a , .nd t h e unmanned long-dintance rockets.

I have already s a i d something on pp. 156 f f , a30 f f , and 305 f f regarding t h e requircnentn of r i s e and r e l o c i 9 t h a t r o r t be r a d e f o r a manned rpace rocket. P l a t e I V ahor8 o p i e t o r e of such o rocket. The nomenclature of t h e machine part6 and t h e i r operation rill be

c l e a r t o t h e r e a d e r i f he reads t h e explanations of model B 1)

The apparatu8 pictured h e r e would weigh 288,000 kg before t h e departure. The empty hydrogen r o c k e t t o g e t h e r with t h e observer8e cabin, t h e parachute, and t h e two-part hollow t i p covering t h e paraahute would weigh 5000 7000 kg. Figuring k t h e propulsion losaen due t o air r e s i s t a n c e and g r a v i t a t i o n , t h i n model would a t t a i n a f i n a l v e l o c i t y of 9000 m/sec. So S t would n o t have t h e capacity t o f l y beyond t h e a t t r a c t i o n of t h e e a r t h , but, according t o what was s a i d on p. 249 aoncerning a a c e n t on the eynergy curve, it could ascend s o as t o g r a r i t a t e continuously i n o r b i t around t h e e a r t h l i k e a moon a f t e r propulsion h e r ceased. I n eo doing, e u f f i c i e n t f u e l r o u l d be 1 e f t i n order, f i n a l l y , t o d e c e l e r a t e t h e v e l o c i t y by rear-

--

ward t h r u s t so f a r on one e i d e of t h e e a r t h as t o cause t h e o r b i t t o change t o an e l l i p t i c path r h i c h d i p s i n t o t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere on t h e other a i d e of t h e e a r t h ao f a r as t o m a k e uso of t!~e parachute p o s s i b l e (cf. Chapter 14). On such a rocket, t h e obaervatione and meaaurememtr enumerated on page 453 f f could be made.
I would l i k e t o remark t h a t , with t h e model pictured here,
I thought of uaing t h e acme f u e l combination a s with t h e model B

described e a r l i e r . I simply r a n t e d t o show t h a t b u i l d i n g a rocket f o r reaching i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space i a by a l l means p o e s i b l e and hence planned u s i n g a h e 1 mixture t h a t r e a u l t e i n r e l a t i v e l y low temper* turea. Otherwise t h e objection could have been rafeed t h s f t h e nozzle might burn up and t h e a f f a i r would be impossible anyway. I n f a c t , I hope t h a t even t h e h i g h e s t tenperature a t t s i n s b l e w i l l n o t h a m the r o c k e t t h d r t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of dynamic cooling ( c f . p. 41 ), which i m t h e e a s i e r t o implement, t h e l a r g e r t h e absolute s i z e of the
--.-P*----*---

?rLanding t h e alcohol rocket a f t e r i t s fuel. have been exhausted m u l d have t o b e done with a parachute under t h e guidanrs of an a e s i e t a n t p i l o t 8. Well, t h e paper i s p a t i e n t and, i n t h i s book, c e r t a i n l y no

a c c i d e n t w i l l happen; I explained on p. 299 f f rhy I uuggested paraI have a l s o declared chute landing with t h i e ttdenonstratioa modelN. ' 30g f f ) t h a t I rill a c t u a l l y do everything p o s s i b l e to a r r i v e a t a machine a i m i l a r t o P l a t e I11 o r a t l e a s t Fig. 98 whose r o c k e t s can l a n d in g l i d i n g f l i g h t .

nozzle. Concerning the consequencels of u s i n g s t r o n g e r f u e l s I have

already s a i d what i s needed on p. 56. Here I need only add t h a t a machine of t h e model E p i c t u r e d h e r e could reach hyperbolic v e l o c i t i e s
and would be capable of o r b i t i n g t h e moan m d t h e n e a r e r p l a n e t s (without landing on them, t o be sure). The only change in constructXon that would be necessary i u t h a t t h e oqygen room S and t h e oxygen pumps pa aad p4 would have t o be r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e r . The r e s t reanains a8 on P l a t e IV.
A n apparatus s h i l a r t o ~ l o d e lB in i t s e s s e u t i o l a rith a conuider-

ably higher performance would be one r i t h two hydrogen r o c k e t s b u i l f i n i n s t e a d of one,which a r e borne by one alcohol rocket. The i n i t i a l weight of such an apparatus w i t h t h e 8ame f i n a l weight of 5000

7000

kg would be c a 4,000,000 kg. For t h a t it could advance t o d i s t a n t

c e l e s t i a l bodies. Of courre, l a n d i n g t h e alcohol r o c k e t would be r problem which, today, i r r i n no r w rolved t h e o r e t i c a l l y . But I r a n t e d r o c k e t is d e f i n i t e l y t o prove t h a t reaching i n t e r p l a n e t a r y upace n o t j u s t a dream of Utopia. Uence I presented model E, which i s d e f i n i t e l y r e a l i a a b l e . For t h a t matter, we w i l l re.
in t h e oequel

t h a t i n t e r p l a n e t a r y apace can a l a o be conquered w i t h sucli two-stage rockets, although the7 oannot fly t o d i s t a n t stars o r even d o m and back, As cen be seen, t h e o b r e r r e r 8 e cabin on P l a t e IV i s e t r i k i n g l y

mall. I t must be our (LIP t o have t h e f i n a l weight as mall as pousible. Hence VALIERIS drawing ( ~ o l . 11) i n no r q ~ ' correupondu t o q plans.

Before I proceed t o t h e r c i o n t i f i c diacanrion of model E, I would l i r r t l i k e to g i v e r r i r i d d e r c r i p t i o n of r o c k e t f l i g h t 8 through i n t e r p l a a e f s r 7 rpsce. I hope t h e r e a d e r d l 1 f i n d t h e diruurrioar of \ t h e technical d e t a i l 8 l a t e r c o n r i d e r a b l ~ .e a n i e r t o rmderatrurd. Here I am f i r r t p r e r m t i n g m excerpt from a r h o r t # t o w I oompored i n which tho p a x t i c i p m t in r r o c k e t f l i g h t r e l a t e r him t r i p around t h e

moon r

Mechaaical engineer Mfiller war mppoaed t o p i l o t t h e r o c k e t ) I wan t o c a r r y o u t t h e astronomic obnerrstionm. I n February, 19=, t h e rocket war ready; it r a n c h r i r t e n e d "Lunaw, which i n L a t i n f o r moon. F i r r t it m a e e n t d o f f unmanned t o 4800 Ian i n order t o t e a t i t s control and recording apparatus. A l l t h e r e r o c k e t bre b u i l t no t h a t they cen a l a o f l y unncmned. That cblne about a8 follows I A t f i r e t only mall apparatus had been constructed which could c a r r y a load of i/a t o 1 kg. Here no p i l o t could go along, s o t h a t it wsa necessarg t o i n v e n t device. by meann ~f r h i c h t h e r o c k e t could f i n d i t n wqy by i t s e l f , e.g. a gyr6scope which influenced t h e These p o s i t i o n of t h e tail fin., and nimilar krrfrrunentr devices were oleo i n s t a l l e d in t h e l a r g e r machines, f o r it appeared adviaable t o f r e e t h e p i l o t of many m t t e r a which h e could have t a m c a r e of himaelf. a) To give him t h e freedom t o make setronomic obnervat i o n s . b) Because a machine worka without emotion and more a c c u r a t e l y than a man.

...

....

Naturally, the p i l o t can a t any time influence t h e courre of f l i g h t by f i r i n g rocketr. The result. of t h i r f i r s t unmanned aacent were r a t i n f a c t o r y , and in t h e beginning of Maroh, MUller undertook a 5 0 0 b kP a s c ~ l l f i n order t o t e s t t h e maneuverability of the r o c k e t by t h e Be looked me up in order t o t e l l me of h i r i n t e n t i o n 8 pilot r t o f l y around t h e moon in m i d - h e .

...

So we made preparations f o r t h e t r i p

pereons t o high counter-preeaure they a r e a u i t a b l y placed on a c a r t which r o t a t e e i n a c i r c l e et t h e end of a lnetal ana 800 400 m long (cf. Fig. 6 6 ) .

...

....

I n order t o accustom

By mid-June I was reacly t o aecent w i t h "tunen. I had a l r e a d y gone

t o I n d i a i n t h e middle of &y, f o r we Were t o ascend f r a n t h e Indian Gulf. In e a r l y h e I aax nlunan f o r t h e f i r e t time. I t was a a t a t e l y machine, 35 m l o n g and 10 m in diameter, and consiated of one alcohol m d t ~ hydrogen o rocketa. It was equipped f o r a t t a i n i n g e v e l o c i t y o f 15 km/aec in a l l . ( ~ o t e I Todly I would alread;r be in a p o s i t i o n t o b u i l d sueh a rocket only 17 rs long and 7 m in diameter, s i n c e considerable improvements have occurred t o me in t h e meantime. Model E on P l a t e I11 i n a l s o considerab1;l mnsller.) Naturally, it only required an i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y of n o t ' q u i t e 1 1 Ian. F i r r t of all, however, it could n o t reach t h i r veloci* immediately b u t only in the course and of f i v e minutes, during which it l o a f 1 ian/aec t o sir r e a i ~ t a n c e g r a v i t a t i o n . Then it war good d e o , a f t e r having a t t a i n e d t h e full velocity, t o h a r e some f u e l i n r e s e r v e f o r t h e parpoee of influencing t h e d i r e c t i o n in caee it veered from i t 8 course.

When I a r r i v e d in C a l c u t t a I rarr aurpriaed t o aeo t h e many automobile8 which caused n e i t h e r fumes nor n o i s e and, in s p i t e of t h e i r sometimes conaidereble speed, seemed t o have extrmely small and l i g h t motors.
W e l l , remembertt, LEtiller aaid, wxe have 1i q u i d b d r o g e n ~ l l doqygen f a c t o r i e s an t h e Upper Brshmaputra. A l l t h e s e automobiles have hydrogen motora

...

"Yes, b u t is n o t a l l t h e hydrogen produced by the p l a a t a needed f o r t h e rocket8 ?It

"A* f i r a t , o f t e n no l a r g e r r o c k e t r were launched f o r month..

To

prevent our hydrogen p l a n t r from being completely i d l e i n t h e meant h e , r e nought t o u t i l i z e a t l e a a t p a r t of t h e l i q u i d hydrogen i n indnrtrg. Today r e can hardly f i l l t h e dmend. W e a r e obliged t o enlarge t h e n p l a n t r almort every month

.. .

On June il, t h e r t e m e r "Tagore" a r r i v e d with t h e f u e l s fer ear

flight. W e went aboard, took '%maw in t o r , and departed accompanied by t h e well-xirhee of thoursmdr.
On t h e morning o f t h e 14th, t h e Tagoren heaved t o and we r e n t

about t o f i l l oar rocket. F i r r t , freshly vaporized hydrogen war b l o m through t h e f u e l tanka t o cool them off. If they had inmediately been f i l l e d with l i q u i d hydrogen, t h e metal containera would probsbl y b a r e b u r e t l i k e a h o t g l s a a i n t o which cold x s t e r i r d i r e c t l y poured. Also, t h e 80-oulled Leidemfroet r t a t e could e s a i l y h a r e s e t in For example, i f a metal b o i l e r i a made g l owing-hot .nd cold vster i s poured in it, a t f i r e t s l w e r of atearn fowsl between t h e metal sad t h e r a t e r , ro that t h e w e t w cannot touch t h e metal. Hence, fhe r a t e r e m n o t roe1 t h e metel a t f i r a t . Since a t e m i n a poor h e a t n l r s f t e r i t 6 tanperatare conductor, t h e metal c o o l r o f f r e g r l o r l y . O ha8 droppad by a c e r t a i n smount i n t h e r e say c o n t a c t between water .nd metal a t sllp place. Here t h e metal @add-17 C O O ~ Boff r a p i d l y end t h e drop in t e a p e r s t u r e r e p i d l y apreedo over t h e whole container. The r a t e r , n o r mddenly touching t h e metal, boil. T i o l e n t l y mad immediate17 force. t h e clored b o i l e r apart. W e obaerve t h e rame phenomanon when f i l l i n g a metal container a t n o d temperature w i t h l i q u i d a i r o r l i q u i d hydrogen. & expl oaion would have been h e r i t a b l e i f r e had mddenlf p u t t h e l i q u i d g a r e s i n t o t h e w k m . A t l o t 3 0 our r o c k e t covered w i t h a t h i c k l v e r 04 i c e and cold enough t o be f i l l e d . Bhormour horea were l a i d from t h e r h i p t o f h e rocket, f i r r t t o the alcohol rocket; a8 roan aa it war almort f u l l , t h e hydrogen r o c k e t r J a o began f i l l i n g . %man, which r o f a r h d l a i n f l a t on t h e water

...

(cf. Fig. l l a ) , n o r asnk ever deeper ritb t h e r e a r end, while t h e t i p noon atood i n v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n (cf. Fig. 113). A t 1 1 ~ 0 5 it was completely f i l l e d aad M i l l e r . a d I g o t i n t o f h e observer's cabin md cloaed it s i r - t i g h t behind u r n . It war n o t completely dark *aide; a m e l i g h t entered through t h e periacoper. I looked through one of them md j u a t asw t h e nTsgoren Jeaving f u l l stemu ahead. The exhaust g a r e r of t h e r o c k e t c m a e l a r g e wavee, e m u r a t e r rpoata. Mtlller manipulated aometbing on t h e w a l l . I heard a weak m e t a l l i c hum and an e l e c t r i c l i g h t bulb lit up,
I s t a r t e d t h e generator, r h i c h i 8 n a t u r a l l y driven by a hydrogen motor, Nor ru the time to p a t the c o n t r o l gyrorooper i n t o oparation.

He turned a a r i t c h , took a small, precision-built gyroscope, sad, a e i n g a micrometer gauge, compared t h e p o r i t i o n a of t h e control gyroacopea.
Vhey w e now accurate t o t h r e e reconda of an arc, i s t h a t auf-

i i c i e n t ? n h e aaked me. "If t h e e r r o r lead8 away fram t h e moon, fine. But i f you can sd j u a t them more accurately, n a t u r a l l y that would do no harmtt. M i l l e r worked on t h e gyroacopea again. A f t e r a few minutes h e s a i d , nNow the e r r o r i r c l o s e t o e second of an arcn.

"I b e l i e v e that w i l l m f f i c e " .

W i l l e r a l s o adjusted t h e remaining inatrumenta. "When do r e o f a r t 3 " he asked 1)

Rots i Here t h e astronomer doe. n o t t h o r o v g h l j know t h e machine n o r t h e mschinirt t h e f l i g h t plan, b u t t h a t i r a ttdreruaturgicallf e r r o r . C f . Vol. 11. I n r e a l i t y , I would n a t u r a l l y i n s i a t t h a t each be a b l e t o pi1 o t t h e v e h i c l e around t h e moon alone i f necessary. Then, however, t h e layman would n o t be a b l e t o understand t h e i r conversation and I would heve t o explain a l l these t h i n g s myself, r h i c h would be a t e r r i b l y t e d i o u s job.

"At 30 minutes m d 46 aecandr a f t e r 1 1 o'clock,

t h e r o c k e t must

be a t m a l t i t u d e of 1P90 I m and have a v e l o c i t y of 10,700 m/reo, Cen we made Y t 3 " Mfiller ad jueted t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n indicetorn. nCertainlyl Caa you help me w i t h t h e inatramentr ? Re muat start rf 1 1 olclock,

Pa' 50"

l)nb

It was 11815. After a f u r t h e r 5 minuten, we had r o t t h e inatrumentn

r i g h t and a t a r t e d t h e b i g p q a of t h e alcohol rocket. Only t h e gas i n e took f h e hanmook from one corner, t h e oven needed t o be ignited. W Peatened it i n t h e middle of t h e observer'r cabin and 1 s down ~ a a it (Mg, 115).

I t gave ua a p e c u l i a r f e e l i n g t o l i e t h e r e i n t h a t p o s i t i o n , h e t o the temperature of l i q u i d hydrogen, t h e metal of t h e l i q u i d tanka had become srr hard aa glasrr. The b o i l i n g of t h e l i q u i d gaoes caused a eound aa of a hundred b e l l r ; in addition, t h e waver b e a t a g a i n e t t h e r o c k e t and rocked ur. A t l i t 8 6 t h e gaaea below ua begm t o b o i l more vigorously, t h e rocket begun t o r i b r s t e r h i l e now and then a l a r g e r quantity of a i r roee beside it. A t 11 olclock, 06' 34" t h e r e wee a J o l t * The e l e c t r i c i g n i t i o n had begun t o work and t h e rocket r o s e from t h e r a t e r , A few recondr, l a t e r a r u p t u r e occurred l i k e t h e a h e e t of Note t It i 8 apparent t h a t I d i d n o t know t h e - e r g curve a t t h e time. Today, I would begin euch an a r c e n t q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y .

i c e on a r i v e r breaking up; a m i t a b l e mechaniras! had b u r e t t h e l a y e r of i c e t h a t covered our rocket and c a s t it i n t o t h e sea, And nor, at 11 35' 30t9, e x a c t t o t h e second, o w r w k e t aacended a t f u l l force. The powerful cotmter-preeaure preesed me t o t h e haamock. I t would hardly have been p o s e i b l e f o r a pereon t o rtay on h i s f e e t . Through t h e periscope I could aee a h o l e a t t h e r a t e r ' s s u r f a c e reaembling a c r a t e r t h a t r a a surrounded by a c i r c l e of d i t e foam. That w a s where our exhsast gaeea had s t r u c k t h e water. After 85 eeconda r e a l r e a d y paaaed through t h e f l e e c y clouds, and a f t e r another minute I a a r t h e peaks of t h e Himalayas r i s e on t h e horizon, although r e were over 1000 km away. A f t e r a minute, t h e f u e l s of t h e alcohol rocket had been exhausted and it r a a j e t t i e o n e d j with it a l s o t h e f i r a t covering which had dram over t h e t i p . Nor t h e hydrogen r o c k e t operated. It r o l l e d a b i t . It seemed as though r e were on t h e back of a huge beaat t h a t r a e t r y i n g t o g e t up. Also comparable t o t h e breath of a huge beaat wee t h e sound of t&e pumpr f o r c i n g t h e f u e l 8 i n t o t h e atomizer. It one i n r t a n t , t h e i r nozalea e j e c t e d a d u l l , hoarse r o a r t h a t made everything in t h e obeerver'a oabin numble and r a t t l e . Fortunately, MUller waa a b l e t o t u r n t h e t h i n g o f f again. I n so doing, h e expreraed maledictions concerning manta u n t r u a t r o r t h i n e a a in general end h i s c h i e f lusembler in p a r t i c u l a r . Namely, descent r o c k e t s mast n o t roar. They m a y a t t h e most puff and h i a a l i k e an o l d t e a k e t t l e (cf. p. 31). After two minute., t h e f u e l s of t h i a r o c k e t a l a o were ured up aad t h e upper hydrogen r o c k e t began working. Yore depended on t h i s one than on t h e o t h e r two (cf. p. 470).. F a i l u r e of the o t h e r two r o u l d only have meant t h a t t h e f l i g h t had f a i l e d aad t h a t r e would have dropped back t o earth. F a i l u r e of t h i n rocket, on t h e o t h e r hand, could p u t our l i f e in jeopardy. Therefore, t h e b e a t German engineera and mechaaics had worked on it f o r almost a year, making it a master-piece of

...

..

technolow. I t worked ruperblp, I no longer had t h e f e e l i n g t h a t I war

on aa 8 c c e l e r a t i n g body. I f e l t a8 though I war ranarkably heavy and thin. A f t e r another 2 minuter, t h e f u e l 8 were &at o f f and I aeconds l a t e r all counter-presaure ceared and I w a s f l o a t i n g f r e e l y i n t h e middle of t h e o b r e r r e r f r cabin f e e l i n g a8 though I hed aw-kkened from a dogrleep. I n o t i c e d t h a t what I thought war t h e l e f t e i d e was actuall y t h e r i g h t and t h a t I l q y i n an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p o e i t i o n t h a t I
had be1 iered. nSo, now l e t u r p u t arqp t h e hsnmrock and make ouriaelveo comfortable,

"

Miller aaid.
W e r o l l e d up t h e hamiock and U i l l e r a c t i v a t e d a device t h a t jett i r o n e d t h e t i p end reparated t h e parachute, o b r e r v e r l s cabin, and f u e l tanka from each other, O u r cabin had numerour windown.

...

Although I knew t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t what I would aee and experience up here, r t i l l I was confounded by t h e view t h a t presented i t s e l f to me, I f l o a t e d f r e e l y in t h e middle of t h e cabin; a a l i g h t #winning motion m a s u f f i c i e n t t o f s k e me where I r i r h e d . Only n m d i d I
n o t i c e a number of l e a t h e r loopa ettached t o t h e wall e v e r p h e r e . I f we hadn't crawled along by meane of them it would have been impora i b l e t o g e t a firm hold. The r u n l i g h t f a l l i n g through t h e window8 m a extremely glaring. S t i l l , t h e windows d i d n o t h a r e a b r i g h t b u t dark e f f e c t ; they looked a r though they c o n r i r t e d of jet-black gl&rr. They d i r e c t l y r a d i a t e d cold and darknear, whereas o u t r i d e *ere i n a t e c l e a r a t h e r rPacel). Tbe mn rtood t h e sun a h m e it moon turned
88

a s a r e s u l t of t h e f a c t thet f h e sun i n n o t e b l e t o illh o t , Thir w

a b l i n d i n g d i a c in a

Actually, I would cover t h e window. with p l a t e r of f r o s t e d g1a.a on t h e inside, r h i c h can e a r i l y be removed i f one wishea t o look out. Thur t h e l i g h t i n t h e obaerver1a cabin would be more diffueed end

rimilar t o daylight, n o t e t r a m m g t h e eyes. (NOORIKRJG has made a r i m i l a r mggestion, only he would give t h e windows a rhape r e n d l i n g 8 lenr. I cannot r e a l l y agree t o t h i s stlggeetion; I believe plane p a r a l l e l windows a f f o r d a b e t t e r view. ) Here f am diepenskrg w i t h f r o s t e d g l a r e p l a t e a (1 i k e r i a e f o r "dramaturgical reasonr) ; I n u t m i t o ehor t h e reader what i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space r e a l l p looks l i k e .

completely black sky. I f I screened rqp eyes from t h e run f o r a wnile, I gradually began t o d i r t i n g u i e h r i n g l e rfsrs i n t h o e w ; f i n a l l y they shone b r i g h t e r than i n the darkeat night. The sIry did n o t appear blotrblack ae i n our n i g h t s but peculiar17 bromiah l i k e a rooty poroalain p l a t e . Near t h e XIilIry W a y it was romerhat b r i g h t e r than i n more d i r t a n f places. I t i n n o t completely dark because of the presence of numerous f i x e d e t a r a t h a t a r e n o t v i s i b l e t o t h e naked eye. The b r o m i r h color i r t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e f l e c t i o n of our atmosphere i a mirsksg.

W e eppeared t o be f l o a t i n g a t t h e c e n t r e of sn itmeasurable aphere. On m e aide wae t h e arch of t h e e a r t h l i k e an enormour boiler. I t ooc u p i d approximately one t h i r d of the lower c e l e o t i a l hemirphere. On t h e other s i d e r a a t h e burning aun surrounded by s p e c u l i a r b r i g h t aura t h a t reminded me of en elongated quadrilateral. Thir i r fhe roa a l l e d sodiscal l i g h t which, st3 i s believed today, i r caused by minute grain. of duet f l y i n g around t h e sun. When I rcreened t h e nun with m y hand I noticed t h a t it was surrounded by p e c u l i a r beame. Thir i r t h e no-celled corona which can be observed from t h e e a r t h on17 w i t h a t o t a l eclipme of t h e sun. Not f a r from t h e run 8tood the moon l i k e a round froeted-glee8 rindor, q u i t e a b r i g h t d i m . Its n i g h t a i d e rsr turned toward us; it -8 il luninated only from t h e earth. It m n to t&e two day8 before we were t o observe it by sunlight. Thie war t h e f i r s t time I had seen the new moon!

...

Neverthelese, we d i d n o t want t o l e t the time para u n u t i l i ~ e d . Under t h e parachute we had a l a r g e concave mirror which could b e morod

i n t o p l a c e from t h e observer's cabin by aeanr of t h r e e e l a s t i c a t e e l wires wound on drums. That r e r r e d a s t h e l e n s of a l a r g e telcrcope, \ e did A anal1 t e l e r c o p e i n the observer's cabin r e r r e d a8 wepiece. W a r complete17 black; n o t need a p i p e dark on t h e i n s i d e , f o r t h e sky w j u r t as l i t t l e d i d we need heavy eupports on which t o fernten the telercope, f o r t h e s i n g l e p a r t s had no weight; they remained in r e l a t i o n to each o t h e r j u s t a s r e p u t them. Here t h e mighty i n r t a l l a t i o n s were euperfloous t h a t a r e needed on e a r t h t o support aad c a r r y t h e whole, The t e l e s c o p e magnified 100,000-fold I a magnification we could afford, f o r t h e r e w a s no f l i c k e r i n g atmosphere. M i l l e r soggested t "It would be well i f you p u t on your d i v e r ' s r u i t and stepped o u t with m e t o l e a r n t o move about i n spacen. We both p u t on our diver'. r u i t r r h i c h were made of rubber coated w i t h t h i n s t r i p r of ahining t i n t o prevent them from bursting, Half of t h e head-piece was of an e l a s t i c , t r s n s p a r e n t material t o allow f r e e v i r i o n on dl aides. W e c a r r i e d c o n t a i n e r s w i t h campressed air on our backs t h a t provided breathing f o r approximate1y 1 1 1/8 hours. W e blew the air we breathed out through a tube containing c a u s t i c potash which war t o absorb t h e carbon dioxide. Ve could a l a o l e t it ercape t o t h e open through a type of valve; t h e rearward t h r u s t propelled u r in t h e opp o e i t e d i r e c t i o n , thus being a mema by r h i c h r e could more about. I n order t o g e t back t o t h e observert s cabin again we fastened ours e l r e r o u t s i d e by means of cords, These cordr were of hemp w i t h t e l b phone w i r e woven i n t o permit t h e d i r e r to t a l k t o t h e person in t h e cabin or, a8 i n our csee, permit t h e two divera t o t a l k t o eaah other, although aound i s n o t tranamifted i n a i r - f r e e apace. M i l l e r l e t me c a r r y o u t a few r i n p l e maneuvers f i r a t ; then he l e t me experiment w i t h erne instruments s t i l l found under t h e perachute. Next h e esplained t h e o u t s i d e arrangement o f t h e cabin t o me.
t'la you can see, one a i d e of t h e cabin i r covered with t h i n black

paper which c l i n g s t o it closely, Yaa a l s o know t h a t t h e sun doer n o t

hent air-free

space, b u t it nee" h e a t bodies which a r e s t r u c k by the

s u n ' s v y a ; and b l a c k ~ u r f a c e s more so t,han s h i n p ones. For t h a t , b l a c k murfaces r a d i a t e more h e a t . Now, i n t h i s couqtry, t h e ~ t ms h e a t i s n o t g r e a t , t h e r e f o r e we turn t h e b l a c k s n r f a c e in+o t h e sun and t h e s h i n p s u r f a c e i n t o t h e shade. If we should l a t e r make t r i p s t h a t b r i n g u s c l o c e r t o t h e sun we w i l l do %he opposite. I n t h i o way

r e can nlr~.yshave e::actly t h e amount of h e n t i n our cabin we ria'!. The windows of orir cabin can be covered w i t h r e f l e c t i n g t i n p1at.e
which can be c l a ~ p e d hack end f o r t h fron within. The rer.803 f o r th:t.
i~ f i r s t of a l l because we could e a s i l y s e t inflananation of t h e eyes

i f we a r e exposed t o t h e b r i g h t snnlig11.t day and n i g h t . I t i s also u s e f u l f o r f l y i n g through t h e shacle of a l a r g e r c e l e a t i a l body. Then we can j e t t i s o n t h e b l a c k paper and c l o s e a l l suyerfluous s h u t t e r s .

M r . P r o f e s s o r , pov know t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e t h e m 0 8 both1 e, dont t

you ? " !'Certainly, a s h i n y containe*' i s surrouuded by a vacuum; it can g i v e o f f no hetit by conduction becavse t h e r e i s no m a t t e r i n t h e vacuum t h a t can conduct awqy t h e h e a t . The h e a t could be given o f f by r a d i a t i o n . But v e r y l i t t l e h e a t is given o f f by r a d i a t i o ~ i , f o r a ~ h i n y cont a i n e r allowe n o h e a t t o r a d i a t e ; t h u s t h e c o n t e n t s remain h o t " . "Fine, h e r e we have t h e very sn-e t h i n p a t h e s h i n p o b ~ e r v e r ' e cabin surrounded by air-f r e e i n t e r p l a n e t s r y space. Now 1 e t me explain t h e b l a c k p i p e t o you which snakes a number of windings along t h e shaded s i d e , t h e n makes t h e sane number of windings an t h e ermny a i d e ,

and f i n a l l y r e t u r n s i n s i d e t h e cabin again. A s you can s e e , h e r e t h e r e i e a s m a l l pump which pumps t h e a i r from t h e cabin i n t o t h e p i p e on t h e shady side".

"dh, t h a t must b e t h e a i r d i s t i l l e r
"Indeed.

?It

O n t h e shade s i d e , t h e a i r c o o l s o f f , f o r , i n i n t e r p l e n e t -

ary space, wherever t h e sun does n o t s h i n e d i r e c t l y , t h e r e it i s j n e t

as c o l d as it i s dark. A l l i m p u r i t i e s t h a t t h e a i r may have condense

a t a h i g h e r temperature than t h e main components of air, namely n i t r o g e n and oaygen. The i m p u r i t i e s p r e c i p i t a t e i n t h i s p i p e and
only t h e n i t r o g e n aad t h e orggen reach t h e sun side. Here they are h e a t e d t o room temperature again. As soon as t h e p i p e on t h e shade a i d e is completely f i l l e d with i m p u r i t i e s , r e very simply unrcrerr it and tarn it t o t h e sun a i d e , There t h e c o n t e n t s v a p o r i z e and flow8 out. Nor, p l e a s e l o o k a t t h e c l o c k i n s i d e ; I cannot s e e from here. How l a t e i s it ? " "10r30, The time i s approaching f o r me t o t a k e t h e bearings". "Fine, and I w i l l p r e p a r e lunch. Let u s icrswl back in again". The e a r t h had r a p i d l y decreased i n s i z e . Now i f no l o n g e r gave t h e impression of a b o i l e r , n o r t h e impression o f a sphere; it had t h e shape of a d i e c , With t h e moon, t h e impression of c u r v a t u r e i s produced by t h e f a c t t h a t , from c e r t a i n mountains, e.g. i c a l s u r f a c e and show up t h e c u r v a t u r e i n p e r s p e c t i v e . For the r e s t , it was a s p l e n d i d view of t h e e a r t h . S i n c e t h e atmosphere appears r e d i n t h e t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t and b l u e in t h e i n c i d e n t l i g h t , t h e edge of t h e e a r t h was an i n t e n a e red, and round about t h e r e was a f i n e b l u e border. Above t h e p o l e s f l o a t e d t h e p o l a r l i g h t s as c r o m s . The b l u e oceans, t h e deep-green t r o p i c s , t h e yellow d e s e r t s , t h e b l a c k tundras, t h e pale-green s t e p p e s , t h e u h i t e p o l a r r e g i o n s r a l l s t o o d o a t a g a i n s t t h e deep-black, afar-studded background. Snor-white c l o u d s f l o a t e d over t h e whole. From our v e n t s g e p o i n t , t h e y looked l i k e mere d u s t , reminding one of t h e p o l l e n on a c o l o r f u l flower. Copernicus and Q c h o , s t r a i g h t w h i t e r e y e s p r e a d over a l a r g e p a r t of t h e spher-

I d i d n o t have t o o much time t o d i r e t h e view. I had t o determine

our position, f o r t h i n r a e t h e b e e t time t o c o r r e c t any deviation y c a l c u l a t i o n r of from t h e t r a j e c t o r y . I coneulted t h e t a b l e with m t h e p o r i t i o n and apparent a i s e of the e a r t h a t every moment of our f l i g h t . I found t h a t t h e e a r t h could be reen exactly where it rhould b e reen and t h a t it had t h e calculated apparent rim. Therefore, our bearing. were correct. Then I checked t h e d a t a of our recording inatrumentr and found t h a t they r e r e accurate. After t h a t r e did not e a t aluminom tuber Then t h e r e v a r r e had lunch. F i r a t r e had eonp which, however, r e d i d rith apoanr from a p l a t e b u t r e aucked it through vide from spherical, a l n o r t completely cloaed containera. etc.

M l l e r developed a healthy a p p e t i t e , b u t I could hardly mrallor a b i t e . I f e l t an though sn i r o n hand gripped m y cheat snd clsaped g eaophagua rhut. S t i l l I d i d n o t a c t u a l l y f e e l bad. O n t h e contrary, never before had I been 80 f r e e of l i r t l e a e n e e r , nausea and pain. I c a r r i e d a p i n w i t h me. I pricked w e e l f w i t h it, but no matter vhere I pricked I d i d n ' t f e e l t h e a l i g h t e a t pain.
nBba, yea, profesaorl You had b e a t f s k e scopolamine o r bromural.

L a t e r you rhould t r y t o g e t eome sleep. That i a t h e e f f e c t of t h e l a c k of counter-prereure combined w i t h t h e excitement during t h e f i r a t flight". Willer atuck a p i l l i n t o my mouth. Then he took a b o t t l e of raspr o m our food box, f i r e t put it t o h i r o m mouth and took berry juice f b i g gulp. H e wiped t h e neck of t h e b o t t l e r i t h him haad t r i c e and then stuck it i n t o nry mouth, c a l l i n g , "Nor you muat malloww.
I rralloved r i t h ell t h e f o r c e I had and f i n a l 1 7 got t h e p i l l dom.

But then I raid, "Do yon know, Mr. U i l l e r , well and good, but h a r e r e no tumbler8 q n

glTumblers ? w Mtfller laughed. "Why yea, even two. But how do you want t o pour 3 " W e l l , t h a t should work somehown. YPlease, h e r e is a tumbler and h e r e ( w a i t a minute, it i e t o o bad t o waste t h e raspberry j u i c e f o r t h i s experiment), h e r e i s a b o t t l e of r a t e r " .

I turned t h e b o t t l e over; n a t u r a l l y , n o t a drop came out. I waa annoyed and so I waved it a b i t . The water gushed f o r t h , b u t a l a s , it d i d n o t s t a y i n t h e g l a s s in d i c h I t r i e d t o catch it; t h e r a t e r sprang
out again a s though it had s t r u c k a rubber wall. J u a t a few dropa stuck
i n t h e glssa. The r e s t of t h e water formed nxunerons s p h e r i c a l drops

which flew about i n t h e cabin and bounced o f f t h e w a l l s . Here snd t h e r e one stuck t o t h e w a l l and broke up f u r t h e r . F i n a l l y t h e whole observer's cabin mrs f i l l e d with f l y i n g water-drops l i k e a awsrm of mosquitoes, which gradual 1 y remained hanging somewhere,

"I must acknowledge t h e f a c t n , I said.

"Well, t h e r e you are. Who would ever f i l l a tumbler s o wildly ? But now p l e a s e look here, professor, The l a c k of counter-pressure a l s o has a zood side. You w i l l drink from a tumbler often enough y e t , b u t h a t I w i l l show you now you w i l l perhaps n o t s e e s o often". He moistened t h e f i n a e r s of h i e l e f t hand by squashing a f e n waterdrops t h a t hung on h i s s u i t . Then h e took t h e water b o t t l e i n h i s r i g h t hand and slowly and u n s t e a d i l y drew it back while holding t h e f i n g e r s of h i s l e f t hand i n f r o n t of t h e neck of t h e b o t t l e . It seemed a s thouqh he drew a b a l l of water from t h o b o t t l e . Then he w~ddenlyopened h i s hand; t h e b a l l renained f l o a t i n g f r e e l y before him. "This i s t h e model of a c e l e s t i a l body1', he said. Then he took h i s rubber comb, passed it through h i s h a i r several tiwes t o e l e c t r i f y it,

and h e l d it c l o r e t o t h e drop, Thereupon t h e drop moved around fhe oomb in m a elengated ellApae. %ere you have XEPLEFtlS p l a n e t a r y l a w n ( m g , ia6).

Fig,' 186

Then I went t o rleep, t h a t i r I sarpended myaelf by one arm and one l e g i n two l e a t h e r l o o p r on t h e wall of the cabin ro a s t o hang rtill. Naturally, t h e s t r a p s caured no pressure, f o r I had no weight,
I d i d n o t r l e e p r e l l . I dreamt I w a r an m t e d i l u r i a n monster t h a t h d a w d l o r e d t h e earth, Nor it repeatedly r o r e t o my throad no m a t t e r how hard I nrslloxed, and whenever it came up I f e l t I would auffoca t e , Neverthelear, when I awoke about 4 o'clock, I f e l t coneiderably b e t t e r , M i l l e r was a l r e a d y r i f t i n g i n h i s d i v e r ' s equipment outside, experimenting with e l e c t r i c raya. I ahould memtion that, aimulttmeourly w i t h our rocket, another r o c k e t war f l y i n g i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y apace. I t hed contacted u r by memr of l i g h t r i g n a l r and wen reeking t o produce e l e c t r i c ray6 and W m m i t &hem t o us,

...

Nor I began working an r e l l , I t was n o t y e t p o r s i b l e to obrerve t h e moon, b u t t h e r e were enough o t h e r t h i n g s t o do. On f h e t day I obr e r r e d Mar. and J u p i t e r , Evening around 9 o'clock r e closed t h e shutt e r n and want t o bed. O f course, t h e word "eveningM i r only c o n d i t i o n d l y c o r r e c t , f o r our p o s i t i o n t o t h e sun bad n o t changed. W e were no

longer p a r t of t h e e a r t h b u t a small, independent c e l e s t i a l body. Astronomically speaking, i t w a s day on our sun s i d e and night on the shade aide. 'When I say nevening" I only mean t h a t it ras now evening a t our p l a c e of ascent; r e would have had everria2 i f we had n o t flown away. On t h e evening of t h e t h i r d day ( t h a t is, it r a a evening i n India, n o t where we were) we had approached t h e moon t o within several 50,000 Xan. Only now did we s e e a narrow c r e s c e n t illuminated by t h e sun, r h i c h soon became bigger and wider. I determined our l o c a t i o n according t o t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e moon; we were 500 km t o o c l o s e t o t h e moon. W e e a s i l y corrected the e r r o r by giving t h e r o c k e t a propulsion of 1.35 m/sec. For t h a t purpose, r e pulled t h e telescope, parachute, and t i p up c l o s e t o t h e cabin, allowed eome gas t o flow from t h e rocket, and then spread o u t t h e p a r t s of t h e rocket again,

...

The whole maneuver had taken hardly a minute.

Yet, it l e f t a n impression with me t h a t waa t o remein during t h e e n t i r e f l i g h t period. Iiad n o t t h e e a r t h been below t h e h o l e time and t h e mom above at f i r s t and then on t h e a i d e 3 Now t h e moon was nuddemly below and, t h e e a r t h off t o one s i d e above; y e t nothing had r o t a t e d 1 Neither had I turned myself. Everything had remained a s bef o r e and everything had been t h i s ray h whole time. How could I have e r r e d r o badly ? I had t h a t f e e l i n g again of l a p s i n g i n t o a dream o r awaking from a dream, One does n o t turn, nor doee t h e world turn and y e t one n o t i c e s one has had a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n thaa one thought. For me t h e e a r t h stood nbelovn again only a t t h e raoment when "Luna" rocked on t h e ocean a f t e r landing 18

. ..

Here I quote a Moonn, a t t h e sane e b i l i f y t o imagine t r u e t o n a t u r e and

f e r e r c e r p t a from GAIL'S novel, "The Stone from t h e time a s .a eeunple of GAIL'S b r i l l a n t a t y l e and h i s himself i n unuaual s i t u a t i o n s and t o present them fascinatingly. Concerned i s a visit t o a mall

body g r a v i t a t i n g with c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y on t h e edge of t h e atmosphere of Venus and t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of e n o t q u i t e voluntary a i r f o i l landing on Venus. Some of G M L t S claims a r e i n c o r r e c t ; I w i l l c o r r e c t them on t h i s occesion. That n a t u r a l l y does no harm t o t h e value of t h e book. I w i l l speak about t h e matter i n Val. 11. "The decrease i n t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e sun Segan t o make i t s e l f f e l t . The r a y s of t h e glowing d i s c , n o r t h r e e timee l a r g e r i n s i z e , shone through t h e rindowe of t h e NIkaroawwith scorching heat; a l l t h e passengers wore dark g l a s s e s t o p r o t e c t t h e eyes from t h e e s c e s s of light1). The a t r o n g l j - r e f l e c t i n g white l e y e r of fog on Venus coneiderably increased t h e brightness. A f t e r two days Venus hardly looked l i k e a star suspended in t h e afhy anymore. Its mass spanned t h e firmament i n a r i d e s r c end, i f a l l sensation of above and below had n o t been destroyed by t h e weightlesaness of t h e f r e e f l i g h t , one would have had t h e impression a s though t h e "IkaroaW were dropping obliquely down t o land from an i n f i n i t e height.

The mall orbi-tiuc s a t e l l i t e had l a g been s p o t t e d i n t h e telescope. With concerp, Korf had found t h a t i t s d i s t a n c e from t h e aurface of m . Its o r b i t ehrsnk r a p i d l y and Venus had decreased t o s c a r c e l y 150 k had changed t o a f i n e a p i r e l which took t h e body c l o s e r and c l o s e r t o t h e planet.
The landing plan was fixed. F i r s t , a connection was t o be made with t h e moon of Venrra. S i n c e t h e wIkaroawwas very large, n o t st all b u i l t f o r overcoming atmoclpheric r e s i s t a n c e , end hed no c a r r y i n g surfaces, it was impoesible t o come c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e of Venus. S i m i l a r t o Aatropol, it was t o g r a v i t a t e as a permanent e t h e r s t a t i o n in a constant o r b i t .

T----* On Venue,

~un i~ 1.4 t i m e ~ an g r e a t a s on Wth. Therefore, i n area, .the d i s c i a s c a r c e l y twice, i n any case n o t 3 timea, a s g r e a t ,
the apparent diameter of t h e

---

a l l moon r o c k e t had been taken For f h e a c t u a l expedition, a m along r a a d i n hy. Its c a r r y i n g ourfacee folded up 5 t h i a 8-long s t e e l $orpedolf warn kept i n a r i d b c h m b e r of t h e n I k a r ~ r 1e 4s p e c i a l l y i n a t a l l a d f o r t h e purpose sad r e s l e d s i r - t i g h t . It could be reached f r o a t h e p i l o t w e s t a n d through a amall pnetilnatic door. A l a r g e r door of t h e chamber l e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e outride.

The a u x i l i a r y r o c k e t could only accol~aodste3 men.

...

The p l a n e t came ever clooer.

F'rop time t o time, &rf measured t h e viaual angle of t h e c r e r c e n t

of Vslrur and from it c a l c u l a t e d t h e distance. When t h e nIkarosn came to within 60,000 km, t h e nozzles were n e t to o p e r a t e i n order t o doo e l e r a t e t h e speed of f a l l sad f o r c e fhe space-ahip i n t o an o r b i t . The reslsrrard t h r u s t , n o t f e l t f o r reek#, upaet everything. Suddenly t h e pasaeagerr f e l t t h e weight of t h e i r limbs again. ) .f t e r s few minutes, t h e and gro.neh under t h e c o ~ n t e r - ~ r e r 8 u r e ~A r o c k e t motor8 stopped. The "Ikarosn f r e e l y o r b i t e d t h e p l a n e t a t an a l t i t u d e of 45,000 k m 3 ) . Vwtss h d euddenly gotten a aecond satellite and t h e mtate of weightleaanear war restored.

...

The f i v e r a i l o r s remained on board t h e HIkarosttunder comuand of t h e r s n i o r with s t r i c t i n s t r u c t i o n s under no circumataacea t o change

-

' T w o u l d never make a r o i k e t o u t of s t e e l ( e l . p. 16 i f ) . No more would I make t h e xingr r e t r a c t a b l e . I would r a t h e r have faetened t h e r o n t o r on t h e a i d e of t h e space-ship, dinghy i .f~

I m u l d have arranged it r o a s t o connect t h e rocket body only by a long cable and have rocket a t l e a e t p e r i o d i c a l l y during f l i g h t in diaaccustorn t h e passenger8 t o counter-preaeure

t h e o b s e r n r t a cabin t o it r o t a t e about t h e order n o t t o completely (cf. p. 140).

I m u l d b a r e dencended t o t h e edge of t h e atmosphere of Vmua with t h e apace-ehip.

t h e g r a v i t a t i n g path of t h e space-ship. The rocket was examined close1 y once more snd nupplied with prop e l l a n t a and food conserves f o r f i v e daya. Then Korf, h a , and I a a b e l l a crawled through t h e hatch a t t h e t i p of t h e a u x i l i a f y rocket.

...

The slender torpedo emerged slowly from t h e womb of t h e apace-ship. For a while it remained c l o s e b e ~ i d e t h e '@Ikaros". Since both ahips were f r e e l y l e f t t o t h e e f f e c t of t h e a t a r c l o s e by, they f l o a t e d r e l a t i v e t o each other i n peace end apparent weightleemess. The r i n g s of t h e rocket unfolded t o t h e i r f u l l span. b o t h e r moment,

then t h e nozzle8 spewed streama of glowing gas i n t o apace and t h e boat shot away i n s l a n t i n g f l i g h t toward firm ground.
The t h r e e persons l a y c l o s e beside each o t h e r i n t h e hamnocke of t h e emall, arched p i l o t ' s cabin of t h e small rocket. The springs tensed, creaking under t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e working rocket nozzles 1) and t h o passengers, disaccustomed t o g r a v i t a t i o n , heavily sensed t h e weight of t h e i r bodiecr. Through t h e upper lookout window, one could aee t h e shiny c r e s c e n t of t h e near plannet spread out. I t became v i s i b l y longer and narrower. "We're ascending t o t h e twinkling morning-star! wonderful l
I'

I n t o heaven! H o w

I s a b e l l a shouted f o r joy, shaking with excitement.

For a second Korf turned h i s eyes from t h e l e v e r 8 and d i a l a . "You a r e wrong, Mias Isabel! Not up

- we're

going dom t o s o l i d ground

in

ap

oblique f a l l ! "

"But t h e r e , s e e t h e g l i t t e r i n g sea of s t a r s above -- high up there!

She pointed with her hand through t h e upper round windows

What i. r e f e r r e d t o a r e t h e aprings of t h e h ~ o c k s a d t h e counterp r e s s u r e produced by t h e nozzle of t h e rocket.

through which flooded b r i g h t l i g h t . Her hand f e l l back mddenly and r t r u c k h e r body with a thud. The counter-preaeure made t h e r i m p l e r t movement a t e a t of rtrength.

"An i l l u r i o n l Produced by t h e mofora, which f o r u s a r e a t t h e

bottom alwqyr and i n every r i t u a t i o n , a8 roan a r they work. On17 when t h q don't work,
thscl

"1

I a a b e l l a c r i e d out. ' m a t t e t h a t ? The world i r r i n k i n g l "

I t hsd become dark without my t r a n s i t i o n , au though a c o m i c monater had rrsllowed t h e run. The dormer window8 were a menacing black. Nothing m a v i r i b l e m o r e , e v m t h e mar8 of Yenur had d i r appeared.

We have entered t h e ahade of Venur, b u t we dl 1 roon erPerga again with t h i r v e l o o i t ~ l

The boat nxrhed on, lower and lower. A l i g h t hum made t h e mat@ v i b r a t e -- t h e control m o r c o p e r were operating.

...

A f t e r h a l f en hour, t h e rhade of Venue wan part. The psraengera c l o r e d t h e i r eyer f o r revere1 minuter sgrinrt t h e r e c u r r i n g g l a r i n g 1i&ht.

--

i, I t i n prerented v e r ~ v i v i d l y h e r e t h a t a p l a n e t appear8 t o be above .hen t h e rearward t h r u r t act. in a d i r e c t i o n toward it. Thin d e r c r i p t i o n n a t u r a l l y give. t h e r q e p e c t i h p l a c e a p e c u l i a r p o e t i o f a r c i n a t i o n . Yet, i f I had t o do t h e a c t n o t in f i c t i o n b u t i n o q i l i t y , I would never h a r e l e t t h e rearward thrumt a c t t o r a r d t h e planet, b u t only i n t h e tangent of t h e o r b i t , no t h a t t h e p l a n e t r o u l d have appeared t o be o f f t o t h e ride. I would h a r e decelerated t h e f l i g h t 80 much t h a t t h e o r b i t would have chsnged t o an e l l i p t i c one, rhooe perigee would have f a l l e n in t h e atmorphere of Venur.

NOT

i c e fog1) billowed on t h e a i d e

l i k e a v e r t i c a l wall a r o o d -

ing from unfathomable de th up t o hearen. I t seamed aa though the .hip #hot m p along t h i r d l a ' ever f a r t h e r ever hlgherl Qliat-ing r t r i t e fog sinking domrard wherever t h e q e turned!

S i n g l e rhooka c o r r e a t e d t h e f l i g h t . Nor r t r o n g counterp r e s r o r e comprerred t h e c h e r t , n o r t h e t h r e e j o l t e d x e i g h t l e r a l y fram t h e i r hammocks. Hourr passed. The ship, c i r c l i n g t h e b a l l of Venus ever c l o a e r , entered t h e ahade twice more a d emerged t o t h e l i g h t again, I s a b e l l a could n o l a g e r r t a n d the s i g h t of t h e ice-fog formarushing by. She closed h e r eyes. tion~

...

...

Tha g l i m t e r i n g p o h t up ahead f l o a t i n g above t h e b a l l of

Venue was becoming 1erger. looked a t the p o i n t e r wlrieh i n d i c a t e d t h e reading of t h e o u t r i d e barometer. "There, do you nee 1 A f i f t h of a n i l l i m e t r e of outaide prernrre! W e a r e already s k i r t i n g the o u t e r edge of Ule stnosphere of Venurn.

. . . Korf . . .

Wot t o u r n . But t o t h a t over there8). The remintmace of even t h e moat r a r i f i e d l a y e r r of sir caa s o a c c e l e r a t e t h e s h i n k i n g of the

') Here t h e rearward t h r u s t baa s d e c e l e r a t i n g e f f e c t . The f l i g h t i a

i n t h e d i r e c t i o n in which a plummet p u l l s on t h e l i n e . The b p r e a s i a n i n n o t t h a t of f l y i n g up a1011g a xall; it i o t h e opposite, t h a t of going d o n beeicle t h e w a l l .

s t a , t h e moon.

t r a j e c t o r y t h a t it quickly e a t e r s t h e denser l a y e r r , and then t h e r e ' s

np stopping it. I do n o t know how f a r -- no exact meanuranents can be

c a r r i e d out on t h e billowing swaths of i c e n . The r o c k e t cane c l o s e r and c l o s e r t o t h e t i n y s a t e l l i t e . The t e l e r c o p e waa already anperfluous. i a time t o .lip ~ e t inn. r Pele, but steady and w i t h vigor I s a b e l l a donned t h e ahapelease covering of rubberized leather1). Burns placed t h e maasire helmet with t h e air c a r t r i d g e s and t h e uicrophone over h e r head and screwed i n t o t h e epece diving s u i t e . Quick! I w i l l
and then t h e counter-presaare

soou have t o f i r o the retro-rockets

it t o t h e metal c o l l a r . I n another minute h e himself had t h e equipriient on.

h y

By r a y of trial, t h e telephone c a b l e s were connected. other r a y of cammunicstion between t h e occupants, n o r in a i r

...

t i g h t jackets, w a s no 1onger possibl e. t'Everything ready 7 " The voice. of I e a b e l l a snd Sir 1 ~ i l l i u s ' ) resounded i n the receiver.

'Tie rill proceed ac plar-sedtf, s a i d G r f , "am soon an r e have completely adjusted our speed t o t h a t of t h e s a t e l l i t e both of you

rill s l i p out. There i s a b s o l u t e l y no danger. You w i l l g r a v i t a t e r i d e by s i d e f r e e l y rind without weight. I w i l l s t a y w i t h t h e c o n t r o l e

of the rocket and promptly meet any f l u c t u c t i o n a i n t h e velocities f h e t oacur.

- Em! - The t i n y noon

cannot be more than 20 metrea long.

-- We w i l l have t o brake! Otherwise we rill shoot past. On your toea!"

The nozzle a l r e a d y pointed i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of f l i g l l t . A b l u e

i.e.,

B u r n . .

stream of gas s h o t o a t t h r e e o r four times. The moved up very c l o r e - y e t and slower r a t e t h e rocket.
The noeelee were rsilent 1)

awesome s a t e l l i t e

--

t h e d i s t a n c e betreen u s reduced a t a e l o r e r

and then it stopped a few metres on m e s i d e of

Burns and I s a b e l l a crawled o u t through tlle double hatch.

On t h e o u t s i d e of t h e rocket, t h e Ihgliahmen plugged i n t h e s t r o n g

c a b l e s whose ends were faetened t o t h e i r b e l t s , f r m t h e r e l e a d i n g t o t h e speakers i n t h e helmets. The g i r l wao almost overcome w i t h d i z z i n e s s and ahe was gripped

by a choking dread of t h e f e a r f u l abyss s e p a r a t i n g t h e r o c k e t from t h e

c o m i c formation. Burns quickly grasped h e r leather-covered hand and t o g e t h e r w i t h h e r puehed himself away from t h e e t e e l w a l l of t h e @hip. The two shapeleer forms f l o a t e d f r e e l y l i k e i n f l a t e d rubber balloons. The cablea c u r l e d behind t h e u l i k e i r i d e r c e n t vipers. K o r f l s eyeo moved t o and f r o between h i s companions and t h e i n d i c a t o r a of the measuring i n s t m i e n t s . He saw Burns holding on t o
t h e jagged edgea of t h e c e a t r e l crevice, crawling i n t o t h e crack,

and p u l l i n g I s a b e l l a in a f t e r him.

"The r r a t e l l i t e i r hollow!

Rorf iuumbled t o hierrelf, and confuaed

thoughts sad auapicioua s h o t through h i e brain. Korfle voice sounded i n t h e receiver.

...

"Back! A t once! The a i r is becorniug denser! We're i n danger of crash-1 ending! "

...
?r;t-would

'Korf'o voice again : "Get b a c k -

T r s j e c t o r y disturbance!

- We're

quickly1 For God's make!

f a l l f n g -- crashing! Not a second t o lore!"

h a r e been bzpoasibl;;

h e a r t h e nozzletit, even wkile working.

...

A dreadful, a i l e n t strap;.;el e f o r l i f e !

The wall s t u r n hot. A s l i g h t pressure downward i s beginning t o be f e l t . Slowly t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y return6 1)

Korf speaks i n t o t h e microphone unipterrupedly, h u r r i e d l y , w i t h f r a n t i c concern. The iron nerves of t h e Swabian begin t o vibrate. "Get back

- at

once! For heaven1 e sake! I t i s almost too l a t e

too l a t e ! The s a t e l l i t e i s crashing d e s t r u c t i o n -1 2 )

- rpadly -- t h e rocket with it -

Burns l e t s go of t h e g i r l . I t is w e l e s s without a f i r n support. He cannot f r e e her, "Should they a l l p e r i s h

- o r only she alone

3"

It i e a m a t t e r of making a desperate deoiaion.

A thought! The cable! Back t o t h e rocket! (let a hold and pull!

He g l i d e s back a s f a s t a s he can. Outaide t h e a i r p r e s s u r e f o r c e s him aideways. The atmosphere i s

s t i l l thin. The r o c k e t is f l o a t i n g nearby a s before.
One leap!

- Burns is standing between t h e double doore tagging

wildly a t t h e cable by which Rutla3) hung. h e r e i a n o t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n of Venus b u t t h e counterp r e s s u r e becoming n o t i c e a b l e on t h e s a t e l l i t e due t o t h e a i r r e s i s t a n c e .

I would simply here s t u c k t h e t i p of t h e rocket i n t o t h e crack of t h e s a t e l l i t e and then opened t h r o t t l e , a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e motion and l i f t i n g t h e whole form together with t h e rocket out of t h e atmosphere of Venue. A r o c k e t t h a t ha6 t h e capa c i t y te I b d on Venus with t h r e e persons, being decelerated on17 by means of rearward t h r u s t , and f l y a w v from Venus again i s hundred timea rrtrong enough, a t c i r c u l a r velocity, t o l i f t i t s e l f several kilometres higher together w i t h a fonnation weighing 3 0 4 0 tone. O f courre, i f Korf had done t h a t t h e impressive dramatic ending would have been l o a t .

*) I would n o t have been d!sconcerted,

Korf had h i a hand on t h e gas lever. The r a g of cloud r i n e e up from below. I f e t , t h e cable xi11 m a p and h u t l a i a l o s t . h e accelerates f h e rock-

J u s t a few minutes aad they would e n t e r t h e dense l a y e r a of t h e atmosphere; t h a t would be t h e end. He j e r k s open t h e inner door. The air eacapes from t h e apace-rhip. He pays no a t t e n t i o n t o it. Everything depends on t h e p r o t e c t i v e m i t a . He p u l l s Burns i n s i d e aad graape t h e cable. Both p u l l on it w i t h all t h e i r force. The cable must have g o t t e n stuck i n t h e cracka of t h e r e t e l l ite. Already a whitiah miat surroundr t h e ehip. They have reached t h e i c e clouds. The s t e e l w a l l s of t h e rocket h i a a f o r heat, t h e r e i n a whizzing over t h e r e around t h e r a t e l l i t e Suddenly t h e c r u s t of i c e is vaporizing a 1

--

And now

- it i e d i a i n t e g r a t i n g l

The fr-enta

glow brightly! Smoke

t r a i l e behind!
The cable elackene, Tuxtla hanging by i t a end, t i g h t l y holding t h e s m a l l case i n h e r m o e .

Another f i v e seconds! The body of t h e g i r l i s pulled inside. The hatch covern a r e slenmed shut. At t k e s m e i n a t a n t K o r f t s hand g r i p s t h e gon I ever. Full t h r o t t l e ! Five atreams of f i r e rush downward a comet uncler t h e a i r pressure.

- bent back l i k e the hood of

q'---I do n o t

b e l i e v e that., i n a i r - f r e e space st t h e distance of Venaa from t h e uun, a cruqt of i c e can form around a body o r remain i n t a c t a t dl.

The free f a l l i m g e t t i n g slower.

Far belvrw t h e g l m i n g m i n e of t h e Venus s a t e l l i t e a r e burning up. The star i r no more.

Korf looks d o m w i t h burning eyes. The s u r f a c e of Vmur i s approaching a t a raving apeed. The s h i p is f a l l i n g

- r t i l l falling!

Is t h e a l t i t u d e rrufficiont t o c w p l e t e l y s t o p t h e f a l l and then

a a c a d again?

The nozzles a r e operafing e f f e c t i v e l y

b u t w i l l they meeter t h e

mad f a l l i n g velocity? Korf1s b r a i n works l i k e l i g h t n i n g . T h i r t y rletree

of v e l o c i t y a r e d e c e l e r ~ t e di n every second. The cozzlea have worked

f o r t h r e e minutee

- that

alrecrdr make6 5 rec/bm of v e l o c i t y by which

t h e f r e e f a l l has been d e c e l e r a t e d s o far. Again he gazes below him.

...

B e l m g l i s t e n i n g white o a r f s c e s are spread out i n t e r s p e r s e d by

dark l i f i u s . There i s a black s p o t w i t h sharp cdger exactly i n l i n e

vith t h e vertical1).

I t i e onlorgiug ertreaiely r a p i d l y .

Rope a h i m e r e i n t h e st.co1.y eyes of t h e e n g i n e e r . Ile p r e s s e s h i &

l i p o together. What i f he dared t h e u t t e r n o s t

ile wuits two neconds more

t o i t s lbit.

- then he swing8 t h e gas l e v e r around

The nozzlea have stopped crocking

- they give a

howl

-- a c r e w ~ i n g-

thunderously spewiug c o m i c power i n t h e d i r e c t i o u of t h e mainland.

The hanrmockr r i p under t h e ellormoue pressure.

-;-1ik.=t

--

here i~ the plumb l i n e .

The lungs can no longer l i f t t h e weight of t h e chest 1)

The maneuver i e successful.

The t e r r i b l e rearward t h r u s t d e c e l e r a t e s t h e f a l l in t h e l a s t second and almost b r i n g s t h e rocket t o a s t a n d s t i l l j u s t above t h e s u r f a c e of t h e water. I t slowly f a l l s t h e last ten meters like a spinning 1eaf

The stream of f i r e from the nozzles v i o l e n t l y a g i t a t e s t h e water. Giant clouds of s t e w ascend. Then a slap-bang. No one i s t h e r e t o f e e l it. Unconscious -- s t r u c k down & t h e enormous counter-pressure 't h e t h r e e space t r a v e l l e r s 1 i e on t h e f l o o r . Yater l a p s high again8 t h e windows, -4 greenish film covers t h e g l a s s . The nozzles a r e extinguished i n t h e enveloping watern, Thus f o r GAIL. This could i n a measure have introduced t h e reader t o t h e thought p a t t e r n s of space t r a v e l ; now I would l i k e t o proceed with t h e discuss i o n of model E. The Obeerver's c a b s . The observer's cabin i s b e s t designated a s an H a q u a r i m f o r e a r t h dwellers" placed i n t o i n t e r p l a n e t s x y space. & s r e 8 aquarium enables s e a c r e a t u r e s t o l i v e i n a t o f a l l y d i f f e r e n t environment f a r from t h e i r home under conditions almost n a t u r a l t o them, j u s t s o t h e observerla cabin is t o enable t h e a s t r o n a u t t o l i v e i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space under almost t e r r e o t r i a l conditions.
7
3

The f r o n t c h e s t w a l l (at l e a s t t h a t of a u . o r a g i r l ) doe. n o t weigh over. 5 kg. Therefore, with s counter-preasure of 6 g, t h e e f f e c t would, a t t h e most, be as though a $6-kg weight were d i s t r i b u t e d evenly on t h e c h e s t , At t h a t , t h e i n t e r c o s t a l muaclee could s t i l l l i f t t h e cheat,

The Question of -

tempe_rature.

One often reads about t h e " l o r

temperature i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space.

"

Other authors again (e.g.

LUDWIG

M'TON) l e t t h e i r space t r a v e l l e r s s u f f e r from heat. The t r u t h i e t h a t

i n t e r p l a n e t a t y space has no temperature of i t s own whatever. As i a well known, h e a t i s concurrent with a s t a t e i n which t h e n m ~ l l c l s ? p a r t i c l e s of a body s t r i k e each other and wbirr about more o r l e s s rapidly. Hence, only
8

body c o n s i s t i n g of molecules or atoms can have tempera-

t u r e s , n o t empty space. The energy t h a t i s transmitted from one s t a r t o t h e other does n o t p e n e t r a t e it a s flowing or conducted h e a t , b u t merely i n t h e form of electromagnetic e t b e r waves. Here a body cannot,

as in t h e atmosphere, be brought t o t h e tempercrture o f bodies found i n i t a neighborhood by conduction o r c i r c u l a t i o n of t h e surrounding medium.

The b o d i e ~f l y i n g i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space themaelver n a t u r a l l y have some l e v e l of temperature; it may be j u a t a b s o l u t e zero (- 873. C ) , This temperature depends on what kind of e t h e r r a v e s s t r i k e t h e bod?, what f r a c t i o n of the e t h e r convection it absorb# and convert8 i n t o heat, and f i n a l l y how e a s i l y it, on i t s p a r t , again givea off i t s h e a t t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space i s r a d i a n t energy. Of two bodies f l y i n g s i d e by aide, f o r example, one can -be glowing h o t in t h e s u n l i g h t while t h e o t h e r remains ice-cold.

I t may be t h a t one i s l o c a t e d i n

t h e shade of t h e other, it may be t h a t the one r e f l e c t s t h e l i g h t s t r i k i n g it onto t h e other l i k e a mirror, and f i n a l l y it may be t h a t t h e two bodies have d i f f e r e n t surfaces.

When t h e sun shines on a body from a d i s t a n c e of 100

- 200 m i l l i o n

Ian, it r a d i a t e s the energy t o it i n r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t wave8 due its high temperature. Nor t h e body h e a t s up aad i t s e l f begin8 t o r a d i a t e

heat, b u t i n long naves. A balance i e reached d e n it r a d i a t e s j u s t a r much energy a s it absorbs. Black bodies permit much energy t o e n t e r , b u t they a180 r a d i a t e it e a s i l y again. White bodiea absorb l i t t l e

h e a t , b u t t h e s e do n o t l e t it escape s o e a s i l y again, If a l l body m f a c e s were equally permeable f o r short-rave as f o r long-rave reys,

a l l mall apheres in i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, f o r example, would have t o

h e a t up t o t h e same e x t e n t with equal exposure t o radiation. p a r t of #e

(On e a r t h

t h e black bodiea become rarmer than t h e white ones because t h e main abaorbed h e a t i s given off t o t h e a i r by conduction. This p a r t , however, i a j u s t about independent of color, so t h a t with s white body t h e r e i a t h e same l o s s of h e a t b u t r e l a t i v e l y lower h e a t absorption.) Nor, t h e r e a r e m a t e r i a l s nhich a r e r e l a t i v e l y re11 permea b l e t o s h o r t raves b u t n o t t o long onem (e.g. g l a r s , carbon dioxide, sodium chloride). These allow t h e ahort-wave s u n l i g h t t o e n t e r b u t r e t a i n t b e long-rsre rays which, with i t r l o r temperature, are t h e only ones t h e body can emit. Such a body -st a b s o l u t e l y black bo* much
8 4 1 fog,

be warmer than an

(eeg. a r a l t pond o r a g l a s s bed),

- Other m a t t e r

enox, o r t i n c t u r e of iodine a r e more permeable t o long-

r a v e than t o short-wave rays. I n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, a t t h e same d i s t a n c e from t h e sun a s t h e e a r t h , t h e s e could be up t o 50, c o l d e r than s body of t h e category mentioned e a r l i e r . Moreover, much depepda on t h e form of t h e body. A sphere r e c e i v e s t h e a m l i g h t from one s i d e only, but it f r e e l y r a d i a t e s i t s o m h e a t t o all s i d e s , On t h e other hand, a long c y l i n d r i c a l w i r e , r e l a t i v e l y s p e a J d ~ , r a d i a t e s i n f i n i t e l y l i t t l e h e a t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i t s a x i s . F i n a l l y , a broad p l a t e ha8 only two r a d i a t i n g surfaces which must be taken i n t o account i n c a l cul ations. F i n a l l y , t h e ~ u r f a c eof a body must n o t be of t h e same b r i g h t n e s s e v e m e r e . A p l a f e o r ~ p h e r e , f o r exemple, whose black s u r f a c e i s turned t o t h e aun and the shiny s u r f a c e t o t h e shade w i l l h e a t up much more than when t h e shiny h a l f i s turned t o t h e sun and t h e black t o t h e shade. Let u s imagine a ephere a s f a r away from t h e sun a s t h e eavth. If

i t s diameter is 1.183 cm, t h e c i r c l e of l i g h t s t r i k i n g i t w i l l be e x a c t l y

1 cm

and

it0

t o t a l s u r f a c e w i l l be 4 cm0

The h e a t i n s i d e is t o apread

s o p p i d l y by conduction o r f l u x t h a t i t s s u r f a c e can be regarded a s

evenly ram. The s u r f a c e i s t o absorb a l l t h e r a y s o f r i k i n g it# it must b e a b s o l u t e l y black. Then, according t o ABBOT'S measurements, which a t p r e s e n t are considered a s t h e most exact, t h e lrphere r e c e i v e s energy amounting t o

( t h a t i n , i n one second t h e

pun

r a d i a t e 8 onto an a r e a of 1 c m

per-

pendicular t o t h e sunla ray& a q u a n t i t y of h e a t equal t o 1/30 of t h a t

necessary t o h e a t 1 g of water from 15* C t o 16" C).

If the absolute

tsmperature of t h i s sphere i s T, according t o research by STIZE'HBN,

BOLTUANN

and INRtBAZIM, i t i t s e l f r a d i a t e r 1 . 2 7 ' 1 0 ~ ~ ' c a l eeo-'*cmog

T~

(aoa)

compare p. 898 f f . The warmer t h e sphere, I n &hie connection, ~ l e o t h e more h e a t it r a d i a t e s , and i f

t h e i r r e d i a t i o n i r j u s t a s g r e a t sa t h e r a d i a t i o n . Then t h e ophere n e i t h e r h e a t s up nor cools o f f , From t h a t , t h i s follows a

That is 1%' C above 0 . (0x1 e a r t h , the average temperature i a somewhat higher because t h e e a r t h i s s t i l l h o t on t h e i n s i d e and t h a t c o n t r i b u t e s aomething t o t h e h e a t of its surface, W h y it is n o t still

considerably h o t t e r i s because of t h e cover of cloudo; extended

d e s e r t areas, t h e Sahara, f o r example, a r e much h o t t e r . ) Naturally, a s p h e r i c a l observer's cabin a l s o hae a temperature of lPO C i f it

i s u n i f o m l y permeable t o t h e r a d i a t i n g energy a t a l l places sad t o dl sides,

O n t h e o t h e r hand, ~ v i t l la lonq, t h i n , round w i r e whose a x i s i s

p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e son's r a y s , t h e r a d i a t i n g a u r f n c e i s o n l y w = 3.14

times a8 g r e a t a s t h e s u r f a c e of incidence. Here we 1:'nst w r i t e

From t h a t , t h i s would f o l l o w t

302O abs. = 2 g 0 C.

I f i t s a x i s were p a r a l l e l t o t h e ec-1'8 r a y s , t h e r a d i a t i n e s u r f a c e would be very much g r e a t e r than t h e i r r a d i a t i n g surface. I t s teinperature would then be very low, e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e sha.1e end. Thus, t h e temperature of t h e egg-shaped o b s e r v e r ' s cabjn i s between

leO and

$go

C i f i t - a x i s i s pergendiculnr t o t h e s u n ' s rays. I f it

i a p a r a l l e l t o t h e s u n f a r a y s , it w i l l b e ~omewhatbelow 12O. T h i s only a p p l i e s i f t h e s u r f a c e i s t h e same a t a l l places. For a broad, t h i n p l a t e p e r p e n d i c u l d , t o t h e sun's r a y s , t h e s u r f a c e of i n c i d e n c e would be h a l f as l a r g e as t h e s u r f a c e of r a d i a t i o n . Here we g e t :
T = 550 abs. = 7 7 O C. (206)

F i n a l l y , with a t h i n d i s c wbich i s b r i g h t on t h e shade s i d e and b l a c k on t h e sun s i d e , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of r a d i a t i o ? i s 9 t i m e s a s g r e a t

on t h e sun s i d e than on t h e shade aide. Here, almost only t h e f r ~ n t

w a l l i s i n q u e s t i o n when it comes t o r a d i a t i o n ; s o we can e q u a t e t h e

s u r f a c e of i n c i d e n c e with t h e s u r f a c e of r a d i a t j o n , and we o b t a i u s d i s c temperature of 147. C above 0. T h i s v a l u e coincide8 approximately w i t h t h e + d u e s t h a t have been measured with t h e bolometer on t h e moonfs surface. At noon, a t t h e equator of t h e moon, t h e s u r f a c e of i n c i d e n c e i s a l s o as l a r g e as t h e s u r f a c e of r a d i a t i o n .
On e a r t h , t h e bodies never ~ e t h t a t h o t i n t h e sun because

air c a r r e n t r a r i a e which conduct t h e produced h e a t arsy w a i n (Flicke r i n g of air over object8 atandiog i n t h e sun.)
On t h e o t h e r Laad, t h e e f f e c t d i n v e r t i n g t h i n s u r f a c e would

b e u tho-, keeping t h e rune color, t h e r a d i a t i n g uurface had beeaee 10 timer ar l a r g e aa t h e s u r f a c e of incidence. The temperature would be only

A r h o l l y b r i g h t b o e i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y rpace i r in t h e rame

p o r i t i m ar t h e c o n t e n t r of a thermos flaak. It can abaorb o r giwo off heat r a d i a t i o n only with d i f f i c u l t y . So it i a n o t n e c e a r a q t o equip a direr'. m i t with double wallo l i k e a t h e m o r f l a n k a m bar often been maggemfed t o me and VALIEB apparently had i n mind f o r r o l e ti..'). h e a r t h , t h e l r 0 8 f l WIG. have d 0 ~ b l e w d 1# 0nl t o pexmit forming s vscuua around t h e i n s i d e container. In i n t e r p l a a e t a r y .pace, however, every b w i r mrrounded a i r - f r e e -ace anyway, rad it i r o n t i r e l y n u f f i c i e n t t o make t h e diver'. r n i t out of ahiny metal p l a t i n g in order, i n g r e e t meamre, t o p r o t e c t t h e d i v e r a g a i n s t h e a t and oold.

HORMANN'S mggeations he Reachibil it7 of t h e C e l e s t i a l ~ o d i e r ) with respeot t o t h e o b r e r v e r B e cabin a r e a l s o n o t thought through o a n c l u r i v e l ~ . HOWAtW aaaume. t h a t t h e rhade r i d e of t h e o b r e r r e r ' s e r b i n w i l l b a r e a temperature of 0 . &a. 1 1 7 3 . C. Acdordingly h e mink8 of l i n i n g t h e i n r i d e of t h e ' r a l l with r r t r o n g insulation a g a i n a t f h e l o r 8 of h e a t and h e a t i n g t h e o b a e r v e r ' ~W i n w i t h keromrre. But that i r n o t necessary, s r we s h a l l nee innnediatdy.

--

@ i d e a i r t o r h l y make t h e o b r e r v e r B o cabin o u t of 1 t o a-om-

lJ IIe hati mi-derrtood

crcerpt*

t h e r t o r y r e l a t e d a t t h e beginning of the

t h i c k sltminum p l a t i n g r i f h o u t m y s p o c i d p r o t e c t i o n a g ~ i n r t front (of. P l a t e IV, I). & mmq rindorr of quarts p l a t e a r p o r r i b l e w e t o be i n s t e l l a d om all rider. The o u t r i d e aurface i r t o g e t a rpeotrlrr c o a t crrrd t h e windows a r e t o be f i t t e d out s o t h a t t h q can be oovared w i t h mpecular p l a t i n g an t h e outride. (hoe half i r to be covered ria black p q e r o r milk cloth, which i r t o c l i n g t i g h t l y t o permit it to give o f f i t r h e a t t o t h e metal 13;1 conduction. I n s i d e f b e obrerver'a oabin, the h e a t quickly rpreads t o all a i d e r a i r circulation. Depending on h o r much of t h e black o r shiny h a l f i a turned toward the son, t h e t e a p e r e t u r e oan be regulated. With model E , t h e t i p can a l a o be j e t t i r o n e d and t h e parachute csn be moved o f f a. from oabin I of t h e obrerver, Since I is connected t o t h e hydrogen rocket only by a l e c t r i c wire., I can be moved away a good dirtance, allowing a f r e e v i e r t o all aide8 i n apace (~ig. 197). Since t h e i r i a no counterp r e r m r e , t h e objecta can e a s i l y b e given any p o r i t i o n w i t h reapect to each other.

Fig, ill I n r o doing, 88 in Fig. 187, it i n p o r s i b l e t o h a r e t h e hollow, r e f l e c t i n g inner m r f a c e r of t h e t w o t i p s e c t i o n s a l i k e w i r e r e f l e c t t h e a m ' r ray8 on cabin I. Thereby endurable tomperatare8 can be maintained i n s i d e the cabin ovea in t h e gone of t h e asteroids. Conversely, t h e oboerrerle cabin can be moved i n t o t h e shade of t h e t i p and turned toward space with t h e black aide so t h a t t h e b r i g h t

s i d e r e f l e c t s t h e h e a t r a y s which t h e t i p allowed t o pass through w d t h e black s i d e g i v e s o f f i n t o apace f i a t #e b r i g h t s i d e mey have allowed t o p a s s through. I n t h i s ray, t h e rocket could t r a v e l on t h e edge of t h e s u n f a atmosphere without causing t h e occupants t o a u f f e r from t h e heat. W e must keep t h e containern f o r t h e l i q u i d gasea cool. So we must do t h e opponite t W e w i l l p l a c e them i n t o t h e shade of t h e observer8# cabin, t h e parachute, and t h e t i p sections, l e a v e them poliahed on t h e nun s i d e curd p a i n t them b l s c k on t h e shade side. It has been pointed out t o me t h a t t h e l i q u i d hydrogen would, nevertheless, vaporize on the run s i d e and f r e e z e on t h e shade side. I do n o t b e l i e v e t h e latter would happen s i n c e cold and ram l i q u i d i s conetantly being mixed due t o diffusion. -Unfortunately, I do n o t know whet i r t h e a c t u a l r a t e of d i f f u a i o n of l i q u i d hydrogen and whether it w i l l a u f f i c e n t h l a r g e rocketa. It doer n o t appear t o be h o r n even toddqy; st l e a s t I was n o t a b l e t o f i n d out. 'fhia doea n o t present s b a s i c problem, h a e v e r . I n t h e worst caae, a type of a g i t a t o r oould be attached t o t h e tank which mixes t h e l i q u i d occerionally o r s number of electromagnets could be b u i l t i n t o the walls, which a r e switched on a l t e r n a t e l y a s i n t h e three-phase motor, aad a p e r f o r a t e d h o l l m nphere o f i r o n p l a t i n g o r t h e spherical f l o s t of t h e l i q u i d i n d i c a t o r i s allowed t o r o l l about i n t h e gar tank.
A l l t h i n reaesrch only applien a s long a s t h e apace-ship t r a v e l 8

i n emshine. With model E t h a t i n mostly t h e caae, f o r i t s t r i p 6 t a k e it i n t o t h e ahade of d i s t a n t c e l e s t i a l bodies a t t h e moat f o r 1 1/a hours.

. If it The aurface a r e a of t h e observer'a *&in i a roughly 10 3 r e f l e c t s aad t h e nlndolr cover. are possibly k e p t ahut, it r b d i a t e n 45 cal. per second, with @at i n a i d e temperature of 17. C above 0.

I n an hour t h a t would make 1 - c a l . It would l o s e t h a t much through r a d i a t i o n in t h e ahade of a l a r g e a e l e e t i a l hoe. T h i r h e a t l o r 8 i n i t s e l f could be made ap burning 18 g of kerorene. & i n well known, t h e parrengerr a l r o develop h e a t (over 100 c a l . p e r hour p e r perron); t h e a l k a l i . c a r r i e d along f o r abrorbing t h e aarbon dioxide likerime, ro t h a t it rill l i k e l y n o t b e n e a e a r m t o h e a t a t a l l . No more does apace diving equipment need t o be heated. It h a r d r o been objected that rpace d i r e r 6 would r o a s t i n t h e nun on one r i d e and f r e e z e on t h e other. I hope t h e reader rill rea l i t e from t h e r e extremely lor f i g u r e r f o r h e a t l o s s t h a t t h e r h d e r i d e of t h e o b r e r v e r t r @.bin must f e e l n e a r l y j u a t ar rcrrm aa t h e 1i g h t ride. Only with l a r g e obrerverrt cabine t h a t e n t e r t h e rhede of t h e e a r t h very o f t e n ( l e t u r aay with a s t a t i o n c o n s t a n t l y r o t a t i n g about a c e l e r t i a l bod7) w i l l r p e c i a l preaautionr a g a i n r t h e a t l o s e perbapr be n e c e e r a q , r v l i n i n g t h e w a l l with a poor h e a t conductor. of Much can be g 8 i n e d . b t h i a measure, f o r t h e r a d i a t i n g c a p a c i t ~ r e f l e c t i n g surface8 decrearer almoat a s t h e 6th power of t h e i r absolute temperature. Sbort-rare ram i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. la l a b o r a t o r y experis e n t a teach, r h o r b r r v e r v r ( l i g h t r a y r on t h e o t h e r a i d e of t b e u l t r a - v i o l e t npeotnam, r o m t g m r y r , m d -rwr) only p a r 8 through our atmorphere with d i f f i c u l t y . The r e s u l t i r t h a t r u n l i g h t on t h e top of high mountainn containr more u l f r r - r i o l e t rcyr. Hence we w i l l probabl~ meet up with r t r o n g rhort-way r a d i a f i o n i n i n t e r p l e n e t q

rpace. Their eater= c o a t e a t aannot b e great. For e r m p l e , i f , i n him novel, n h Tro Planetrn, KURD LASSWIT2 w r i t e s about u l t r a - v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n thef c o n t a i a r 3 0 4 0 timer more e n e r w thau t h e a m l i g h t t h a t reaoher am, I r e e t h a t only a r p o e t i c licence. Our atmosphere

could n o t r e f l e c t ruoh r a d i a t i o n ; it could only abaorb it, f o r t h e atmoaphere h a s no r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e r r i t h r e f e r e n c e t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y rpace, a s doer r a t e r , but t h e a i r i r g r a d u s l l y 10.t i n t h e vacuum. Hence, t h e a i r r o u l d n o t r e f l e c t raya s w i k i n g it M a g l m e d c l a y r u r f a c e r e f l e c t s l i g h t , b u t it r o u l d absorb them l i k e a dug garden. But i f t h e uppennosf l a y e r r of t h e atmoaphere absorbed ruch a c p s n t i t y of energy it would have to be c o n e i d e r a b l j V e r on e a r t h t h a t it a c t u a l l y is. The KOELH~~RSTER rws. Nor, i n interplanefar7 apace, we f i n d very herd (i.e. short-wave) r a d i a t i o n emitted by c e r t a i n mirt patcher, which ha8 t h e e f f e c t of very hard roentgen rrys. Thir r a d i a t i o n i t s e l f ham t o o s h o r t ; rave-length t o h a m t h e human o r g a n i u ~ l t b u tit eatrses t h e bodies it s t r i k e s t o e m i t a somewhat longer r a d i a t i o n , t h e roc a l l e d recondary r a d i a t i o n . It w a s with regard t o t h i s t h a t f e a r s were erpre~sed t h a t an insuwountabl e hindrance t o rpace f l i g h t could a r i s e

This r a d i a t i o n i a too weak t o harm man i n a mearure worth mentioning. The inhabitants of region8 where radium is produced ( n o t t o rpeak of workers i n uranium miner snd X-rqy doctora) are c o n s t a n t l y -rays without s u f f e r i n g ham. For t h a t matter, exposed t o etronger I can h e r e r e f i r t o e discoverer of t h e s e raps, Prof. Dr. WWNW KOHLH%STER himself, who, rfieri asked about t h i s , declared t h a t h e raw

LI

i n any case only t h e s m a l l e s t hindrance t o rpace f l i g h t i n a i r radiation. The u l t r a v i o l e t l i . could not p e n e t r a t e aluminum r d l r and g l a s s windows. But I chose quartz.glase j u s t f o r t h e purpose of n o t complete l y s h u t t i n g out t h e u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t .
1) It a c c e l e r a t e 8 t h e oxidation of t h e d i r i n f e g r s t i o n o r e m i c

m a t t e r r h i c h perhaps is n o t completely eliminated by t h e a i r p u r i f y i n g apparatus s t i l l t o be discussed, One i s e a s i l y convinced of t h a t by t h e following experiment r The a i r i n a m a l l , dark room i s p o l l u t e d with hydrogm s u l f i d e , e t h y l hydrosulfide, r o t t e n meat, o r t h e l i k e , t h e small remain8 f o r neekr. If, however, an u l t r a v i o l e t lamp i s l e f t burning i n t h i s room, t h e a i r i s pure a f t e r a few minutes.

I do n o t wish t o dhpense completely with t h e r e f r e e h i n g and blood-purifying power of u l t r a v i o l e t rays, e s p e c i a l l y f o r longer f l i g h t s .

I here have t h e choice, aa it were, between submarine a i r and mountain

a)

a i r ; n a t u r a l l y I choose t h e l a t t e r , Corpuscular rase. Beside t h e e l e c t r o m a p e t i c e t h e r raves, e l e c t r i c -

ally-charged atoms and e l e c t r o n s a r e a l s o f l y i n g through apace, W e can measure t h e i r p e n e t r a t i n g power by our northern l i g h t s . Where t h e s e part i c l e s s t r i k e t h e a i r molecules t h q cause them t o give off l i g h t , and t h a t i o known t o be t h e b a s i s of our northern l i g h t s . They begin a t an a l t i t u d e of about 500 km and suddenly s t o p a t an a l t i t u d e of 95 km above t h e ocean a s i f they had s t r u c k a g a i n s t an i n v i s i b l e wall. This wall i s t h e a t m o ~ p h e r eof t h e earth. The momentum of these s m a l l bodies i a s u f f i c i e n t t o d r i v e them i n t o t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere up t o t h e ninetyf i f t h kilometre. I f one placed a layer of a i r of normal d e n s i t y i n t h e i r m in it. Namely, a t an a l t i t u d e of path, they would n o t advance 1 0 c 95 h, t h e a i r i s a t t h e most under a pressure of t h e P00,OOOth p a r t of one atmosphere. That f i g u r e i s r a t h e r t o o high than too low. That t h e corpuscular r a y s already shine t h e r e , while ;still being i n v i s i b l e i n equally r a r i f i e d GEISSLER tubes, i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t , i n t h e f i r s t place, t h e space passed t h r o u ~ hi s longer. ,Naturally,
+,he l o n z e r the tube, t h e g r e a t e r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e r 3 d i a t i n g

p a r t i c l e rill s t r i k e a lnolecule on i t s way and cause it t o shine,

Secondly, it i r bared on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e upace i a much wider, ao t h a t t u r b i d i t y c s a b e seen ~ r h i c hi s n o t discerned with a depth of 5 8 0 cm (we do n o t have [IEISSLEtC tube8 much t h i c k e r thso that). Thio i o t h e same n a t u r a l phenomenon t h a t maker a l a y e r of a i r 10 cm t h i c k appear c l e a r while one 80 100 S a m t h i c k appear. cloudy.

I f t h e l o v e r edge of t h e northern l i g h t a l i e n i n an atmospheric 3 l a y e r t h a t ha8 a preeeure of 0.05 kg/m t h a t i a fhe same a 8 i f t h e corpuscular r a y s had paased through a l a y e r of a i r of normal d e n s i t y 4 c m thick. The d i e t a n c e they cover i n any medium depends on t h e msaa of t h e m a t t e r t h a t w a s parsed through. The s p e c i f i c weight of normal air i r 1.a9 kg/m3. I f it stood 1 m high above a eurface, it would e x e r t a p r e ~ e u r eof l i t 9 @/em 3 But h e r e it h a s a p r e a n r r e of only

0.05 k g / a 3 , wbich would correspond t o a h e i g h t of

1.89

= 4 a .

Now, t h e s e e l e c t r o n s n a t u r a l l y do n o t a l r a y o e n t e r t h e atmosphere perpendicularly, y e t , with t h e s p h e r i c a l shape of t h e e a r t h a d the r a p i d decrease in t h e air denrsity with higher a l t i f a d e s , t h i r d i f f e r e n c e ie r e l a t i v e l y unimportant. These rqya would p e n e t r a t e st tho moat 0.004P cm i n t o alumintm o r g l a s a j and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e g l a s e o r aluminum i n n b t t o be feared. As a r u l e , GEISSLER tube8 a r e made of g l a s s snd t h e i r e l e c t r o d e s of aluminum, r e f they endure radiat i o n of q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n t e n s i t y f o r t h e l o n g e s t of perioda.

Th_e_. The mpplying of air could be arraaged a i m i l a r t o t h e case of sabmariner. b o t h e r q y would b e t o only renew t h e o q g e n i n general, oince breathing does n o t chsnge t h e nitrogen, and somehow t o remove t h e a s p i r a t e d csrbon dioxide from t h e air. I n m o doing, t h e olygen could be produced from potassium c h l o r a t e o r taken along compressed in cylinder6 o r i n a l i q u i d a t a t e end vaporized e i t h e r by t h e sun o r by t h e u s e of f u e l s . Taking along l i q u i d orggen i n t h e rocket xauld prove beat, f o r l a r g e r q u s n t i t i e s of l i q u i d

oxygen would be c a r r i e d along aayrqy and they can be atored f o r any length of time i n t h e shade of t h e rocket. For reaaonr I rill n o t diaauaa f u r t h e r here, I would t a k e along t h e supply of l i q u i d orygen intended f o r breathing i n a r e p a r a t e container. ( I d i d n o t r h o r it on P l s t e IV i n order n o t t o confuse t h e picture.)

In general I r o u l d r e p l a c e only t h e oxygen and remove t h e carbon dioxide. Nevertheleer, b e r i d e main1y o~rggen containing 1iquid, I would t a k e along about h a l f t h a t q u a n t i t y of l i q u i d nitrogen i n a n t h e f i r s t place, in order t o renew t h e whole a i r neparate b k , i rupply o c c s r i o n a l l y and, recondly, i n order t o make up f o r p o s s i b l e l o r 8 of air, about which r e rill speak l a t e r . I f , w i t h l o a n of air, we only c o n t i n u r l l y replsced t h e oxygen, t h e air would roan be eo enriched with oxygen as t o be undesirable. The l i q u i d air vaporieing apparatur xould h a r e t o be arranged so t h a t they a a t o m s t i c a l l y keep t h e sir p r e a m r s i n r i d e t h e cabin a t a c e r t a i n l e v e l and alarm t h e p i l o t i n c a r e it maddenly drops. On longer t r i p e , t h e p i l o t can a a a i l y determine t h e comporition of t h e air chemically and r e g u l a t e it by c o r r e c t l y s d j a r t i n g t h e spparatun.

In s h o r t e r f l i g h t s and i n t h e r h d e of t h e e a r t h , 1 r o u l d uae
e l k a l i hydratea (rodium hydroxide, potaarium hydroxide, o r slaked X i m e ) f o r elimination of t h e carbon dioxide. These absorb t h e carbon dioxide according t o the fonaular t

These a l k a l i . would, a t t h e name time, absorb rome r a t e r vapor, which could b e rupported by adding some qaickl ime. They would a i m l t a u eoualy ebrorb t h e oulphur dioxide and t h e n i t r i c oxide which a r e forned

from d i s i n t e g r a t i n g organic eubstances under t h e influence of t h e ultraviolet light. For p u r i f i c a t i o n of a i r on longer t r i p s I would u s e t h e air d i s t i l l e r discussed on p, 418. That n a t u r a l l y works only i n sunshine; b u t one does, a s a rule, f l y i n t h e sun, I would l i k e t o mention t h a t I would a l s o p u t t h e . a i r coming from t h e a i r d i s t i l l e r through

it i n t o t h e observer's cabin; t h e a l k a l i s , however, would acarcely be used up r i t h air p u r i f i e d i n t h a t way.

a l k a l i s before leading

Fig. 188 Wastes can be conveyed from t h e obeerver's cabin i n t h e following

ray (cf. Fig. 1 ~ 8 The ) ~ o b j e c t a, which i s t o be t h r o m out, i~ brought i n f r o n t of a s h u t t e r b; t h e l a t t e r r o t a t e s outward about hinge
c and i s held ahut by hoop e and r o l l e r d. The hoop i s tensed by hold g which can be suspended from hook

is

i can be tightened by a s p e c i a l

l e v e r n o t p i c t u r e d here, Usually, s h u t t e r b i s pressed f i r m l y a g a i n s t

a rubber ring, Then a diah-shaped container f , whose f l a t edge c l i n g s f i r m l y t o t h e d l sad i s l i k e w i s e l i n e d with rubber, i s turned upside d o m over t h e object. Whem s h u t t e r b is opened, t h e a i r under f escapes a t w a r d and, st t h e a w e time, draw t h e o b j e c t rith it, while t h e a i r i n s i d e t h e r o c k e t f i r m l y presses diah f ' t o t h e rall. If d i s h f i u t o be opened again, a i r i a allowed t o e n t e r underneath it through t h e cock h , Obviourrlj., i n s o doing, t h e a i r f l o r a obliquely inward causing a r i n d by mean8 of which, with s h u t t e r b open, the o b j e c t can s t i l l be expelled even i f it should c l i n g to t h e s h a t t e r o r t h e diah,

FJ%Il[ LINICE auggeats t h a t wastes and feecea n o t b e flung i n t o

i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space a t d l b u t b e taken along u n t i l landing becwse,

a t t h e high r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s with which r e a r e dealing here, f l y i n g p i e c e s can l a t e r c o n s t i t u t e a danger t o apace-rhips once they become numeroue; the more so s i n c e t h e space-ships rill repeatedly t r a v e l only d r u g c e r t a i n paths, on r h i c h matter rill then accumulate.
Well, I am n o t saying one o r t h e o t h e r t o avoid being accused l a t e r of having s a i d ao and ao. One t h i n g i a certain. I n t e r p l p n e t a q apace is l a r g e and can hold s l o t . I t i s f i n a l l y more o r l e s s a mat6er of our world v i e r whether r e already r m t t o imnerge ourselves i n expenditurea f o r t h e sake of our p o s t e r i t y over 60,000 yearn. I n any case, r e a r e n o t a s pedantic i n many more iuunediate questiona (e.g. deprecating our e s t a t e by marriages of convenience, unhygienic mode of l i v i n g , etc.). Besides, because of t h e i r r a t e r end gas content, f e e c e r , f o r example, immediately d i s i n t e g r a t e l n t o minute pieces, s o t h a t we are, a t t h e moat, concerned with c o m i c d u s t d o s e g r a i n s a r e On'the other hand, encountering a t o o mall t o harm a space-ahip,

half-rotten b e e t o r a broken control gyroscope could, in f a c t , have unpleasant r e s u l t s and it should a c t u a l l y be considered whether such t h i n g s should n o t a t l e a s t b e ground up beforehand. That i s e a s i l y done i f they a r e k e p t i n t h e shade of fhe space-ship f o r some time, where they f r e e z e t o 473' and become b r i t t l e . The question of wastes would have t o be considered s e r i o u r l y i n connection with t h e observer a t a t i o n e r o t a t i n g about the e a r t h , a s I rill d e s c r i b e them i n t h e n e x t chapter. Fortunately, t h i u diapoeal device g i v e s t h e o b j e c t s a c e r t a i n propulrion end it can well be arranged t o make t h e wastes h i t the e a r t h ' a atmosphere due t o t h e i r d i r t u r b e d t r a j e c t o r y and t h u s end t h e i r existence an independent c e l e s t i a l bodies. Naturally, in t h e upper l a y e r s of t h e atnosphere, they immediately burn t o d u s t 1i k e met eora, so t h a t , f o r t h e people l i v i n g below, the matter would only r e p r e s e n t a p r e t t y s p e c t a c l e ri t h o a t f u r t h e r consequences.

Space divers.

When t h e motor i s shut o f f , t h e r e i a no counter-

p e r a m r e on t h e f l y i n g space-ship and so t h e passengers can p u t on divers' s u i t s (cf. Fig. lag), l e a v e t h e observer's cabin, and f l o a t n e a r t h e space-ship. The d i v e r a p m i t e would have t o atand an i n s i d e preaeure of 1 atmosphere. I would make them of t h i n polished t i n and, i n p r i n c i p l e , s i m i l a r t o t h e deep-see divers' equipment already i n u s e today. For hands, I would a t t a c h claws. The f e e t could have hooks with which t h e d i v e r cen hold on t o t h e cables o r r i n g s e s p e c i a l l y a t t a c h e d f o r t h i s pnrpoee t o t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e rocket. For t h e r e s t , t h e d i v e r t s equipment could be considerably l i g h t e r and thinner than equipnent t h a t i s t o stand an o u t s i d e preasare of 10 atmosphere#.
I would embed t h e j o i n t s i n a balloon of canvas l i n e d with cr t h i n

l a y e r of rubber on t h e inside. The *ole

d i v e r t s equipment could be

t e s t e d before t h e a s c e n t by s t i c k i n g it i n t o a aomewhat l a r g e deep-sea d i v e r 1 # m i t and u s i n g t h e air hoae of the deep-sea equipment t o evacuate t h e space between t h e two s u i t e .

Fig. 109

I t appears impractical t o m e t o supply t h e d i v e r with a i r through a tube from t h e obeerver'e cabin. I would r a t h e r l e t him c a r r y
compressed o r l i q u i d a i r i n a cylinder P. The d i v e r could breath t h e

a s p i r a t e d a i r i n t o a second tanfr L which expands l i k e en accordian

and i e kept a t atmospheric presaure by s p i r a l springs. From time t o time, t h e d i v e r can empty t h i s t a n k t o t h e o u t s i d e by means of cocka

H, Hi. That causes a s l i g h t r e a r n r d t h r u e t r h i c h g i v e s t h e d i v e r a

c e r t a i n power t o influence h i s moveanente, f o r exemple, during f r e e f l i g h t . As LbFFWT bar suggested, f o r apecial purposes t h e d i v e r could take along rearward t h r u s t p i s t o l s e i m i l a r t o those of BROWNING. For t h e r e s t , t h e d i v e r is n o t supposed t o f l o a t e n t i r e l y f r e e but i s t o be connected t o t h e observer's cabin by a cable F. Telephone w i r e s cea be round i n t o t h i s cable, f o r a i r - f r e e apace i s known n o t t o conduct sound and it appears d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e d i v e r be a b l e t o a p e d t o t h e persone i n t h e observerts cabin.

I n a o n t r a s t t o U L , Y r o u l d l i k e t o have t h e head-piece screwed on n o t on t h e o u t s i d e b u t on t h e i n s i d e by t h e d i v e r himself, but it i s a l s o supposed t o have a f l a p K t h a t cran b e opened from t h e outaide f o r any e v e n t u a l i t i e s . To enable t h e d i v e r t o g e t out without causing
t o o g r e e t a l o s s of air, t h e observer's cabin has a passage which can be closed a i r t i g h t both f r o n t and back ( p l a t e IV, T). This a l s o s e r v e s a8 entrance t o t h e o b s e r v e r ' s cabin before t h e s t a r t . The d i v e r g e t s i n with t h e outside door shut; then t h e i n s i d e door i s s h u t and t h e a i r from t h e passage i s withdrawn t o t h e observer's cabin o r i n t o a compressed a i r tank. Then t h e d i v e r opens t h e o u t s i d e door, crawls o u t halfway, and f a s t e n s t h e end of h i e l e a d cable t o a screw a f f i x e d h e r e f o r t h e purpose. Thie screw a l s o p r o r i d e s t h e c o n t a c t f o r t h e speaker. Nor t h e d i v e r can move out i n t o apace. The p r e c i s i o n and control instruments of model E in general correspond t o those of model B already described on p. 331. Concerning t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i n d i c a t o r s and t h e control gyroscopes, I have a l r e a d y s a i d what i n needed on p. 123and p. 271 f f . Concerning p o s i t i o n Oindi n g by tbe p i l o t , t h e reader rill f i n d *at

i r required on p. 281.

The instrument described under 7 i s n o t needed h e r e mince t h e most adventageoua v e l o c i t y ? is n o t observed. Here, t h e v e l o c i t y i n r e g a l s t ed by a weight which hangs by an e l a s t i c s p r i n g and keepa t h e counterpreaaure on t h e same l e v e l . m e n t h e p i l o t changes t h e suspension of t h i a s p r i n g ( t h e r e g u l a t i n g r e r i a t a n c e mentioned above by t h e uae of mercury tubes), t h e accel e r a t i o n changes. 7 s ) Here, t h e hydrogen r o c k e t must n o t simply burn out; it caa b e r h u t off by t h e p i l o t and turned on again l a t e r . The following n i g h t a l r o be mentioned a W h e n t h e observer completely turn8 off t h e f u e l mapply t o pump. PI, Pa a d m, n (cf. P l a t e IV), f r e e f l i g h t b y i n r and t h e rocket i n n o t s u b j e c t t o any counter-pressure. Since t h e r a l l r of t h e tonk a r e ret from l i q u i d oxygen and especially l i q u i d hydrogen, the l i q u i d a rrccamalate along t h o r a l l n and f o r c e t h e vapora toward t h e c e n t r e (cf. Fig. 57). Now, t h e venta which b r i n g t h e l i q u i d t o t h e pumpa are n i t u a t e d q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e floor (on t h e d l , therefore). They would #till be covered w i t h l i q u i d even if they extend far inward. When t h e r e venta are opened, t h e i n s i d e prenm r e f o r c e r l i q u i d through and n o t gas, even *hen t h e r e i a no counterpreaaure. he s a f e t y valves a r e another matter, b u t they e r e n o t being used now.) So, w i t h f r e e f l i g h t i n e t h e r space, t h e r o c k e t can a c t u a l l y be a t s r t e d a t any time, only t h e counter-pressure may n o t a c t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n from t h e o u t l e t t o t h e t i p . Where t h i a i a i n danger of happening, t h e r o c k e t must have r p e c i a l l i q u i d rsnta. Finally, mention should be made of t h e periscope6 p ( p l a t e IV) which p e m i t an open T i e r on all r i d e s during t h e arcent. Aa noon a8 f r e e f l i g h t begina, a m i a repreaented in Fig. 197, the t i p $8 jattinoned and t h e whole machine i s rpreed out to g i v e a f r e e view t o a l l aidea of space. Thir i s poaaible mince t h e s e p a r t s appear a6 though they had no weight and a r e connected only by c a b l e s and e l e c t r i c wire..

L i t t l e can b e r a i d about t h e remaining p a r t s of model E; they oorrelrpond t o t h e machine p a r t s of model B l a b e l l e d r i t h t h e same l e t t e r r on P l a t e I and dircusred i n Chapter8 15 17.

Purpose and h c t i o n s of t h e E Model a) Space teleacope (cf. p. 418)

Aa

i r well-known, artronomical telescope8 c o n r i s t of a l a r g e l e n r

of considerabl e focal 1ength, t h e ro-call ed objective, which producer a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e , inverted, r e a l image of a d i s t a n t o b j e c t in f r o n t of t h e observer. By meane of a l e n s aerving a s magnifying g l a a r , t h e ao-celled eyepiece, t h e observer can then approach t h e image ar c l o s e r r he wisher. A r e f l e c t i n g t e l eacope has a concave mirror i n s t e a d of t h e o b j e c t glasn which likewise p r o j e c t s inverted, r e a l images of d i a t a n t objectr1

I.

h r i l d i n g aetronoaical instruments on earth i r fraught with g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e r . The f i r s t c o n a i s t r of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s alweya d i f f u s e d l i g h t p r e s e n t on earth. % a t is d i s t u r b i n g *hen one wisher t o simply f a r t e n two l e n s e s one behind t h e other, l e t u s say on a r t i c k . Hence t h e l e n e e s must be attached a t e i t h e r end of e pipe r h i c h i r coated black on t h e inside. Naturally, t h a t would be the l e a a t . The diasdvantcrgea r e s u l t i n g from t h e f o r c e of g r e v i t y a r e more inconvenient. The teleacope benda e a s i l y and it must be mounted on f i r m footing. But no a b s o l u t e l y r i g i d bodier e r i a t and eo telescoper of too l i g h t a b u i l d r i b r a t e when they a r e touched. Moreover, no a c c u r a t e angle meamrrmentu can be made r i t h too l i g h t and bendable inatrumente s i n c e t h e e f f e c t of g r a v i t a t i o n
1 L w r i t i n g t h i s aection a l r o f o r l a p e n slld ask t h e o p t i c i a n t o excure me f o r uaking some t h i n g s sound m u e r h e t amateurish.

bends them somewhat from t h e d i r e c t i a a they ahould have according t o t h e p o s i t i o n of suspension mechanics. With very s t r o n g magnificaf ion, t h e beading of t h e pipe due t o g r a v i t a t i o n e a r i l y has a n unfavorable e f f e c t on t h e sharpnear of t h e image. These drawbacks oan be o f f s e t
1) ~y making t h e stand of t h e telescope a s masrive snd s t r o n g as
t

poeeible; t h e p i p e likewise. Naturally, t h a t makes t h e instrument

very heavy.
2) Ity n o t msking t h e telescope t o o long. A s i s well Worn, mall
bodies a r e r e l a t i v e l y more r i g i d . I can hold a thread 5 cm long and
1/5 nun t h i c k s t r e t c h e d out h o r i z o n t a l l y . A rope 10 m long and 4 c m

t h i c k resembles t h e thread i n form but, upon e t r e t c h i n g it out horizont a l l y , t h e end hangs dom limply. Now, t h e 1ength of t h e teleecope mainly depends on t h e f o c a l l e n g t h of t h e objective, b u t t h e magnificat i o n equals t h e f i g u r e obtained by dividing t h e f o c a l l e r g t h of t h e o b j e c t i v e by t h a t of t h e eyepiece. If one makes both focal l e n g t h s s h o r t one a r r i v e s a t a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t instrument which s t i l l enlarges well. But t h i s is l i k e a two-edged weapon. & a r t from a l l other dieadvantages, t h i s r e q u i r e s painetaking accuracy i n t h e manufacture of t h e i n s t m e n t , s i n c e t h e eyepiece considerably magnifies an e r r o r i n t h e o b j e c t i v e image. That is why r e a l l y good telescopes a r e s o r a r e and expensive.
A f u r t h e r disadvantage of t h e telescopes on e a r t h i s t h a t they

must be k e p t d i r e c t e d a t the a t a r s and t h a t it i s never p o s s i b l e always t o observe t h e same s t a r when one want8 to. Observation depends on time of day, weather, and region. Once having overcome a l l t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s connected with t h e construction of t h e t e r r e s t r i a l telescope, we come t o the main problem.
Am i s well knonn, a s t a r always f l i c k e r s a l i t t l e due t o t h e e a r t b ' a

atmosphere, a s can be observed with Ule f i x e d s t a r s . For t h i s reason,

more thaa &000-fold magnification8 can only be used under e s p e c i a l l y favorable conditions. With euch s t r o n g magnificetions one simply cannot s e e m y t h i n g defined. The l a r g e telescope i n Chicago, f o r example, i r V o o etronen f o r t h e c s n a l s on Marat

In i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, any miignification can be ueed, s i n c e t h e rtsrs do n o t f l i c k e r . I n h i e novel, V h e Stone from t h e Moont*, GAIL d e s c r i b e s a telescope with a i0,000-fold magnification. I r a n t t o
srrrprise t h e reader with t h e remark t h a t GAIL m e much too timid. I am expecting m i l l ion-fold magnifications. The well-horn astronomer P L A S S W ha8 objected %hat it i e n o t enough t o have escaped

...

from t h e e a r t h ' s atmoephere e i n c e a t l e a e t on Marr, of which moot rill think f i r a t , t h e atmoephere cannot be removedtt. This statement ha8 l a r g e l y been underetood t o mean t h a t an atmosphere e t i l l e x i s t s *ore f l i c k e r would make observing t h e eurface of Mars j u s t a e d i f f i c u l t s o does t h e e a r t h t r atmoephere. I am n o t c e r t a i n r h e t h e r t h a t i r how PLMSUNN meant it; at any r a t e , t h e conception j u s t mentioned i a n o t valid. If t h e telescope i s r i t u a t e d a t t h e bottom of our atmoephere and t h e r a y s coming from t h e a t a r s a r e diffused, l e t u s eay, by only 1/5 recond of a r c , t h e imprearion made is as though r e had s e t up t h e t e l e s c o p e i n a i r - f r e e epace and were obserring an o b j e c t a o a e p o i n t s make f i c k e r i n g movements of 60*106*Q an expansion of more than 100 h . That i r t h e cane in e e p e c i a l l y c l e a t weather. If, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t e l e r c o p e i n placed i n s i r - f r e e apace and t h e eurface of Mar8 i s v i e r e d through a f l i c k e r i n g atmosphere 60 b thick, t h e e f f e c t i s only l an though t h e p o i n t s made f l i c k e r i n g movement of 60- = 10 a m . It i n t h e r u e phaomenon a8 when a p i c t u r e i m c l e a r l y v i s i b l e through t r a c ing paper l y i n g on top of it b u t nothing can be seen when t h e t r a c i n g paper i r h e l d before t h e eyee. Furthennore, t h e background i r completely dark, s o t h a t t h e p i p e of t h e teleecope i r euperfluoun. The p a r t s holding t h e o b j e c t i v e

r e f l e c t o r (because of t h e a i z e of t h e objective, only r e f l e c t o r s come i n question h e r e ) can be much simpler s i n c e t h e r e i s no counterpressure. I n general, it i a s u f f i c i e n t t o d i s t a n c e a l a r g e , moderatelyshaded parabolic concave r e f l e c t o r from t h e space-ehip by t h r e e e t e e l wires, The l e n g t h of t h i e t e l e s c o p e i a n o t important a t all. I f r e wiah we can dispenae with t h e eyepiece e n t i r e l y and g e t a r e a l image of t h e o b j e c t i v e projected i n t o t h e obeerver' s cabin, f o r t h a t matter,

on t o e g l a s s p l a t e on which ire can then make our measurements with

p r o f a c t o r and r u l e , Accordingly, t h e r e f l e c t o r need n o t be worked o u t 86 very accurately. It need n o t even c o n a i a t of a e i n g l e piece, I t can be packed i n r e v e r a l p i e c e s with t h e parachute and assembled by d i v e r s while a l o f t , Only t h e j o i n t s between t h e piecea must be smeared with

a r e f l e c t i n g p a e t e t o prevent d i f f r e c t i o n . Because they a r e of auch th light ~ o n e t ~ c t i o n , e maea of theae telescopes i s ro small t h a t they can be c a r r i e d a l o f t by a rocket.
Oppoaife a l l theae advantages of t h e e t h e r teleacope t h e r e is a c t u a l l y only one dra+ack, The e a r t h g i v e s a teleacope firm rupport while t h e observer's cabin of t h e rocket i s a f f e c t e d by every movement
of the passengerm. This drawback could be o f f a e t by somehow connecting

t h e o b j e c t i v e t o a control gprorcope and u s i n g an eyepiece

( o r an

i e i n g l a a s p l a t e ) which i a a t t a c h e d s i m i l a r t o a seismometer eo t h a t

it doea n o t follow t h e movements of t h e observer's cabin.

For t h e r e s t , contrary t o t h e f e a r s of PLASRlMNN, t h e s i g h t i n g , holding, and photographing of c e l e s t i a l o b j e c t s could sooner be e a s i e r than on earth, f o r t h e rocket rnaintaina t h e p o s i t i o n once given it i n apace a. long aa t h e motor does n o t work m d iu e a s i l y focusaed on a p o i n t with precision by u s e of t h e r o t a t i n g wheels mentioned on p. 266. Greater angular distances can be measured by uaing t h e l a r g e a r c meter, which i e p r e s e n t l y f i n d i n g a p p l i c e t i o n a t t h e Babelsberg

Observatory, Such en apparatus (contrary t o espressed f e a r s ) w i l l sooner be e a s i e r t o handle on t h e rocket than on t h e earth. Actually, with more p r e c i s e measureaents, we u s u a l l y need m l y t h e angle between t h e o b j e c t and any given p o i n t nearby, n o t t h e exact l o c a t i o n of t h e o b j e c t i n degreer, minutes, and seconds. On e a r t h , t h e p a r a l l w e e of t h e f i x e d s t a r s , f o r example, a r e n o t determined with t h e use of t h e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l c i r c l e s of t h e telescope; r a t h e r , t h e respecti v e star is brought i n t o r e l a t i o n t o a d i s t a n t f i x e d s t a r v i s i b l e neerby. I n a s i m i l a r xey, it rill be p o s s i b l e t o make measurements concerning t h e diameter of p l a n e t s , t h e d i s t a n c e of strange p1anet.s from t h e i r f i r e d s t a r s , etc.,
by a r e l a t i v e angle measurement and by

l i n k i n g then t o neighboring f i x e d s t a r e , These instruments w i l l function p e r f e c t l y when we succeed i n sett i n g up such a space telescope on an a s t e r o i d (e.g. ~ r o s ) . The mass of a star 1

- 2 Inn i n s i z e i s s u f f i c i e n t t o give

on t h e m a l l p l a n e t

completely s o l i d support t o t h e telescope and b r i n g a l l uncontrollable

movements below t h e limit of t h e perceptible. Such an a s t e r o i d i s s o s m a l l t h a t no t r a c e of a i r i s found on it and i t s f o r c e of g r a v i t y has

no n o t i c e a b l e e f f e c t . Exploring Eros, which, a f t e r t h e moon, cones c l o s e s t t o t h e e a r t h , i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e r i t h model E. No doubt, value b l e research could be done r i t h telescopes attached t o e.g.,
8

rocket,

whether our p l a n e t s a r e inhabited o r a t l e a s t inhabitable,

whether l a r g e r m e t e o r i t e s could endanger t h e f l i g h t t o our p l a n e t s , whether d i s t a n t f i x e d s t a r s have p l a n e t s , whether v a ~ i o u eo b j e c t s which appear t o be simple s t a r s a r e n o t a c t u a l l y s t a r c l u s t e r s i n f i n i t e l y f a r sway. b) Since t h e sky i s completely dark, it i s s u f f i c i e n t t o screen t h e d i s c of t h e sun f o r f r e e l y observing t h e s u r r o u n d i n y of t h e sun.

I t f o l l o r s from EINSTEIN'S general theory of r e l a t i v i t y t h a t , f o r

example, t h e l i g h t of f i x e d s t a r e near t h e sun must be d e f l e c t e d by

its g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d . But t h e d e f l e c t i o n i r no m a l l t h a t , even with a t o t a l e c l i p s e of t h e sun on eerth, it i s d i f f i c u l t t o prove i t s e x i s t e n c e a t a l l o r even t o say t h a t it m a actual17 brought about by t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d of t h e sun o r by o t h e r causes. LENAFLD, f o r e x m p l e , a e m e s t h a t t h e d e f l g c t i o n could a l r o be caused by t h e outermost atmosphere of t h e sun, If, in t h e completely dark i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, having screened t h e d i s c of t h e nun, r e examine t h e surroundingrr of t h e sun s p e c f r o s c o p i c a l l ~ end then o b r e r r e t h e f i x e d stars near t h e sun with a screen before t h e sun d i r c , r e CM l a t e r s t a t e e x a c t l y whether t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e f i x e d star r a a only a s g r e a t a s must f o i l o r from t h e atmosphere mentioned o r g r e a t e r , and by how much.
c ) We can observe t h e s o l a r corona on e a r t h f o r a few minuter

m an only during a b r o l u t e e c l i p s e of t h e sun. Then it appearr t o u s a immovable c i r c l e of rays. Actually it i s n o t t h a t , a . r e l e a r n from o m t h e rocket, t h e f a c t t h a t it looks d i f f e r e n t a t every e c l i p s e . R we can observe t h e a o l a r corona a8 often and as long a s r e r i r h . I n so doing, r e can s c r u t i n i z e it and determine t h e connections between t h e s o l a r corona and tihe processes on t h e v i r i b l e s u r f a c e of t h e sun ar re11 as t h e meteorological phenomena on earth. d) M a n y y h y s i c i s t s assume t h a t , in i t r movement, t h e e a r t h m e e p s t h e e t h e r with it, That i s why, f o r example, BSCEIWONtS experiment cannot svcceed. Others argue t h e p o i n t and explain t h e f a i l u r e of AiICBEtSOWS experiment by a c e r t a i n shortening of t h e bodies, which r e cannot perceive only because t h e c r i t e r i a murt be lengthened o r shortened i n t h e asme proportion ( L O ~ T Z ,EINSTEIN). T O W C m of Heidelberg has t r i e d t o determine whether t h e r e is e t h e r r i n d r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r t h on high mountains where perhapr t h e e t h e r i r no longer swept along by t h e e a r t h i n t h e same measure. So f a r t h e r e e u l t r r e r e

negative. The question would be immediately c l a r i f i e d i f TO'biASCHEKIS apparatus were taken i n t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r g space on a rocket, f o r , 8s

OLIVLER LOIIGE already showed i n 1899, t h e e t h e r i s n o t borne along by such amall masses.
e ) During f r e e f l i g h t , t h e machine i a n o t exposed t o any counterpressure. Hence, many physical and physiological experiments c a n be conducted which a r e impossible on e a r t h because of g r a v i t a t i o n . For reasons I w i l l n o t discu,ss f u r t h e r here, I presume, f o r example, t h a t t h e c e l l s of a l g a e o r i n f u s o r i a w i l l enlarge enonnouely with t h e l a c k of counter-pressura. From t h a t and from a possibly d i f f e r e n t behavior of t h e c e l l s , an i n s i g h t i n t o t h e physiology of t h e c e l l s could e a s i l y be won which could n o t be obtained otherriae. f) W e can determine t h e magnitude of t h e r a d i a t i n g energy coming from d i f f e r e n t regions of t h e sky. I f , by mesns of shiny t i n p l a t e s , g r e p r o t e c t a body a g a i n s t a l l g r e a t e r q u a n t i t i e s of r ~ d i a t ~ i nenergy (above a l l from t h e s u n ' s rays), l e t it f l o a t f r e e l y behind them,
s a d t a k e c a r e t o allow it t o r a d i a t e i t a o m h e s t t o t h e colder p a r t s

of space, we can b r i n g i t s temperature extremely cloae t o absolute zero, neny 1000 times c l o s e r than t h e temperature of s o l i d helium, f o r example. The p o s s i b i l i t y is n o t excluded t h a t , in so doing, i n p a r t e n t i r e l y new phenomena (e.g., i n t h e behavior of electrons, e t c . ) could a r i s e . A t l e a s t , it would be worth t h e t r o u b l e making t h i s
experiment.
g) W S S htaa thought of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t l i g h t may n o t b e

t r a n s m i t t e d i n a e t r a i g h t l i n e i n i n t e r p l s n e t e r y space or, expressed i n EINSTEIN'S words, ]Inscribed i n f our-dimeneional epace our t h r e e dimensional space would n o t behave 1i k e a plane surface i n apace, b u t perhaps l i k e a s p h e r i c a l s u r f a c e i n space. Thie question has again been r a i s e d by EINSTEIN'S general theory of r e l a t i v i t y . According t o

t h a t , it could happen t h a t t h e t h r e e angles of a t r i a n g l e together do n o t make 180 degrees (non-Eucl i d i a n geometry). A t t h e t i n e , t h r e e observation s t a t i o n s were b u i l t f o r GAUSS a t d i s t a n c e s of 30-50 Ian from each other and a t each t h e angle between t h e o t h e r two was measured a s accr:rately a s possible. No deviation from 1806 was found. This experiment would have g r e a t e r prospects of success i f t h r e e epaceship8 were used a s e t a t i o n s t h a t a r e many ruillion kilometres away from each other. I do n o t b e l i e v e t h e experiment would be eucceseful, b u t

it would be worth trying. According t o c e r t a i n assumptions concerning t h e curvature of space, t h e p o s s i b d l i t y i s n o t excluded, with s u f f i c i e n t l y sharp instruments, of again seeing our own bUlky \ Y a y a t a d i s t a n c e of 100 m i l l i o n 'Light yeara, b u t a t t h e p l a c e where it stood 100 m i l l i o n y e a r s ago and .in t h e s t a t e i t had a t t h e time.
i ) The i n t e n s i t y of t h e sun's rays and the albedo ( r e f l e c t i n g

a b i l i t y ) of t h e e a r t h could be p e r f e c t l y determined only from i n t e r planetary space. This would be valuable because important conclusions regarding the i n t r i n s i c h e a t of t h e e a r t h can be d r a m from it. Likewise, by observing t h e clouds from above, important meteorologicsl

I E I M has shown. information could be obtained, a s F

k) I now ask t h e reader n o t t o be f r i g h t e n e d i f I touch on t h e

controversial f i e l d of parapnychology. As i s well lsnown, many psychol o g i s t s and doctors ( s e r i o u s researchers l i k e OESTEFUUICH and LO=, among others) assume t h a t suggestion, f o r i n s t a n c e i n hypnosis, o r t h e suggestive power of c e r t a i n personel i t i e s i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t e t h e r f o r c e s or even substances a r e transmitted from t h e influenci n g person t o t h e one influenced. Naturally, I do n o t wish t o decide whether and t o nhat e x t e n t t h i s view i s c o r r e c t , f o r , a s a p h y s i c i s t , I am working in a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t f i e l d . Aa I s e e t h e matter from

mg standpoint, I be1 i e v e it w i l l be d i f f i c u l t on e a r t h t o determine

anything concerning t h e s e f o r c e s o r whatever they a r e , even i f they

a c t u a l l y e x i s t . According t o t h e theory, such r a y s emanate from almost every person and t h e s e force8 a l l i m p i n ~ e ori t h e e r p e r i m e n t d person a~ltaneonsly and c r o s s and obs%ruct each other. I n my opinion, we a r e somewhat i n t h e p o s i t i o n of a man who, while standing near t h e Niagara F a l l s , rants t o examine t h e overtonea of a v i o l i n s t r i n g by t h e u s e of t d e d rlesonators, W e do n o t h o w whether t h e s e rcrys can somehow
be acreened out. On t h e o t h e r hand, perhaps it would n o t be impossible

t o determino something p o s i t i v e about it if t h e h y p n o t i s t and t h e experimental person were taken aeveral 100,000 km from e a r t h i n a rocket. Of cowae, it might be d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d person8 who a r e , a t t h e asme time, useful o b j e c t s f o r t e l e p a t h i c experiments and good engineers
( ~ n dr o c k e t pi1 o t s , But the problem could be solved. A rocket p i l o t ,

p a r a p q c h o l o g i s t , and experimental person simply ascend i n a rocket. Than t h e roclcet p i l o t p u t s on t h e space d i v e r ' s s u i t and f l i e s some 100

- 1000 km

o u t i n t o space, r ~ s i n g a m a l l rearward t h r u s t apparatus

t h a t could be e a s i l y accommodated under the parachute, ~ i l te he o t h e r two experiment.

1) Here I would l i k e t o mention f u r t h e r experiments vhich a r e

p o s s i b l e only i n a l a r g e a i r - f r e e space, e.g.,

transmitting p a r a l l e l

anode o r cathode r a y s over long d i s t a n c e s ; I r i l l say nomething regardi n g t h a t i n Chapter 8%. Thja experiment i r much more than mere s c i e n t i f i c aport; f o r example, t h e attempt could be made t o s e t up s o l a r generators

i n apace and i n t h i s wqv send e l e c t r i c i t y t o e a r t h , h r t h e w o r e , i n

t h i s way t h e f l i g h t t o s t r a n g e p l a n s t s might be made ponsible, etc.,

as re a h d l s e e i n Chapter 82.

I) F i n a l l y ,
aide. b

with an i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y v1 = 10.4 h / s e c ,

8uch a

r o c k e t could, a t new moon, f l y around t h e moon and examine t h e back y have suggested equiping an unmanned rocket with a moviecamera and l e t t i n g it f l y around t h e moon t h i s way. I believe, however,

t h a t would n o t be nucceesful because t h e accuracy of focus would be t o o m a l l . I n t h i n connection, compare p. 508. Only rhem t h e r o c k e t h e r a p i l o t who c o n r t a n t l y c o n t r o l s snd c o r r e c t 8 i t r couree i r f t probable t h a t it w i l l r e t u r n rafely. Naturally, numerous o t h e r experiment8 aan be conducted with model

E, b u t I do n o t wish t o go i n t o t h a t

say f u r t h e r .

ere,
10. )

t h e formula q u a n t i t i e s have t h e name meaning

a6

in Chapter

A. Duration with v e r t i c a l f l i g h t : I am o f t = being asked how long a apace-ehip would be undernay on c e r t a i n f l i g h t r . Hence, I w i l l say
8

f e n t h i n g s about f l i g h t duration. I cannot deal with t h e queatiom.

exhauetively here; i n t h i s book I am only proving t h a t apace t r a v e l i r p o r s i b l e a t all. I muet l e a v e t h e rerrpective l i t e r a t u r e t o deal with s p e c i a l queati.ons. Whoever i r i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e d e t a i l e d c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t period i s r e f e r r e d t o textbook8 on a s t r o n q . They have t h e disadvantage of s e t t i n g up f l j g h t c a l c a l a t i o n r f o r purposes of t h e

astronomer (locatine: asteroids, comet movements, t r a j e c t o r y d i s t u r b ancep, etc.) and n o t f o r t h e s p e c i a l purposes of t h e space navigator. The l a t t e r u s u a l l y has a p i l e of work t o do o w i l i n g what i s approp r i a t e f o r him. I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e works of BOREMNN and PIR,QUET a r e more convenient! they a t e q u i t e adequate e c i e n t i f i c a l 1y a t present, a1 thongh they would have t o be thorouchlg improved and completed i f space f l i g h t sh0'1ld become a f a c t ,
I myself would only l i k e t o say t h e following :

1) I n v e r t i c a l f l i g h t upward with p a r a b o l i c velocity, t h i s follows

from (59) and (80) r

h he

formula q u a n t i t i e s a r e t h e s m e a s those i n Chapter 10.)

Therefore, r e g e t

With h y r e r b o l i c

velocities

i n v e r t i c a l ascent, t h e k i n e t i c energy

i e n o t completely d i s s i p a t e d even a t i n f i n i t y ; it r e t a i n s a residlsal v e l o c i t y vho A t i n f i n i t y , i t s k i n e t i c energy is

The work required t o t a k e it t o i n f i n i t y froin any p o i n t on i t s t r jectory ~ j o mgr and i t s e n t i r e k i n e t i c energy i e

Obvioualy, it must be a s g r e a t a s t h e sun of theee two energies. Therefore,

R a m t h a t , t h i a follows

(with d r and d t , t h e minua s i g n n a t u r a l l y means n o t h i n g more t h a n t h a t , i n a given caae, v i a t h e s n a l l e r , t h e g r e a t e r r o r t . ) By i n t e g r a t i o n we f i n d

Therein, vi d e s i g n a t e s t h e v e l o c i t y a t t h e lower end rl of t h e s e c t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , v2 and rg r e f e r t o t h e

upper end, and

With e l l i p t i c a l v e l o c i t i e e , t h e energy of motion i n h e r e u t i n t h e body is n o t sufficient t o l i f t it t o i n f i n i t y , f r o . whicb it followa that

Formally, our c d c u l a t i o n i s very a i m i l a r i f r e r e t r

Formula6 (908) t o (110) n a t u r a l l y merge one i n t o t h e other depending W i n e t h e p l a c e of vh o r 5 i a amawned a a on r h e t h e r t h e

a

being real, equal t o zero, o r imaginary. With elongated e l l i p s e s , t h e f l i g h t duration i n almost t h e aame a s r i t b v e r t i c a l ascent. For exmple, a f l i g h t t o an a l t i t u d e of 800,000 km would t d r e 15 days and t h e d e m e n t j u s t as long; s o t h e apace-ship would be underway a month i n all. With a f l i g h t t o t h e moon, t h e t h e can be c a l c u l a t e d with g r e a t approximation i f t h e 6 p h ~ b ~ h i e p teen a m flying in a s t r a i g h t l i n e fro^ t h e e a r t h t o t h e moon. IF t h e case of a v e r t i c a l f l i g h t ,

Therein v is t h e v e l o c i t y st t h e p o i n t where t h e two a t t r a c t i n g f o r c e r a r e balanced. 11 i r t h e mass of t h e e a r t h and hia t h a t of t h e 1 moon, d i a t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e two atar6. Here t h e formula

l e a d s t o e l l i p t i c integrals, b u t they a r e e a s i l y evaluated with t h e a a e of TAYLOR'S a e r i e r . For t h e f l i g h t with t h e lowest pomnible i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y ( c a 10,380

m/eec),

with t h e average d i s t a n c e t o t h e moon, one o b t a i n s

t = 97 hri.,
That i s c a 4 days.

30 min.

With v e l o c i t i e s over vl = 11 h / s e c , parabol i c

t h e formulas f o r e l l i p t i c a l , we g e t t = 9 hours (cf.

, and

hyperbolic vel o c i ties can be used without causing 15 h./sec,

e r r o r s worth mentioning. For vl

LORaJZ

r "The P o a s i b i l i t y of F l i g h t i n I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Space", Journal

7V, 1937, and PLANA r D i s e e r t a t i o n r of t h e Turin Academy of Sciences, Ser. I, Vol. 10, 1863,
of t h e A ~ s o c i a t i o nof German &gineers, pp. 1

- 86).

B.

F' i g h t a on Strongly-Bent Curves.

I t i m most convenient t o hold t o t h e formula quantit.ies of Chapter

10. For example, i f t h e space-anip t r a v e l s on an e l l e p e e (Fig. 130), t h i e followa from formula (v) r

Fig. 130 I n t h e case of a hyperbola,

E) 1,

Af'ter s e v e r a l immediate

traaaformationr, r e g e t t h e following from (813)

I n t h e case *ere t h e t r a j e c t o ~ gcurve i r a parabola, I = 1 . Then we E M apply t h e method of indeterminate f o m a t o formula (913) o r (a14); our c a l c u l a t i o n i r a t i l l more convenient i f r e apply t h e same method which furnished ne with t h e e l l i p r e eurface in Chapter 10 t o parabola

The r e s u l t i a t h e ~ b m ein dl t h r e e case8 t

Then t h e f l i g h t duration, according t o Chapter 10, i a

With i n t e r p l a n e t a r y apace f l i g h t s a t g r e a t e r d i e t a n c e r from t h e e a r t h then 1,000,000 ha, t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e e a r t h ' 8 a t t r a c t i o n c m be ignored i n t h e f i r a t approximation and l a t e r incorporated i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n ea a oorrection together with t h e t r a j e c t o r y diaturbancea caured by t h e r e s t of f h e planeta, a8 i r done by H O W , f o r exemple. Then, i n a t e a d of t h e formula q u a n t i f i e r of Chapter 10 r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r t h , %he corresponding value8 r e l a t i v e t o t h e eun must be used. For exsmple, r would be t h e d i r t e n c e from t h e c e n t r e of t h e nun,
g t h e r c c e l e r e t i o n due t o g r a v i t y of t h e rron, d , t h e complcrmsnt of

t h e s a z l e between t h e t r a j e c t o r y carve and t h e radium r e c t o r d r a m t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e sun, e t c .

Here, t h e astronomg s p e c i a l i s t ' s c a l c u l s t i o n ~a r e n a t u r a l l y more convenient and more e l e p a n t , according t o t h e methods of c a l c u l a t i n g t r a j e c t o r y d i e t u r b a n c e a s e t np by LEVEXPIER and RESS'EZ, which a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l l y based on t h e developed f r a i n of thonght. I n t h e t r a n s i t i o n of t h e space-ship of t h e non-astronomer from one g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d

t o t h e o t h e r and from one t y p e of motion t o t h e o t h e r , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e most elementary and s u r e s t i f h e d i v i d e a t h e f l i g h t i n t o small s e c t i o n s i n which t h e a t t r a c t i n g f o r c e s can be
y book on three-body c a l c u l a regarded as c o n s t a n t and p a r a l l e l . In m t i o n a l r e a d y mentioned I w i l l s t a t e methods which r a p i d l y l e a d t o the

result. Depending on t h e v e l o c i t y and t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a s c e n t , a t r i p from e a r t h t o Mars, f o r example, would t a k e 3

- 8 months

(I w i l l w r i t e

5 about t h i s i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l l a t e r ) . A t r i p t o Venus would t a k e 2 monthe. A f l i g h t c i r c l i n g t h e e a r t h 500 Iuu above t h e ground t a k e s ,5470

seconds

1 hour 31 minutea 10 seconds. A t r i p on an e l l i p s e whose

p e r i g e e d i p s i n t o t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere and t h e h e i g h t of whose apogee above the ground i s equal t o t h e diameter of t h e e a r t h would r e q u i r e
4 houra 17 minutes 30 seconds. The p e r i o d of a f l i g h t around t h e moon

a t new mom would be 5 t o 6 days.

Dangers of Space F l i g h t s The a s c e n t i s much l e s s dangerous than might a t f i r & b e thought. The r e a d e r i s asked t o examine P l a t e IV. The p i l o t occupies chanber I; i t s walls a r e of aluminum 1.5

- 2.5

cm t h i c k and, d u r i n g t h e - a s c e n t , t h e windows a r e covered with e i m i l a r aluminum p l a t e s . To me t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e cabin b u r s t i n g a p p e a r s q u i t e remote. Above t h e cabin r e f i n d t h e parachute. The t i p c a n be j e t t i s o n e d a t any time, a t which t h e p a r ~ c h u t espreads o u t i n t h e air.

Only t h r e e dangers threaten the p i l o t during a s c e n t r

1) F a i l u r e of t h e pumps.

a)

F a i l u r e of t h e control device.

3) Explosion.

If possible, t h e machine ascends over a Large body of water (even i f j u s t f o r t h e sake of t h e j e t t i s o n e d alcohol rocket). I f t h e pumpa mentioned on p. 386 f a i l , t h e r o c k e t dropa i n t o the water; s i n c e it f l o a t s , no harm is done. With r e s p e c t t o P), if a) a t a i l f i n breaks o r b) t h e control mechanism f a i l s , t h e p i l o t need only turn off t h e pumps and t h e r o c k e t drops. -With s i o n s can occur
t

r e s p e c t t o 3), four types of explo-

a ) An explosion can occur i n t h e combustion chamber

o r t h e pump chamber of t h e alcohol rocket only a t t h e s t a r t of t h e f l i g h t . I t i e t h e more t o be f e a r e d t h e g r e a t e r t h e required rearward t h r u s t (P). S i n c e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n may n o t exceed a c e r t a i n maximum value, a s t h e mass decreaaee, P a l s o soon decreases ( a t t h e beginning
P i n c r e a s e s somewhat because of t h e increasing a i r r e s i s t a n c e ) , Now

a t t e n t i o n i s d r a m t o P l a t e IV. For i t e e l f , it i s improbable with such an explosion t h a t metal p a r t s a r e hurled i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of I, With few exceptions, only an explosion

in t h e t o p p u p chamber could have

t h i a e f f e c t . Nevertheless, i f it should occur, t h e ( f i l l e d ) l i q u i d tanka of t h e alcohol rocket and t h e hydrogen r o c k e t would a c t a s buff e r s ; t h e thick-walled pump chambers of t h e hydrogen rocket likewise, b) An explosion of t h e pump chambers of t h e hydrogen rocket would, i n e f f e c t , be l e a s v i o l e n t than t h e previous one. The l i q u i d t a n k s of t h e hydrogen r o c k e t would s u f f i c e completely a s buffers. c) The erploeion of a l i q u i d tank under i t s o m excess pressure is, f i r s t of a l l , improbable and, secondly, i t s conaequencelr f o r t h e p i l o t would acarcely be more rerious; n o t with t h e alcohol rocket, becauee t h e r e t h e hydrogen r o c k e t s h i e l d s t h e p i 1 ot; nor with t h e hydrogen rocket, f o r

i t s excess pressure i r too lox, It would l i k e w i s e n o t have a e r i o u s

consequences f o r t.he p i l o t i f t h e head wind caused t h e hydrogen r o c k e t t o c o l l a p s e (which can on17 occur a t t h e beginning). Now, with every explosion, l i q u i d would escape which presumably would catch f i r e . But, on one aide, I is covered by t h e parachute, wbich is k e p t moiat i n n against t h e beginning3 on t h e other side, i n a u l a t i o n i r required e t h e extremely cold l i q u i d hydrogen. Aa long a s t h e hydrogen i t s e l f does n o t burn i n r i d e the hydrogen rocket, it very e f f e c t i v e l y p r o t e c t a

I a g a i n s t t h e f i r e ; i f it burns, however, t h e t i p i s blown away together

w i t h I because of t h e weak w a l l s of t h e hydrogen rocket. Even i f t h i b

should n o t occur, rtrat would happen i n t h i s c a s e (which is p o s s i b l e only i f l i q u i d orggen e n t e r s t h e hydrogen chamber) i a t h a t t h e hydrogen 3 se@onds and, becduee of i t s would be forced o u t of its tank i n 8

l o r s p e c i f i c weight, remain behind t h e motion of t h e rocket, ao t h a t no dieadvantage t o t h e p i l o t would a r i s e from t h i a . So it i s evident t h a t no other dangers t h r e a t e n him within t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere than those t h a t could r e s u l t from too h i g h counter-pressure. M B O compare p. 415. But t h i s danger is only a l i g h t . I n f l i g h t on t h e synergy curve, t h e r o c k e t a t t a i n s high v e l o c i t i e s only i n t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n . I f t h e propelling f o r c e should f a i l , a d i s t a n c e i s covered in t h e atmoaphere t h a t s u f f i c e s f o r deceleration. Meteorites and c o m i c d u s t doubtless c o n s t i t u t e a danger f o r t h e space navigator. Due to t h e i r average rpeed of 30 -- 40 Ian r e l a t i v e t o t h e space-ship, 1 t o 8-cm-thick

they have a considerable p i e r c i n g force. For exempl e,

aluminum w a l l even i f it r e r e only 3 aan thick. Are we

a shooting a t a r of t h e s p e c i f i c weight of iron would s t i l l p i e r c e t h e i n g r e a t danger of being h i t by such shooting a t a r e ? S i z e of t h e meteorites. 30,000'
I f an e f f e c t i v e temperature of 10,000

is ascribed t o them ( c f . p.

a8@, t h e astonishing r e s u l t is

a r r i v e d a t t h a t t h e shooting s t a r e which r e s e e on c l e a r n i g h t s are. i n general, l e e s thnn 3 cm i n d i m e t e r . The amallest shooting a t a r a v i a i b l e with t h e neked eye would be somewhat under

c m i n size.

Obviourly, t h e shooting s t a r s end m e t e o r i t e s r i s i b l e with t h e naked eye a r e q u i t e r a r e . I t would be 4 heavy meteor ahower i n which, on t h e average, one shooting star l i g h t r up every second.
From t h a t p a r t of t h e atmoephere i n r h i c h shooting e t a r s f l a s h up we can aee a c i r c l e a t l e a s t 1000 km i n diruneter. I n t h i s c i r c l e , with an average forward motion of t h e e a r t h r e l a t i v e t o t h e ahooting s t a r s around 40 Inn, ooe shooting s t a r is picked up every second. Therefore, t h e r e i a one shootin@ s t a r t o a c y l i n d r i c a l space 1000 I s @ i n r a d i u s and 40 km high. I n order t o determine how memy seconds, on t h e nverage, t h e r o c k e t m a t f l y u n t i l it i s h i t by a shooting s t a r we must divide t h i s space by t h e apace which t h e l a r g e e t croaa-section of t h e rocket muet describe w i t h an average v e l o c i t y of 40 km/sec. The r ~ t i o of t h e s e two volumes i s equal t o t h e r a t i o of a c i r c l e 1000 km in diameter t o t h e l a r g e s t croas-section of the rocket ( c a S O 2). The rocket would have t o f l y l0~'*0.78 1 50 1.6.10~~ aec 530 y e a r s

f o r it t o be h i t by a ahooting s t a r . The o b s e r v e r t 9 cabin, d o s e l a r g e s t cross-section i a lrcarcely 5 ma, would, on t h e avernge, only encounter a v i s i b l e shooting s t a r every SO00 years. Of course, t h e upp position would have t o be considered t h a t w i a l l e r shooting tars which can no longer be perceived with t h e naked eye a r e more frequent. Yet, they cannot be much more numerotla, otherwise shooting a t a r r would be seen umch o f t e n e r during astronomical obeorvat i o n s than i n a c t u a l l y t h e case. I continue t o hold t o t h e view already expressed i n t h e 1st and i?nd e d i t i o n s of m y r o c k e t r y book t I f I have h ~ d luck, a m e t e o r i t e can h i t me i n t h e f i r s t h a l f minute. Accordinq t o t h e law of p r o b a b i l i t y , however, a space-ship can fly through i n t e r p l a n e t a w space f o r hundred6 of y e a r s without having such an accident. I n t h i a r e a p e c t flying s s?ace-ahip i n n o t a s dangerous a s say d r i v i n g a car.

For Lhnt m a t t e r , m a l l e r punctures i n t h e wall of t h e o b a e r v e r l s cabin need n o t n e c e ~ e s r i l yb e fat01 t o t h e observer. The a i r r e e t o r a t o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y keeps t h e a i r p r e s s u r e i n t h e o b s e r v e r ' s cabin c o n s t a n t and s i g n a l s t h e p i l o t i f a i r escispes a n w e r e . The p i l o t can e a a i l y c l o s e t h e h o l e by covering it with a rubber p l a t e . The i n s i d e a i r p r e s s u r e p r e s s e s it a g a i n s t t h e opening ond s e d s it. I f t h e spacel m s t souehow be f a s t e n e d s h i p is t o l a n d on water, t h i s rubber p l ~ t e t o t h e w a l l , s a y by gluing, i n t h e course of t h e f l i g h t . Concerning t h e descent, I have s a i d what i s n e c e s s a r y i n Chapter 14. As i s seen from t h e chapter, l a n d i n g in t h e water need be no more dangerous thnn l a n d i n g with a hydroplane. A l l i n a l l , one can s a y t h a t s than t h e laymm p i c t u r e s space f l i g h t s w i l l be much l e ~ dangerous thev t o himself.

I would h e r e l i k e t o d i s c u s s s e v e r a l o b j e c t i o n s t o space f l i g h t
i n s o Par a s t h e y r e l a t e t o x h a t haa been s a i d h i t h e r t o .
A number of laymen cannot understand how it i s p o s s i b l e t o know

ao e x a c t l y what w i l l be met up w i t h i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. I n r e s ponee, I r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o what is s a i d on p.

377.

I n l i t e r a t u r e , a danger i s f r e q u e n t l y pointed o u t which, i n s h o r t , might be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e q u e s t i o n

t

Vill t h e n a t u r a l laws be

s u b j e c t t o t h e stwe c o n d i t i o n s i n i n t e r : ~ l a a e t a r y space a s t h e y a r e on e a r t h ?" ( ~ e n n a n owep paper) "It is n o t c e r t a i n h e t h e r t h e n a t u r a l

laws which we have discovered on e a r t h w i l l a l s o b e v a l i d i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y spacen. (south German D a i l y paper) "It could be p o s s i b l e , f o r example, t h a t a w i r e q o l o n g e r conducte an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y apace" (STEIN), o r t h a t hydrogen and oqygen n o l o n g e r combine, among o t h e r t h i n g s . I t i e a c t u a l l y j u s t a " p o s t u l a t e of p r a c t i c a l reasonw (what t h a t meane i n a s c i e n t i f i c context, cf. p. 537
f f ) t o say t h a t t h e same c o n d i t i o n 8 m o t alwayr and e v e m e r e have

t h e asme r e a u l t .

F'rankly speaking, I have no f e a r s h a t e v e r i n t h i s regard. The extra-ordinary accuracy of astronomy i n p r e d i c t i n g n a t u r a l phenomena makes it probable t o t h e h i g h e s t degree t h a t everything happens according t o t h e same lawa i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. I t must f u r t h e r be considered t h a t , s i n c e t h e e a r l i e s t time of which h i s t o r y informs us, t h e e a r t h has moved a t l e a s t

b i l l i o n kilometres from i t s

o r i g i n a l l o c a t i o n i n t h e univeree, if t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i a based on a v e l o c i t y of 17 km/sec f o r t h e whole a o l a r system. I f , however, t h e fe.ct postulated by C0URW)ISIER i + M e n , h t o account t h a t t h e whole Milky Way i s rushing through space a t about 700 ~ / s e c , then r e have t r a v e l l e d st l e a s t 100 b i l l i o n kilometres s i n c e t h e beginning of recorded hietory. Yet t h e obeerved n a t u r a l p r o c e ~ s e shave always occurred according t o t h e same l a n s i With t h e exception of t h e /eductioa l i g h t ( s t i l l l a r g e l y questioned).
The c o r r e l a t i o n between our sum and t h e most d i s t a n t fixed s t a r s

of t h e speed of

i s s t i l l more s t r i k i n g . I t r e a l l y cannot be assumed t h a t t h e few m i l l i o n kilometres by which t h e space-ship is distanced from t h e e a r t h w i l l s u f f i c e t o b r i n g it i n t o a world with other n a t u r a l lawa. In t h e opinion of most p h y s i c i s t s , t h e e t h e r i s u l t i m a t e l y t h e b e a r e r of a l l phyeical processes, A t t h e moat, one might say t h a t t h e proximity of t h e e a r t h a f f e c t s t h e e t h e r i n a c e r t a i n sense and t h a t , a t a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e from the e a r t h , t h i s e f f e c t would be lacking, That can be countered by saying t h a t we have observed abaolutely nothing on comets, f o r exemple,
d o s e mass i s o f t e n no g r e a t e r than t h a t of a space-ship, t h a t would allow u s t o conclude t h a t o t h e r n a t u r a l laws p r e m i l e d i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space than on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h . On t h e contrary : Some n ~ t u r a l laws (e.g., r a d i a t i o n prossure) have f i r s t been observed on comets and only l a t e r ~ o n f i r r t e di n l a b o r a t o r i e s on e a r t h , j u s t a s the speed of l i g h t and meny o t h e r t h i n g s were f i r s t found from astronomical

observations. A t moat, beside t h e n a t u r a l lere we already h o w today,

t h e r e i s t h e pomaibility t h a t r e rill find one t h i n g o r t h e o t h e r t h a t Ire have n o t y e t had t h e opportunity t o observe on earth. Aa f a r a e being a daageroas undertdcing, I do n o t b e l i e v e it. The f i r a t rocke t a w i l l sacend unmanned. Then manned rockete rill be s e n t a l o f t according t o t h e d a t a obtained, a t f i r s t only a few hundred, then a thou@and, and f i n a l l y b hundred thousand kilometree. One does n o t b l i n d l y maah i n t o danger b u t e t e p by s t e p Iearna t o know t h e world i n t o which one i m advancing. Other authore again f e a r t h e r o c k e t rill be d e f l e c t e d by t h e radiat i o n pressure of t h e sun. But, according t o MAXWELL and SCHEIhm, a t t h e e a r t h t a d i s t a n c e from it, t h e r a d i a t i o n presaure of t h e sun can never exceed 0.8 mg/m a ; a t t h e d i s t a n c e of Venus from t h e nm, it would amount t o l e s r than 1.6 mg/mg. h o r n , t h e formula acceleration Otherriae t h e energy r a d i a t e d t o u s by t h e sun would be g r e a t e r than it a c t u a l l y i e ( c f . p. 444). A s i s well

-force maas

g i v e s t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e r o c k e t due t o r a d i a t i o n pressure. Since one f o r c e gram imparts an a c c e l e r a t i o n of 981 cm/sec2 t o one mass gram, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n t h a t a rocket weighing 5000 kg, f o r example, undergoea when it erpoeea an a r e a of 50 IJ? t o t h e r a d i a t i o n of t h e e m 0.0008*50* 981 0.00000784 cm/sesP. I n one day, i e c e r t a i n l y under 5000' 1000 t h a t makes an a c c e l e r a t i o n of 0.34 cm/aec2, an i n f i n i t e a i m a l f i g u r e

beside t h e kilometre-aeconds i n which we have t o c a l c u l a t e here. Even

i f it were a matter of hurl i n 5 a apace-ship from e a r t h t o a neighboring

planet, t h e t r i p wouli t a k e s c a r c e l y 100 days, In s o doing, t h e radiat i o n of the aun would r e s u l t i n a v e l o c i t y e r r o r of 34 cm/sece.

I figure

t h a t , beside t h e p r o p e l l a n t s required f o r ascending and landing, t h e

space-ship w i l l t a k e along enough p r o p e l l a n t f o r c o r r e c t i o n purposes by which it could change i t s v e l o c i t y by 500 m/sec. Thus it could d i s t u r b a n c e which i s very e a s i l y cope with t h i s s l i ~ l i t r t t j e c t o ~ n o t even added t o i t s v e l o c i t y l i n e a l l y b u t according t o Pythazoras! theorem ( c f . p. beforehand. Other a u t h o r s f e a r a d i f l e c t i o n of t h e r o c k e t by t h e world e t h e r . That would be extremely i n t e r e s t i n g f o r t h e p h y s i c i s t . So f a r , i t h a s n o t been proved t h a t t h e world e t h e r p u t s up o p p o s i t i o n t o a moving body a t a l l . W e do make t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t small comets a r e d e f l e c t e d from t h e i r p a t h , b u t t h i s d e f l e c t i o n no doubt h a s o t h e r causes. For t h e r e s t r Comet heads and m e t e o r i t e showers probably c o n s i s t only of widely-scattered d u a t and t h e r a t i o between t h e i r mass and t h e s u r f a c e t h e y o f f e r t o t h e " e t h e r streamtt i s more u n f a v o r a b l e than with a rocke t . Yet we n e v e r observe d e f l e c t i o n s of a magnitude with which a good space-ship could n o t cope e a s i l y . F i n a l l y , d i f f e r e n t advocates of t h e t h e o ~ gof r e l a t i v i t y f e a r t h e r e l a t i v i t y t h e o r y could make m y c a l c u l a t i o n s worth1 e s s . (I have n a t u r a l l y based my c a l c u l a t i . o n s on c l a s s i c a l mechanics.) That I c o u n t e r by s a y i n g : The d e f o r n a t i o n s of t h e r o c k e t a i r p l a n e end i t s t r a j e c t o r y p o s i t e d by t h e t h e o r y of r e l a t i v i t y , with i t s low v e l o c i t y compared t o t h a t of l i g h t , would be s o small even i n a b s o l u t e terms t h a t we could n o t measure them a t a l l . But t h a t e x a c t l y i s t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e t h e o r y of r e l a t i v i t y rrhen it h o l d s t h a t t h e s e d e f o m a t i o n s , i n g e n e r a l , cancel o u t again because t h e s c a l e s according t o which we measure and c a l c u l a t e change t o t h e same degree. Apart from a few s p e c i a l cases, with which r e a r e n o t y e t d e a l i n g d i r e c t l y i n f l i g h t s t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, e v e r y t h i n g appears t o t h e o b s e r v e r
as though Ye stood i n t h e a b s o l u t e world and measured with a b s o l u t e
521) and can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n tlie c a l c ? ~ l a t i o n

measurements. P r o c e s s e s of laotion and t e c h n i c a l devices, f o r example, must be considered j u s t as though t h e t h e o r y o r r e l a t i v i t y were unknown.

Many authors cannot v i s u a l i z e bow t h e r o c k e t can be guided when t h e r e is no s t a t i c medium. Here I simply r e f e r t o p. 5 . I n general,
t h e r o c k e t f l i e n l i k e a s h o t p r o j e c t i l e . Deviations from t h e course a r e corrected by meanr of rearward t h r u s t and t h a t does n o t r e q u i r e

a s t a t i c medim.
The danger of t h e space-ship d e v i a t i n g Prom i t s course haa often been described i n vi+id colors, b u t I cannot f a k e t h a t ~ e r i o u s l y . The daager t h a t t h e space-ship might g e t hung up i n t h e sphere of a t t r a c t i o n of a s t r a n g e heavenly body i s completely excluded. Provided it does n o t d i r e c t l y h i t it, it must, according t o t h e l a w of t h e conaerrrrtion of energy, without f u r t h e r agency l e a v e i t s sphere of a t t r a c t i o n -air n i t h t h e same v e l o c i t y with which it entered it. Nor do I f e w a d e f l e c t i o n from t h e course. The t r a j e c t o r y i s determined beforehand w i t h astronomic accuracy and e x x r s of control can be checked end corrected with t h e asme accuracy.

I n general, one can eee t h a t t h e f i r s t space f l i g h t s w i l l n o t be a s dangeroum by f a r as were t h e f i r s t a i r f l i g h t s .

Chapter 20 S t a t i o n s in I n t e r ~ l a n e t a r ~ s p a a Formula Q u a n t i t i e s f o r Chapter 20

a : distance of r e f l e c t o r from point illuminated

b : acceleration

c : revolving speed d : diameter of t h e sun's image e : v e r t i c a l component of t h e light-pressure f : s a g i t t a l component of t h e light-pressure g : a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y a t t h e a l t i t u d e examinc h : a l t i t u d e of r e f l e c t o r above t h e ground pd : o u t l e t pressure po : pressure i n oven r : e a r t h ' s radius r' : radius of r e f l e c t o r s : ' d i r e c t i o n toward t h e sun t : d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e s x plane x : d i r e c t i o n toward centre of e a r t h v : v e l o c i t y with reference t o c e n t r e of e a r t h z : centrifugal acceleration A : distance of r e f l e c t o r from t h e sun D : diameter of t h e sun L : light-pressure R : distance of t h e e a r t h from tf-e sun V : p o t e n t i a l (without light-pressure ) P : p o t e n t i a l with light-pressure d : tension of net due t o differences in g r a v i t a t i o n : precession a c c e l e r a t i o n s due t o d i f f e r e n c e s in g r a v i t a t i o n : d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l and c e n t r i f u g a l a c c e l e r a t i o n

- -

ah , d h
V

a l t i t u d e differences

Y : difference
I

in p o t e n t i a l without light-pressure

: d i f f e r e n c e in p o t e n t i a l with light-pressure w : angular v e l o c i t y

Space v e h i c l e s on t h e l a r g e s t s c a l e can be put in o r b i t around t h e earth.

They then represent a small moon, s o t o speak. They need not be provided with landing f a c i l i t i e s . ~ommunicationbetween them and t h e e a r t h can be maintained by means of smaller rockets so t h a t t h e s e l a r ~ e rockets (we w i l l c a l l them observer s t a t i o n s ) can be progressively r e b u i l t f o r t h e i r a c t u a l purpose while a l o f t . Such a s t a t i o n could c o n s i s t of two observer cabins which would be connected by a cable 10-20 lan in l e n g t h and would r o t a t e about each 1 (cf. p-141)

other

'he remark i s o f t e n found in l i t e r a t u r e t h a t t h e observer s t a t i o n should g r a v i t a t e near t h e zone of weightlessness between e a r t h and moon. That i s wrong. The c l o s e r t o e a r t h t h e observer s t a t i o n runs t h e smaller t o c o r r e c t them again (e.g., the t r a j e c t o r y disturbances due t o extraneous s t a r s become and t h e e a s i e r it i s with t h e h e l p of t h e pressure of t h e sun's rays, cf. p. 497). Some authors have a l s o thought of placing t h e s t a t i o n j u s t a t 1) A s already s t a t e d a t t h a t place, I c o ~ s i d e rsuch a long connecting cable necessary f o r psychological reasons. Xith a s t m l l e r radius of curvature, t h e nwnber of revolutioris would become too great,with c o u n t e r - ~ r e s s u r e s i m i l a r t o t h a t on earth. ''he passengers would n o t i c e t h e r o t a t i o n and become seasick. For t h e same reason, I cannot agree t o ~OOItLUKGtSin i t s e l f very b e a u t i f u l suggestion of a passengerstwheel with a radius of s c a r c e l y 100 m and s t i l l l e s s t o ~ h S n U ~ M ' t S s l g g e s t i otno b u i l d t h e observer's cabin of t h e space-ship i t s e l f a s a r o t a t i n g drum.

t h e point of weightlessness between e a r t h and moon. This i s a l t o g e t h e r impss i b l e . Kithout t h e e f f e c t of gravity, a body i n space would continue on i t s course i n a s t r a i p h t l i n e and not remain near t h e earth. O n t h e o t h e r hand,

it i s b a s i c l y possible t o bring t h e observer s t a t i o n somewhat c l o s e r t o e a r t h ; namely, t o t h e place where t h e a t t r a c t i n g force of t h e e a r t h i s weakened

by t h a t of t h e w o n by j u s t so much t o make it equal t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e t h a t a r i s e s when t h e space-ship o r b i t s t h e e a r t h i n one month. ! ! e r e t h e spaces h i p would always g r a v i t a t e between e a r t h and moon. E u t t h i s set-up would not be advisable. I f , f o r some reason, t h e observer s t a t i o n should m v e down o r up from t h i s point, it would be hurled from i t s course. So t h a t p o s i t i o n

i s unstable. O n t h e o t h e r hand, t h e p o s i t i o n of a n observer s t a t i o n near t h e

e a r t h i s s t a b l e , f o r here performince cf work i s required t o m v e t h e s t a t i o n e i t h e r f a r t h e r from t h e e a r t h o r c l o s e r t o it. F i n a l l y , I expressly point out t h a t t h e c e n t r i f u g a l force of t h e s t a t i o n s u f f i c e s i n i t s e l f t o prevent

it from f a l l i n g t o earth. The moon does not f a l l t o e a r t h although t h e r e i s no body above it t o draw it upward. I would l e t such a s t a t i o n g r a v i t a t e 700 t o 1, 200 lan above t h e earth.
The purpose of t h e s e observer s t a t i o n s would be t h e following :
1) With t h e i r precise instruments t h e y could pin-point every d e t a i l on

e a r t h and, with s u i t a b l e r e f l e c t o r s , could send l i g h t s i g n a l s t o earth. They make possible t e l e g r a p h i c communication with places t h a t a r e cut o f f from normal contact by telegraphy because of operational disturbances, Since, with a c l e a r sky, they can recognize a candle by n i i h t
0,-

a pocket mirror

by day, i f only t h e y know where t o look f o r them, they can contribute much t o navigation, e t c . , i n helping expeditions e s t a b l i s h contact with t h e homeland from f a r outlying colonies. By observing and photographing unexplored countries and peoples (Tibet) t h e y n a t u r a l l y b e n e f i t geography and ethnology. Their s t r a t e g i c value, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e a t e r s of war with low average clouding, is obvious, whether t h e s t a t e t h a t owns them i s a t war i t s e l f o r s e l l s t h e i r r e p o r t s t o nations a t war a t a high price. With small plane

r e f l e c t o r s , if t h e s t a t i o n i s not too f a r , t h e r e f l e c t o r s i g n a l is recognizable on a l i m i t e d a r e a only. Furthemore, t h e s t a t i o n n o t i c e s every iceberg and can warn s h i p s i n d i r e c t l y by r e p o r t i n g t h e i c e b e r g t o a naval observat o r y , which publicizes t h e l o c a t i o n by telegraphy, o r d i r e c t l y i f i t s r e f l e c t o r s a r e s t r o n g enough f o r t h e s h i p t o n o t i c e them through t h e u s u a l l y f o g 0 atmosphere. The tragedy of t h e T i t a n i c i n 1912, f o r example, could have been prevented i n t h i s way. These s t a t i o n s can a l s o c o n t r i b u t e much t o t h e rescue o f ship-wrecked people, t o newspaper s e r v i c e s , e t c . For example,
1;UNGI;SS;bR and COLI could have been rescued in t h i s way, ~ r o b a b k also

P,OAT,3 A! ~UIfDSSNand ! iALi4GUEN.

I do not consider it an i m p o s s i b i l i t y recognizirp, with t h e use o f a

telescope, t h e change of barometric m x h and minim, t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind, etc., on o p t i c a l indications. in t h i s way, t h e weather conditions o f t h e be kept in view, considerably promoting o w whole e a r t h could const&Jy

knowledge of meteorological processes. Furthermore, 1 would l i k e t o mention here t h a t t h e observer s t a t i o n could, a t t h e same time, be a f u e l i n g s t a t i o n ; i f t h e hydrogen and oxygen a r e protected f r o m t h e sun's rays t h e y remain i n a s o l i d s t a t e f o r any length of time. A rocket t h a t i s r e f u e l l e d and leaves from t h e observer s t a t i o n

suffers nothing from a i r r e s i s t a n c e and only l i t t l e from r e t a r d a t i o n due t o Pd t h e force of gravity. Its a c c e l e r a t i o n and, t h e r e f o r e , my be very Po small, whereby, according t o ( I ) , t h e ~ r o p e l l i n gforce of t h e f u e l s i s

powerfully u t i l i z e d . f ' t h e rocket need not pass through t h e atmosphere nor be subjected t o counterpressure, we can b u i l d it a s we p l e a s e ' a s regards form and r i g i d i t y ; b m y be srnall ( c f . p.246) and we can make t h e tanks of sodium p l a t e . I n s o d o i r l g , , ~w i l l be very large. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e rocket
. I

mo

need have no very high init&l v e l o c i t y in order t o leave t h e e a r t h ' s

sphere o f a t t r a c t i o n f o r , i n t h e f i r s t place, t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e earth

i s smaller a t t h e observer s t a t i o n and, secondly, t h e propulsion of t h i s

rocket need only compensate f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t e x i s t s between t h e 8km/sec v e l o c i t y of t h e observer required f i n a l v e l o c i t y and t h e r o u ~ h l y s t a t i o n . For example, i f a l a r g e sphere of sodium p l a t e , manufactured on t h e spot and f i l l e d with f u e l , is connected t o a small, s o l i d l y - b u i l t rocket so t h a t t h e l a t t e r pushes t h e sphere before it and i s constantly r e f i l l e d from it, we have an extremely e f f i c i e n t machine t h a t i s e a s i l y a b l e t o f l y t o a d i s t a n t c e l e s t i a l body.There t h e rocket i s lowered t o t h e surface of t h e c e l e s t i a l body while t h e sphere with t h e f u e l g r a v i t a t e s about t h e r e s p e c t i v e body. After ascent of t h e rocket t h e y a r e connected again and t h e machine makes t h e r e t u r n f l i g h t . Fare about t h i s l a t e r .

Fig, 131

2 ) k c i r c u l a r wire net (Fig. 131) could be spread out about i t s c e n t r e

by pivoting. In t h e gaps between t h e s i n @ l e wires (here exaggerated in s i z e ) m v a b l e r e f l e c t o r s m d e out of l i g h t metal sheeting could be fixed so t h a t t h e y can be given any position t o t h e plane of t h e wire n e t from t h e s t a t i o n by means of e l e c t r i c currents. The whole r e f l e c t o r would g r a v i t a t e about t h e e a r t h i n a plane perpendicular t o t h e plane of t h e o r b i t , and t h e n e t would have an i n c l i n a t i o n of 4 5 O toward t h e sun's rays (cf. Fig. 132). By s u i t a b l y a d j u s t i n g t h e s i n g l e f a c e t s , a l l t h e s o l a r e n e r m r e f l e c t e d by t h e

sun could be concentrated on a s i n g l e point on e a r t h o r a l s o spread out

over wide s t r e t c h e s of land a s needed o r , i f t h e r e i s no use f o r it,

allowed t o r a d i a t e i n t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space.

Fig. 13%

For example, i f t h e r e f l e c t o r were 1 , 0 0 0km wide, t h e sun's image of each f a c e t would be 10 km i n diameter1 ; i f t h e y coincided, t h e e n e r m wculd be concentrated on an area of 78 km
2

. Since t h e r e f l e c t i n g surface can be of

any s i z e , colossal e f f e c t s can be achieved. For example, t h e way t o Spitobergen o r t o t h e ports of Northern S i b e r i a could be kept ice-free by means of such concentrated sun's rays. I f t h e r e f l e c t o r were only 100 km in dial ) 'de a r e here dealing with a phenomenon similar t o t h e dark room. f s long

a s one of t h e m f a c e t s is smaller than 10 km it produces, independent of s i z e and shape, a c i r c u l a r image of t h e sun. According t o t h e laws of g e o y e t r i c o p t i c s , viewed from t h e position of t h e f a c e t , t h e sun's image must appear a t l e a s t j u s t a s l a r g e a s t h e sun i t s e l f . if d i s t h e diameter of t h i s image of t h e sun, a i t s distance from t h e r e f l e c t o r , D t h e diameter of t h e sun, and

A t h e distance of t h e e a r t h o r t h e r e f k t o r from t h e sun, then

It i s impossible, f o r example, t o concentrate t h e l i g h t of a 100,000 h w i d e r e f l e c t o r on t h e space of one hectare, a s GAIL describes it

in h i s novel, 'qhe Stone from t h e :.ToonVt. l'ere t h e

t h e r e f l e c t o r a s close t o e a r t h a s possible.

sun spot would be a t l e a s t

1n O O km i n d h t e r . i'or achieving s t r o n g heat e f f e c t s , we must aim t o b r i n g

meter, wide s t r e t c h e s of land i n t h e north could be made habitable by means of dispersed l i g h t ; i n our l a t i t u d e s , t h e feared sudden drops i n temperature ( i c e men) i n spring and t h e night f r o s t s - i n f a l l and spring could be prevented, thus saving f r u i t and vegetable crops of e n t i r e provinces. It i s e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t : h a t t h e r e f l e c t o r i s not f i x e d above one p i n t of t h e e a r t h and so can perform a l l these basks a t once. I n t h e question of t h e nraterial of t h i s r e f l e c t o r , it i s c l e a r t h a t 1 ) no oxygen mst be present, and 2 ) it must heat up but l i t t l e i t s e l f .

w i l l remain colder i f we L a v e t h e back s i d e rough o r even paint it black.

A s material, I would suggest sodium which, under t h e respective conditions,

has a s p e c i f i c weight of 1, considerable t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , and a s i L e r y l u s t r e . It can be taken along i n l a r g e pieces by t h e s h i g l e rockets and, since it s t i l l has t h e usual temperature up above, can t h e r e be r o l l e d out t o sheeting o r pressed out a s wire o r s t r a p from t h e rocket. Joining of t h e s i n g l e pieces a s well as polishing can be done by men in d i v e r s ' s u i t s . I f t h e r e f l e c t i n g p l a t e i s 0.805 mm t h i c k and t h e wires, etc., have t h e sane

mss a s t h e p l a t e , t h e whole weighs 10 g per square metre o r 100 kg per hectare. With regular rocket t r a f f i c t o t h e observer s t a t i o n , t h e ascent of one rocket, which, beside a l l e l s e , can c a r r y up 2,000 kg of sodium, c o s t s P,000 t o
60,000 I k r k a l l t o l d . Thus, one hectare of r e f l e c t o r c o s t s a t tl,e mst

3,500 :.fark altogether. $f we f i g u r e t h a t 1 hectare of r e f l e c t o r surface could m a w 3 hectares of polar land a r a b l e , we s e e t h a t a time m y come when t h i s r e f l e c t o r and t h e whole invention becomes a paying proposition.

I n t h i s way, a r e f l e c t o r 109 km in diameter would, a t t h e must, c o s t

3 b i l l i o n Ifark and, i f 137,000 kg of sodium were taken a l o f t every week, 1 it would require ca 1: years t o build it Since such a r t . f l e c t o r could,

unfortunately, a l s o have high strategic. value (munitions f a c t o r i e s can be exploded with it, tornadoes and thunderstorms produced, m r c h i n g t r o w and t h e i r reserves destroyed, whole' c i t i e s burned, and g e n e r l l y t h e g r e a t e s t of damage done) t h e p o s s i b i l i t y i s not excluded t h a t one of t h e c i v i l i z e d s t a t e s will make use of t h i s invention i n t h e foreseeable future, t h e morc so s i n c e a l a r g e p a r t of t h e invested c a p i t a l could a l s o bear i n t e r e s t in p a c t time.
I must rnake a ' r e m r k here : I could have r e s t r i c t e d myself in t h i s book

t o only t h e most sober physical calculations. But I n order t o c r e a t e t h e necessary respect f o r my idea (otherwise a r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s idea is unthinkable), I f e l t impelled t o dran a few p i c t u r e s of t h e f u t u r e a t t h e end of t h e book, and I have s e t up some f a n t a s t i c claims. Naturally, here a l s o ,

I have s a i d nothing t h a t might not be possible by present s c i e n t i f i c standards, and I w i l l now show that I am also on completely s c i e n t i f i c ground with t h i s
idea of a r e f l e c t o r .

1 ) The c a l c u l a t i o n would be considerably m r e favorable i f t h e m a t e r i a l could be delivered by t h e use of e l e c t r i c space-ships from t h e m o n o r from anasteroid, Then t h e r e f l e c t o r could possibly be b u i l t f o r s e v e r a l hundred million Fark in l e s s than a year.

Construction of t h e Reflector
A rocket with t h e necessary equipment i s s e n t a l o f t and t h e r e given a

l a t e r a l propulsion which puts it i n t o an e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t around t h e e a r t h .

I w i l l c a l l t h i s r o t a t i o n about t h e e a r t h ltrevolutionfl. Major a x i s perpendic u l a r t o t h e e c l i p t i c , perigee i n t h e south 1,000 km above t h e e a r t h ' s surface,

m above t h e e a r t h ' s surface (cf. Fig. 133). apogee in t h e north 5, Oflo k

I n s p i t e o f i t s proximity t o t h e e a r t h , t h i s rocket and everything i n and around it i s not exposed t o any counter-pressure ; t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y i s compensated f o r by t h e c e n t r i f u g a l force i n every atom. So t h e s i n g l e parts of

Fig. 133

Fig. 134

t h e rocket a r e r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r almost a s though t h e e a r t h were not t h e r e . N o w t h e a x i s of t h e rocket i s turned perpendjcular t o t h e f u t u r e plane of t h e wire n e t and, by means of s i d e nozzles, t h e rocket i s made t o r o t a t e about t h i s axis 4-5 t i m - s p e r hour. This motion I w i l l c a l l ttrotationv. if now wires a r e l e t out which a r e attached t o t h e rocket on one end (Fig. 134), t h e y w i l l in a s h o r t time t a k e a p o s i t i o n perpendicular t o t h e rocket a x i s due t o c e n t r i f u g a l force and t h e lack of a i r ; and t h a t t h e more promptly, t h e longer t h e y a r e and t h e g r e a t e r t h e r o t a t i v e speed (Fig. 135). 'f course, u n t i l t h e y have erected themselves, t h a t t a k e s place a t t h e c o s t of t h e r o t a t i v e speed of t h e rocket, s o t h e s i d e nozzles rr~uct somt timcs be used. Finally, a s t h e diameter of t h e n e t increases, t h e r o t a t i v e speed should decrease i n order not

Fig. 135

t o put unnecessary s t r a i n on t h e material. N o w t h e workmen - n a t u r a l l y weighing nothing here- can nnve along t h e s e wires, i f t h e y do not p r e f e r t o use rearward t h r u s t m c h i n e s t o m v e about, and draw t h e cross wires, e t c . The r i g i d i t y of t h e net i s based on t h e absence of a f o r c e t h a t could bend it o r , m r e precisely, on t h e minuteness of t h e s e f o r c e s a s compared t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e due t o t h e r o t a t i o n about t h e centre. (Pore d e t a i l s below.) Adjusting t h e r e f l e c t o r surfaces i s done e l e c t r i c a l l y (Fig. 136). There a r e very many ways o f , f o r e n n p l e , producing a d e f l e c t i o n on pointer B t h a t corresponds t o t h e d e f h t i o n on a pointer A. It i s possible t o i n s t a l l miniature

Fig. 130
f a c e t s in t h e c o n t r o l room each of which i s connected with one of t h e a c t u a l r e f l e c t o r surfaces in such a way t h a t it must follow t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e miniature f a c e t -the e l e c t r i c current could flow through t h e wire net-. The n n t t e r i s complicatLd by t h e f a c t t h z t t h e ~ e a r e two r o t a t i n g axes and t h e r e f l e c t o r surfaces cannot follow t h e motion of t h e miniature f a c e t s immediately

because of t h e i r s i z e and f r a g i l i t y ( t h e y must have l i t t l e reinforcement and

m y not be t o o small because of d i f f r a c t i o n ) .

Fig. 137

It w i l l take 10-15 minutes t o a d j u s t them. provision would a l s o have t o be rnade by which t o give them an impulse contrary t o t h e i r m t i o n a t t h e r i g h t time t o prevent them from moving t o o f a r due t o i n e r t i a ; compared t o t h e
f o r c e s which can a c t on them, t h e i r i n e r t i a is very great. This, however, i s basicly feasible. The miniature f a c e t s a r e adjusted by hand ; t h e y a r e attached t o a f l a t b a r g r i l l (Fig. l37) which i s i n t h e position which t h e r e f l e c t o r net w i l l have i n 15 k n u t e s due i t s rotation. Beside it i s a globe which i s placed in r e l a t i o n t o t h e grill a# the earth w i l l stand i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e r e f l e c t o r a f t e r 15 minutes ( t h a t i s very e a s i l y seen from a t a b l e , while making a few corrections r e s u l t i n g from p o s i t i o n findings ). It is s u f f i c i e n t t o simply l e t t h e sun shine on t h e milliature r e f l e c t o r and then t o t u r n t h e f a c e t s so t h a t t h e r e f l e c t e d l i g h t s t r i k e s those p a r t s o f t h e globe c o r r e s p n d i n g t o t h e region t o be i r r a d i a t e d . I n so doing, even t h e bending of t h e n e t d u e t o rad i a t i o n pressure and precession f o r c e s , s t i l l t o be discussed, could be taken i n t o account. E i t h e r t h e g r i l l bars could be p l i a b l e and be bent beforehand a t t h e d i s c r e t i o n of t h e r e f l e c t o r p i l o t ( t h e e r r o r occurring i n t h i s way i s not l a r g e ) , o r , a t t h e a d j u s t i n g mechanism of t h e reflector surfaces, d i r e c t i o n a l

gyroscopes could be s i t u a t e d according t o which t h e r e f l e c t i n g surfaces a d j u s t themselves, a t which t h e gyroscope would n a t u r a l l y not serve a s support but t h e wire net.

It t a k e s 10-15 minutes f o r t h e r e f l e c t o r surfaces t o follow t h e f a c e t s , so t h e r e i s plenty of time t o t e s t t h e t h i n g while making t h e a d j u s t m n t . if one wishes t o continue illuminating t h e same region, one moves t h e f a c e t s a
l i t t l e f a r t h e r from time t o t h e . 'Because t h e y move so slowly, t h e r e f l e c t o r s only follow t h e adjustment gradually, s o steady m t i o n of t h e r e f l e c t o r surfaces can be achieved i n s p i t e of t h e jerky ]notion o!'the be only f a c e t s . " a t u r a l l y , t h i s would

one possible

s o l u t i o n ; t h e r e a r e a hundred others. light-pressure a t t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e e a r t h with

According t o

~~~, the

t h e rags s t r i k i n g a completely black surface perpendicularly amounts t o / m2 , with a comPletkly r e f l e c t i n g surface twice t h a t . With a sodium s u r 0.4 face standing a t an angle of 45' t o t h e sun it w i l l a m u n t t o ca 0.5 mg

it does not increase t o 1 kg / = 1 mg / IU even when t h e r e f l e c t o r is perpendicular t o t h e sun. Now, t h e r e f l e c t o r t o g e t h e r 2 with reinforcements, observer's cabin, etc., weighs 10 g r / m So t h e r a d i a t i o n
0.5 kg

km2

. I n any case,

m2

pressure gives it an a c c e l e r a t i o n of l e s s than 0.1 cm

sec

(The exact value

can be found experimentally when rocket ascents a r e m d e ; beside t h e pressure posited by MAXrPiEUtS theory, a l l s o r t s of o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e involved. Here I want t o show what i s i w o l v e d in p r i n c i p l e only.) The r e f l e c t o r does not r i s e higher than two earth's r a d i i above t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h , l h s o doing, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y remains over 240 cm / see?. ; u t even 10 e a r t h ' s 2 r a d i i high, it would s t i l l be about 10 cm / s e c , whichile hundred times g r e a t e r than t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o t h e light-pressure.

I am now introducbag t h r e e new d e s i m t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o direction. The d i r e c t i o n t o t h e sun I c a l l s a g i t $ a l ( s - d i r e c t i o n ) , t h e d i r e c t i o n from t h e

centre of t h e r e f l e c t o r t o t h e centre of t h e e a r t h v e r t i c a l (x-direction) t h e d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o t h e s

-x-

plane transverse ( t - d i r e c t i o n ) . W e will the t

begin .our considkrations with t h e following assumptions : The o r b i t a l plane i s t o be p e r ~ e n d i c u l a rt o s , a t t h e same time fo&g r e f l e c t o r surfaces a r e t o be perpendicular t o t h e s

- x -plane.

- x

plane ; t h e They a r e t o be

inclined a t 4 5 O t o t h e o t h e r two fundamental ~ l a n e s ,so t h a t t h e r e f l e c t e d l i g h t f a l l s on t h e e a r t h v e r t i c a l l y . When t h e r e f l e c t o r revolves about t h e e a r t h , t h e s-direction i s maintained i n space while t and x r o t a t e once with reference t o a fixed system of coordinates.FThether we must seek t o c o n s t a n t l y r e f l e c t t h e l i g h t on t h e e a r t h v e r t i c a l l y o r a r e , in f a c t , a b l e t o i s another question. I w i l l assume t h a t we can i n order t o study t h e s i n g l e elements which determine t h e path of t h e r e f l e c t o r .

magina nary numbers a r e a l s o :&

i n cal-

culations, although it is known t h a t t h e y do not e x i s t . )

Fig. 139

Fig. 138
Let AB represent t h e e a r t h (.Fig. 13R), C,D t h e path t h e r e f l e c t o r rocket would describe without t h e r e f l e c t o r (seen from t h e side it appears a s a straight line).

irst , 1 w i l l assume it t o be a c i r c l e , and then proceed t o

more complicated cases. , h e r a d i a t i o n pressure L ( ~ i g .139) breaks up i n t o

2 components e and f , one of which ( e ) tends t o l i f t t h e r e f l e c t o r v e r t i c a l l y .

lie compensate f o r it by taking t h e revolving speed of t h e r e f l e c t o r

1

- 2 m / sec l e s s ( m r e i s unnecessary) than it would have t o be i f t h e r e were noT.radiationpressure. 't is simply a s though g were 0.01 % - 1 $ smaller

t h a n it is.

he second component f presses t h e r e f l e c t o r toward t h e e a r t h ' s

shadow so t h a t t h e radius vector from t h e centre of t h e e a r t h t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e r e f l e c t o r no longer describes a plane but a conic surface. In so doing,
g breaks up i n t o 3 components (Fig. 138), one of which a c t s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n

of t h e o r b i t a l centre and cornyensates f o r t h e c e n t r i f u g a l force z and f o r t h e light-pressure component e. The second a c t s toward t h e sun and compensates f o r t h e light-pressure compon n t f . recause t h e light-pressure f i s so small, t h e q u a n t i t y ( r

+ h)

t h e sun, i s inconsiderable. So t h e r e i s no p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e r e f l e c t o r being '%blown awayt1, a s has l a r g e l y been feared.

I wrote t h a t it i s simply a s though g were 0.01

,I3

by which t h e r e f l e c t o r i s pushed away from

- 1 $ smller.

It follows

from t h a t t h a t t h e r e f l e c t o r g r a v i t a t e s a p p r o x h t e l y a s it would about a body whose mass i s somewhat over 99 $ o f t h e mass of t h e e a r t h . I f , f o r example, in1pact d i s t u r b s it i n i t s o r b i t , it d e s c r i b e s an oval which i s very n e a r l y a n e l l i p s e . Iikewise it can be shown t h a t here f simply a c t s a s though t h e c e n t r e of t h i s body were not s i t u a t e d a t t h e c e n t r e of t h e e a r t h but 40 s a g i t a l l y behind it, Let us move on.
he r e f l e c t o r is Supposed t o work a s h i t h e r t o , but only

- 100 km

above t h e northern hemisphere. W e a r e assuming we have nothing t o do i n t h e southern hemisphere. A s before, above t h e southern hemisphere, (but now only under t h e influence of g r a v i t a t i o n ) , t h e r e f l e c t o r i s t o describe a c i r c l e i n the direction B

-B

(cf. Fig. 1.40 ; l e t kE be t h e e q u a t o r i a l plane seen sagi-

t a l l y ) . i h e n it passes A and begins t o work, t h e force of g r a v i t y seems t o

Fig. 140

decrease ; but i t s velocity is too great f o r t h i s smaller force of gravity, so t h a t it begins t o r i s e , reaching i t s apogee a t Bt on an a p p r o x h t e l y e l l i p t i c a l t r a j e c t o r y a t the cost of t h e excessive kinetic energy. A t BT

its velocity i s too small aeain t o constantly keep it in an o r b i t a t t h i s a l t i t u d e . ()ore d e t a i l s can be l e a n e d from the l a w s of t h e otion of planets,) Even i f g were reduced by the amunt of t h e radiation pressure, the r e f l e c t o r would return t o A on the geolpetric continuation of t h i s e l l i p s e ; but now g increases because t h e light-pressure ceases. The r e s u l t i s t h a t t h e r e f l e c t o r approaches the e a r t h s t i l l more, l e t us say t o A t , a t which, of course, i t s velocity f a r exceeds c i r c u l a r velocity (which it should have a t t h i s a l t i t u d e ) .

Fig. 141
Because of the lieht-pressure, the c i r c u l a r velocity from X

' to

B would be

s t i l l smaller, so the e l l i p s e becomes s t i l l m r e elongated from A t t o B t t than

it was from E' t o kt ; Bn l i e ' s s t i l l f a r t h e r out than B t

, but

f o r t h a t the

following perigee would l i e s t i l l nearer than A T , etc. ' h e f i n a l r e s u l t would be t h a t t h e r e f l e c t o r would e i t h e r get h u n p u p h the upper layers of the side o r f l y out of the earth's f i e l d of gravity on t h e atmosphere on t h e L
B

- side.

The inherent energy increases with every revolution. I n Fig. 141, on both sides of t h e l i n e ACB, one can speak of a potential which m t u r a l l y changes by bounds a s t h i s l i n e i s crossed ; t h e locations of equal potential form semi-circles on both s i d e s of t h e l i n e , %ing t h e whole run above t h e l i n e ACB, t h e sum of t h e k i n e t i c and the

P o t e n t i a l energy of t h e r e f l e c t o r must remain constant, during t h e run below t h e l i n e ACB likewise. Corres~ndin t~ o t h e difference i n a l t i t u d e d h, t h e r e i s a smaller d i f f e renee i n p o t e n t i a l

(dB')above t h e

l i n e iiE' t h a n below it

(dP).

',:he r e f l e c t o r

Fig. 142

makes t h e a s c e n t d h from A (perigee) t o E (apogee) (cf. Fig. 142) a t t h e cost of t h e l o s s b V f in k i n e t i c energy, but i n return it g e t s back m r e k i n e t i c energy when, on t h e way back, it a r r i v e s a t C a t t h e a l t i t u d e of A again ; i f ,

i n a d d i t i o n , it sinks by t h e d i s t a n c e d h ' , f o r t h a t it likewise wins more k i n e t i c energy t h a n it would use t o make t h i s ascent on t h e o t h e r s i d e again. The a c t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of a merchant who buys cheaply on one s i d e and
s e l l s a t a high p r i c e on t h e o t h e r , g e t t i n g r i c h in t h e process. To prevent t h a t we can do various things. For example, I f we a c c e l e r a t e t h e r e f l e c t o r a t Bf s o t h a t it does not t r a v e l t h e dotted e l l i p s e t o A T but t h e dash-dotted e l l i p s e t o k and d e c e l e r a t e its v e l o c i t y a t A so much a s t o cause it t o continue f l y i n g in t h e f i e l d of l e s s a t t r a c t i o n on t h e curve
AE again, t h i s s t a t e can be constantly maintained. b e would get t h i s r e s u l t

i n p r a c t i c e , f o r example, if we d i d not r e f l e c t t h e l i g h t rays v e r t i c a l l y but, a s much a s possible, t o t h e north pole.

I n t h e example diacueeed, t h e r e war an i n c r e a s e i n energy because t h e body aacende i n t h e weaker f i e l d of g r a v i t y and f a l l s i n t h e stronger one. The opposite would be t h e case i f it reached i t s perigee a t B and ascended from B t o A ( ~ i g ,143). Then i t s energy content would decrease a t f i r s t . Yet, in so doing, t h e t r a j e c t o r y e l l i p s e s would become rounder and rounder u n t i l a t t a i n i n g t h e c i r c u l a r shape

-wFig. 143 the e f f e c t

, and

then t h e opposite case would a r i s e

again. I n order t o keep A and B a s p o i n t s on t h e t r a j e c t o r y , we would have t o d e c e l e r a t e a t A &d a c c e l e r a t e a t B here also. I n a s i m i l a r way, it can be proved t h a t a body cannot permanently e;ravit%te i n a centrally-oriented f i e l d of g r a v i t y which v e r i e e i n s t r e n g t h i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s (cf. Fig. 144) u n l e s s it i s decelerated upon passing over i n t o weaker s e c t o r s and a c c e l e r a t e d when passing over i n t o s t r o n g e r ones, o r i s elevated so s t r o n g l y i n t h e s t r o n g e r s e c t o r a s t o j u s t cancel t h e d i f f e r e n c e in g r a v i t a t i o n thereby. So ~nuchconcerning t h e v e r t i c a l component of t h e light-pressure x i t h one-sided operation of t h e r e f l e c t o r . With one-sided-operation, of t h e s a g i t t a l component tends t o r o t a t e t h e t r a j e c t o v plane about sn a x i s perpendicular to t h e e o l i p t i c (revolution precession). I n Fig. 145, t h e plane of t h e paper r e p r e s e n t s t h e e c l i p t i c , ACBD t h e e a r t h ; t h e t r a j e c t o r y BB would be seen a s perpendicular t o t h e e c l i p t i c i f the radiat i o n pressure did n o t a c t . The arrows d e s i p a t e t h e v e l o c i t y parel-

' the lelogram; BBt i s t h e actual path of t h e r e f l e c t o r , A t B

Fig. 144

Fic. 145

new t r a j e c t o r ; ~plane. (The theory of t h e gyroscope and t h e science of t h e t r a j e c t o r y disturbanc-s of t h e moon provide f u r t h e r d e t a i l s . ) If we proceed
a p t l y , we can arrange t o have t h e t r a j e c t o r y plane r o t a t e about t h i s a x i s once a year and always stand perpendicular t o t h e s - d i r e c t i o n . Derivations similar t o those mentioned above a l s o apply t o t h e case in which t h e light-pressure i s not equally s t r o n g over t h e whole s t r e t c h A=- B but gradually increas s from R t o t h e pole and decreases from F

- B.

ThSs

case corresponds t o r e a l i t y f o r , i n general, t h e r e f l e c t o r net i s inclined t o t h e e a r t h ' s surface by 45O only above t h e pole and t h e r e f l e c t o r does not work above t h e hot zone. (Several f a c e t s could be used f o r illuminating l a r g e c i t i e s a t night.) Decelerating a t h (Fig. 142) and a c c e l e r a t i n g a t B can n a t u r a l l y be done only with use of t h e light-pressure. I n so doing, t h e r e f l e c t o r surfaces must r e f l e c t t h e l i g h t in t h e transverse d i r e c t i o n . Here likewise, s- g i t t a l components a r i s e which, however, cannot completely h a l t t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y ylane, f o r t h e y in part mutually cancel out

k first-named s a e i t t a l comt h e i r e f f e c t s ; nor do they a c t a s f a r south a s i

p n e n t i n t h e north. but w e can e a s i l y suspend t h e revolution precession completely o r reverse it i f , i n t h e south, we s e t t h e r e f l e c t o r surfaces perpendicular t o t h e sun. I f we wish t o do l i t t l e work with the r, f l e c t o r
i n t h e south, we can here c a r r y out a l a r g e number of light-pressure maneu-

vers, changine t h e revolution and t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r e f l e c t o r as we vrish and taking it nearer t o o r f a r t h e r from t h e earth. Irecession movements. I wrote above t h a t , a t t h e centre of t h e r e f l e c t o r , g r a v i t a t i o n and c e n t r i f u g a l force a r e almost i n equilibrium in every atom. %at i s correct only f o r t h e centre, not f o r t h e edge. I f t h e r > f l e c t o r has a l+5O i n c l i n a t i o n toward t h e e a r t h , with a diameter of 100 km, t h e l o v e r edge

is ca 25

= 35.3 km nearer t o t h e e a r t h than t h e centre ; t h e upper

edce i s respectively f a r t h e r . A s i s w e l l known, t h e force of g r a v i t y decreases

a s t h e square of t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e centre of t h e earth. If t h e whole

i s j u s t kept in balance by t h e revolution c e n t r i f u g a l force, a p u l l downward ( fu) i s exerted on t h e lower edge and an equal p u l l upward ( J-') on I t h e upper e d ~ e . _'n p a r t , t h e s e forces cause a tensJon (a(, * ) i n t h e net and, in part, t h e y tend t o s e t t h e plane of t h e n e t perpendicular t o t h e earth ,,@I). The l a t t e r does not come about because of t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r e f l e c t o r , instead t h e r o t a t i o n axis s h i f t s perpendicular t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e force similar t o a gyroscope axle. I n f i g u r e 147 I have represented

JB

7'

Fig, 146

Fig. 147

t h e conditions i n a gyroscope. The Brrows v i n d i c a t e t h e v e l o c i t y of two opposite points on t h e circumference. AB stands f o r t h e propulsion of a p a i r of f o r c e s tending t o t u r n t h e a x i s o f f t h e paper. v'v' a r e t h e r e s u l t i n g vTv'. new v e l o c i t i e s , C'Ct i s t h e new d i r e c t i o n of t h e a x i s r e s u l t i n g

m r n

So t h e a x i s has not t u n e d in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p a i r of forces AB but

perpendicular t o it, and we obtain a precession of t h e rartation axis. The a c t i n g f o r c e s (compared t o t h e lieht-pressure) a r e considerable : t h u s , in t h e previous example, wl-en t h e centre of t h e r e f l e c t o r is 1 003 km above t h e e a r t h ' s surface, f o r t h e o u t e m s t point, each of
2

# and 8 I i s

f o r c e equal t o 11 cm / s e c times t h e mass on which it a c t s . Fortunately, t h e f o r c e s do not bend t h e net. They a r e proportional t o t h e mass on which they a c t ( i . e . , t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i m p r t e d does not depend on t h e mass) ; moreover, t h e y a r e proportional t o t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e mass from t h e l i n e

on which t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e

(2)

due t o t h e revolving speed c and t h e a p y r o x h a t e l y t h e horizontal

e a r t h ' s a t t r a c t i o n g mutually cancel out (i.e.,

s t r a i g h t l i n e through t h e c e n t r e of t h e n e t ) . This a l s o a p p l i e s t o every r d a t i o n of t h e n e t a s long a s t h e d i r c t i o n of revolution l i e s i n t h e plane of t h e net. For economical guiding of t h e ~ e l ' l e c . t o r ,care w i l l have t o be taken t o place t h e net in t h e b c s t possible p o s i t i o n f o r t h e work t o be undertaken.

(PA region t o be illuminated must not l i e i n t h e plane of t h e net nor t h e s-direction f a l l in t h e plane of t h e n e t , and t h e l i k e . ) The reflector
should n a t u r a l l y be put t o a s f u l l use a s possible.

I I

Fig. 149 FIR. 148 Now, t h e idea i s reasonable t o arrange t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e r e f l e c t o r

SO

t h a t t h e precession k e e y p c e with t h e revolution and t h e t r a j e c t o r y

plane i s always perpendicular t o t h e s

x-plane and makes an angle of b5O

with t h e s - d i r e c t i o n ( ~ ' i g .148). Unfortunately, t h i s cannot alwags be achieved.

$loreover, we can considerably influence t h e r e l a t i o n between precession and r o t a t i o n i f we s e t t h e n e t on a s l a n t o r perpendicular t o t h e dirtxction of revolution. That sho7dd not adversely a f f e c t t h e angle of t h e n e t t o t h e sun and t h e e a r t h , s i n c e we can a l s o correspondingly s e t t h e t r a j e c t o r y plane on a s l a n t t o t h e s-direction ( ~ ' i g .149). This f i g u r e exaggerates t h e m t t e r . Here t h e s-direction f a l l s i n t h e t r a j e c t o r y plane. That could n a t u r a l l y not
be achieved during t h e whole year. For does t h e f i g u r e t a k e t h e l a t e r a l motion

of t h e r o t a t i o n a x i s i n t o account. The p i c t u r e shows, however, how t h e l o s s due t o t h e unfavorable p o s i t i o n s ( a t u) i s again equalized by t h e f a c t t h a t , a s a whole, t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e n e t i s more favorable than with 45O-guidance.

%-I certa'n purposes, types of guidance can be more advisable i n wLich t h e

periods of precession and r o t a t i o n do not coincide. They have t h e advantage of making it possible t o i l l u m i n a t e c e r t a i n regions m r e s t r o n g l y than 116th t h e methods of guidance j u s t described. These methods a r e extremely m n i f o l d . $hen studying tkem one has a f e e l i n g similar t o t h a t when exam;'ning t h e question of how b e s t t o begin a gane of chess. This i s an extremely productive f i e l d f o r mathematicians who would l i k e t o work on something new.
A l l these p o s s i b i l i t i e s of guidance I would l i k e t o combine a s t h e

group of guiding methods with mechanical precession of r o t a t i o n , The r a d i a t i o n pressure, however, i s a l s o a nieans by which t o influence t h e r o t a t i o n speed
and t h e r o t a t i o n a x i s .

Precession-Free Guidance F'eculiar t o a l l t h e guiding rnethods mentioned so f a r i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r o t a t i o n appears a s a function of t h e revolution. S t i l l another method of guidance is possible i n which t h e n e t plane, r o t a t i o n plane, and t r a j e c t o r y plane coincide and a r e perpendicular t o t h e s-direction. S t e e r i n g i s done s o l e l y by means of t h e lieht-pressure, which i s e s p e c i a l l y s t r o n g here. Fig. 150 shows t h e conditions f o r a r e f l e c t o r 200 km i n diameter a t an

m ; m, n i s a plane through t h e centre of t h e a l t i t u d e of 800 t o 1,000 k

e a r t h p a r a l l e l t o t h e r o t a t i o n plane. Here t h e period of r o t a t i o n i s i r r e l e v a n t . I f t h e r e f l e c t o r i s t o o r b i t close t o t h e e a r t h , t h i s method of guidance i s superior t o a l l t h e others ; it i s unsuitable i f t h e r e f l e c t o r

i s t o ascend s e v e r a l 1, 00 km, which would be indispensible i f t h e r e f l e c t o r

i s t o f l o a t over one half of t h e e a r t h longer than over t h e other.
Yith use of t h e light-pressure, t h e r e f l e c t o r can be placed i n a l l possible

positions i n t h e course of s e v e r a l days.

A few words could be s a i d about t h e tension of t h e net. It i s based in

part on c e n t r i f u g a l and i n part on p a v i t a t i o n a l forces.

I f t h e r a t i o between mass and r e f l e c t o r surface were t h e same on t h e whole l i n e , in o t h e r words i f t h e t i n s u r f a c e r e f l e c t e d uniformly, t h e light-pressure would a c c e l e r a t e a l l p o i n t s equally. Then t h e light-pressure could cause no bending whatever, and, s i n c e t h e o t h e r f o r c e s can likewise cause no bending, t h e r e would only be one type of tension, and t h a t very small.
k t t h e centre, however, t h e r e i s

a heavy observer and c o n t r o l s t a t i o n , which

m a y a l s o have t o serve a s p i e r and f u e l i n g s t a t i o n f o r rockets. Naturally,

t h i s would hardly be a f f e c t e d by light-pressure, but t h e r e f l e c t o r round about would. The l a t t e r i s bent back a s f a r a s coi-responds t o t h e p a r a l l e l o pram of f o r c e s between t h e light-pressure and t h e t e n s i o n of t k e n e t ( ~ i ~ 151). .

F i z . 151

I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, we have m n y s t a t i o n s d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e whole net ( ~ i 152), ~ . a s w i l l be t h e case with l a r g e r e f l e c t o r s , t h e r e i s riuch l e s s

Fig. 152 bending. So t h e angular v e l o c i t y can a l s o be s m l l e r . And t h a t i s necessary :

The highest value f o r w i s given by t h e f a c t t h a t r 'w

<

100 m

see. Other-

wise t h e bracing wires would have t o be t h i c k in t h e middle and t h i n on t h e edge, which would again give occasion f o r bending due t o t h e light-pressure.
So, with l a r g e r e f l e c t o r s , w can only be small.

Actually, t h e s e a r e a l l only introductory r,?marks. In regard t o t h e adual guiding of a r e f l e c t o r , I have only t h e following t o say :

In t h e south, smaller r e f l e c t o r s would scarcely be used, l a r r e r ones

almost not a t a l l . Eere, t h e pain t a s k of l a r g e r e f l e c t o r s , t h a t of mking polar regions a r a b l e , i s not feasible. I f t h e g l a c i e r s of ; n t a r c t i c a were melted, t h e l e v e l of t h e ocean would r i s e uncomfortably (6-8 m). Hopefully, by then mn w i l l be s e n s i b l e enough a t l e a s t t o leave a cold zone f o r t h e protection of nature. So f o r t h e southern hemisphere and t h e t r o p i c s t h e r e

would only r e m i n t h e illumination of l a r g e c i t i e s a t night and perhaps

supplying s o l a r p l a n t s with m r e l i g h t a s well a s t h e influencing of t h e weather. I n t h e north, on t h e o t h e r hand, outside of Greenland, t h e r e a r e no such m s s e s o f land-ice (however much i c e t h e r e may be, no danger a r i s e s from melting i c e t h a t f l o a t s in t h e water), and t h e g l a c i e r s of Greenland

w i l l remain b c a u s e of t h e i r high l o c a t i o n and bccause t h e r e w i l l be more t h e r e f l e c t o r i s t o work snowfall on e e e n l a n d if t h e polar sea melts,
m i n l y over t h e northern hemisphere, it i s reasonable t o plan t h e t r a j e c t o r y so t h a t it g r a v i t a t e s m i n l y over t h e northern hemisrhere ; according t o
KhFEHrS second law, t h a t occurs if t h e r e f l e c t o r follows an e l l i p s e whose

perigee l i e s in t h e south. The perigee i s d e t e r m i n d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e f l e c t o r is not supposed t o e n t e r t h e atmosphere evrn with unforeseen disturbances i n t h e t r a j e c t o r y : meteors, inadvertence of t h e p i l o t , t h e e f f c t of extraneous f i e l d s of g r a v i t y not calculated beforehand, etc. A n a l t i t u d e of 1,000 km should suffice. (With l a r g e r e f l e c t o r s , t h e perigee

i s a l s o given by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e net must not t e a r under t h e influence of t h e d i f f e r e n c e in gravitation. )

The apogee i s determined by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l i g h t r e f l e c t e d t o e a r t h must have t h e necessary concentration in order t o f u l f i l l t h e purpose of t h e r e f l e c t o r . The l i g h t patch of a r e f l e c t o r 6,~w0km high, f o r example, cannot,

according t o (216), be smaller than 56 km, no matter how w e l l t h e r e f l e c t o r works. I n order t o concentrate t h e r a d i a t i o n energy m r e s t r o n g l y ( i n c a s e of war) $he r e f l e c t o r would have t o be brought c l o s e r t o e a r t h by d e c r l e r a t i n g i t s revolving speed a t t h e perigee s o t h a t t h e r e f l e c t o r g r a v i t a t e s in a c i r c l e near t h e e a r t h ; t h e deceleration would occur by m a n s of t h e l i g h t pressure, i f one has time ( i t would t a k e 2 t o 3 months), o r by means of rear-

ward t h r u s t , i f one does not have much time. --With

f r e e guidance would be i n place.

low guidance, precession-

With t h e t r a j e c t o r y e l l i p s e described a t t h e beginning, which i s perpend i c u l a r t o t h e s - d i r e c t i o n , t h e r e f l e c t o r would be s i t u a t e d south of t h e earth's o r b i t a l plane f o r 44 minutes and north of it f o r 1 hour 51 minutes. S b c e t h e light-pressure a c t s longer in t h e north, it tends t o depress t h e plane of revolution in t h e north. But that does not happen, instead t h e r e i s a precession of t h e plane of revolution about t h e xmin axis (north-south axis) which, with c o r r e c t guidance, takes e x a c t l y one year. Furthermore, t h e r e i s

a r i s e of t h e r e f l e c t o r which can e a s i l y be o f f s e t by s u i t a b l e braking

above t h e hot zone and i n t h e south. That i s possible, i n s p i t e of t h e s h o r t f l i g h t period i n t h e south, Since t h e v e l o c i t y here i s considerably g r e a t e r than i n t h e north, a smaller t h r u s t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of m t i o n r e s u l t s i n a g r e a t e r energy change ( c f . Chapter 1 2 ) . Directional change, on t h e o t h e r
hand, i s s t r o n g e s t e x a c t l y with small v e l o c i t i e s . It could e a s i l y appear a s

though t h e r e f l e c t o r would have t o be extremely t h i n and l i g h t f o r t h e l i g h t pressure t o have such an eff ,ct. That i s not absolutely t r u e . With approp r i a t e guidance, t h e r e f l e c t i n g surface could be 10-30 times a s t h i c k , y e t t h i s precession of t h e plane of revolution cou1.d always be e f f e c t e d in t h e course of one year. The t r a j e c t o r y disturbanccs caused by sun, mon, and p l a n e t s in general tend t o r o t a t e t h e plane of revolution about t h e north-south a x i s , while t h e

a x i s i t s e l f i s preserved. I n t h e i r t o t a l e f f e c t , t h e y produce a precession mment which, in general, is opposite t o t h e light-pressure moment, but smaller. Of course, with s u i t a b l e guidance of r e f l e c t o r s , which, in r e l a t i o n t o t h e r e f l e c t i n g surface, a r e 100 times a s heavy a s t h e one describcd, t h i s precession moment could be g r e a t e r than t h e light-pressure moment. These t r a j e c t o r y disturbances a r e extremely diverse and, in art, can hardly be investigated m t h e m a t i c a l l y ; so it might appear a s though t h e y pose hsurm u n t a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s t o t h e r e f l e c t o r guide. fictually, he need pay no a t t e n t i o n a t a l l t o smaller t r a j e c t o r y disturbances ; he must simply re-adjust t h e r e f l e c t o r i n t h e south each time with t h e use of t h e l i g h t - ~ r e s s u r e . Determining t h e p o s i t i o n i s likewise very simple ; and, i f everything e l s e comes o f f , I believe t h a t any 6th-semester student of astronomy could be i n s t r u c t f $ dwell enough i n 3-3 m n t h s t o be entrusted with t h e r e f l e c t o r without concern. here I want t o dis.cuss s e v e r a l ob.jections t o t h e r e f l e c t o r idea. For example : The s l i g h t e s t pressure would s h a t t e r t h e r e f l e c t o r l i k e glass.

I a l r e a d y spoke about t h e temperatures of d i f f e r e n t bodies when exposed t o

It w i l l not be d i f f i c u l t t o paint and guide t h e r e f l e c t o r so t h a t it altra:.s has a temperature a t which t h e sodium i s firm yet a l r ~ as ; e1estj.c. A s we j u s t saw, it need not pass through t h e e a r t h ' s
s o l a r r a d - a t i o n on p.136ff. shadow a t a l l , f o r t k e light-pressure causes an annual precession which always keeps it above t h e edge of t h e e a r t h ' s shadow. Eesides, we must not forget t h a t t h e forces which a c t on t h e r e f l e c t o r a r e s o s m l l t h a t , although we s t i l l determine them mathematically, we can r e a l l y no longer visual-ize them a t a l l . Another objection i s : The energy r e f l e c t e d by t h e r e f l e c t o r w i l l not be s u f f i c i e n t t o achieve t h e required effect. ke must f i r s t a s c e r t a i n what

kind of e f f e c t s we a r e dealing with. The s t r a t e g i c e f f e c t s can be achieved with t h e r e f l e c t o r under a l l circumstances. Even t h e t h i c k e s t clouds r e f l e c t a t t h e mst 3 / ~of t h e s t r i k i n g rays. 1/4 i s absorbed and, with c l o s e s t concentration of t h e rays, t h e heat generated thereby i s s u f f i c i e n t to produce a tornado i n a few minutes t h a t can d e s t r o y ecerny forces, a o r t h e sane cap d t h a t must n e c e s s a r i l y reason, t h e objection i s Fnvalid t h a t t h e c l o ~ ~

impsform above t h e r i s i n g a<-r stream makes f u r t h e r a c t i o n of t h e r e f l e c t ~

~ i b l e .But t h i s cloud cap would be no hindrance f o r another reason. I n a calm, it f o m s a t an a l t i t u d e of 3-10
h i

v e r t i c a l l y above t h e a f f e c t e d area.

ibith precession-free guidance of t h e r e f l e c t o r (Fig, 150), a s in t h e case of war, t h e l i g h t f a l l s i n on a s l a n t . 'When no calm prevails, west d ? d s u s u a l l y blow in t h e cold and moderate zone, and stronger in winter than in summer ;

in t h e hot zone, on t h e o t h e r hand, a p a r t from t h e monsoons, it i s u s u a l l y

north-east o r south-east wind. This wind blows t h e cloud cap f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r away, s o t h a t t h e attacked region becomes open t o f u r t h e r influence. (-pxcept when t h e r e f l e c t o r i s s i t u a t e d e x a c t l y i n t h e wind d i r e c t i o n behind t h e region. But, with t h e rapid north-south movement of t h e r t f l e c t o r in precession-free guidance, t h a t can be t h e case only f o r a few minutes.) The c u l t u r a l t a s k s a r e a l s o possible

to f u l f i l l

For example, i f a

spa r o u t e t o t h e ports of S i b e r i a i s t o be kept ice-free, a route must only

be chosen t h a t runs approximately i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o" t h e winter vrind from t h e

Gulf Stream, t h a t i s 1-2 p o i n t s of t h e compass t o t h e north. In so doing,

l i g h t i s thrown on a r n l a t i v e l y narrow and s h o r t s t r i p running from e a s t t o west, b e g h i n g i n t h e e a s t and moving westward t o t h e e x t i n t t h a t t h e sky clouds over a t t h i s place. Lhat stands us in good stead here i s t h e f a c t t h a t the d i r e c t i o n of t h e wind and t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n coincide. Hereby t h e e a r t h always r o t a t e s a s we need it during t h e work. liow t h e r e i s a fog s t r i p above t h e melted ocean which p r o t e c t s it from cooling o f f f u r t h e r and which t h e wind cannot e f f e c t i v e l y blow away because it blows p a r a l l e l t o

t h e s t r i p . Ey t h e time t h e l i g h t patch has passed along t h e whole s t r e t c h , t h c foe; a t t h e beginning w i l l e i t h e r have s e t t l e d o r been blown am:., since t h e wind cannot pe~manentlyblow in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s h i p r i n g lane. Then one can b e ~ i n a t t h e beginning again. Since t h e clouds hold t h e heat above t h e shipping l a n e f o r a long time, a r e f l e c t o r 1'30 km i n diameter i s completely s u f f i c i e n t . it has a l s o been objected t h a t t h e heated a i r would simyl~rr i s e and cold a i r r a p i d l y rush i n from t h e s i d e and cool off the whole. In t h e
first place, because of d e v i a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t , t h e a i r cannot s o e a s i l y

penetrcte a minimum of a few p i n t s o f t h e compass running from e a s t to.rrest. Cecondly, another t h i n g must be consider d : If t h e a i r in t h e i r r a d i a t e d area r i s e s , only t h e a i r from t h e immediate surroundings
h i l l

be a b l e t o rush

i n (again because of d e v i a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t ) , and t h a t must again be rcplaced

from atmospheric l a y e r s higher up, not f r o m t h o s e on t h e s i d e , A s i s well. known, when a i r i s forced down from above it warms up. It a c t s l i k e t h e foehn and does not cool o f f t h e a f f e c t ( - d place. l a e n i l l h a t i n g a s t r i p of land on a c l e a r , f r o s t y nig'r t, t h e r e f l e c t o r likewise has a considerable e f f e c t becailse a l a g e r of fog develops over t h e heated a r e a which keeps it from cooling o f f . The chinook, f o r example, can blow only when t h e r e i s a considerable difference in t h e a i r pressure above North .:merica and t h e f a c i f i c Ocean. Tf one illiuninates a s t r i p running say from t h e &5th p a r a l l e l o f l a t i t u d e and t h e 05th meridian t o Lake bthabasca and moves f a r t h e r w ~ s t a s t h e sky clouds over, t h e r e s u l t i s a warm n i g h t under a cloudy sky a t t h e U.S.-Canadian border. Since t h e fog s e t t l e s by t h e
next morning, t h e sun has t h e opportunity t o f u r t h e r warm t h e a r e a , c a u s i r g

a w a r m day ; t h u s a minimum pressure a r i s e s which sucks i n t h e a i r a c r o s s t h e Rockks and r e l e a s e s t h e chinook. I f i n a s i m i l ~ way r t h e Korthern P a c i f i c i s i r r a d i a t e d , a chinook blows on t: e west coast of i.merica. ( ~ f .JULIUS HAHIJ, Textbook on Climatology I,

i . 304.)

I n

t h e same way, only much e a s i e r , t h e bora o r m i s t r a l can be prevented

from blowing by illuminating Yugoslavia o r ll'orthern France during t h e preceding cold winter night. Likewise, night f r o s t s can be prevented. Illuminating t h e Caspian Sea continuously f o r s e v e r a l days could produce a low pressure a r e a :here and b r i n g r a i n t o Southern Russia ; i n so doing, t h e water evaporated from t h e Caspian Sea would condense i n Southern Siberia. Here a number of circumstances a r e in our favor which permit us t o achieve considerable e f f e c t s with r e l a t i v e l y small means. Another objection i s t h a t t h e sodium p l a t e would quickly l o s e i t s l u s t e r due t o t h e cosmic dust o r t h e short-wave rays of t h e sun. I would l i k e t o answer in s h o r t t h a t , with t h e i r apparent weightlessness, it w i l l be very easy t o b r i n g t h e r e f l e c t o r f a c c t s t o t h e s t a t i o r ; occasionally and pass them throq~h t h e r o l l e r s once more a f t e r f i r s t turning t h e i r rough s i d e t o t h e sun, thus w k i n g them s o f t b:- heatine. I n t h i s way, a km2, of t h e r e f l e c t o r , could
be repolished without expenditure worth mentioning ; I hope, however, t h a t

t h e r e f l e c t i n g capacity of such a r e f l e c t o r f a c e t w i l l not require renewal

d pushed from f o r a t l e a s t 30 years. The objection t h a t t h e r e f l e c t o r ~ , r ~ l . lbe

i t s course by cosmic dust I have a1read:- refuted on p. 905.

Finally, 2 was t o l d t h a t sodium p l a t e 3.05 m t h i c k would allow t h e l i g h t t o pass through and not r e f l e c t . ! have done an experiment i n t h i s regard b.7 rubbing wood with a piece of sodium under kerosene. I hope a thickness of
1 / 20 mm w i l l s u f f i c e . N o basic problem would a r i s e i n t h e construction of

t h e r e f l e c t o r even i f it had t o be made

1 7 mmthick,

f o r t h e r a d i a t i o n pressure

i s so great t h a t , even in t h i s case, a precession of t h e plane of revolution

about t h e north-south a x i s in one year would be possible.

Enough of t h i s . ':hey a r e only dreams of t h e future. Bold ones ? Perhaps, but w e have already experiinced the r e a l i z a t i o n of bolder ideas. \!ho m ? d d have believed in 1894 t h a t , a few years l a t e r , one would see through a person
by means of roentgen rays ? PHUkNDZXfS statement (Xedical Fairy Tales),

"bian w i l l be made transparent l i k e a jelly-fishtt, was bolder than t h i s dream

of t h e future ; t h a t required f i f l d i n g something completely new, while here

we a r e only dealing with l a w s of nature already known. -"iccomplishing these things w i l l c e r t a i n l y require the conversion of e n o m u s energies. But were not hundred times greater energies and thousand times greater sums of money expended during the Xorld War ? In one year, t h e nations of Europe spend m r e on smoking and drinking than the whole sodium r e f l e c t o r would cost. Kar and narcotics a r e quite unnecessary t h h p s , yet w r e money i s smt on them than on something useful. Should not mankind, i n an exceptional case, a l s o save something f o r constructive work ?

Chapter 2 1 Trips t o Stranfie C e l e s t i a l Bodiez Formula a a n t i t i e s (pp. 507- 518)

m : mass of rocket
p : p r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y w i t h reference t o t h e e a r t h r : r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y with reference t o t h e e a r t h

v : v e l o c i t y i n general
v v h ' P residual velocity

: parabolic v e 1 o c i . t ~ w i t h reference t o t h e moon's surfa.ce v : t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e moon t

bo much i s spoken about it today t h a t I would a l s o l i k e t o s a y something

concerning it here. Thereby I would a l s o l i k e t o answer various i n q u i r i e s by l e t t e r in g r e a t e r d e t a i l . E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e r e a r e two questions t o be answered :

1) Are f l i g h t s t o s t r a n g e c e l e s t i a l bodies (and back) possible a t a l l ? 2 ) I f so, do t h e s e f l i g h t s have a purpose ?

I n giving an answer we must above a l l , c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h between s u p p -

sit ions, ascertained knowledge, and b a a i c consideration.. .

1. The :,,eon

To shoot a rock t t o t h e moon we must give it an i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y of a t l e a s t 10,380 rn /sec a t an a l t i t u d e of 230 km above t h e ground. Then, i f t h e aim was c o r r e c t , it could reach t h e point a t which t h e moon draws it t o one s i d e j u s t a s strongly a s t h e e a r t h t o t h e other s i d e , so t h a t it would l a t e r f a l l on t h e moon. The f l i g h t period would be about 97 hours (cf. p .465). i n my opinj on, a rocket t h a t is t o r e a l l y h i t t h e moon must have a somewhat higher v e l o c i t y f o r t h e following reasons : I f p represents t h e v e l o c i t y with which t h e rocket must s t a r t o f f in order, with wholly correct control, j u s t t o g e t past t h e n e u t r a l point, v t h e a c t u a l v e l o c i t y , and i f v = p, tkeq, a t t h e n e u t r a l pht, t h e rocket r e t a i n s a r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y r which, according t o (120), has t h e value :
n

r=Vvd-pHere r appears a s a function of v, and by d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n we find

For t h e l i m i t of v = p, t h i s expression becomes i n f i n i t e . The f l i g h t period, i n l a r g e measure, depends on r , and near v = p a d i f f e r e n c e in v e l o c i t y of millimetres per second would s u f f i c e t o cause time d i f f e r e n c e s of hours i n t h e f l i g h t period. Then t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e rocket h i t t i n g t h e moon a t a l l would be minimal. Since t h e mobn revolves at out t h e e a r t h , we cannot avoid giving t h e rocket l a t e r a l motion t o t h e moon and, since t h e moon runs roughly 1 km

sec and is 3,500 kn? wide, it covers t h e distance

'

of i t s own diameter in j u s t under an hour.

he rocket w i l l probably not meet

it because t h e v e l o c i t y rev-tors

of t h e rocket operate e x a c t t o a thou-

sandth a t t h e most, which lllakes an e r r o r of between 10 and 100 m

sec. This

circumstance would weigh in t h e balance e s p e c i a l l y heavily i f we wanted t o shoot a n unmanned rocket t o t h e moon. Iiith a rranned rocket, t h e p i l o t i s

in a p o s i t i o n t o c o r r e c t e r r o r s l a t e r when t h e y becorre c l e a r l y v i s i b l e .
Zven then, it w i l l be b e t t e r t o give t h e space-ship an i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y of a t l e a s t 10,500 m
r ,

1 ) sec.
/
s e c grea.ter. So t o s t a r t

lhus t h e time differences become considerably smallef-. kccording t o

p.246, t h e i d e a l v e l o c i t y must be about 700 m

from e a r t h we need an i d e a l propulsion of 11,209 m

sec. Left t o i t s f a t e

fa y s t e r on t h e o t h e r a f t e r launching, t h e rocket would f a l l i ~ c r e a s i n ~ l s i d e of t h e n e u t r a l point and f i n a l l y h i t t h e moon with a v e l o c i t ~ rt h a t would d e s t r o y it, in any case. In t h e f i r s t place, t h e moon already has a v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r t h of on t h e average 1025.25 m

s e c due t o

i t s motion about t h e e a r t h . The rocket would already s t r i k e t k e moon v i t h

t h i s v e l o c i t y ( v t ) i f , r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r t h , it stood s t i l l on t h e noon's o r b i t . ;curthermore, t h e moon imparts a v e l o c i t y v f a l l i n g from very high. P
=

2370 m

s e c t o a boc?y

I $ r e l a t i v e t o t h e noon, t h e rocket e x a c t l y stood s t i l l a t t h e point of wej.ghtlessness, it would s t r i k e t h e moon with t h ; s v e l o c i t y . I f , a t t h e polnt of weightlessness, it already had a v e l o c i t y vr, then, accord in^ t o (120), t h e v e l o c i t y vs with which it s t r i k e s t h e moon would be pivcn by
t h e forrfiula

Since t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y r with reference t o t h e e a r t h and t h e tangent i a l velocit:? vt with reference t o t h e moon stand perpendicular t o each

:onan i n t h e "oonfl, 1 have, f o r t h i s reason, a p r l i e d a s t i l l g r e a t e r i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y (10,700 m / sec).

1) l n t h e fiim, "The

other, therefore vr 2 =; v

I1

+ r2

and, according t o (118).

consistent with (120), from (218) t o (221), we find 2 vs = p + vt2 + vv2

dv2 -

(222

For v = 10,500 m t h a t r e s u l t s in

sec ( t h e o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s a r e astronomic constants),

vs = 3027 m which i s roughly

sec,

;km / sec.

To keep t h e rocket from crashing, t h i s v e l o c i t y must be decelerated s h o r t l y before it reaches t h e m o n t s surface. Sirice t h e moon has no a t m s phere, t h a t can be achieved only by rearward thGust t h a t counteracts t h e m t i o n , which means a f u r t h e r in'crease of 3 km propulsion. a u t j u s t somehow d e c e l e r a t i n g t h e s e 3030 m

/ /

sec i n t h e required i d e a l

sec is not enough. The

rocket must land a s g e n t l y a s a snowflake. It c o n s i s t s of t h i n p l a t e which, by contact with t h e l i q u i d hydrogen, has become a t l e a s t a s b r i t t l e a s o f i s s u r e o r break i s t o a r i s e . Certainly s t e e l plate a t usual temperature. N strong, r e s i l i e n t supports can be fixed t o t h e b o 6 o n of t h e rocket; nevert h e l e s s , it w i l l have t o Land v e r y carefully. Apparently, t h e mon i s covered with f i n e sand and dust s i m i l a r t o t h e d e s e r t s on earth. Xith tlle temperature differences on ti-e moon (up t o where t h e sun shines and t o

- 275)

180

where it does n o t ) , m r e b r i t t l e rocks

must be s h e t t e r e d l i k e a c l a s s i n t o which hot water i s poured. Accordingly,

i t i s probable t h a t t h e h o r i ~ o r ~ t a r l e a s of t h e moonts s u r f a c e a r e cover-d

p i t h f i n e sand.

It is

?-lso probable t h a t t h e exhaust gases of t h e rockct w i l l

simply blow t h i s sand a s i d e a t the landbg place, s o t h a t t h e rocket w i l l f i n a l l y touch down on naked r o c k ary-ay. (fit l e a s t , t h a t p o s s i b i l - i t y nust be f i g u r e d with f o r t h e prf ss. nt.)

I cannot imagine t h a t a rocket p i l o t woilld l e t t k e rocket f a l l f r e e l y

w t i l t h e l a s t >oment and dec l e r a t e it only a t t h e very l a s t with t,'e h a g h e s t p e r ~ . s i11le : counter-pressure, so t h a t it l o s e s i t s v e l o c i t y complet e l - j u s t a t t i t mment wl-en it touchzs t h e s u r f a c e of t h e noon. l robablp he w i l l d e c e l e r a t e t h e g r e a t e s t p a r t of i t s v e l o c i t y consider b l y e a r l i e r and then descend a t almost uniform v e l o c i t y , c o n s t a n t l y comrensatine f o r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y by rearward t h r u s t i n order, f i r l a l l y , t o s t o p completely one meter above t h e ground and then land c e ~ t i r n e t e rby centineter. The df sadvantage of t h i s n~ethodi s n a t u r a l l y t h t t h e rocket must vork apail st i t s own we!fht a very burn a t a low velocity.

lor.^ time o r , a s

we described it i n Chapter 12, m u ~ t

%-I t h e moon, t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y amounts t o ahout 1.62 m /sec 2

If t h e f i r s t d e c e l e r a t i o n of the v e l o c i t y o f j0:r' n / sec occurs with a 2 it would t a k e 1 % minutes ( i f t h e d i r e c t i o n counter-pressure of 3 . m / sec

of motion i s not perpendicular t o t h e moon's surface, even somewhat l e s s ) . But t h e c a r e f u l landing now following could e a s i l y t a k e ;+-f, so t h a t a l t o g e t h e r a burning period o f planned for. r i f l e bullet.
Our space navigators have a r r i v e d on t h e moon s a f e l y . Naturally, t h e y
I

times t h a t ,

' minutes

= ?LC) seconds must be

i t h t h e 1.62 m

/
/

see2 a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y , t h a t makes s e c ; s t i l l equal t o t h e v e l o c i t y o f a good

a l o s s i n propulsion of 873 m

want t o g e t back aeain. They can do so only by l i g h t i n g t h e rocket once more

s o t h a t it can ascend from t h e moon and : a l l t o earth.

h i s ascent i s tkle

exact r e v r s e of t h e f a l l t o t h e mooD, f o r a throw uprard i s p'7- s i c a l l y t' e o p y s i t e of a f r e e f a l l . So, b j quantity, w c would have t h e sanle a s in formula (131). I n o t h e r words, what i s required i s t h e a c t u a l v e l o c i t y of t h e ascent vs = 3027 rn /sec.
TFe rocket can s t a r t with f u l l t h r o t t l e . I,ccordir,g t o

what was s a i d on p. 2'32, with an i d e a l a c c e l e r a t i o n of ,5 m horizontal s t a r t j ne, t h e f l o a t i n g angle

sec and

E ~ n r sci n e

1.62 =

2.360

Here we can a l t o g e t h e r ignore t h e l o s s e s in propulsion t h a t would occur during s t e e p ascent. The rocket need only r i s e high enough t o avoid t h e mountains on t h e moon. Therefore, vx i3027 sec 2.63O = 3030 m

sec

need f i g u r e only with h o r i z o n t a l s t a r t i n g , f o r t h e rocket can s t a r t h o r i z o ~ ~ t a l wherever ly it stands, so t h a t , with c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y , it f i r s t deccribes a c i r c l e about t h e moon i n whose plane l i e s t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y with which it would have t o leave in order t o h j t t h e earth. Then, as soon a s it moves p a r a l l e l t o t h e desired f l j g h t dil-ection (approxirrately ;

I am not discussing f i n e r d i f f e r e n c e s here), t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y i s

increased t o t h e r e q u i s i t e ;$27

sec by r e a r w a ~ dt h r u s t . 1:s f a r as t h a t

goes, w e n with v e r t i c a l ascent, t h e rocket would s a c r i f i c e only 160 m

sec

of i t s i d e a l propulsion because t h e g r a v i t a t i o n on t h e noon i s s o smll.

Depending on how t h e carrying surface and parachute question i s solved, landine; on t h e e a r t h woi I d require an a d d i t i o n a l i d e a l propulsion of up t o
300 m

sec,

Since t h e p i l o t i s only a human being and can conunit inaptitudes, he must

t a k e along f u e l f o r about 1,000 m

sec f o r correction p u r p s e s (I believe

t h i s w i l l c e r t a i n l y be q u i t e s u f f i c i e n t ) . The t o t a l i d e a l propulsion would

u m of t h e single required items : equal t h e ' s

Function S t a r t i n g v e l o c i t y from e a r t h Deceleration of t h e v e l o c i t y upon a r r i v i n g a t t h e moon Braking l o s s e s Leaving t t l e moon Correct ions Total : vx = I f we s e t t h e exhaust v e l o c i t y c = 4030 m I d e a l Propulsion 11,200 m

/ 3,027 m / 873 m / 3,030 m / I ,000 m / 19,130 m /

aec
S ~ C

sec sec sec sec

s e c , according t o ( 6 )

(Chapter 6 ) we obtain an i d e a l m o s r a t i o o f z -

According t o w h a t was s a i d mnp.97, a machine cbmposed of 3 hydrogen rockets could make t h i s f l i g h t ; because of i t s s i z e , it would n a t u r a l l y have t h e required b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t i n s p i t e of t h e l i g h t s p e c i f i c weight of t h e f u e l s . ierhaps it would not even have t o l e a v e t h e Wl of a rocket on t h e moon. I f t h e f i r s t expedition should find a s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y of water on t h e m o n ( t h e l i g h t c o l o r of some a r e a s on t h e moon as well a s t h e p e c u l i a r changes of color a t t h e bottom of t h e c r a t e r of I l a t o , and o t h e r things a r e being a t t r i b u t e d t o hoar-frost ), t h e next expeditional rocket, instead of f u e l , could take a sunlight motor, a water-decomposing apparatus, a ref r i g e r a t o r , and a l a r g e i n s u l a t e d container i n t h e f u e l tanks of t h e l a s t rocket i n order t o produce t h e f u e l s f o r t h e r e t u r n t r i p i t s e l f . 'lhese linstrum n t s would remain on t h e moon and likewise serve t h e succeeding expedjtions f o r t h e mnufacture of f u e l and jn t h e i r place they could b r j n g along o t h e r equipment and l i t t l e by l i t t l e b u i l d a s t a t j o n on t h e moon. I do not t h j n k

134 f o r t h i s machine.

it ppobable t h a t s u f f i c i e n t water

brill

be found t h e r e , i n which case t h e roc-

k e t s would always have t o take along f u e l s f o r t h e r e t u r n t r i p and be corresyondi:igly larger. Actually, I do not believe t h a t pure f u e l rockets w i l l achieve t h e s t a t e t o ever attempt t h e t r i p t o t h e moon ; I r a t h e r hope t h a t w i l l be reserved f o r t h e e l e c t r i c space-ship which 1 w i l l describe in t h e next chapter. I stj.11 cannot s a y f o r c e r t a i n whether such can be b u i l t , hence 1 have based my research on hydrogen rockets in order t o show t h a t t r a v e l l i n g t o t h e moon

is possible under a l l circumstances,

Furpose of t h e f l i ~ h t: hre saw t h a t t h e t r i p t o t h e moon i s possible. N o w t h e second question must be answered : Ooes t h e t r i p have a purpose ?

I cannot agree with t h e view t h a t s t r a n ~ e c e l e s t i a l bodies should be

v i s i t e d only if l i v i n g canditions s i m i l a r t o our orm a r e found there. For exanple, people cannot l i v e a t t h e north pole, and g e t t h e region i s being v i s i t e d and explored. Flor do we have in mine p i t s what we find on t h e e a r t h ' s surface and mst designate a s our normal l i v i n g conditons. And a l t h o u ~ hl ~ t h e r thFngs a r e found i n mines, indeed exactly because o t h e r things can be obtained t h e r e than above t h e e a r t h f s surface, thousands of miners d a i l y r e p a i r t o them.
A v i s i t t o a strange c e l e s t i a l body should be discouraged only i f , with

our t e c h n i c a l means, we were not a t a l l a b l e t o s t a y a l i v e t h e r e f o r a few hours o r days, a s , f o r exa~aple,on t h e sun o r on J u p i t e r . Gn t h e o t h e r hand, we can protect ourselves against t h e cold of t h e moon night by r e f l e c t i n g a g a i n s t t h e lack of a i r b:. d i v e r s t s u i t s and metal surfaces (cf. p. 4 lf)),

arti f i c i a l a i r , a@riinst Li,e high rock-teinperatures by insulated s o l e s ,

a g a i n s t t h e heat by r e f r i g e r a t o r s , and against t h e sun's rays by s u i t a b l e umbrellas. Dr. kLBLH, f o r example, forgot t h a t when, from t h e supposition

t h a t l i v i n g conditions s i m i l a r t o our own can perhaps be found on none of our neighboring planets ( t h a t i s not c e r t a i n , aa

I s h a l l soon show), he drew

t h e conclusion t h a t it was impossible t o land on them. I f it were t r u e t h a t we must use no t e c h n i c a l a u x i l i a r y means, we could not even spend t h e winter

i n Europe.
A v i s i t t o t h e moon would have g r e a t s c i e n t i f i c value, W e a r e here

dealing with a c e l e s t i a l body t h a t , in t h e main, c o n s i s t s of t h e same substances a s t h e e a r t h , although, r e l a t i v e l y speaking, t h e e a r t h has somewhat m r e of t h e heavier and t h e moon somewhat more of t h e l i g h t e r substances. The surface of t h e moon c o n s i s t s of t h e same b a s i c elements a s t h e e a r t h ' s surface, but it has been preserved from t h e e f f e c t s of a i r and water.

comparing t h e two, we can s e e what, on t h e surface of our e a r t h , i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e e i r e c t of a i r and water and whaf: i s not. F u r t h e r m r e , on t h e mon,we could make mine s h a f t s and d r i l l holes up t o f o u r times a s deep a s

) m e small force of g r a v i t y and t h e expected hardness of t h e on e a r t h . 1

rock would prevent t h e d r i l l boles from collapsing a s e a s i l y a s on earth.

2 ) Presumably t h e moon i s not a s hot on t h e i n s i d e a s t h e e a r t h , k n c e t h e

temperature in t h e deep s h a f t s would be b e t t e r endurable than on earth. %t, on t h e moon, a d r i l l hole four times a s deep would, r e l a t i v e l y , not be four times but 10-13 times a s deep as on e a r t h , f o r t h e diameter of t h e moon

i s t h r e e times smaller. From t h a t we could obtain geological knddedge of

incalculable importance, f o r example, concerning t h e causes of t h e r i s i n g and sinking of continents, concerning t h e profound :reasons f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e between sial and sima, and o t h e r things. "oreover : Gark, moving spots a r e supposed t o have been observed a t t h e bottom of t h e 3ratosthenes c r a t e r from which t h e existence of animals has been concluded. PlChdHlIvG claims t o have found t r a c e s of chloro;7hyl i n t h e spectrum of c e r t a i n c r a t e r floors. I do not b e l i e v e t h a t any s o r t of l i f e can e x i s t on t h e moon.Stil1 it wo~ildbe i n t e r e s t i n g t o i n v e s t i g a t e whether, i n the course of mlllions of years,

l i f e has gained a foothold on t h i s world, so completely uninha.bitable f o r

earth1 y creetures.
I n addition t o t h e s e more t h e o r e t i c a l reasons f o r t r a v e l l i n g on t h e mon, t h e r e could be a p r a c t i c a l , Jn 1-2 decades perhaps a n a c t u a l one : According t o a recent theory, t h e m o n l s c r a t e r s have been caused by numerms l a r g e r m t e o r i t e s f a l l i n g on t h e moon a f t e r it had already s o l i d i f i e d . Percent-wise, t h e s e m t e o r i t e s consisted of t h e same s t u f f a s t h e whole c e l e s t i a l body, t h a t is i n l a r g e part of heavy metals. ?he l a r g e r part of our e a r t h a l s o c o n s i s t s of heavy metals. Farthquake research teaches t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t l a g e r t h a t forms t h e e a r t h ' s surface suddenly s t o p s a t a depth of JI :00 km, where a l a y e r begins t h a t has t h e s p e c i f i c we'yht of iron.
1 umerous

meteorites a l s o f e l l on t h e e a r t h when it bras s t i l l in

t h e s t a g e of f o r m t i o n . I t t h a t t i m , however, t h e eal-th was s t i l l riolten and t h e heavy s ~ ~ b s t a n c e sank s below t h e surface. biith t h e moon, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e heavy substances remined a t t h e surface and here it i s r e l a t i v e l y easy t o mine and t r a n s p o r t them t o earth. h so doing, only t h e small a t t r a c t i g force of t h e moon has t o be overcome. Peside with t h e use o f roclcets, t h e transporting could be dane with t h e use of e l e c t r o ~ m p n e t j c cannon, which would have t o be only 1/16 a s long a s on carth. r e r h a r s it would be possible t o d r i v e m i s s i l e s from tk,e moon t o t h e earth. S e t t i v g up electromagnetic guns and t h e cannon would be f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t sem from t h e moon, t h e e a r t h alwalrs remains a t t h e sane place i n t h e sky.

It i s self-evident t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c space-ships already rrentioned could

be very useful i n t h e mining and t r a n s p r t i n g of moon ore. Here I would a l s o l i k e t o say a few words about t h e science of i n t e r -

,.

planetary i c e a s f o m l a t e d byHOHBIGXR and FAUTH, since it i s widely confused with t h e problem of space f l & k t , f o r example, b.: VALIER and GAIL. '%e

book by H ~ K B I M

and FAUTH, lGlacial Cosmogonyw, represents a grandiose c r e a t i o n

of ideas, and J can recommend it t o every s p e c i a l i s t who has t h e c a p a c i t y t o read it with t h e necessary c r j t i c a l f a c u l t y . It contains an almost depress i n g wealth of f a c t s and suggestions. Bepides, it represents a valuable exercise in reason5ng f o r thf s p e c i a l i s t , forcing him t o r e f l e c t on why he holds t o e x a c t l y our s c i e n t i f i c world innge and not t h a t of H ~ ~ ~ ~ I G E R . The laynnn, however, I would urgently advise not t o study t h i s work, f o r t h e a rR e j u s t a s f o r c e f u l a s h i s achievements. I do f a l s e notions of ~ ~ I G E not believe, f o r example, t h a t h i s c.snclusions concerning t h e stat,e and d e s t i n y of our ~ l a n e t a r y system apply t o a s i n g l e one of t h e c l o s c r t e l e a t i a l bodies. Ihe mon, f o r example, can impossibly be comj l e t e l y covered with ice. Here i s j u s t one reason ( I could name 10) :

If any a r e a of t h e m o n l s equator i s examined with a d i f f r a c t i o n spectros'cope and bolometer while t h e sun r i s e s over it, it i s found t h a t it
r e f l e c t s any percentage of t h e received l i g h t . With every color of t h e spectrum, t h e percentage of t h e t o t a l l i g h t can be determined which makes up t b e energy contained i n t h i s p a r t of t h e spectrum. When t h e sun r i s e s higher, t h e radiat i o n coming from t h e respective area becomes r i c h e r in infra-red l i g h t ( i n

heat

rays, therefore).

h i s heat r a d i a t i o n i s g r e a t e s t when t h e sun has

passed t h e zen5th by 10-20. Later it decreases acain. Sirce a l l a r e a s of t h e m o n l s e q u . t o r show t h i s phenomenon in t h e same measure and t h e heat r a d i a t i o n depends a l m s t alone on t h e height of t h e sun above t h e respective a r e a , t h e r e

is, i n lqy opjnion, only one e x p l a n a t , i o ~ ,viz., t h e r spective a r e a has heated

up under t h e influence of t h e week-long radiat'on unmitigated b-. an atmos-

here. From t h e increase in t h i s infra-red r a d i a t i o n , m e can q u i t e accur a t e l y d e r i v e t h e temperature of t h e moon's landscape and firids jt s maximum t o be between 150 and lPOO above OC. ( ~ f .M . ~ ~ L h L EI~LYLR~S ,I 1tThe Koonw, Cosmos, Frankish I ubl. Irouse, S t u t t g a r t

. I am i n t e n t i o n a l l y c i t i n g a popular

science book, s i n c e a l l s p e c i a l i s t s in astronomy a r e f a m i l i a r with t h e s e and s i m i l a r f a c t s , and these discussions a r e only meant f o r non-astronomrs. ) That i s what must t h e o r e t i c a l l y be expected according t o t h e formulas s e t up on p. 439. A t such temperatures, t h e r e can n a t u r a l l y be no t a l k of ice. A t night, t h e tenperature of t h e moon s i n k s very low, which would b+-tt?e occasion f o r e x i s t i n g water t o freeze. I f , however, t h e r e were water on t h e m o n i n q u a n t i t i e s worth mentioning, t h e changes or, t h e moonrs surface a s we a c t u a l l y perpAve them near r l a t o , Tratosthenes, and a t o t h e r places would have t o be much more extensive.
2. The Asteroids

F o r m ~ ~ lq au a n t i t i e s used on pp. 518.556. Where ~ . p p l i c a b l e ,t h e l e t t e r s designate s c a l a r values of a v e l o c i t y ; underlined l e t t e r s r e f e r t o t h e v e l o c i t y a s vector quantity.

g : a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y toward t h e sun

P : r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y with reference t o t h e planet from where f l i g h t s t a r t e d r w : v e l o c i t y with rrtference t o t h e sun v

r : d i s t a n c e from centre of t h e sun v1 : i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y with reference t o any planet v : parabolic v e l o c i t y with reference t o t h e sun

wt : c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y a t t h e ewmined distance from t h e sun with reference t o t h e sun

Between t h e o r b i t of t h e f o u r t h planet in t h e s o l a r system ( b r s ) and t h e f i f t h ( J u p i t e r ) t h e r e a r e t h e o r b i t s of numerous srnall c e l e s t i a l bodies, t e so c a l l e d planetoids, a s t e r o i d s o r smll planets. So f a r , roughly l,i)00 have been discovered, but probably t h e r e a r e more. They a r e only so s r - a l l t h a t they can no longer be seen o r photographed.

Their o r b i t s extend over a c i r c u l a r space t h a t i s wider than t h e diameter of t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t . On t h e average, t h e a s t e r o i d s a r e 3 r a d i i of t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t from t h e sun, but some almost reach t h e o r b i t of J u p i t e r ( 5 r a d i i of t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t ) and others t h a t of lvb.rs (1.5 r a d i i of t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t ) . One (Eros) even covers t h e l a r g e t prt of i t s o r b i t within t h a t of Mars, s o t h a t t h e o r b i t s of t h e two planets appear l i k e two concentric l i n k s of a chain. The l a r g e s t a s t e r o i d ( ~ e r e s )has a diameter of j u s t under 900 km ; t h e smallest ones a r e hardly v i s i b l e even i n t h e b e s t telescopes and a r e c e r t a i n l y only a few kilometres across. The albedo (which i s t h e r a t i o between t h e quant i t y of l i g h t which t h e s t a r r e f l e c t s and t h a t which it receives) d i f f e r s widely with t h e a s t e r o i d s . With Ceres it amounts t o 10 $, so t h a t Cer s i s

almst black in color. :he albedo of Vesta, hawever, i s over 60 $ ; so Vesta

must have a pure white o r shiny surface. This d i f f e r e n c e leads t o t h e conclusion t h a t d i f f e r e n t a s t e r o i d s a r e composed of d i f e e n t s t u f f . The mass and t h e a t t r a c t i n g f o r e . s of t h e a s t e r o i d s are s c a r c e l y known ; i n any case, because of t h e i r small s i z e , t h e y a r e only small. Thus, on C e r ~ s ,t h e sec2 and t h e parabolic v e l o c i t y s c a r c e l y P20 m /sec. With t h e smallest a s t e r o i d s , t h e e f f e c t s of a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y would hardly exceed 50 cm

g n v i t a t i o n can be ignored. b,'hethermrne a s t e r o i d s have an a t m s p h e r e i s not

known. I n any case, because o f t h e i r s~rall a t t r a c t i n g f o r c e , t h e majorit;

can metain n e i t h e r a i r . n o r water. Some a s t e r o i d s show periodic l i g h t f l u c t u a t i o n s . The asswned explanation i s t h a t t h e y a r e not spheres but irregularly-shaped s p l i n t e r s which t u n now wider, now narrower surfaces t o t h e sun.

1 , f l y i n g t o an a s t e r o i d , we have a new t a s k before us i n so f a r a s it i s a m t t e r of t a k i n g t h e s p c e - s h i p t o a d i f f e r e n t distance from t h e sun*

If t h e space-ship leaves t h e e a r t h with t h e hyperbolic v e l o c i t y v, and

had been t h e ,mrabolic v e l o c i t y a t t h e point where propulsio~?ceased, P then, outside of t h e e a r t h ' s sphere of g r a v i t a t i o n , according t o ( 1 2 0 ) ~t h e if v s p c e - s h i p r e t a i n s a r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y with rererenee t o t h e e a r t h of vr

4 --

'n

so doing, t h e e a r t h ' s sphere of g r a v i t a t i o n theo-

r e t i c a l l y never s t o p s ; in p r a c t l c e it can be applied a s equal t o

1 million km. Beyond t h i s limit, t h e a t t r a c t i n g f o r c e of t h e e a r t h appears

so small compared t o t h a t of o t h e r s t a r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e sun, t h a t it can be ignored in t h e first approximation. On p.208 I sroke about a subsequent t r a j e c t o r y disturbance by t h e a t t r a c t ' n g force of t h e earth. O n a flight . t o a n a s t e r o i d t h i s is in general smaller than on a f l i p h t t o 1Iars.

On t h e s e f l i g h t s , t h e space-ship describes an extremely complicated t r a j e c t o r y curve, although. it can be e x a c t l y determined by mathematics. I w i l l w r i t e about t h a t in g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n my t r e a t i s e on three-body calcul a t i o n s . Keanwhi l e

, especially

G and ~ HON.;kNN T deserve t h e merit of

having s h o w t h a t , a t l e a s t by approximation, t h e matter can a l s o be approached with r e l a t i v e l y simple methods of calculation. I n t h e earth's f i e l d o f g r a v i t a t i o n , t h e space-ship d e s o - i b e s approximately a hyperbola. Beyond it, it continuc s f l y i n g (cf. a l s o p , 466 f f ) with

a velocity
ship vr.

z,

which v e c t o r i a l l y c o n s i s t s of t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e

e a r t h with reference t o t h e sun

xt

and t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y of t h e space-

under t h e influence of t h i s motion it then describes any e l l i p s e a t must be taken

one focus of which t h e sun stands. The c a l c u l a t i o n s of {hapter 10 combined with what was s a i d on p. 466 f f apply here, a t which for

O(

If we designate t h e radius of t h e earth's o r b i t a s rl, t h e d i s t a n c e of

t h e a s t e r o i d from t h e sun as C p , t h e a t t r a c t i n g f o r c e of t h e su.i ~t t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e e a r t h as gl and a t t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e a s t e r o i d a s g2, and t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h ? ?pace-ship a t t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e a s t e r o i d a s w, t h e n , a c c o r d i n g t o (59)

I f o C i s t h e a n g l e of i n c l i t l a t i o n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e sun, t h e n , a c c o r d i n g t o (55a) :
r1
(Ill

co;

%]

= r2 ti'( C'u?,x ,

From ( 2 2 3 ) and 2241, t h i s f o l l o w s :

With t h e u s e o f t h i s formula we can c a l c u l a t e t h e a n ~ l e which t h e t r a j e c t o r y makes w i t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l a t a c e r t a i n a l t i t u d e rl o r r2 a s w e l l a s , having a given angleOC2, t h e a l t i t u d e r2 a t which t h e t r a j e c t o r y encloses t h e respective angle with t h e horizontal.
If we r e g a r d t h e o r b i t o f t h e e a r t h and t h a t o f t h e p l a n e t t o be v i s i t e d a s c i r c l e s , t h e space-ship w i l l t r a v e l w i t h t h e l e a s t f u e l consumption if it, f l i e s on a s e m i e l l i p s e whose p e r i h e l i o n ( p o i n t closest. t o t h e s u n ) t o u c h e s t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t and whose aphelion touchf~si?e o r b i t of t h e p l a n e t . ( O f c o u r s e , w i t h t h e conditFon t h a t t h e p l a n e t p a s s e s t h e r e s p ~ c t i v ep l a c e a t t h e r i g h t time. With t h i s metkod we c a n r o t f l y whenever we l i k e . ) I n t h i s c a s e

r1 of impulses, p.

Here t h e space-ship a t first passes t h e e a r t h by and i t s r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y i s simply added t o t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y wt of t h e earth. (&munation

221 ). Therefore

W '

tl

+w rl

(227

h h i l e t h e space-ship runs ahead of t h e e a r t h , it a t t h e same time moves f a r t h e r away from t h e sun due t o i t s g r e a t e r c e n t r i f u g a l force. Tn so doing,

i t s v e l o c i t y i s retarded ( j u s t as i f it t r a v e l l e d up a mountain). I n t h e aphelion i t s v e l o c i t y i s s n n l l e r than t h a t of t h e planet, otherwise from

t h e r e on it would have t o describe a c i r c l e and not an e l l i p s e . I f wt2 i s t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y cf t h e planet, t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y of t h e spaces h i p with reference t o t h e planet i s v = w r? t2
W

(228)

From (225) and ( 2 ~ 6 ) ,t h i s follows :

A s i s well known, wt;

= gl

rl. Therefore

Then, fram (227) and ( 2 2 9 ) , t h i s follows :

From (225),

(226), and (328) we, i n a s i m i l a r way (with analogous per- u-

t a t i o n of l e t t e r s and signs, likewise from (250) f i n d :

since

For example, i f it were a m t t e r of reaching a body which is g r a v i t a t i n g with c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y a t a distance of t h r e e r a d i i of t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t , then, according t o ( 7 3 0 ) (assuming t h a t wtl = 29.7 km Sununing up t h e impulses (cf. ( 1 2 0 ) ) ~vl = 13.1 km i d e a l propulsion would be j u s t under 14 km

s e c ) , vrl = 6.55 km

sec.

sec. I n so doing, t h e

sec. According t o (231), t h e

v e l o c i t y upon a r r i v a l on t h e a s t e r o i d would be v = 4.95 km r2

sec.

A s a r u l e , t h e increase in t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y vr3 due t o t h e a t t r a c t i n g

f o r c e of t h e a s t e r o i d can be neglected because of t h e small mass of t h e a s t e r o i d and t h e high r e s i d u a l velocity.

- Since t h e a s t e r o i d s apparently have no

/

a t m s p h e r e , t h i s v e l o c i t y would have t o be decelerated by rocket power, a t wk~ichwe can apply v , = vr2. Nhen departing, t h e same propdoSon would have t o be given once more in reverse. Additional f u e l f o r 1, '00 m sec would

have t o be taken along f o r landing and correction purposes, although t h e r e would be l e s s chance of missing t h e a s t e r o i d than t h e 11;oon because t h e space-ship t r a v e l s in t h e same d i r e c t i o n and not perpendicular t o t h e c e l e s t i a l body. In a l l , t h i s space-ship would have t o produce an i d e a l propulsion of roughly 25. lan

sec.

A four-stage hydrogen rocket would be capable of such ~ e r f o m n c e ,but,

with t h e present s t a t e of technology, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of building such rockets

-is doubtful

9 hrtunately,

that i s not necessary. Before t h e a c t u a l apace

f l i g h t (cf. p. 480 ), we can take t h e f u e l s on smaller rockets t o a f u e l s t a t i o n which o r b i t s t , ~ e e a r t h in a c i r c l e with c i r c u l a r velocity. The c i r c l e must have a p o s i t i o n t h a t enables t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e d e p r t u r e t o be undertaken l a t e r t o f a l l in t h e rlane of t h e c i r c l e . If t h i s f u e l s t a t i o r ~g r a v i t a t e s a t t h e a l t i t u d e a t which, with ascent

in t h e synergy carve, t h e rocket a t t a i n s c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y , t h a t i s i f it f l i e s above t h e edge of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere, then t h e docking and refuell i n g of rockets t h e o r e t i c a l l y reprise n t s no l o s s of work, f o r , on d e p a r t i r g , t h e new propulsion i s t h e synergetic continuation of t h e propulsion so f a r imparted t o t h e fuel. In a sense, t h e c i r c u l a r v e l o c i t y i s a r e s t i n g point where, without disparzgenlent t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e summation of imp1~lsesand t h e f l i g h t , t h e ascent can be interrupted f o r any length of time with possibly high acc e l e r a t i o n .

In s o doing, it i s not a b s o l u t e l y necessary ( a t l e a s t with regard t o t h e

t r i p up) t h a t tl-e f u e l s t a t i o n g r a v i t a t e above t h e equator. If, i n i t s time, t h e s t a t i o n rocket rose in t h e temperate zone (say in Germany), it w i l l d e s c r i b e
1) Unless, in t h e lower stages, dumerous smaller rockets a r e used which a r e

combined i n bundles and a r e

SQ

l i g h t t h a t t h e y can j u s t land s i n g l y hanging

from a parachute (cf. p. 395). This was assumed, f o r example, i n t h e film, "The b;oman in t h e Iroonff (cf. Vol. 11).

c i r c l e s about t h e centre of t h e e a r t h which a r e inclined toward t h e equator by a s much a s t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e place of ascent. Just when it is over t h e l a t i t u d e of t h e place of ascent, it w i l l f l y e x a c t l y from west t o e a s t , s o t h a t it can be reached by a rocket in t h e synergy curve. The departure of t h e space-ship from t h e f u e l a a t i o n , however, is t h e synergetic continuation of t h e journey out and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of f u e l s out only i f t h e f u e l s t a t i o n g r a v i t a t e s a t t h e p h e where t h e s y n e r c curve runs horizontally. If, f o r example, a s NOORDUNG suggests, t h e s t a t i o n i s s e t up s o high above t h e e a r t h t h a t it e x a c t l y c i r c l e s t h e e a r t h once in 24 hours,

it would always be above t h e merjdian of t h e same l o c a t i o n , which would

c e r t a i n l y be convenient f o r communicating with t h e e a r t h ; a s a f u e l s t a t i o n , however, that would i n no way be t h e be t p o s i t i o n , according t o Chapter 12. Even i f , a s FIRk:mT suggests, t h e observer s t a t i o n were allowed t o revolve above t h e earth's surface a t an a l t i t u d e equal t o t h e radius of t h e e a r t h , t h a t would be very s u i t a b l e f o r observation purposes, but, i f t h l s s t a t i o n were a l s o t o be w e d as f u e l s t a t i o n , s e v e r a l 100 m /sec i n i d e a l propulsion would be sacrificed.-Al.mst a s g r e a t would be t h e l o s s i f t h e r e f l e c t o r s t a t i o n described in t h e previous chapter were a t ti.e same time used a s f u e l s t a t i o n . That t h e l o s s i s not s t i l l g r e a t e r is sol-oly because t h e r e f l e c t o r s t a t i o n constantly g r a v i t a t e s above t h e shade l i m i t an? so, with each revolukion, t h e r e a r e two points from which, by increasing i t s v ~ 7 o c i t y ,t h e space-ship can j u s t run ahead of o r s t a y behind t h e e a r t h , khich r e s u l t s

in t h e b e s t f l i g h t s t o strange planets.
r ,

Lhua, s y n e r g e t i c a l l y considered, it i s b e s t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e f u e l s t a t i o n

s e p a r a t e l y from t h e observer and r e f l e c t o r s t a t i o n . Nevertheless, t h a t i s not absolutely necessary since, a t most, it i s a m t t e r g s e v e r a l 100 m /sec in propulsion l o s s e s .

On t h e o t h e r hand, s y n e r g e t i c a l l y considered, p u t t i n g a f u e l sphere i n t o

o r b i t around a planet t h a t has an atmosphere which could be used f o r braking purposes would n a t u , m l l y represent an energy l o s s when compared t o d e p a r t i n g with t h e use of a f u e l s t a t i o n , although t h i s i s not meant t o disparage such orbiting.
I

If an a s t e r o i d t h a t describzs an e l l i p t i c o r b i t i s t o be reached, t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y i s mathematically found a s t h e v e c t o r i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e space-ship and t h e planet. Incase t h e l a t t e r i s not known from some annual, it can n a t u r a l l y e a s i l y be found by using t h e formulas
(225) t o (229), provided t h e o r b i t a l elements of t h e a s t e r o i d a r e known.

Here I w i l l s e t up only t h e formulas f o r reaching a s t e r o i d s in t h e perihelion and t h e aphelion. I f t h e e a r t h t s r a d i u s i s designated a s rl, t h e distance of t h e perihelion r2, t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e aphelion of t h e a s t e r o i d r t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e a s t e r o i d in t h e perihelion Vn, i t s velocity i n the L

3'

a ?helion V. t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e rocket with reference t 3 t h e sun with -3 s e m i e l l i p t i c f l i g h t i n t h e perihelion w2, t h a t in t h e aphelion of t h e a s t e r o i d

w3s

t h e associated r e s i d u a l vel-ocitias with reference t o t h e a s t e r o i d vr2

and v

1-3'

then by l o g i c a l s u b s t i t u t i o n in fornula (7.2"

we f i n d :

The r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y with reference t o t h e e a r t h vrl i s found from (230) by t h e r e s u b s t i t ~ l t i n g t h e distance of t h e perihelion o r aphelion f o r r2. %rprisingly enough, atmosphere-le~s c e l e s t i a l bodies with s t r o n g l y

than in t h e e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t s a r e more e a s i l y reached i n t h e a ~ h e l i o n perihelion because, i n so doing, vr2 decreases while vl increases but l i t t l e (because of t h e rythagorean addition of t h e v e l o c i t i e s a c c o r d b g t o (120) t o t h e considerable p t e n t i a l v e l o c i t y of t h e e a r t h v ).

O f course, t h i s f l i g h t on a semi-ellipse has a considerzble drawback ;

it t a k e s very long. I f we desionate t h e radius of t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t a s rl, and t h e distance of t h e f l i g M t a r g e t from t h e sun rZ, we a r e here dealing
with a semi-ellipse and, therefore, according t o K E y m r S t h i r d law,

k t h e first-mentioned case, f o r example, t h e journey out alone would t a k e 1 year, 4 months, and 28 days. Then t h e space navigators would have t o
wait on t h e a s t e r o i d f o r two months f o r an opportunity t o r e t u r n , which would n a t u r a l l y t a k e a s long a s t h e journey out. So t h e whole t r i p would take up

3 rears.

The only remedy i s : f l y f a s t e r . In so doing, much can be achieved a t first, e s p e c i a l l y because t h e f l i g h t e l l i p s e r i s e s more abruptly with r: higher v e l o c i t y and hence t h e f l i c h t distance i s shortened considerably.
Of course, that means giving up t h e advantage of being s u r e of one's t a r g e t .

lqamely, i f t h e o r b i t of t h e planet i s reached in t h e aphelion of an e l l i p s e ,

n t h e o t h e r hand, we a l r e a d y saw i n t h e case t h e p h n e t i s hard t o miss. O

of t h e moon how easy it i s t o miss a e l e s t i a l body i f t h e t r a j e c t o r y of t h e space-ship w k e s a considerable angle with i t s d i r e c t i o n of motion.

-h.i t h

t h e e l e c t r i c space-ships t o b e discussed l a t e r t h e whole t r i p could

be made in 1-2 months. A s 1 a l r e a d y s a i d , s e v e r a l a s t e r o i d s a r e considerably closer. After t h e moon, Eros m y be t h e c l d s e s t t o us of a l l t h e c e l e s t i a l bodies. With lowest f u e l consumption, t h e f l i g h t t o ''ros would t a k e 1/2 t o 3/4 year ( t h e whole t r i p would t a k e somewhat over 3 years). Including t h e l o s s e s due t o braking and c o r r e c t i o r ~ s , t h e f l i g h t would r e q c i r e a t o t a l i d e a l propulsion of 17 km system including t h e moon, Eros i s t h e e a s i e s t t o reach with a space-ship.
A f u e l concwnption of vx = 10 km

s e c.

From t h e standpoint of t h e question of f u c l , of a l l t h e bodies of our s o l a r

sec could shorten t h e duration of t h e t r i p

t o two years.

k v i s i t t o t h e s e c e l e s t i a l bodies which, because of t h e i r small s i z e ,

a r e today s t i l l as good a s unknown t o t h e a s t r o p h y s i c i s t v.vuld in i t s e l f be i n t e r e s t i n g and i n s t r u c t i v e . In addition, t h e r e is t h e value t h a t s m l l e r a s t e r o i d s (e.g. Eros) could have f o r anchoring s p c e telescopes (cf. p. 457).

With regard t o t h e geological r e s u l t s of such e x ~ e d i t i o n s ,what was s a i d more applicable here. With a s t e r o i d s l e s s than concerning t h e moon is &ill

300 km i n diameter a

s h a f t could be sunk t o t h e centre, making it p o d b l e

t o completely explore t h e i n s i d e of a c e l e s t i a l body which, although considerably smaller than t h e e a r t h , i s s t i l l s i m i l a r t o it in a c e r t a i n r e s ~ e c t ( s p h e r i c ~fl o m , s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , e t c . ). lxplorine, t h e a s t e r o i d s would be of e s y c i a l l y high s c i e n t i f i c v a l u e became a 1 1 t h e t r a n s i t : ons a r e represc:nted from t h e planet ( b r s , Ceres, P a l l a s , Fsyche, e t c . ) t o t h e comet (Eros, Tnclce comet) t o t h e meteor block. Mith t o d a y t s technology, t h e question whether ~ a r t h l y c r e a t u r e s could

I t h e o t h e r hand, f i n d i n e s e t t l e on t h e a s t e r o i d s must be f l a t l y negated. @

living beings o r a t l e a s t f o s s i l s on t h e lar:,est a s t e r o i d s i s not completely

excluded. The a s t e r o i d s a r e f r a ~ f l e r r t sof a planet which, f o r some r - a s ~ c , n i ~ l dnot combine i n t o a sl' -.le mass. Single ones nag: c o n s j s t of t h o s e subst:: ens wl~ich, with t h e planets, sank inward ; a t 1 a s t in p r t t h e y will be e a s i l y qjctricated from t h e i n s i d e o f t h e a s t e r o i d . If t h e e l e c t r i c s ~ a c e - s h i p shcc Jtc?p-ove i t s e l f mining thqse substances could be considered.

W r s moves around t h e sun in an e l l i p s e . fialf t h e major a x i s of i t s o r b i t equals 1-5236914 r a d i i of t h e e a r t h t s o r b i t ; i t s numerical e c c e n t r i c i t y a m u n t s t o 0.0933574. I f we want t o reach Ihrs i n t h e s e m i e l l i p t i c f l i g h t discussed above, t 5 e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t i r s a r e considerable depending on whether w . want reach &rs in i t s perihr-lion o r i n i t s aphelion.

I n t h e perihelion, a t departure t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y with reference t o t h e e a r t h would be vrl = 2.16 km

sec (cf. ( 2 j i ) ) and upon a r r i v a l t h e r - s i d u a l

v e l o c i t y with reference t o M a r s would be vr2 = 3.27 km

sec= 3.50 k m

In t h o aphelion, t h e corresponding f i g u r e s would be vrl

and vr2 = 2.M km /see.

sec

bin~e t h e e a r t h a s w e l l a s Yars have a consideable orever, we nust, not forget t h a t

mss and hence a high parabolic v e l o c i t y , t h e s e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t i e s only

contribute l i t t l e t o t h e i d e ~ l . proplsion. t h e two planets have a t m s p h e r e s which we can u t i l i z e f o r braking p u r p s e s , so t h a t , upon a r r i v a l , t h e r e s i d u a l velocit-. i s i r r e l e v a n t . kinding on

bkrs may be f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t apparently t h e r e a r e open bodies d water on it, a s 1iCKERI:;G discovered by t h e use of polarized l i g h t . Kevert h e l e s s , we must s t i l l f i g u r e on d e c e l e r a t i n g t k e l a s t LOO-700 m /sec by rearward t h r u s t , f o r t h e k r s a t w s p h e r e i s q u i t e t h i n , i n any case. I f we wanted t o e x r - o r e Pbrs when it i s i n t h e perihelion upon a r r i v a l of t h e space-ship, t h e flwv i l o e i t y a t departure would be vl = 11.3 Ian /sec. a r r i v a l on &rs, a t t h e ~ncst700 m /sec would have ' o be decelerated by rearward t h r u s t ; including l o s s e s dur:ng ascent of roughly 700 m/sec and t h e 630 m
Upon

sec t o be provided f o r correction p u r p s e s , t h e t o t a l i d e a l

propulsion f o r the journey out would amouht t o 13 ,;GO t h e parabolic v e l o c i t y i s 4.96 km

sec. -For

lkrs,

/set,

t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y only

3.50 m /sec2, and t h e a i r in general thinner, although perhaps reaching somewhat higher tim Qn earth. For these reasons tre w i l l l o s e but l i t t l e in i d e a l propulsion when a s c e ~ d i n g from %rs, perhaps 3 0 0 m / sec. On t h e r e t u r n f l i c h t v2 = 5.94 km / s e c , and, i f we a g d n allow 5W rn / sec for c o r r e c t i o n
purposes and p r e s u p p s e braking by means of t F e e a r t h ' s a t m s p h e r e , we would need a t the most vx = 6.7 km require r a u ~ h l y P O km

sec f o r t h e r e t u r n t r i p .

1 '

he whole t r i p would

sec, sopewhat more than a t r i p t o t h e moon.

I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, h r s is in t h e aphelion, vx

19.8 km

sec, a s

is e a s i l y found by .calculation.

It would r e q u i r e t h e l e a s t f u e l i f t h e t r i p were undertaken t o &rs i n

t h e perihelion position and ti:e expedition could remain t h e r e u n t i l it i s possible t o r e t u r n from t h e aphelion position. In theory, t h a t can be approx i m t e l y accomplished since f o r a minimum f 1 . 1 1e x ~ e n d i t u r e t r i p t h e exped i t i o n must wait almost 1/2 :$rs year f o r t h e date on which t o return. (Whether t h e f u e l s can be kept i n a l i q u i d s t a t e f o r one year i s q u i t e another matter. ) Tne duration of t h e t r i p t o l h r s caq, however, e a s i l y be shortened by increasing t h e v e l o c i t y , f o r , with t h e high parabolic v e l o c i t i e s of t h e e a r t h and :,Jars, a sm11 increase of t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y a l r e a d y considerably influences t h e r e s i d u a l v e l o c i t y and, since we a r e d e c e l e r a t i n g by using t h e atmosphere, we need give t h e Bane propulsion o@ once. Vith vx t r a v e l around t h e sun. The f l i g h t period from t h e e a r t h t o
25 km

seo,

f o r exam~~le th , e round t r j p can be made i n 4-6 m n t h s without having t o Mars e s p e c i a l l y can be considerably shortened without a propulsion increase worth mectioning. The f l i g h t t o ;.,:ars i s g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d bar t h e f a c t t h a t very l i k e l y t h e r e is a s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y of water on Mars and t h e sky i s mostly clear. The machines f o r manufacturi-tg t h e l i q u i d f u e l s a l r e a d y mentioned on p. 613 could be s a f e l y s e t up there. I n so doing, i n t h e f i r s t place t h e expeditton could remain on Mars any length of time without being concerned about t h e f u e l s vaporizing and, secondly, no f u e l s would have t o be taken along f o r t h e r e t u r n t r i p . Thereby at l e a s t 6 km

s e c can be saved. Once such a s t a t i o n

were established on Ivfars,from t h e standpoint of t h e f u e l question it would be t h e e a s i e s t t o reach of a l l t h e bodies of our s o l a r system.

Purpose of -t h e F l & $ $ t ._ ! a . ' i i t h regard t o t h e purpose, I a 3 a f r a i d I w i l l disappoint many a reader who expected t o o much. The only t h i c g t h a t can be pro]-ised with c e r t a i n t y

i s t h e solution of most of t h e r i d d l e s which our neighboring planet s e t s

us. Often t h e hypotheses concerning Iiars a r e advanced with g r e a t force of conviction and hence t h e Laylnan only too e a s i l y considers them a s proved

y c o n t r a s t , it must be s t a t e d t h a t we know nothing c e r t a i n today, facts. B

f o r example, concerning t h e geologic o r climatic conditions on Mars. To t h e lagman I e s p e c i a l l y recornend t h e book lrkLstrophysicstlby SCmtiEINa and
W F F (Leipzig, Teubner) f o r inspection. % is possible t h a t t h e exploration

of ;Qrs w i l l open up undreamt-of p o s s i b i l i t i e s of development f o r h m n cult u r e , technology, and science. It i s a l s o possible that t h e f i r s t expedition t o b r s w i l l be t h e last f o r centuries. F i r s i s f a r t h e r from t h e sun than i s t h e earth. From t h a t it can be concluded t h a t it c o n s i s t s of l i g h t e r elements (confirmed a l s o by measurements of i t s diameter and i t s mass) and t h a t in i t s formation it r e t a i n e d m r e air and water. The circumstance again t h a t i t s mass i s only 0.1078 of t h a t of t h e e a r t h and i s older makes it probable t h a t it has l o s t a r e l a t i vely l a r g e part of the atmosphere, e s p e c i a l l y water. Formerly, t h e r e was t h e tendency t o regard t h e atmosphere of Mars a s extremely t h i n ( a t most a presm of m r c u r y ) and t o deny almost completely t h a t it h~td water. s u r e of 1-2 c The astronomer JOHNSTONE G. STONEY, f o r example, completely denied t h e existence of water and sought t o a t t r i b u t e t o l i c p i d carbon dioxide t h e phenomena t h a t speak f o r t h e pr-?sence of l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of l i a u i d . (He forgot, however, t h a t carbon dioxide can occur in l i q u i d s t a t e only with

a pressure of over f atmspheleStotherwise it immediately changes from t h e

firm t o t h e gaseous s t a t e . ) The l a t e s t research, e s p e c i a l l y during t h e last close approach of k r s , agai fi speaks f o r a higher and denser atmosphere and

higher water content. Fromthe research I have become acquainted with I have t h e impression t h a t t h e r e i s a g r e a t e r percentage of s p e c i f i c a l l y heavier gases in t h e Ylarsr atmosphere than i n t h e earth's atmosphere and t h a t t h e atmosphere reaches higher on Pkrs thtin on e a r t h ; in s p i t e of t h a t , because of t h e small a t t r a c t i n g force of fV$rs, it is not under a s high a pressure. The barometric pressure w i l l be about half a s high as it is here.

i%rs' period of r o t a t i o n is 24 1/2 hours. So days and n i g h t s a r e almost j u s t a s long a s on earth. The i n c l i n a t i o n ~ ft h e axis toward t h e e . c l i p t i c almost corresponds t o t e r r e s t r i a l conditions, but t h e seasons c o n t r a s t
more s t r o n g l y c l i m a t i c a l l y s i n c e t h e l h r s year is almost twice a s long a s t h e e a r t h year. produced The assumption t h a t t h e mighty canals on '"ars might have b ~ e n by thinking beings .appears t o be d e f i n i t i v e l y disproved. 7 he question is even being asked whether mst of t h e canals on M a r s a r e not s - h p l y based on an o p t i c a l i l l u s i o n . They a r e hard t o s e e through t h e l a r g e s t telescopes a d , i f we look a t our m o n through a recucing l e n s , with a concerted e f f o r t we can discover "Ikrs canalswon it a s well, According t o t'IcUCH..WG, t h e l a r g e , yellowish-red patches seen on Ikrs a r e d e s e r t s . They a r e more exLensive than those on e a r t h because t h e r e i s l e s s water on "krs. '-he gray and bluish-green patches a r e vegetation a r e a s according t o kICKERlI\'G. ;n t h e l i g h t of some of t h e s e places, PIC:KERIIJG believes he can even point out t h e absorption banos of chlorophyl. T h i s research i s d i f f i c u l t t o c a r r y out and i n t e r p r e t c l e - r l y . So it w i l l be w e l l t o regard t h e question whether t h e r e a r e p l a n t s on P'nrs a s u n c l a r i f i e d f o r t h e present. By day, t h e temperature on ''hrs i s a few degrees above zero only in t h e t r o p i c s . A t night it s i n k s under -3G0 a t every pint. The reason why, i n

s p i t e of t h a t , t h e r e is l i q u i d w t e r i n t h e cold zones i s because t h e Mars seas have l a r g e l y l o s t t h e i r water wW1 time and t h e salt has r e m i n e d , s o t h a t today t h e water on b r s has a high s a l t content. Strong salt s o l u t i o n s , however, freeze only under -20. The low temperature of Yars would in i t s e l f not exclude t h e presence of plants. Flants i n florthern %beria and on t h e Arctic Archipelago endure temperatures of q d e r -40' f o r months. l'hel*e i s a n a t h e r important f a c t o r :

The s a p of p l a n t s growing i n cold regions on e a r t h must not contain t o o much s a l t . Otherwise, when t h e snow melts, t h e c e l l walls would break due t o osmotic pressure. On t h e other hand, i f t h e r e a r e p l a n t s on Piars, they a r e l i k e l y t o contain much s a l t . Since s a l t water does not f r e e z e a s soon, e s p e c i a l l y w: en under pressure within t h e c e l l , t h e sap of %rs p l a n t s

i s already f l u i d much below O0 and capable of living a c t i v i t y . In no way do t h e plants on fkrs lack l i g h t . Although t h e sun scarcely appears h a l f
a s l a r g e a s on e a r t h , t h e a i r i s clearer. Haze o r dust has been obs rved on liars but ncver r e a l clouds.

k r s p l a n t s a r e already v i a b l e a t temperatures a t which our polar p l a n t s

a r e s t i l l i n t h e dorrrant winter s t a t e . %, by a l l appearances, t h e pre-conditions f o r a type of l i f e on :hrs a r e g-ven. % I the o t h e r hand, we must not f o r g e t wherever l i f e could occxr. I n a t h a t l i f e need not.necessarily be p r ~ s e n t s t e r i l i z e d t i n can, f o r example, decay-causing b a c t e r i a coldd well l i v e , yet t h e r e a r e none in it. Perhaps it i s objected t h a t according t o SVANTE ARRHENIGS*S cosmspermism h y p t h e s i s t h e r e must be l i f e on I%rs i f only t h e r e i s l i f e on earth.

SVAIUTE Ail .HiNIUS s a i d :

I f a planet :rith a small a t t r a c t i n g force i s s i t u a t e d near a b r i g h t sun and t h e r e a r e encarsulated b a c t e r i a f l o a t i n g i n t h e atmosphere of t h i s planet, t h e light-pressure of t h e sun's rays must blow them out i n t o i n t e r s t e l l a r space. Such b a c t e r i a g e r m mu t be f l o a t i n g about in al.1 i n t e r p l a netary space and, according t o ARRFiLNIUS, t h e cold of i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space would not only not k i l l them but in a measure conserve them causing them t o remain a l i v e much loneer than a t normal temperature. According t o

ARRHEhIUStS c a l c u l a t i o n s t h r e e such b a c t e r i a germs would have t o f a l l on t h e e a r t h every year i)' Of course, only in t h e r a r e s t case could t h e y

l i v e long on e a r t h , f o r t h e e a r t h l y creatures a r e eminently adapted t o l i v i n g conditions on eartk by a long struggle f o r exjstence and among them t h e strange monocells would play about t h e sane r o l e a s a l i o n among polar bears a t t h e n o ~ ~ t pole h o r a polar bear among l i o n s in Africa.

I do not x i s h t o enumerate a l l t h e argmn-tents here t h a t have been

advanced f o r and a g a i n s t t h e cosmospermism hypothesis. I n our case, i t seems out of t h e question
tq

m e t h a t l i f e s h o ~ l dreach I'brs from t h e e a r t h i n t h i s

way. The r a d i a t i o n pressure of t h e sun today i s f a r from s u f f i c i e n t t o d r i v e any body away from t h e earth. That i s found t o be t r u e i n d i r e c t l y by calcul a t i n g t h e r a d i a t i o n pressure and direcl l y by observing t h e comet's t a i l .

'Lt i s d i f f i c u l t t o believe, however, that t h e e a r t h was a l r e a d y inhabited

when t h e pressure of t h e sun's rays was not a s great. I f such a g e m a r r i v e d on '"ars, it would s t r i k e . i t with a v e l o c i t y of a t l e a s t j km

sec. ' In so

doing, according t o what i s said in Chapter 14, it would burn up i n t h e a t m s p h e r e of %rs under a l l circwnstances. For t h i s reason, e a r t h l y l i f e can in m y opinion have originated only on t h e e a r t h i t s e l f . Just a s f o r

-.-TICC-

1) To me, t h i s f i g u r e seems t o o high. According t o m y calculation, one would

be c l o s e r t o t h e t r u t h i f one assumed t h a t one such germ f e l l t o e a r t h every

100,000 years.

t h e e a r t h , one canassume o r i g i n a l generation f o r k r s ; one can n a t u r a l l y a l s o r e j e c t it a s , f o r example, f o r t h e consf,rving can. Let us s u p p s e t h e r e a r e livir,g beings on i h r s . I n what way have t h e y d e v e l o ~ e d? About t h a t we can s t a t e s t i l l l e s s . Feople who believe t h a t t h e r e a r e inpabitants on foreign c e l e s t i a l bodies u s l n l l y imagine them a s more o r l e s s s i m i l a r t o t h e e a r t h l y creaturt.~. I would l i k e t o counter t h a t with t h e following reservations.
'-t can s c a r c e l y be otherwise than t h a t a l l l i v i n g beings on e a r t h developed

i'rorn a s i n g l e , u n i c e l l u l a r primitive f w m .
But how d i f f e r e n t l y d i d t h e various creatures mntinue i n t h e i r d e v e l o p ment. Australia has approximately th,; same c l i m t i c conditions as t h e old world, but it was cut off from t h e mainland f o r "only" 2-3 million years and yet Australian n a t u r a l l i f e looks e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t . (Naturally, we a r e not considering c e r t a i n p l a n t s and species of b i r d s a s we31 a s t h e o w diffeAustralian n e p e s because t h e y obviously M e r a t e d l a t e r . ) H r e n t l y l i f e can develop i s r e a l i z e d when various forms of l i f e a r e comparsd.

k t us compare, f o r example, a hwnan being, a bee, a crayfish, a tapeworm,

an amoeba, a fungus, a lichen, a lycopod growth, a fern, a gingko, an evergreen t r e e , a g r a s s s ~ e c i e s ,a kelwitschia, a p h i - t r e e , or a f r u i t tree.

'Lt must a l s o be remembered t h a t the development of t h e s e organjsms was

in part i d e n t i c a l f o r long periods of time and t h a t t h e s t r u g g l e f o r existence andaertain i n c i d e n t a l catastrophes nipped much development i n t h e bud. The b i r d of paradise, f o r example, could develop only where no b e a s t s of prey existed t o hunt down t h e s e canspicuously-colored creatures. Several species of hunnning b i r d s have been exterminated by a storm in one day. ?hen t h e ice-age arrivod, only a few species r e m i n e d of t h e l i v i n g organism of t h e T e r t i a r y p e r i d . Only when we l o g i c a l l y r e f l e c t on a l l t h i s

do we get a notion of how d i f f e r e n t from our l i v i n g world w i l l be t h a t of o t h e r c e l e s t i a l bodies where l i f e developed along o t h e r l i n e s r i g h t from t h e start. Ferhaps it w i l l b o b j e c t e d t h a t o f t e n under similar l i v i n g conditions very s i m i l a r forms a r i s e even though t h e course of development was b a s i c l y d i f f e r e n t . ~f we place a dolphin, a n ichthyosaurus, and a shark s i d e by s i d e , t h e e x t e r n a l s i m i l a r i t y w i l l l i k e l y be g r e a t e r than t h a t between a whale and land mammal, a n ichthyosaurus and a l i z a r d , o r between a shark and say a sea-horse o Y h e m r s u p i a l wolf of h s t r a l i a

,a

carnivorous k a n ~ a r o o that

mltE On 911 f o u r s i s rruch more l i k e a wild dog than a kangaroo. Further-

more, I remind t h e reader of t h e s i m i l a r i t y between palm t r e e s and t r e e f e r n s a t similar l o c a t i o n s , between t h e orang-utan and t h e s l o t h , between a n t s and t e r m i t e s , between swallows and s w i f t s , between pseudo-acacias and aca,cias, between c e r t a i n plant leaves and phylloclades, between sea s n a i l s and nununilites. Certajn cactuses and spurges growing a t t h e sape l o c a t i o n a r e e x t e r n a l l y s i m i l a r be:rond recognition. Naturally t h - s e examples could be m u l t i p l i e d hundred-fold e s p e c i a l l y i f one does not look f o r overall s i m i l a r i t y of s i n g l e organs a s , f o r exanple,'the s i m i l a r i t y of t h e f o s s o r i a l f o r e f e e t of t h e mole and t h e mole c r i c k e t .
I do not doubt t h a t t h e r e will be c r e a t u r e s on d i s t a n t c e l e s t i a l bodies

t h a t look very s i m i l a r t o creatures known t o us. ("atxrally, t h e course of development of t h e s e c r e a t u r e s would be e n t i r e l y d i f f e r m t from t h a t of our forms.) Beside them w i l l a l s o be forms which we can no m r e h p i n e today

than anybody who has never heard of an amoeba o r a c u t t l e f i s h w i l l get t h e

idea t h a t such c r e a t u r e s e x i s t .
I do doubt, nevertheless, whether t h e r e a r e h m n intellj-gences o r a t

l e a s t such s i m i l a r t o h m n beings anywhere i n t h e cosmos.

The fundamental condition f o r human i n t e l l i g e n c e i s t h e a b i l i t y t o g a t h e r personal experienc;.~and by oneself t o l e a r n and t a k e note of sonething one c i t e t h e following does not a l r e a d y possess a s ready knowledge from b i r t h . a s examples of i n n a t e knowledge of man : Zf t h e number : , i s l a r g e r t h a n t h e number I?, and t h e number B i s l a r g e r than t h e number C, then A i s a l s o l a r g e r t h a n C.

If

C,

i s a p a r t of B and
1inr.s

B a p a r t of C , t h e n A a l s o is a part of C. -The
-The t h a t have t h e same i n c l i n a t i o n cannot i n t e r s e c t . earth i s a horizontal

straight route i s the shortest.

-!ill

s t r a i g h t l i n e has t h e same i n c l i n a t i o n throughout. - S t r a i g h t

t h a t happens happens a s a whole, t h e

in space and time, and space and time end nowhere. -Taken

late. -Fan has a f r e e w i l l , and many others.

The advantage of t h i s i n h e r i t e d knowledge i s , i n t h e f i r s t place, that

it does not have t o be learned ; it is inherent. :inimals with much i n h e r i t e d

knowledge (e.g., chickens) can look f o r food j u s t a f t e r emerring from t h e

egg ; an a n t o r t e r n i t e i s f u l l y capable of i n t e l l i g e n t performance immediat e l y a f t e r s l i p p i n g from t h e pupa s h e l l . Secondly,this knowledge i s usually b e t t c r assirnil t e d t h a n learned knowledge, and t h e l a t t e r can be e a s i l y incorporated i n t o it, so t h a t it does not hang i n mid-air.
) ccording

t o Kant,

with whom I in no way agree on t h e whole, t h i s i n n a t e knowled~ea r e t h e categories i n t o which t h e world of phenomena can be integrated. The drawback of t h i s i n h e r i t e d knowledge i s t h t it does not adapt i t s e l f t o t h e s p e c i a l needs of t h e i n d i v i d u a l concerned and hence i s m t only superfluous but a downright hirtdrance. -In

q r work i n astronomy,

I can w e l l imagine a planetarium i n which t h e s i n g l e models of s t a r s seem t o

f r e e l y run on i n v i s i b l e r a i l s about a l a r g e , shiny sphere ; but a s soon a s

I want t o v i s u a l i z e t h e a c t i o n of a q a c e - s h i p I nust r e s o r t t o o t h e r represent.ttions, say a piece of i r o n t h a t i s hanging from a magnet and, by

t h e impact of a b i l l i a r d s t i c k , i s t o be impelled away from it t o another magnet. Then, a s soon a s I want t o imagine t h e f e e l i n g s of t h e passencers,

I mst again r e v e r t t o o t h e r concepts, s a y an empty, black, hollow sphere

10-20 krn i n diameter. Without vlupHand vvdownvv I cannot v i s u a l i z e such a

p i c t u r e a t a l l , although here t h e s e concepts a r e perfect nonsense. Then, when I occupy myself with o t h e r things, t h e e a r t h i s n a t u r a l l y no longer a " c e l e s t i a l bodyvt but j u s t t h e 'learthvt, t h e opposj t e of t h e vlskyll. This i s a source of considerable d i f f i c u l t y in a l l work in t h e f i e l d of astronomy. --IJow, by century-long work in astronomy we have t o a c e r t a i n extent mast e r e d t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i t s . Today t h e f a c u l t y of philosophy i n Turin would not answer Columbus in t h i s way : Fine, you can s a j l over t h e edge of t h e e a r t h ; t h r t we want t o believe, i f need be. But how w i l l you s a i l your s h i p back up again ?. loday we have inventr,d a l l s o r t s of astrono?.,ic images and d i a g r a m and worked out a c a s u i s t r y a s t o when one o r t h e o t h e r t h i n g applies. who would claim, f o r example, t h a t , i n our present day a d ~ l i n i s t r a t i o nof j u s t i c e , t h e concept o f c a u s a l i t y has been f u l l y digested and t h a t a p r o p r d i s t i n c t i o n is always made between innate notions of

revenqe and r e t a l i a t i o n as well as freedom of t h e w i l l and m i t i g a t i ~ i gcauses,

on t h e one hand, and t h e concepts of causal ~ t y and t h e requirements of trim prevention, of s p r i n g t h e innocent, of d e t e r r e n t s , and of c o r r e c t l y influencing public a c t i o n , on t h e o t h e r hand. There i s about t h e sane difference between acquired knowledge and inher i t e d knowledge a s t h e r e i s between t h e a r t of p r i n t i n g b o ~ k sand t h e ned i a e v a l a r t of cuktinz whole plates. (Ferhaps l a t e r $ n a philosophic book,
I w i l l w r i t e rnore about these and s i m j l a r things. ) L f u r t h e r drawback of

i n h e r i t e d knowledge i s t h a t it only changes very slowly and so it takes long f o r an a h 1 species t o achieve i n t e l l i g e n t a c t i o n half-ways worth mentioning by means of i n h e r i t e d knowledge.

Acquired knowledge is in no way a s g r e a t a n e c e s s i t y a s s a y t h e f i s h form, t h e f o s s ~ r i a l f o r e f e e t , o r t h e feathered leaf. ISundreds ofthousands of s r e c i e s and m i l l i o n s of subspecies get along without it. If we examine t h e genealogical t r e e of t h e e a r t h l y c r e a t u r e s , in m y opinfon we find acquired i n a very srrall branch, t h ~ i t s with t h e r - p t i l e s and t h e knowledge o ~ l y c r e a t u r e s which l a t e r developed from t h e r e r t i l s. 'ain worms have something akin t o t h e a b i l i t y t o remember. Beheaded w o r n a l s o show it, so t h a t we a r e l i k e l y not d e a l i n g with ~ o n s c i o u sr a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y . TI# i t h amphibians no t r a c e of it has been found so f a r , j u s t as l i t t l e with any o t h e r a n h l s . That t h e llcleverl bee, f o r example, i s not a b l e t o t a k e note of anyt h i n g and draw conclusions from it can be seen from the following observation : I f a bee f l i e s i n t o a room through a half-open window and when f l y i n g away s t r i k e s t h e window-pane, it o f t e n e x e r t s i t s e l f f o r hours without not i c i n g t h a t it cannot g e t through t h e r e and g e t t i n g t h e notion t o t r y by another way, say by t h e way it carne. Yet it by no means l a c k s t h e sense of l o c a l i t y . Rees have been packed i n t o cases, whirled around by a cord, and taken by c a r 5-113 km away from t h e hive. They alwa:rs found t h e i r way home. Obviously t h e bl'e knows only t h a t , if one i s loaded with sweets, one r e t u r n s t o t h e hive by t h e s t r a i g h t e s t way and t h a t one can f l y through wherever one can see through i f one e x e r t s oneself a b i t ; from personal experience

it l e a r n s a b s o l u t e l y nothing.
"he r e s u l t s of research concerning t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e of a n t s and t h e r e m i n i n g i n v e r t e b r a t e s a r e s i m i l a r l y crushing. Their exreriences simply
do not influence t h f : i r knowledge ; t h e y obviously l a c k a l l renembering and

combining a b i l i t y . here perhaps someone w i l l t h i n k of t h e :funich f l e a c i r c u s o r t h e t r a i n i n g

o f spiders. I n t h i s case, I believe only t h e human t r a i n e r "learnsw anything, not h i s pupil. 1 have r.;.self
1

watched a s p i d e r keeper who was f i r m l y

convinced of t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f h i s h o r r i b l e p e t s attempt t o t r a i n them. he t r a i n i n g consisted of carrying t h e s p i d e r away from t h e web, a f t e r which

it returned t o i t , o r producing c e r t a i n hurmning and piping sounds and, wSth

the hand o r a straw, causing v i b r a t i o n s on a thread spun by t h e s p i d e r ; t h e r e upon it thought t h e r e was a f l y and approached.

In t h e f l e a c i r c u s e i t h e r a piece of t h e f l e a ' s ankle-bone i s cut o f f , so t h a t it can only crawl, and i s m d e t o draw a waEon o r crawl along a wire, and t h e l i k e ; o r t h e aim is achieved by s e t t i n g t h e f l e a i n t o a shallow

box with a g l a s s cover, where it jumps a g a i n s t t h e g l a s s u n t i l it i s t i r e d

out. yo make tl?e f l e a ao springing gymastics, c e r t a i n l i g h t and shade e f f e c t s a r e produced with t h e hand, t h e f l e a i s blown a t , e t c . I f one i s adept a t

it., every f l e a (not j u s t t h e "trained" one) w i l l jump e x a c t l y a s one wishes. Here a l s o , it i s not t h e f l e a l e a r n i n g t o jump c o r r e c t l y but t h e man 1i:arning t o induce it correctly.
Of course, I do not wlsh to conceal t h e f a c t t h a t such an i m p r t a n t entomologist a s F'ABRE assumes t h a t t h e wasp a n t s have t h e a b i l i t y t o g a t h e r r e c o l l e c t i o n s , a t 1 a s t with reference t o location. It seems t o me, however, t h a t t h e phenomena which F A B L i n t e r p r e t s i n t h i s sense could be ex)-lained d i f f e r e n t l y ; n e i t h e r should it be forgotten t h a t r e c o l l e c t i o n s of l o c a t i o n ( j u s t a s the e n t i r e sense of l o c a l i t y ) do not n e c e s s a r i l y represent conscious knowledge.
I

l o c l a r i f y t h e quest,ion f o r myself, I sketched t h e plans of 2 machines.

Both were t o be driven by clockwork and, a f t e r having been guided about on

any d e s i r e d curve, were t o r e t u r n t o t h e ~ o i n t from whe1.e tl-ley had s t a r t e d :

one by t h e s h o r t e s t way ( s e n s e o f l o c a l i t y w i t h o u t a b i l i t y t o rememb e r ) , t h e o t h e r on t h e same curve on which it was guidedaway ( r e g i s t e p i n g r e c o l l e c t i o n s of i o c a t i . o n ) . A s can be e a s i l y shown, t h e l a t t e r machine i s by f a r t h e more complicated. Accordingly, s e n s e of l o c a l i t y w i t h o u t t h e g?: ity t o remember could be by f a r t h e simpler. The wasp a n t s t f l y i n s t o and f r o i n f r o n t of the h o l e a f t e r crawling o u t , w7)ich FAB'F; i n t e r p r e t s a s though t h e y wanted t o impress t h e environ.:.ent o f t h e h o l e on t h e i r minds p r e c i s e l y , could a l s o be talcen a s p l a y f o r p r a c t j c j n g t h c secse of l o c a l i t y without memory. I n summary we can say: Acquired knoxletige is n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r l i f e ; it is o n l y an i n c i d e n t a l p r o p e r t y of a s m a l l sroup o f animals, t h e number of s p e c i e s o r i n d i v i d u a l s o f wl-ich c e r t a i n l y does not make up a t h o u s a n d t h p a r t of a l l animals. W i t h t h e d i v e r s i t y of l i v i n g forms, j t i s h i g h l y improbable t h a t t h i s p r o p e r t y s h o u l d r e p e a t i t s e l f anywhers e l s e i n t h e cosmos. For t h i s r e a s o n it i s just n o t p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e r e a r e c r e a t u r e s resembling human b e i n g s o r a t l e a s t such p o s s e s s i n s human i n t e l l i g c r c e on any o t h e r c e l e s t i a l body. W r i t e r s o f Mars novels e s p e c i a l l y write about h i g h l y c u l t u r e d Kars #eaple. Contrary t o t h e i d e a i s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e c i r c u m s t a r c c t h a t t b e y have not y e t come t o e a r t h by space-ship. They would a c t u a l l y have enouch r e a s o n a t l e a s t t o b r i n g a i r and water t o t h e i r p l a n e t from e a r t h . bleasured by t h e p e r i o d of development o f a s t a r , t h e t j m e frorrt t h e appearance o f t h e fjrst man t o t h e construct j o n of t h e first space-sl-ip i s s o extremely s h o r t t , h a t it would be a downri, h t m i r a c l e i f t h e de~rel opmcnt of two c e l e s t i a l borli-es w t Lhin one p l a n e t a r y system stopp6.d a t e r a c t l y t h e same p o i n t . Perhiips t h e r e t o r t c o ~ l l dbe made t h ; t p o s s i b l y t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f J ~ rd si d send. s ~ a c e - s h l p s t o e a r t h s e v e r a l hundrcd n l i l l i o n y e a r s ago, but t h e y

had become extjnct in t h e mantime. i.ccording t o Osj~ALD SImGbX, r u i n awaits t h e western world i n an uncanny s h o r t period of time by cosmic standards. Here I wish t o s a y only t h i s much :

I believe t h a t once humanity has reached t h e p i n t where hre a r e , it w i l l no longer become e x t i n c t a t a l l . Through science it w i l l f i n d ways
and m a n s t o r e d r e s s a l l t h r e a t s of harm. With sharp observation we notice a number of i n d i c a t i o n s of t h a t . (For example, t h e mvement f o r race hygiene, f o r b i o l o g j c a l l y and hygienically c o r r e c t l i v i n g , f o r n o r a l p u r i t y of public l i f e , f o r KIhlW3PrS Freybund, e t c . 'the last idea i n t h i s connection,

r5 n c i p l e s of t h e Princes Without Crowns" -1 consider j u s t t h e most important t h i n g man has thought up s o far.) , , f t e r t h e s e few sentences, it i s n a t u r a l l y mre o r l e s s a matter of opinion whether o r not one wants t o b e l i e v e i n t h e r u i n of muzkjnd on t h e b a s i s of such and s i m i l a r observed f a c t s . %me t h e i n t h e f u t u r e , on approximately 3C0 printed pages, I hope t o produce convincing proof of q y claim.
compare NIhhUIG 15
1' I1r

r i n c e s Nithout Crowns

and

The p o s s i b i l i t y should a l s o be considered t h a t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of 1.h-s

may w e l l be a b l e t o build space-ships but t h a t they have kept away from t h e e a r t h because of t h e strong f o r c e of gravity. 'n i t s e l f , t h i s assumption i s improbable. Cuite apart from t h e f a c t ths.t, witah so high a l e v e l of c u l t u r e , t h e nature of t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y could perhaps be unde-stood and m a n s found t o overcome iti in t h e course of mill-jons of years t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of &rs, i f t h e y r e a l l y had such a high c u l t u r e , could have developed a voca2 t i o n a l c a s t e t h a t can endure counter-pressure of more than 9.81 m / sec h e n we hurnan beings can get accustomed t o 3-4 times t h e earth's g r a v i t a t i o n i n a r e l a t i v e l y short time. -'ut e n t i r e l y i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h f s , p a r s would

-7

l i k e l y have q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t appearance i f i t s i n h a b i t a n t s r e a l l y had such high culture.

M e cannot even sap whether possible l i z i n g beings on k r s have had a longer period of development than those on earth.
j

) V i e have enough exaxples

on e a r t h of b i o l o g i c a l s ~ e c s i t h a t have e i t h e r s c a r c e l y advanced in development o r d i r e c t l y retrogressed i n development. 2 ) The l i v i n g beings on i:ars, even if o l d e r in an absolute sense, need not a l s o be o l d e r r e l a t i v e l y syeaking. Apparently, l i f e processes on fJbrsa r e slower. That i s conditioned

b ; , t h e low oxyeen content of t h e atmosphere on I.hrs, by t h e l i t t l e heat derived from t h e sun, and by t h e circumstance t h t t h e force of g r a v i t y i s lower on Lkrs than on earth. Tf a c r e a t u r e on I&rs i s t o move about with t h e sape d e x t e r i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e force of g r a v i t y as an e a r t h l y creat u r e i n a similar s t a t e , a l l i t s movements need be only 0.35 times a s f a s t . The whole tenpo. of l i f e could be slower and, in 7.4 earth years, a l l o t h e r t h i n p s being equal, t h e l i y i n g beines of Ikrs would only advance a s f a r a s t h e l i v i n g beings on e a r t h advance in one year. I b t t o forget another matter.
Developxent can take place only where t h e r e a r e c r e a t u r r s t o develop. The g r e a t e r t h e number of individuals, t h e g r e a t e r t h e p m s p c t of sonething new developing. ( I n a c i t y , f o r example, more new t h i n p s happen than i n a v i l l r+e.) !ow t h e n w b e r of individuals o n ' ~ ' k r si s l i k e l y smaller than t h e number of l i v i n g b e i n ~ s on earth. 1) The e a r t h i s bigper. 2 ) On e a r t h land and sea a r e inhabited i n t h e same way, whereas 3 / 3 of EIarsfsurface i s a desert. 3) Accordirig t o GAUSS, t h e l i v i n g beings on 2"ar.s could, on t h e average, be l a r g e r than those on e a r t h , so t h a t r e l a t i v e l y fewer individuals would have room i n t h e sa:.e space. Yecause t h e i r number i s swill, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a mutation occurring i s n a t u r a l l y c o r r e s p n d i n g l y smaller. Since Australia's separation from t h e mainland, i t s a c t u a l l i v i n g world has not developed a s f a r , r e l a t i v e l y speaking, a s t h e l i v i n g world of t h e o t h e r continents.
So we can a f f i r m with a good conscience t h a t we can say a b s o l u t e l y

n o t h b g about t h e l i v i n g world of &rs.

I do not agree with t h e view t h a t holds t h a t Bars i s a boundless ocean

o f i c e , t h e s e a s open places, t h e continents ice-floes, and t h e canals f i s s u r e s i n t h e ice sheet. i n such a case t h e a t m s r h e r e o f Elars would have t o give m r e i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e presence of water. (-ven t h e mists t h a t a r e f r e q u e n t l y observed could a c t u a l l y be d u s t clouds. aperirfients conducted t o d e t e r n i n e t h e water vapor content from c e r t a l n d i f f r a c t i o n ~henomena indicated an extremely d r y atmosphere. ) Eesides, t h e edges o f t l e continents show considerable change in form depending on whether t h e season i s moist o r dry, but a s a whole t h e form and p o s i t i o n o f t h e continents appears t o o constant f o r ice-floes. t r a b l y since a t l e a s t
A s a wklole, t h e r a p of iv$rs has not changed demons-

7 C years. It seems t o me t h e red c o l o r of t h e continents

t h e occurrence of t h e hydrate

e s p e c i a l l y speaks a g a i r s t t h e theory of i c e i n i n t e r r l a n e t a r y space. 7 h i s red c o l o r i r g is - o s t e a s i l y explained b of f e r r i c oxide, t o which t h e d e s e r t sand on e a r t h a l s o ones i t s red color. Naturally, a snow and i c e surface could i n time become red i n c o l o r from f e r r i o d u s t which, l e t us say, f e l l on it in t h e form of meteor fragments. I f , however, it a c t u a l l y were a water and i c e surface, h o a r f r o s t and snow would soon be deposited over t h e red l a y e r of snow and cover it. (I,e must not f o r g e t t h a t t h e s u n c e r t a i n l y heats up t h e equator of Iikirs so drongly a t noon a s t o cause l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of water t o evaporate.) To adequately explain t h e red color an uninterrupted shower of i r o n dust would have t o be assumed, i n which case space around Ihrs would contain so much i r o n d u s t t h a t it vrould, under a l l circturstances, be v i s i b l e as a b r i g h t r i n g in our night sky. I n conclusi.on, we can s a y : I i ~ beings n w i l l probably not be able t o breath t h e a i r on b r s . I would already be s a t i s f i e d i f t h e a i r pressure w r e g r e a t enough t o mike space d i v e r s t s u i t s dispensable and t k e space navigators only had t o c a r r y a i r tanks on t h e i r backs.-ecause of t h e small f o r c e of g r a v i t y , t h e tanks
brill

f o r t u n a t e l y not be a very heavy burden. The needed oxygen could be produced wlth t h e use of s u i t a b l e m c h i n e s by d i s t i l l a t i o n of t h e a t m s p h e r e on %rs, which l i k e l y contains oxygen* The space-ship docs not need t o t a k e along f u e l f o r t h e r e t u r n t r i p ; it

i s s u f f i c i e n t t o t a k e along machines f o r m n u f a c t u r i n g t h e f u e l on Thrs i t s e l f .

The necessary conditions (sunshinc, s a l t w l t e r ) a r e given. The t o t a l duration of a n expedition i s 1-2 years. Because o r t h e c l e a r atmosphere on &rs, t h e space t r a v e l l e r s can remain i n contact with t h e e a r t h by means of l i g h t s i g n a l s almost t h e whole time i f , on an obs r v e r s t a t i o n n e a r t h e e a r t h , t h e r e i s a s u f f i c i e n t i y large space telescope and a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e r e f l e c t o r . Frovided t h e s e a r e a v a i l a b l e , a n eight-inch telescope and a r e f l e c t o r 1-2 m in diameter on l k r s would be s u f f i c i e n t .
'.

'he space navigators would have t o take precautions a g a i n s t cold nights.

They would have t o t a k e along provisions, f o r 1) we do not know a t a l l whether

&rs is inhabited and 2 ) t h e p l a n t s on 14ars would not be s u i t a b l e f o r human

n ~ u r i s h m e n tpresumbly because of t h e i r s a l t and potash content. IJrinking water could be produced on Ibkrs. Concerning t h e purpose of t h e t r i p only t h i s much can be s a i d today : t h e f i r s t expedition would c l e a r up t h e old points of c3ntroversy about Nars. !:%ether f u r t h e r t r i p s have a purpose one w i l l be a b l e t o say only a f t e r t h e f i r s t t r i p . The first t r i p would pay f j n a n c i a l l y under a l l circumstances. F i r s t of a l l , t h e ,rixGusntinn could be won : About 30 years ago, The Gusmann bequeathed 10#?,031 franks t o t h e P a r i s kademy with t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y be [iven t o t h e p h y s i c i s t who succeeds i n e s t a b l i s h i n g contact with a planet of our s o l a r system. R t t h a t Venus and "ercury have t h e preference, but s i n c e both a r e more d i f f i c u l t t o reach by space-shir\ than Irars t h e p r i z e

w i l l probably be paid out a f t e r t h e t r i p t o 'bars. I f t h e money were soon

i n v e s t e d prcfitab.1.y ( a t p r e s e n t i t i s s t i l l i n an envelope locked up i n the t r e a s ~ r r yof t h e F r e ~ c ha c a r l e ~ l y ) , it would 1 - j k e l y cover. t h e c o s t of t h e 1"ars expe?jt,j.on Sy t h e t i n i; it m a t e r i a l i z e s . Besiijss, wjth t h e g r e n t i n t e r e s t t h e pub3 i c h a s exact]-y i n r ' n r s , any 01j o c t s brought from I - n r s (even i f o n l y sanrples o f a i r , watpr, and r o c k ) would ?*e;resenf; s u c h a hi:,h v a l u e ( t b a y c o ~ ~ l be d p l a c e d i n nluseums o r s o l d t o col1 p c t o s s ) t h a t t h e c o s t of t h e t r i p v:orrl-d be covered by f a r .

I n caFe E:ars were u n i n h a b i e e d , it woul-d be t h e t a s k of t,he f i r s t exl.edit i o n t o n:a Ice coloi?izatj.on a t t e m p t s with orger;isli?s from s i m i l a r c l i n ~ a t e son e a r t h (e.g., from C e n t r a l and Northern A s i a ) . Apart from t h e b a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n of opening up a l l a r e a s a c c e s s i b l e t o l i f e , it would be o f s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t t o s e e whether and how t h e s e l i v i n g o r g a n i s n ~ sa c c l l m n t i z e on Mars. Nor i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y excluded t h a t t h e y would d e v e l o p o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s i n t h e c o u r s e of a few decades, t h e s t u d y o f which could be o f importance from t h e s c i e n t i f i c and p e r h a p s a l s o p r a c t ' -91 st.andpoint , e .g. pllarmaceutics.
On t h e o t h e r hand, i f blars were ali-ead.y i n h a b i t e d , i t s n a t u r a l l i f e would have t o be g ~ a r d e dand p r e s e r v e d uncj-lawed. Its r e s e a r c h would becon~e of downright epoch-making importance t o t h c b i o l o g i c a l sciences.

4 . Ven-JS
Venus could be t h e most d i f ' f i c u l t b u t a l s o t h o most reward!= c e l e s t i a l body f o r t h e s p a c e n a v i g a t o r t o e x p l o r e .

Its s i z e and chemical cornpos.i.tion i s almost completely l i k e t h a t o f t h e e a r t h ( d i a m e t e r ca 12,300 km), Its atmosphere a p p e a r s t o be
10-20 km h i g h e r t h a n t h e e a r t h t s atmosphere. Hence t h e a i r p r e s s u r e a t t h e v i s i b l e s u r f a c e i s 2-3 t i m e s a s g r e a t a s normal a i r p r e s s u r e on e a r t h , ( T h a t h a s been found by o b s e r v j n g how f a r t h e twilight o v e r l a p s t h e u n i l l u r n i n a t e d p a r t o f t h e planet, )

The albedo amounts t o 0.71-0.76. rematning 71-76

,

Therefore, t h e regions of Venus on of t h e l i g h t r a d i a t e d u p n them. The

which t h e sun shin-s absorb only 21-??

the.- simply r e f l e c t . This i s a very high f i g u r e , corres-

ponding t o t h e r - f l e c t i n g a b i l i t y of say a t h i c k l a y e r of clouds o r snow. l a e n c l e a r l y v i s i b l e in t h e telescope, Venus appears a s a small halfmoon. :.hen very npar t o us, it stands between e a r t h and sun and we cannot s e e

it a t a l l (so-called lower conjunction). When it is s i t u a t e d so t h a t t h e sun i s between TJenus and t h e e a r t h , it stands i n t h e so-called upper conjunction. I n t h i s p o s i t ~ o nwe cannot o5serve it e i t h e r . tihen it i s c l o s e t o t h e upper conjunction we s e e it a s a sm11 d i s c , but then it i s unfortunately q u i t e
f a r from t h e earth.

In t h e telescope, t h e observer s e e s Venus a s a uniform b r i g h t , white

surface on which not t h e s l i g h t e s t d e t a i l i s recoCmi7able. he dark s p o t s trhich a r e a l l e g e d l y seen a f t e r long observation and can a l s o be photographed with poor apparatus a r e only based on a g l a r e e f f e c t . ':hey appear on every brightly-illuminated, uniformly-white sphere and demonstrably disappear t h e more, t h e b e t t e r t h e i n s t r u n e n t s with which Venus i s being obs-rved. So, f o r t h e observer, it i s t r u l y a thankless object.

It i s d i f f i c u l t t o say anything d e f i n i t e about t h e temperature of Venus.

Zhe l i g h t o r heat energy which t h e sun transmits t o an a r e a o f 1 cm2 -uith perpendicular r a d i a t i o n ( t h e so-called s o l a r constant) on 'Jenus i s

4-1,.3 c a l

, .

cmd m i n . ,
T'k-?'

which i s 1.9-2

times t h a t f o r t h e earth. S i n c e Venus as

absorbs only r e t a i n s 42--,6

, : o f t h a t , whereas t h e e a r t h , being considerably darker,

of t h e s u n l i g h t , Venus a c t u a l l y r e t a i n s only 0.99-1.38

much energy a s the e a r t h . I f we designate t h e heat t h a t Venus absorbs a s e a r t h absorbs a s Q g

C

V' and t h e heat t h a t t h e

, then
:Q

the ratio = 1.9 '24 : 1.46 t o 2.29 : 1.42

Naturally, i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , Venus does not "retainvt t h i s q u a n t i t y of energy, but t h i s heat must be i r r a d i a t e d again together with t h e heat which t h e planet r a d i a t e s out from i t s e l f ( a s with t h e e a r t h , t h a t could amount t o 1/3 t o 1/4 of t h a t designated a s Q 8 ). So t h e surface of Venus must be so warm a s t o git-e o f f t h i s whole q u a n t i t y of heat i n t h e form of heat rays.

If t h e r e f l e c t i n g a b i x y of Venus were j u s t a s great f o r long-wave

a s f o r short-wave rays, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n according t o simple. I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e dense atmosphere of Venus contains much carbon dioxide it can be considerably warmer than we found it t o be j u s t now. Of course, I do not consider t h e atmosphere of Venus t o contain much carbbn dioxide. T believe, a s on e a r t h s o a l s o on Venus, t h e r e must be regions whose temperature i s up t o 40 below t h e averape temperature of t h e planet. Certainly, p l a n t s can e x i s t here (we a r e f a m i l i a r with species of algae occuring i n 600 hot s p r i n g s ) , but. such p l a n t s would i n a s h o r t time reduce t h e carbon dioxide content of t h e atmosphere. '[hereby, according t o what was s a i d on p. 4 9 7 , t h e temperature a s a whole would drop somewhat, mking formerly vhlamterregions a c c e s s i b l e t o U.fe ; t h a t would cause more carbon dioxide t o b e absorbed, reducing t h e carbon dioxide cont e n t of t h e atrmsphere t o a m i n i m u m . Visible l i g h t penetrates o t h e r substances l e s s e a s i l y than do heat

r. 4 3 8 f f

would be q u i t e

mist. '!he white l a y e r t h a t we see on Venus is very l i k e l y mist and hence t h e cloud cover of Venus w i l l sooner be colder t l a n we calculated above. If Venus i s u n i f o r c y white everywhere, I would asswne i t s average
rays, e.g. temperature t o be r--l5OC.

But now, more t h a n ever, v a r i o u s thing^ must b e considered. As i a n e l l known, our atmosphere i s c o l d above and, moving downward, t h e t e r ~ p e r a t u r ei n c r e a s e s about lo every 800 m . One should a l s o be a b l e t o n s s m e t h i s f i g u r e f o r Venus. So t h e a c t u a l s u r f a c e of %he p l a n e t i s l i k e l y Tarrier %ban t h e cloud cover. The q u e s t i o n i s how far it l i e s below t h e cloud cover. I p e r ~ o n a l l y b e l i e v e 6-8 km. O f course, what s u r p r i s e s ile i s t h a t even t h e s t r o u z e s t t e l e s c o p e s r e v e a l no s i g n s of -lovntzin ranges r i s i n g above t h e cloud cover. Venus i s a r e l a t i v e l y
your15 p l w e t ~ n d likely h ~ h si z h e r mountains than t h e e a r t h .

Final l y , t h e r e i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y that t h e r e f l e c t i n g a b i l itv of Venus i s d i f f e r e n t on t h e n i g h t s i d e than on t h e day ~ i d e . For cxau?le,

i f t h e night a i d e were a b s o l u t e l y black, t h e averaze t e ? p e r a t n r e of t h e

clorid cover would be about $0 below 0,

axis o r whether i t alwayls t u r n s t h e same ~ i d e t o t!ie sul; as does t h e moon t o t h e e a r t h i a s t i l l n o t Imown today. SCRIAPAPELLJ 8s.-umes t h e l a t t e r i s t r n e .
Y71ethcr Venus ( l i k e t h e enrtA) r o t r t t e ? .tbout,
it8

O t l ~ s rastronorlers, R T OnCT

-V'l,

t o name one, be1 ieve t h a t Venuz r o t a t e s

abo.it i t s a x i s once i n 20-36 h o u ~ ~ s .

The c1i:lat.e of Venus wit7 v a r y %re: t l y de:l-ndinv on whether it rof a t e s about l t s a ~ i oT* s not. I f i t always t u r n s t h e s u e s i d e t o t h e sro?
(cf.

Fig. 153), t h e a i r r i s e s a t t h e p l ~ c e d i r e c t l v Pacing t h e sun ( I will

I n so doinp;, a s on e a r t h , a d e n r e l a y e r of cloucla

c s l l it +,he day

in t h e ascending a i r current while t h e s u r f a c e of Venus i t s e l f remains f r e e of nfst. Below, cold a i r flows i n from t h e night pole. The sphere req- i r e s 20" days t o once r o t a t e about i t s axis in r e l a t i o n t o t h e s t e l l a r system. Ilence t h e d e f l e c t i n g f o r c e s which a r e n o t i c e a b l e t o s o high a degree with our t r a d e and monsoon wirds can only be small on Venus, f o r t h e y a r e merely t h e r sult of t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e c e l e s t i a l body. The a i r simply flows from dap pole t o njght ,htle and v i c e versa by t h e shortc-st way. per hour.) I n our l a t i t u d e , t h e f l e e c y clouds driven by t h e west wind develop an average v e l o c i t y of h-20 m per seccnd. Our west-winds develop from t k e f a c t t h a t t h e a i r heats up a t t h e equator and seeks t o flow toward t t e poles. Therein t h e a i r i s hindered by t h e d e v i a t i o n t o t he r i g h t due t o the e a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n (by t h e so-called c o r i o l i s f o r c e ) and only slowly winds forward t o t i e poles (in t h e course of 1-2 years). But i f t h e s e f l e e c y clouds f l y 8-20 n so doing, t h e upper l a y e r s of a i r l i k e l y develop
m~r

hurricane-t;l-pe v e l o c i t i e s . (Accordjng t o

c a l c u l a t i o n , 400 t o 1,OCO

km

per second,

one g e t s an idea of what v e l o c i t i e s must occur or a s t a r

on which t h e day pole obtains 1.9

'&

to 2

X times

t h e heat o f t h e e a r t h ' s

e q u a t o r i a l region, on which f u r t h e m o r e , in c o n t r a s t t o our cold zones, t h e n i g h t hemisphere receives no heat f r o m t h e sun a t a l l , and on which t h e r e

i s hardly a d e f l e c t i n g f o r c e t o hinder t h e s t r a i g h t - l i n e motion of t h e a i r

between t h e hot and cold regionsVlith t h i s v e l o c i t y , t h e upper l a y e r of t h e atmosphere could cover t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e day pole t o t h e n i g h t pole in about If,-TO hours. The lower l a y e r s o f t h e atmosphere w i l l l i k e l y move considerably slower, although t h e p r e v a i l i n g climate w i l l be q u i t e w b d y even there. I e s t i m 4 e

t l

n the a t t h e a i r w i l l r e q u i r e 10-21) d a y t o r e t u r n from t h e n i g t pole. O

s u r f a c e of Venus it would be r e l a t i v e l y cool, f o r t h e winds would c o n s t a n t l y b r j n g cold a i r from t h e n i g h t hemisphere. ' he temperature could be even lower t h a n t h a t of a uniformly-white sphere s i t u a t e d a s f a r fro^ t h e sun a s Venus. :here would l i k e l y be much fewer clouds over t h e n i g h t hemisphere t h a n over t h e day hemisphere. 1 ) F a r t of t h e water vapor c a r r i e d along l i k e l y f a l l s a s r a i n on t h e way. 2 ) Over t h e n i g k t hemisphere, t h e a i r i s i n descending motion ; on t h e e a r t k , however, we make t h e observation t h a t a r e a s with a i r i n ascending motion (e.g., t h e c'oldrums) a r e h e a v i l y clouded, whereas a r e a s with a i r in descending motion ( a s t h e d e s e r t s , f o r exanlple) have b l u e s k j e s . So t h e albedo of t h e n i g h t s i d e would bc s m l l c r than t h a t of t h e dayside. Heat would be absorbed w i t h d i f f i c u l t y but r e a d i l y r a d j a t e d . The e f f e c t would be t h e s a n e as i f we turned t h e observer's cabin of our rocket w i t h - t h e b r j g h t s i d e toward t h e sun and with t h e dark s i d e toward i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s r a c e oP a s i f a b e a u t i f u l woman shaded h e r s e l f a g a i n s t t h e sun's r a y s with a p a r a s o l and f a n s h e r s e l f on t h e shady s i d e .

Xevertheless, temperatures under 3" would be r a r e . :n t h i s c a s e , t h e cold a r e a s hould be covered with snow o r i c e . (Cark i c e s u r f a c e s do occur, but on t a t e r a; ove which such storms rage a s above t h e ni,:ht cooled o f f t o below
-

s i d e of Venus not

dark but l i g h t i c e i s forrred.) I f a s u f f i c ' e n t l y l a r g e p a r t o f t h e n i g h t s i d e

I",

Venus w u l d be uniformly white on both s i d e s . E u t t h e n ,

a s we a l r e a d y saw, i t s a v e r - g e temperature could not be below O0 b u t , according t o STai HAN BOLTLANNTS i ~ w ,would have t o be a t l e a s t 8-20 above 0. Since, in t h e upper l a y e r s , t h e atmosphere moves toward t h e n i g h t s i d e but i n t h e lower l a y e r s in t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n , ~ eddies occur i n t h intermediate l a y e r which cause a temporary and i r r e g u l a r r i s e and. f a l l of t h e barometer. Fut t h e s e barometric f l u c t u a t i o n s a r e evened out more r a ~ i d l y than on e a r t h due t o t h e l a c k of t h e c o r i o l i s f o r c e , and t h e bar0netri.c

minima a r e l i k e l y a l s o carried away f a s t e r , so t h a t the:- do not l i e above one and t h e sameregion a s long. i n c o r t r a s t t o our land r a i n s , which o f t e n l a s t
f o r weeks, on Venus barometric depressions w i l l seldom l a s t longer than a m t t e r of hours. I f Venus always turned t h e sane s i d e t o t l ' e sun, t h e climate ~zouldl o & somewhat a s follo:vs

F i r s t of a l l , g r e a t s i m j l a r i t y of climate a t t h e sarre pojnt. The sun i s always i n t h e same p o s i t i o n in t h e sky, t h e wind blows uninterruptedly from t h e same di.recti.on and with t h e s a w force, barometric f l u c t u a t i o n s a r e of a n hour,there a r e no timc!s of t h e generally equalized again in f r a c t j . 0 1 1 ~ day o r seasons.

In a narrow zone ar-lurid t h e day pole, humid-warm, t r o p i c a l c l i m t e , calm,

heavily-clouded sky p e r h a p with v i o l e n t ,
continuo^,^

thunder.

For t h e r e s t , t h e climate on t h c day s i d e i s moderate, perhars 10C on t h e edge o f t h e day s i d e , very windy. Cloudy sky, t h e clouds bepin 2 km above t h e ground, below t h a t c l e a r atmosphere.The cloud cover reach s t o

an a l t i t u d e of sorne 6-7 knl. Sunlight s t r o n c l y reduced by t h e cloud cover, ill.umination a s & r o n g a s on a d u l l day on e a r t h . l l i k e l y not a s b r i g h t a s
when t h e sun shines on earth.

I n general, tk.e a i r i s dense but not so dense a s t o prevent one from breathing* Thls climate ~ m u l dbe bearable f o r e a r t h l y c r e a t u r f . ~ t, h e more s o of the temperature zone, i n which case one could t h i n k o f s e t t l i n g on Venus. Unfort u n a t e l y , it a p r e a r s more probable t h z t '.'enus r o t a t e s about an a x i s aprroxirrately perpendicular t o tlie o r b i t a l plane. I believe t h a t t h e sun's a t t r a c t i n r

f o r c e has ~ o been t s u f f i c i e n t t o make Venus s t o p rcitating. Of course, with t h e a s a m p t i o n o f a x i a l r o t a t i o n , it i s d i f f i c u l t to explain t h e unifomilywhite color of Venus. h c b ~ l l y , cloud-free zones would have t o form a s on e a r t h , f o r -pie, o r t h e clouds would a t l e a s t have t o show varying shades

as, f o r example, on J u p i t e r o r :.lars. Assuming, however, Venus d i d r o t a t e about i t s axis l i k e t h e e a r t h , then t h e climate would look somewhat a s follows : Ltuite uniform clouding over on both s i d e s , hence a temperature a t t h e v i s i b l e surface of 8-20C and a ground temperature of a t l e a s t 45OC. Humid-warm, foggy weather, very much rain, frequent thunder (in agreement with t h i s i s prhaps t h e l i g h t i n g sometines observed on t h e night s i d e ) .
In t h i s case, s e t t l i n g on Venus would n a t u r a l l y be out of t h e question, except i f rran of l a t e r agcs found wa:rs and means of keeping part of t h e sun's r a p away from Venus s a y by r o t a t i n g umbrellas made of sodium plate. t a k i n g alone r e f r i g e r a t o r s ) .

On t h e o t h e r hand, a scientific e x r e d i t i o n might be a b l e t o protect i t s e l f

a g a i n s t such texperatures f o r a time (say : b

14 v i s i t t o Venus would have a high s c i e n t i f i c , I would l i k e t o say, almost

philosophic value. rlere one would f i n d t h e c l i m a t i c condit:ons t h a t prevailed on e a r t h when l i f e began. Idany a h i n t could be obtained f o r answering questiolSwhich concern t h e o r i e i n of l i f e and the development of t h e animal world, and which our theory of f o s s i l s does not answer today s i n c e we have no f o s s i l s fram those first days of l i f e . Finally, a l a s t p o s s i b i l i t y would be t h a t Venus r o t a t e s about an a x i s , but t h i s a x i s i s s t r o n g l y inc:iined tovmrd t h e o r b i t a l plane, p e r h a p l y i n g entir~ly i n t h e orb,ital plane. !n t h i s case, a l l l i f e on Venus would be eduded. 3 u t t h i s case is not probable, f o r such an i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e a x i s could have been brought about only by an outside a c t i n g force and t h e g r e a t r e g u l a r i t y of t h e Venus o r b i t m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t such a f o r c e having ac: ed-

Direct landing by means of a rocket space-ship would be possible

only

i f Venus does not r o t a t e about i t s ~ 3 s i . f t h e r e is a x i a l r o t a t i o n , landing on high mountains might be possible, but t h e y would have bo be found beforehand.
~ I O Whopes

e x i s t of photoeraphifig t h e s u r f a c e of Venus throuch t h e

cloud cover from a space-ship g r a v i t a t i n g about t h e planet bt usSnp a method invented by B A D D and in t h i s way answering t h e questions concerning i t s a x i a l r o t a t i o n , habitableness, and p o s s i b l e landing s i t e s . t o (230), I n i t s e l f , reaching Venus would not be d i f f i c u l t . ,',CCLL-dirg = 3.5 km / sec and, according t o (12~'), a n i d e a l propuls'o!, o f 13 km / sec

vrl

would be s u f f i c i e n t by f a r t o reach it. The t r i p out would t a k e a t t h e most

= 10.5 km

4-5 months. ''he r e t u r n t r i p would likewise be r e l a t i v e l y easy ; vr2 = 3.3 km/secq would s u f f i c e . Here t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s l i e r a t h e r i n t h e landing and t h e re-ascent.
The dense Venus atmosphere is unfavorable f o r rocket space-ships.

v~9

sec. For t h e r e t u r n t r i p , an i d e a l propulsion of 12.5 km

sec

Its

perhaps high temperature makes it almost impossible t o keep tl-e f u e l s i n a nothing a s t o whether l i q u i d s t a t e , and today we can & i l l say a b s o l l ~ t e l y and with what kind of machines we might be a b l e t o produce t h e f u e l s on Venus i t s e l f .

9n t h e o t h e r hand, with a t o t a l i d e a l propulsion of vx(20

by BAWD'S method.

km

sec,

it would be possible t o l e t a rocket o r b i t Venus' and photograph i t s s u r f a c e

O n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of reaching Venus with a n e l e c t r i c space-ship 1 w i l l w r i t e i n t h e next chapter. A 1 1 i n a l l , one can s a y t h a t a visit t o Venus w u l d be rewarding under a l l circumstances but t h a t so f a r considerable a s t r o -

physical research has s t i l l t o Le done and enormous t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s % r i l l have t o be overcome.

: . 4he

Y+emainin~ Bodies o f Cur Solar System

These cannot be reached with rocket srace-ships. -'ercury, f o r exanple, is t o o close t o the sun and here a d i f f e r e n c e i n p o t e n t i a l would Pave t o be overcone of which t h e rocket space-ship i s no lonper capable. ?or em]-lple, t h e t o t a l i d e a l rrop:jlsion f o r a landing vrould be vx = 35 km / sec, f o r o r b i t i n g vx = 3" ion / sec. hat would rcs7dt i n a minimum mss r a t i o ofT m,

>

13,200,

a comyletely i n d i s c u s s i b l e f i g u r e . it

would be possible t o reach ; - c r c u r ~ b: e l e c t r i c space-ship, but t h e question i s whether one could land. Since it always t u r n s t h e saxe s i d e t o t h e sun and has r o a t m s p h e r e , t h e a r e a s i l l u m i n l t e d by t h e sun must have a temper a t w e below 0, and it i s riore than questionable whether we can core with such extreme temperature differences with our present-day t e c h n i c a l Deans. Eesidcjs, we would presumably find nothing e l s e on I,ercury than on t h e moon. The comets occasionally c0p.e very close t h e e a r t h , but in t h i s case

tb

t h e y have s o high a v e l o c i t y witti r-oference t o t h e e a r t h t h a t landing h i t h r e a . m r d t h r a s t deceleration i? cu: oi' t h e question. (dhetlier t h e atmosphere, of co;.ig:l,s i a :,?litable f o r bra1;'rL; purposes we do n3t know, but it i s unlikely.) They can tic reached b l e l e c t 1 c syace-skip, but nothing can b e said abtxit t h e
'

Furpose of t h e f l i g h t s i n c e too l i t t l e i s known abciut them. F i n a l l y , J u p i t e r and i t s noons can be reached by e l e c t r i c ,space-ship. To beyin with, J u r i t e r i t s e l f i s eliminated a s c o a l of a v i s i t because it

is surrounded by a very dense a t m s p h e r e of a t l p a s t 4CCC. if@ can say

nothjng about the moons of J u p i t e r since t h e y a r e not s u f f i c i e n t l y known. The t h r e e o u t e r planets (Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) and t h e i r moons cannot be reached even with t h e e l f c t r i c space-ship, s i n c e t h e b e s t rlachincs cannot work so f a r from t h e sm.

Chapter 22 The lectric s ~ e a

%ce we have s e t up a r o t a t i n g s t a t i o n outside of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosyhere, n e i t h e r a i r nor c o u n t e r - ~ r e s s u r e d i s t u r b us and we can here bu5ld machincs which a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e f u e l rockets a s a n ocean l i n e r t o a boat. tlr. cr-n,
by e l e c t r i c a l means, increase t h e r a d i a t i o n v e l o c i t y t o doc.ble 1

Thereby, according t o formula considerably.

(6),

i~:i-i'old. we reduce t h e l o s s in p r o p e l i <r.i1very

If we connect one pole of an e l e c t r i f y i n g machine o r an induction c o i l

t o a pointed metal body, w e n o t i c e t h a t t h e a i r is hurled awa- f r o n t h e t i p .
T h i s i s t h e so-called d e c t r i c wind. A s Fig. 151+ shows, it can blow out a

candle flame.

Fir. 151,
3 , a force never a c t s on one body alone ; it. always a c t s between two bod1 s. 'he electrically-charged a i r nlolecules on
As I a l r e a d y s a i d on

r.

t h e i r part push back t h e t i p with t h e same force rrith whjch they a r e being

- n dense a i r , t h i s e l e c t r i c wind blows only slowly, although i n cornparis n t o t h e energy expended it

pushed forward by t h e t i p ( e l e c t r i c wind-wheel). has considerable percussive power. I n t h i n a i r , on t h e o t h e r hand, i t s v e l o c i t y i s c r s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r , but i t s percussive poser decreases i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e work performed.

That i s e a s i l y understood : The work of the influence-machine i s being used t o charge and s e t i n motion t h e a i r molecules. ?f t h e a i r mss ml moves with v e l o c i t y vl, i t s manenturn (and with t h a t a l s o i t s percussive power) is
J1 = ml V1

(235 1

On t h e o t h e r hard, t h e work required t o s e t

it i n notion anaunts t o :

I f we have t h e mass

and t h e v e l o c i t y v2, then

:,?ow, i f t h e influence-machine
E!

performs t h e same work in both cases, then

=C ,

From t h a t , t h i s follows :

or, s i n c e
mv = J

Today, t h e e l e c t r i c wind i s being explained a s follows : A l l matter c o n s i s t s of molecules, these of a t o n s , and t h e atoms of p o s i t i v e n u c l e i

about which t h e so-called e l e c t r i n s w h i r l i n determined clrcul.ar o r e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t s . 5 h a t these e l e c t r o n s a c t u a l l y a r e we s t i l l do not r e a l l y know ; in most cases we p r e f e r t o v i s u a l i z e them a s small m a t e r i a l bodies with a s t r o n g negative charge. If a molecu1.e has one e l e c t r a n t o o few, it appears t o have a p o s i t i v e e l e c t r i c charge ; i f it has one t o o mr:y, it appears negative. I f a molecule breaks up say because t h e molecules whirl about due t o t h e heat and str ke a g a i n s t each o t h e r , t l - e n one p a r t i s o f t e n n e g a t i v e l y and t h e o t h e r p o s i t i v e l y charged (ions). Such ions occur i n every gas ( m s t l y i n very small numbers), a l s o i n t h e a i r . ''ear a s t r o n g l y e l e c t r i f i e d body ions with t h e sa:'e charge a r e repelled. how t h e y f l y among Lhe o t h e r uncharged molecules and sweep them along, while t h e y themselves a r e retarded i n t h e i r i n i t i a l l y very rapid motion. !f t h e r e i s much a i r around t h e ions, a l a r g e mass is s e t in motion but only a t a low velocity. qn the o t h e r hand, i f t h e a i r i s t h i n , t h e ions s t r i k e o n l y few a i r molecules, but f o r t1,at t h e y

impart a higher v e l o c i t y t o them. In a highly e v a c ~ ~ a t e(evscvate d = empty out w i t h a n a i r p u w ) g l a s s tube (with l e s s than 1/10i)0 of a n atrilosphere)
t h e molecules and atoms f l y i n g away f rom t h e so-called
small
TMSS,
Oc;

+ pole ( t h e so-called anode)

a l r e a d y develop average v e l o c i t i e s o f 50 t o 400 km

, canal,

o r anode r;gs. From t h e

k m

- pole ( t h e so-called
and over (

sec. These a r e t h e

cathode), f o r t h e most part f r e e e l e c t r o n s f l y away which, due t o t h e i r reach v e l o c i t i e s o f up t o rG,MO cathode rays )

/ sec

b or

1) Fig. 155 shows a G E ~ E W . ~ tube F~

(rr

hil:1:3y~d-zcuatedg l a s s t u b e ) through

which passes a high-tension e l e c t r i c cur-rc:nt. he l i g h t i n g i s caused by t h e c o l l i s i o n between t h e a i r m l e c u l e s and t h e electrically-charged particles.

The rearward-thrust e f f e c t on an e l e c t r i c wind-wheel i s likewise t h e g r e a t e r , t h e denser t h e a i r . W e can understand t h a t i f we consider t h a t i n dense a i r t h e dectrically-charged p a r t i c l e s being hurled away remain near t h e t i p longer and hence have more time t o i m p r t t h e i r r e p e l l i n g force t o t h e t i p . . n r e t u r n , with t h e same l o s s of substance, a considerably stronger reamrard-thrust impulse can be produced with higher r a r i f F c a t i o n s due t o t h e high r e r e l l i n e v e l o c i t i e s . Tlention should a l s o be made of t h e f a c t t h a t , w i t h high r a r i f i c a t i o n t h e bodies from which e l e c t r i c i t y i s t o flow need no longer be pointed ; t h e R a n d B - r a y s a l s o flow from wide s u r f a c r s , i n which case t h e y run perpendicular t o t h e surface, in a s t r a i g h t l i n e and p a r a l l e l t.o each other. h i t h a complete vacuum,usually noOC o r 8 - r a y s can be produced. Br them t o occur, ionized m o l e c u l ~ ~ appear s t o b e absolutely necesrary. !8 c n produce t h e s e r a y i n a completely-evacuated glasstube only i f we i o n i z e t h e m a t e r i a l of t h e anode o r cathode i t s e l f (e.g.,
t h e anode
01'

by heating : glowing cathode ; raking

a njxl,ure of fused s a l t s according t o t h e method of GXEtCI(E arc 1' * J ' : l i ' I ' l i : T r : 1 ,riving t h e electrodes hollow anc! f i l l i n g them with any

gases . h i i h seep through t h e f r n t wall, and the l i k e ) . I f c i s t h e v e l o c i t y in c m

sec of t h e hurled-away p a r t i c l e s , V t h e t h e quantity

difference in tension between t h e two electrodes i n v o l t s , e

of e l e c t r i c i t y cz r i e d along by t h e gas mass m, then t h i s f o r m l a is v a l i d :

With t h e e l e c t r i c space-ship,

it would be a matter of u t i l i z i n g t h e

r a d i a t i o n of t h e sun ( i n space th5.s i s t r u l y vigorous) f o r d r i v i n g steanengines. These s t e a p - e n ~ j n e s r o d dbsveto propel some s o r t of e l e c t r i f y i n g machines which i n t u r n would supply t h e current f o r s t r c n g e l e c t r i c r a d i a t i o n by which t h e space-ship i s propelled forward. Since we a r e probably dealj.ng with a vacuum, we can achieve our goal only by t h e use of t h e hollow, s a l t , o r glowing e l e c t r o d ~ s mentioned above (cf. ~ i g . 1 5 6 ) . The- electrode which emits t h e r a d i a t i o n de1iverir.g t h e rear-

+
Fig. 156

it

ward t h r u s t would have t o be a broad surface (main electrode). l n f r o n t of

A t t h e cathode, enough gas would have t o seep through (csncerned W O I I J he ~

would have t o be an a u x i l i a r y electrode of'wire g r i d with an opposite charge. chlorine, o q g e n , o r t h e l i k e ) t o f i l l the s p c e between t h e main cathode and a u x i l i a r y anode so s t r o n g l y with gas so t h a t what would be emitted i n t h e main would not bl rapidly-flying electrodes but a r e l a t i v e l y

more slowly-flying e l e c t r i c wind rrainly carrying gas p a r t i c l e s .

A pure stream of electrons would only consume much work due t o t h e a l l

t o o high v e l o c i t y of t h e electrons without delivering a discuss5bla rear-

ward t h r u s t (cf. (237) ), i.e., i f a pure stream of e l e c t r o n s d e l i v e , s a rearward t h r u s t a t a l l . h i s i s very probable but has not been proved e q e r i mentally and hence i s l a r p e l y being quest.ioned. S o t h e charges d i r e c t e d

a g a i n s t UIJfiSKI because of h i s stream of e l e c t r o n s do not a f f e c t me, s i n c e

I am t h i n k i n g of a r e l a t i v e l y slow e l e c t r i c wind. But, f o r t h e i-cnt, I must

r e j e c t t h e tlearth-relatedll objections by e n ~ i n e e r s because of t h e low u t i l i zation of e n e r r - following from formulas (23. ) t o ( 3 3 7 ) . On eartr. supplying 5n general c o s t s mre t h a n mass, s o here we must save on energy enere.7 a t t ' s J cost of mass. With t h e e l e c t r i c s ~ a c e - s h i p , on t h e o t h e r hand, we a t t a i n e n e r m much more easil:. t h a n mass and hence we mst aim t o save mass a t t h e cost of energy

!>.

The p s i t i v e wind could be mainta', -r' c:' v a p r . -Chlorine,

* -

'3y

: l

s a l t anode f a c i n g a

glowing platinum g r i d o r by a hollow e l e c t r o d e f i l l e d h - i t h hydrogen o r sodium oxygen, sodium, and mineral s a l t s would have t h e preference a s p r o p e l l a n t s s i n c e t h e y a r e a l s o contained in t h e rock of t h e moon and t h e a s t e r o i d s , from where t h e y a r e more e a s i l y cibtainrd tkan from t h e e a r t h . Hydrogen, on t h e o t h e r hand, w i l l b e d i f f i c u l t t w :i t ? n from t h e moon o r t h e asteroies, for The mchine. here t h e r e a r e in any case
0 1 . 1 ~ tA3-,ces of

water o r i c e .

; i

steam b o i l e r operat s a t t h e focus of a concave r e f l e c t o r .

The exhaust

4, d r i v e s

a steam t u r b i n e which in t u r n d r i v e s an irifluence-machine.

steam p2sses through pipes s i t u a t e d i n t h e shade of t h e r e f l e c t o r , wl e r e t h e

1) By t h e my, t h i s remirk i s r u r e l y academic, f o r , according t o what was s a i d

on pp.315

- 216,

t h e r a d i a t i o n v e l o c i t y of 10-43 km

sec whlch I aim f o r a c t u a l -

' . y j u s t ( i n c j d c n t a l l y ) corresfonds t o t h e requirsnent of t h e b e s t t o t a l u t i l i -

z a t i o n of energy, f o r it i s of t h e r r a p i t u d e o f t h e space-skip v e l o c i t i e s f o r i n t e r f l a n e t a r y t r a f f i c , whereas here e = 4 krn favorable.

s e c would be decidedly l e s s

I water p r e c i p i t a t e s and i s again returned t o t h e b o i l e r through feeder pumps.!

F i ~ i ; . 157

D e t a i l s : The b o i l e r A (of Fig. 157) has t h e form o f a c y l i n d r i c a l pipe. Water i s found only in t h e spzce between t h e o u t e r and i n n e r surfac7s of t h e cylinder. The whole i s b u i l t a s t,hough t h e w a l l of a pipe were hollovred out and f i l l e d with water. Eoth cylinder surfaces a r e c o n n e c t 4 a f t e r t h e fashion of Fig. 37. I n e n e r a l , I have not drawn connecting pieces in Fig. 157 i n order not t o confuse t h e drawing. F o r t h i s reason
T

Pave o n l y drawn

t h e feeder pipe f o r t h e coolivg water simply, a c t u l l : . a . ~ e t r i c a l I ~ . I n s i d e t h j s hollow cylinder i s a steam t u r b i n e B mounted on t h e salre

axle w i t h an influencearackine C. The influence-machjne is b u i l t on t h e

condenser-machine, model of W~;~&E~SIXJti17% b u t if possible I would l i k e to
make it out of more h a t - r e s i s t a n t m t e r i a l ; otherwise it would be neces-

sary t o conduct t h e feed water of t1,e b o i l e r f o r cooling r u r p s e s arovnd t,hi,~ --,>chinef i r s t instead o f , a s indicated in Fig. 157, l e a d i n g it d i r e c t l y t o t t , o boiler a t %. ':he middle of t h e a x l e of B and C must be s o strong a s t h e o t h e r hand, a t t h e ends D and' 1 ; it can be very t h i n not t o twist. ~ ? n

and f l e x i b l e because o f t h e low counter-pressure. "hls considerably f a c i J i tates balanci-ng t';e o s c j l l a t i n g mrts ( a s in LAVxLVS steam turbir8e),
1) &re

I took ua$er as f e e d e r l i q u i d , b u t I a m l17avhg t h e question open

whether another l i q u i d (say mercury) might not be more s u i t a b l e ,

The i d l e r wheels of t h e t u r b i n e and t h e cordenser p l a t e s of t h e influencenachine a r e firmly connected t o t h e b o i l e r . hen t h e t u r b ne s t a r t s , t h e i d l e r wheels together v i t h tk,c b o i l e r eet a r o t a t j o n a l nomenturn i r , t h e opl-osjte d i r e c t i o n accord- ne t o t h e law of t h e conservatidn o f t h e centre o f gravity. Thereby 1) t h e water i n t!,e b o i l e r is r r e s s s d f i r m l y a g a i n s t t h e b o i l e r wall. (7ec;luse of t h e lack of counter-pressure, t h l s could b e achieved i n no o t h e r
wag.) ? ) =hat has t h e a d d i t i o n a l

advantage t h a t t ; e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y between level.

t h e r o t a t i n g p a r t s i s increased while t h e centr- f u g a l f o r e , wVich d e y e ~ d sonly or t h e a b s o l ~ t er o t a t i v e speed, does not need t o r i s e t o an k o d e r a t e For t h i s r a s r i hop-?, f o r examrle, t o g e t by with 1-2 pressure s t a c e s o, 2 ) i,e eliminate one feeder pump ; t h e c e n t r j f u g a l f o r c e
0m

ir. t h e steam

t.1:~" '

i s sufficjp--' to d r i v e t h e water from 1 : i n t o b o j l e r A , sfnca i t s o u t e r

ve'ocitg -is s l yuf. rapidly t h a t whole surface. ere

sec. 4 ) "he whole o u t e r s i d e of t h e b o i l e r is i r r a , : t i 1 almost uniform transmission of heat over t h e

d i a t e d t o t h e s a r e depree b$ t h e sun, a t which l i g h t and shade chance s o

O-

r!&z

Gue t o the strong c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e , v a p r bubblcs very e a s i l : t e a r themselves f r e e from t h e b o i l e r wall and l i q u i d idFaicl--s swert along soon s e t t l e aga'in, so t h a t before t h e valor reach s B it i s t o l e r a b l y d r y , although satur a t ( d, "he erhaust steam f i l l s t h e space between 3 and D. A t D, guide vanes a r e attached which deprive t h e steam of i t s r o t a r y motion before it e n t e r s t h e exl-Laust-steam pipe Q. The steam l e a v i n g t h e t u r b i n e i s llwetrl, i.e., it carrit-.s along p a r t l y condensea water, K o w most of t h e fog p a r t i c l e s a r e c a r r i e d by t h e r e s t of t h e steam, but y a r t of t h e condensed water s e t t l e s i n t o pipe or: t h e guide vanes, e t c . 'i'hjs water is in rart driven a g a h s t t h e b o i l e r w a l l
by t h e c e n t r i f u g a l force, where it vay.orizcs, f o r t h e t e n p e r a t u r e d t h e b o i l e r

i s cs~asiderablyh i g k r t h a n t h e b o i l i n g point of t ' e water a t D ; by s u i t a b l e spiral-shaped guide channels (not shown), t h e g r e a t e r part of t h e water can
a l s o be drawn d i r e c t l y i n t o pipe K o r a t l e a s t i n t o pipe C. Part of t h e b o i l e r

w a l l can be i n s u l a t e d a g h a s t g i v i n g o f f heat. Tipe 4 m k e s s e v e r a l t u r n s

in t h e shade of t h e e f l e c t o r , where t h e steam condenses. Due t o t h e l a c k of counter-pressure, t h e steam s t i l l uncondensed d r i v e s t h e water before it. A t K it again e n t e r s t h e mchine.
Since t h e b o i l e r r o t a t e s , t h e p i p s a t G and H fashion. :!ere must i r ~ t e r l o c ki n Dutch

t h i s connection is q u i t e f r S c t i o n l e s s s i n c e both t h e i r s i d e

pressure and t h e counter-pressure a r e amall, P.t a x l e I, by which t h e b o i l e r

i s fastened io t h e o u t e r jacket on t h e o t h e r s i d e , t h e f r i c t i o n i s s t i l l
much s m l l e r . Nevertheless, t h e f r i c t i o n cannot be e n t i r e l y eliminated, which in time would cause t h e b o i l e r t o impart i t s r o t a t i n g motion t o t h e o u t e r machine. That can be prevented by a t t a c h i n g an Influence-machine a t I t h a t a c t s l i k e a motor and gives t h e a x l e a r o t a t i o n a l momentum opposite and equal t o t h e f r i c t i o n . Side M of t h e o u t e r jacket i s turned away from t h e c b ~ c a v er e f l e c t o r and has a r e f b c t i n g overlay f o r t h e purpose of r e f l e c t i n g back on t h e b o i l e r t h e heat it r a d i a t e s . Side N i s turned toward t h e concave r e f l e c t o r and rmst c o n s i s t of sane t y p e of t r a n s p r e n t substance. This jacket completely surrounding t h e b o i l e r i s needed- because it w i l l probably be impxisible t o s e a l closure I . e n t i r e l y hermetically and we do not wjsh t o . l o s e t h e steam escaping here t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. n r o t a t i n g machine p a r t s extend throurh t h e jacket the o t h e r ha.nd, no

, If
( ;

anywhere ; hence it

i s more e a s i l y protected a g a i n s t t h e l o s s of :.::s.

pump (not shown) t o b r i n g t h e steam e s c a ~ i n g at

11 t h a t is needed is a ha.ck t o pipe K. 0 and P

a r e s l i d i n g contacts f o r talcing o f f t h e e l e c t r i c current. By m a n s of e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s coi~ductedover sim5-lar c o i ~ t a c t st h e work of t h e :achir e can be corltrolledL.

1) This n a t u r a l l y has t h e condition tklat t h e e l e c t r i c i t y does not flow from
0 t o I , which can perhaps be achieved by keeping t h e space betweenthe b o i l e r

and t?,e jacket

'

, I.

s u f f i c i e n t l y f r e e of a i r . The i - s u l a t i o n could a l s o be

achieved a s follows : Here it is b e s t t o have t h e contact r o i n t s run i n mercury o w one would simply have t o pour o i l over t h e mercury and i n s u l a t e channels. K everything e l s e correspondingly.

R and S a r e t h e rods t h a t connect t h e machine t o t h e r e f l e c t o r . The

operation of t h e machine can be r c p l a t e d by l e t t i n g t h e influence-machine a t I run f a s t e r o r slower. I n t h i s case, a s l i g h t r o t a t i o n occurs which brings t h e b o i l e r p a r t l y o r completely out o f t h e r a y s of t h e concave reflector. Fig. 158 shows an e l e c t r i c space-ship with 6 machines. They a r e connected t o each o t h e r by cables ( i r s u l a t e d i n case of need) so t h a t t h e p i l o t can put t h e n in any p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o each other. 'Po m e t h i s appears necessary so t h a t no mach're g e t s into t h e shade o r t h e e l e c t r i c rays of another. R designates t h e a c t u a l space-ship about which r o t a t e t h e two g r a v i t a t i o n a l c e l l s S

Pig. 158
fastened t o a stroirg cable. The spacc-ship and each o f t h e sfngle machines has two electrodes. ?.s t h e s o r c e of e l e c t r i c i t y I would suggest t h e influence-machine, which has t h e advantage of a ~ o ~ ~ s i d e r a higher bly tension comrared t o t h e dynamos.
,,

l o achieve a p p r o x i m t e l y t h e sane e f f e c t , a g r e a t number of d i r e c t c u r r e n t

dynarllos m-uld have t o b e connected i n s e r i t s . r e s i d e s , t h e influence-mach nes have t h e advantaye t h a t t h e i r voltage i s j.ndependent of t h e r o t a t i v e s p e d within wide l.imit2s.

One might a l s o c.3nsider using a cornbjnatj-on of dynamos and induction c o i l s . in comparison t o t h a t , t h e i fLuence-rcachirie has t h e advantare 1) o f l i g h t e r weight. he d y n a ~ o sand induction c o i l s b u i l t today a r e r e l a t i v e l y but I believe t h a t is o n l y because syscia.1 l i g h t e r t h a n inf-uence-mach:n-s,

l i g h t n e s s has not been aimed f o r with t h e l a t t e r . Lccording t o rriy c a l c u l a t i o n ,

it should be possible toreduce t h e weight of an influence-machine t o below

0.2 kg per kilowatt. 2 ) Inhence-machines produce a d i r x t current (whereas

t h e voltage of an induction c o i l chanzes between 0 and t h e rraximum point with every s t r o k e of t h e hammer). Thereby t h e r e p e l l i n g v e l o c i t y b,n

~ ~ uniform and we can achieve t h e same rearward t h r u s t with t h e saye l o s s in substance and a smaller e x e n d i t u r e o f energy, by which t h e machines become
correspondjxgly smaller and l i g h t e r .

1
!
i

The percussive e f f e c t i s proportional only t o the l i n l a r mcan value of t h e velocity. Here is a simple example :

If I have two gas m l e c u l e s of mss 1 and

imwrt

t h e v e l o c i t y 0 t o one

and v e l ~ c i t . :2~ t o t h e other, t h e t o t a l impulse is

o + 12=2

'he

work ,o be expended a m u n t s t o

On t h e o t h e r hand, i f I impart t h e v e l o c i t y I t o both molecules, t h e impulse

here i s : 1 ' 1+1'1=2 But t h e energy o f m t i o n required i s only 1

+ 1T . 1 .

12=1

That i s only h a l f a s great a s in t h e former case.

3 ) Eecause of i t s col-.stant voltage, t h e influence-machine can be connected

Fn p a r a l l e l a s w e l l a s in s e r i e s , which has t h e advani-<acet h a t , in t h e f o r m r

case, we achieve slower but forcefully-percussive

c u r r e n t s and in t h e l a t t e r

case, by c o n t r a s t , rapid currents and r e l a t i v e l y small l o s s o f substance.

Lrl,I:

, ! ' I , who has come up with a s i m i l a r p r o j e c t , suggests t h e m c o u p l e

y As a o t h e r s i d e t o t h e temperature of i n t e r ~ l a n e t ~ a rspace.
SOW

elements a s source of propulsion ; he wants t o l z t t h e sun shine on one s i d e and expose t h source of current, these thermocouple e1e:nents c e r t a i n l y have advantages,

but they have a defect which I do not know whether and how it could be remedied. Since t h e requir-d high voltage can be achieved only by connecting i n s e r i e s millions of t h e m c o u y l e elenents, we obtain an e x t r e m l y long thermopile whose ends a r e strongly charged. (ULE\SKI f i g u r e s with voltages of up t o 250,000 v o l t ; I hope t o g e t along with voltages of 5O,OOblOO,OOO v o l t . ) i n t e r p l a n e t d r y space i s c e r t a i n l y no absolute vacuum and t h e e x i s t i r ~ g gases a r e probably s t r o n g l y i d z e d , I f e a r t h a t t h i s thermopile covering

wide a r e a would emit e l e c t r i c rays in a l l d i r e c t i o n s , s o tlla.t it would be

impossible t o b r i n g t h e required q u a n t i t y of e l e c t r ? ci'i y t o t h e electrodes.

O f course, one might t h i n k of coating t h e t h e m c o u p l e z ~ e m e n t swith a

trznsparent and diathermic m a t e r i a l t h a t holds back e l e c t r i c i t y . I a m afraid, however, t h i s m u l d reduce i t s performing capacity t o o strongly and g r e a t l y ficrease t h e weight of t h e machiqe (one should consider what two g l a s s d a t e s

2-3 m t h i c k and covering i n t h e neighborhood of 40 hectares must weigh). Admittedly, it i s not e d u d e d t h a t i n t h i s point chance might somehow come t o ULCdSKItS a i d , in ldhich case (with s u f f i c i e n t l i g h t n e s s ) t h e therrrapile
would n a t u r a l l y be preferable t o t h e mvable machines.

Yamitude of t h e propulsion : l a t u r a l l y , t h ~ ; capacity of the machinee i r t h e g r e a t e r , t h e stronger t h e r a d i a t i o n of t h e sun ; a t t h e d i s t a n c e of Venus from t h e sun, f o r example, t h e y would have twice t h e capacity t h e y have near t h e earth.

kt t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e e a r t h , t h e sun r a d i a t e s 2 g.cal. / min. on a 2 square centimeter of surface. So, with t h e heat energy t h a t 1 cm receives in t h e course of a minute, 20,000 g, t h a t i s 20 l i t e r s of water, could be heated by la. kiith a good steam engine (and here we m y presuppose good steam engines) we can count on a e f f i c i e n c y of 17 $, i.e. 72.5 mkg per
kg

cal. qthus, corresponding t o a square meter of r e f l e c t i n g surface, our

machine d e l i v e r s :

That is roughly 1/3 metric horsepower. I f we designated t h e i r r a d i a t i n g

mass f a l l i n g t o a n? of I.eflecting surface a s dm, t h e averace r a d i a t i n g

v e l o c i t y a s c, and t h e v e l o c i t y increase of t h space-ship a s dv, we obtain :

ri

'he work ( t h e e f f e c t ) performed i n one s e c ~ n d amunts t o :

n

If, f o r example, c . = 10,000 m

s e c , then

W e found t h e share of work f a l l i n g t o a m2 of r e f l e c t i n g surface t o b e 24 mkg / sec. So, per m2 of r e f l e c t i n g surface, (tech. mass u n i t s ) , which i s 4.7 milligram per second per mz of r e f l e c t i n g surface. with t h e e l e c t r i c wind, however, it i s known t h a t t h e gas w r t i c l e s do sec, we 1(next page w i l l . do well t o apply only 3/4 t o 4/5 of t h i s f i g u r e i n our c a l c u l a t i o n not f l y equally f a s t ; hence, with an average v e l o c i t y of 10 km

r 7

'hat would be 3-4 mg

1 kg

sec

. m . If the spce-ship
2

weighs 1 km

1 n2

( t o some

t h i s f i g u r e w i l l appear t o o low, but I submit t h a t steam engines under kp have already been b u l l t , which would thus weigh only about 300 g 2 i e r m of r e f l e c t i n g surface. The infuence-machine would be a l l of half a s heavy and t h e r r f l e c t o r s could likewise be made extremely l i g h t because of the l a c k of counte:.-pressure

; t h e r e f o r e , t h e weight per m remaining t o

be c a r r i e d alone, would be 400 g), t h e following c a l c u l a t i o n s apply with reference t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n :

d m . C = dt
o r in f i g u r e s

m - dv
dt

From t h a t we find t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e space-ship t o b e up t o 4 c m which neans t h a t a f t e r one day t h e space-ship would have a v e l o c i t y of 1 ~km. The l o s s i n substance we can f i n d according t o formula ( 5 ) : 3-3

2 sec

(here e i s t h e base of t h e natura.1 logarithms). That is, in order t o a t t a i n t h i s v e l o c i t ; ~ , t h e space-ship would use up

1+3 , . of its f i n a l mass. N a t u r a l l y , i t could t a k e along much more p r o p e l l a n t ,

but then it would be heavier a t t h e time of launching and could not attain t h i s v e l o c i t y a s rapidly.
1) ''he more so s i n c e p a r t of t h e work i s l o s t through t h e e l e c t r i c charging.

For, obviously, t h e hurled-away gases could, due t o t h e i r charge, d e l i v e r work even a f t e r having been mechanically brought t o a stop, t h a t i s a f t e r already having given o f f t h e k i n e t i c energy, which alone has been applied t o our calr ulbtion.

With a r a d i a t i n g v e l o c i t y of n'10 km

sec,

S i r ~ c ewith t h e sane machj.ne perfornance

therefore

The a c c e l e r a t i o n , however, would s i n k only t o

n :
1

During a period n times a s long, t h e space-shSp would a ! t a i n t h e same v e l o c i t y but with considerably l e s s l o s s of substance. For example, t o reach a v e l o c i t y of 3 1/2 km

s e c with a r a d i a t i o n v e l o c i t y of 100 km

s e c vrould

r e q u i r e 10 days, but t h e l o s s in substance would amount t o o n l y 4 $ of ml. By t h e way, t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s have been kept amply persimistic. For example, i f

1
/

1 we a s s m t h e machine t o weigh o r J y r kg = O . ; ? ' . t e c h n i c a l mss u n j t s per horsepower ( t h i s value i s j u s t a t t h e l i m i t of t h e a t t a i n a b l e ) , we o b t a i n :

% -,

1
1

f rorn which follows :

and from t h a t :

For example, f o r c = 10 km
I

sec,

dt

= 30 cm

sec

f o r c = 20 h / see :

d v = 15
dt

cm

s e c2

In one r e s p e c t , t h i s m c h i n e j u s t i f i e s great hopes. It p e r n i t s very cons i d e r a b l y shortening t h e t r i p t o strange c e l e s t i a l bodies and, m r e important, v i s i t i r - g t h e s e planets i n almost every configuration. ::ocket syace-ships, on t h e o t h e r hand, can v i s i t d i s t a n t c e l e s t i a l bodiqs only when they a r e in e s r e c i a l l y favorable p o s i t i m s and, in so doing, a t r i p t o t h e d i s t a n t c e l e s t i a l body and back a l m s t always l a s t s years. With t h e use of t h i s machine, t h e a s t e r o i d s , comets, and moons of J u p i t e r could e a s i l y be e q l o r e d and perhaps e s p e c i a l l y valuable pieces of rock b r ~ u x h tt o earth. They s t i l l d o not f a c i l i t a t e e q l o r i n g t h e r l a n e t s o r t h e moon in i t s e l f . &?cause of t h i ~ free53 i~ e ~ r ld i g h t b u i l d , t h e unavoidably l a r g e r e f l e c t o r s , and
~ : I E low

acce1erct:ng capacity, they must s t a y away from t h e l a r g e c e l e s t i a l

bodies ; landing on t h e l a r g e r a s t e r o i d s ( l i k e Ceres, F a l l a s , o r Vesta) would even be questionable. A s we saw, with planetary f l i g h t s t h e t r i p out and back i s t h e l e a s t . ? h e d i f f i c u l t i e s l i e in landing and ascending.

I hope f o r t h e following : I believe t h a t , with a high voltage a s can be achieved by connect ng in s e r i e s t h e influence-machines of t h e s p c e ship, it w i l l be possible t o produce e l e c t r i c rays t h a t run approximately p a r a l l e l and in a s t r a i g h t l i n e f o r seve7al 1,000 km ( i n c o n t r a s t t o electrom g n e t i c waves, with which t h i s i s n a t u r a l l y impossible). blen t h e y e n t e r

a g r i d cage covered wit!i metal f o i l t h e y charge it t o a high potential. Due t o t h e i r great v e l o c i t y t t . y h a w , according t o formula (237), a s good a s no
percussive force in s r i t e of t h e i r high energy content. Now, t h e s e r a y s c a n s r v e a s sources of energy f o r s m l l e r space-ships. These space-ships could
be b u i l t on t h e model of t h e rocket airplane. The carrying electrodes c,

Fig. 159
d (cf. Fig. 155) c o l : l c be p r o f i t a b l y attached t o t h e under s i d e of t h e carrying surface. The 'positive electrodes a , b, which would n a t u r a l l y have t h e form of t h e above-mentioned cages, would have t o be a s f a r a p a r t a s possible, t h a t i s hang b t h e wing t i p s ; t h e p o s i t i v e electrodes and t h e a u x i l i a r y electrodes, t h e l a t t e r consisting of wire g r l d , would have t o b e arranged so t h a t t h e v could be r o l l e d up and s t o r e d away before t h e atmosphere i s

entered. I f one aimed a t simplifying t h e mechanism one could a n s i d e r s h p l y leaving t h e s e wire g r i d s t o t h e i r f a t e when entering t h e atmosphere. I believe t h n t , with t h e use of t h e hard and rapid rays generated by t h e energy-producing space-ship, space-ship,

it w i l l be possible t o produce a r e l a t i v e l y

slow but massive and percussively f o r c e f u l e l e c t r i c wind on t h e f l y i n g and t h n t by simply making t h e electrode of t h e energy-producing space-ship very l i t t l e permeable t o gas but t h a t of the f l y i n g space-ship s5ron~ly permeable t o gas and by simply connecting t h e p o s i t i v e receiving electrode of t h e f l y i n g spae'e-ship t o i t s negative (emitting) electrode. Let us assume t h e energy-producing s p c e - s h i p g f a v i t a t e d a t 3-5 r a d i i of t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t and i t s r e f l e c t o r s covered a surface of 10 km (we already saw t h a t constructing such l a r g e r e f l e c t o r s i n space out of sodium r l a t e presents

no f u r t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s ) ; furthermore, t h a t t h e t o t a l energy i r r a d i a t e d by t h e space-ship wei'e u t i l i z e d by a rocket airpla.ne weighing 10,000 kg ( i f 2 we figured 1 kg / m a s t h e weight of t h e r e f l e c t o r s u r f a c e o f t h e space-ship, t h a t would be a thousandth part of t h e weight of t h e space-ship). r a d i a t i o n v e l o c i t y of 10 lar. of 1000.3 t o 1900.4 cm With a

sec, t h i s vehicle couid develop an a c c e l e r a t i o n

sec2, which i s 30-40 m

sec2. A s a rocket, t h i s

space-ship would have t o be impelled up only t o j u s t above t h e e a r t h ' s atn',osphere, l e t us say 129 km high. Here it would spread out i t s wire-net elect,rodes and, a t t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n , it c ~ u l d e a s l y connect up t o t h e energy s t a t i o n . I h e r e t u r n would be managed in a very s i m i l a r way. xhen landing, t h i s rocket a i r p l a n e drops only from t h e mment in which

it can no longer be supplied with energy by t h e s p c e - s h i p u n t i l t h e noment when it i s borne by t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere. l n so doing, no v e l o c i t i e s over ! km / sec occur. So t h e r e i s no danger of it burning up ; accordingly, it
is not necessary t o land b;. parachute, but one can a l s o work with c a r r y i n g
surfaces. Of course, one w uld have t o count on d e c e l e r a t i n g 500 t o 600 m But we would g l a d l y t a k e t h a t i n t o t h e bargain because, in so do in^, t h e s a f e t y of landing i n c r e a s e s exceedingly. Landing and rc-ascending from Venus o r :hrs would be very s i m i l a r t o ascending from t h e e a r t h . Ascending from

sec

o f t h - f l i g h t v e l o c i t y by means of rearward t h r u s t a t an a l t i t u d e of 5 0 h .

'"ars would even r e q u i r e only a t h i r d of t h e fuels. : andinp on t h s moon would

be s t i l l simpler, wl e r e t h e space-boat could remain irl t h e rays of t h e energy s t a t i o n t o t h e l a s t . I f , a t some t i r e , regular t r a n s p o r t a t i o n should be established between t h e e a r t h and any o t h e r c e l e s t i a l body, t h e rratter would be s t i l l simpler.

T :

n ode such e l e c t r i c space-ship each could simply ~ r a v i t a t ec o n s t a n t l y a s

enepgy s t a t i o n about t h e e a r t h and about t h e r r s p e ~ t i v eplanet and upon de~arture and a r r i v a l , t h e rocket space-ships would simply be received by

i t s energy rays and supplied with t h e needed energy. For t h e t r i p t h e y would

only need t o t a k e along enouzh f u e l f o r correcting possible deviations f r o n t h e course by m a n s of rocket propulsion, which however would here be extremely small. ilssuming t h a t t h e energystation could s t i l l supply t h e spaces h i p with energy a t a disk ance of 42,000 km, then, on a t r i p between two planets, with an a c c e l e r a t i o n of 30 m v e l o c i t y of ?..42,000,000

. 30

sec2, t h e space-ship would reach a

= 51,000 m

sec and cover t h e s t r e t c h ,

f o r e w n p l e , between Venus and t h e e a r t h i n 10 days. 1n t h e meantime, t h e energg s t a t i o n could be used f o r o t h e r purposes, near t h e e a r t h with e l e c t r i c r a d i a t i o n 0 e i t h e r f o r r e f l e c t i n g sunlight t o e a r t h o r supplying smaller energ,? s t a t i o n s

The following solution would be s t i l l s i r - p l e r : Che could use only a rocket a i r p l a n e t o carry on cormmrnicati -n with t h e s w f a c e of t h e planet. l h i s need only be strong enough t o l i f t i t s e l f above t h e atmospfiere. Here it i s received by t h e e l e c t r i c space-boat and c a l r i e d 1 ) I f t h e p r i n c i p l e of thn e l e c t r i c space-ship should prove f e a s i b l e , t h e r e would be, beside t h e rocket and t h e solenoid p r o j e c t i l e , a t h i r d t h e o r e t i c a l n . energy s t a t i o n on e a r t h would p o s s i b i l i t y of reachirg i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. A have t o operate a number of influence-machines. (Indeed, of s e v e r a l m i l l i o n horsepower, which, i n p r a c t i c e , would probably wreck t h e matter. Outside of t h e e a r t h , f o r example, an equally s t r o n g plant could be an " i n d i v i s i b l y r e a l i zable" invention. Cf. Chapter 16) The current would be conducted i n t o a vert i c a l l y - r i s i n g cable which, from kilometer t o kilometer, has devices which pro-

duce an e l e c t r i c r i n d d i r e c t e d downward, thus bearing up t h e respective piece of cable. The upper end of t h e cabl: wo-dld reach above the earth1a ~tmoephere
a~ndservea s buildin, and docking s t a t i o n f o r e l e c t r i c space-ships a s well a s energy s t a t i o n f o r t h e space-boats described above. !he intercommunication could be maneiged by neans of elevators.

f a r t h e r o r unloaded and sent back. (This p r i n c i p l e could a l s o be applied

in long distance t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of rocket a i r c r a f t on esrth.)

Ylhether a l l t h i s w i l l work, 1 do not know. hut nothing i s impossible on e a r t h ; one must only discover t h e m a n s with which it can be c a r r i e d out.

EI ILOGUE

The SociBtd Astronomique d e France has d i s t i g u i s h e d t h i s book with t h e i%F-HIkiSCH-lrize. Eeside t h e t a n g i b l e advantages which t h i s t r i b u t e has Frankly, I d i d not believe t h a t already brought and w i l l l i k e l y s t i l l b r i n g re, it has a l s o had a moral e f f e c t which must not be under-estimated.

ir France one would award such a p r i z e t o a C-emn, t h e more s o since good r'ranch, .-ussian, I t a l i a n , and 7,nglish works weye a t h:>nd. ' t i s encouracing t o see t h ~ science t and education a r e a b l e t o bridge n a t i o n a l differences. -I believe 1 can thank t h e French kstronomical Society i n no b e t t e r way than by promising i n t h i s place t o work f o r science and educa-

y part and t o judge man only by h i s achievements. t i o n on m

Alphabetical Index ABBOT, 438

Acceleration, most advantageous, 100 i d e a l , 63, 100 Acetylene, 351, 3 5 4 395

Acquired know1 edge, 538 f f Active s t e e r i n g , 861 f f , 867 A c t i v i t y of t h e h e a r t , 144 f f A d juetabl e parachute, 301 Adaptation, b i o l o g i c a l Air density, 88-89
A i r passage, 4511 A i r r e s i s t a n c e , 80, 83-86, 166 f f , 34%

, 536-538

Aiming, %78 f f , 508, 588

- maximum with

- vertical,

space-ships,

170

184, 339, 340

A i r samples, 364 f f

A i r tank, 403, 445

Albedo, 459, 519, 548 Alpha rays, 460, 557 f f A method of reaching e x t r m e a l t i t u d e s , 4, 115
Authoring, 14-16,

21, 64 f f

Angle of ascent, most advantageous, 87, 160, 430 f f Anode rays, 460, 560

h t s , 540
A R r n I U S , 534, 535

Arrow, 253 Arrow rocket, 856-857 A r t i f i c i a l coaposition, 9 Ascent, oblique, i n s t r a i g h t l i n e , 83, 160, 165, 187 f f , 273 f f 584, S l 5

- synergetic, 87, 151, 230 f f , - v e r t i c a l , 101 f f , 164 f f

Ascent with c a r r y i n g surfaces, 87 Asteroids, 467, 518, 57a Astral l i g h t , 417 Astronomic s a f e t y , 376, 473 Atomizer, 10, 51-a, 310, 346 Automatic s t e e r i n g , 961 f f , P70 f f , R81, 330, 336 Auxiliary rocket, 337, 395

Axial r o t a t i o n of Venus, 550 f f Babel sberg, 457

BAETZ, 54 BAIRD, 555

B a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t , 92, 112 f f , 165, 338-340, Basin gondola, 128
348

BAUER, 400 BE=, 83 Bees, 540

BELOPOLSKI, 550 Bending down o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y curves, 894 BESSm, 468

BOHR, 397
Bolometer, 439, 517 BOLTZuW?, 891, 438, 558 Bora, 505 529, 560ff

- raya,

Braces, 15, 71-72 Braking f l i g h t , 178 f f , $99 f f , 488 Braking parachute, 868, 899 f f Rridgee a c r o s s i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, 144, 148, 304, 435 560 f f

- rays, 529,

I3wSBW, 397
Camera obecura, 488, 500 Canals on Mare, 454, 534

Cathode r a y s , 460, 560 Pf

Charge, 5
Chinook, 505 Chl orophyl CLAUDE, 14 Clouds, 419, 437, 438, 549 f f COLI, 480 Color of t h e e t h e r sky, 416 COL~fSUS, 539 Combination of impulses, 891 Comets, 474, 475, 535, 556 Comet f l i g h t , a28 Comunication, 417, 4 3 0 4 3 3 , 449 Conditions of t h e n a t u r a l laws, 473 Cooling, 10, 16, 40-41 C o r i o l i s f o r c e , 502 f f , 551, 551 Corona, 417, 858 Coronium, 334, 365 Corpuscular r a y s , 445, 560, 5 7 3 f f Cosmic d u s t , $04, 206, 417, 470 f f , 475, 504, 505 Coemospermism, 534 Counter-pressure c e n t r i f u g e , 136 f f Course of development of l i f e , 530 f f , 544 COURVOJSIER, 195, 473 CRBNTZ, 83 CPSLSSUS, 373 C r i t e r i a , 60, 92, 341 f f , 350 f f Cross b r a c e s , 15, 71-7ii Crude-oil

, 533

, 556-357

Curvature of space, 459 Curvature of t h e s t a r s , 419 Cylinder (mass r a t i o )

, 64-68

DALLi'nTZ-\VEQTER,

850

Danners o f space f l i g h t , 489 f f

Dark room, 482, 500 Day p o l e , 551 Deaf-tee, 145 Deep-sea d i v e r s , 451 D e f l e c t i o n t o t h e r i g h t * , 367, 503 f f Deserts, 558 D e t e m i n a t i o n of 1 o c a t i o n , 281 Detonator composition, 9 Deviation from t h e t r a j e c t o r y ( s e e a1 70 t r a j e ~ t ~ o r y d i s t u r h a n c e o ) , 475 D i f f r a c t i o n spectrum, 516 D i f f u s e r nozzl es, 45 D i r e c t i n g parachute, 301 D i s s o c i a t i o n , 39, 351 f f Distance, 100 Diatnncing t h e o b s e r v e r ' s cabin, 416, 440 Divers, 417, 430, 441, 449-453 D i v i s i b l e u n i t a , 403 D i v i a i o r of nozzle, 350 t h e r o c k e t , 94 f f , 359, 395, 584 Dizziness, 134 Doldrums, 552 DOMINIK, 147

- of

DOPP, 51
Down ~ n d up, 117, 144
Drrtmn+.urpicml e r r o r , 414, 416, 426, 439
DRILIS, ?39

DIlOl.rET. 404 Dust, c o m i c , 204-206, qgnamic cooling, 9-10, 417, 470 f f , 475, 504, 505 41, 966, 369, 408 Dynamic b a l l i s t i c c o e f f i c i e n t , 113

1)ynamic h e a t of

gas etreem, 11, a6, 866, 899

Ear, 131 Economy, t e c h n i c a l , 403, 411 Effective teaperature, I t 0 6 E f f i c i e n c y , g08 f f , 818

EINSTEIN, 194, 850, 273, 457, 458, 459 E l e c t r i c space-bost, 574 f f

E l e c t r i c spece-ship, E l e c t r i c wind, 557 E l e c t r i c wind wheel, 153, 557, 575 Electromagnetic gun, 153 E l l i p s e t r a j e c t o r y , 154 f f 'Eaormous growth of c e l l s , 459 Eratoathenes, 516 Eros, 457, 598 E t h e r d i v e r s , 417, 430, 441, 410-458 E t h e r space, 144, 416 E t h e r t e l e s c o p e , 417, 453-457 Explosion, 469 Excessive c a l c u l a t i o n , 114-115, 251-252 E x t e n t of p r e s s u r e , 36
EYENWJNSCHUIJZ, 5 1

815, 461, 512, 528. 559, 556, 557 f f

FBBRE, 541

Feeces, 446-448 F a i l u r e of pumps, 469 F a j l u r e of t h e c o n t r o l s , 460

FAUTH, 516, 517, 544

F i l l i n e , 350, 412 F i l l i n g f a c t o r , 76 Fireworks r o c k e t , 5-7 Firmness experiments, 77 Flap F l e a c i r c u s , 540
183 f f

F l i c k e r i n g of t h e s t a r a , 4 5 4 4 F l i g h t p e r i o d , IS%, 468 F l o a t i n g angle, 832, 84& 518 Foehn, 504 Fog, 437, 549 f f Force of rearward t h r u s t , 63, 99 Forms of b r a c e s (mass r a t i o ) , 70-73 Freezing of t h e f u e l s , 441 Freybund, 543 F r i c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e a i r , 11, 86, 967, 287 Fueling s t a t i o n s , 248, 449, 477 f f , 385 F'uels, 48, 216, 351 f f , 360, 386, 396

Fuel u t i l i z a t , i o n , 208 f f , 375, 557-558,

G m E , 37

568 f f

G r n I C K E , 373
GAIL, 86, 141, 188, 189, 254, 308, 309, 484, 485, 435, 451, 455, 516
Garnms r a y s , 444-445

G,WSWINDT, 373, 478

G&!~AUX, 150, 400 Gas f i n s , 266, 860-268 Gasoline, 937, 385 GAUSS, 117, 459, 460

G m R C K E , 560
GETSSLER'S tube, 445, 446, 559

GILLERT, 130
Glacial. cosmogony, 517, 514-545, Glowing cathode, 559 GODDAQD, 4, 50, 908, 269, 376

558

G U T , 533
Gravity, 83, 116 f f , 178 f f

GRThM, 130
Guidance, precisiorl-free, 498 f f Ciidance, s e e S t e e r i n g and S t a t i o n s ,

Cmn, el e c t r o : ~ a g e t i c , 153

Gyroscope contl-01, 216 f f , 280, 330, 330 IIBNN, 504

HAsIN~RL, 250
Heat conducting, 16 Heat of compreesion, 39, 47, 287 Heat of t h e aun, 437-438, Heat tone, 808 Heat t r a n s m i s s i o n , 10-11, HEIN, 122, 460 Height of a s c e n t , 157 HI&%ELV, g9a
H O m , 5 6 , 149, 265, 238, 269, 321, 351, 383, 392, 408
5-18, 569

16, 41, 29? f f

HOFIi,&'m,

60, 148, 149, 221, &a29 2S4, 2a5, $65, 308, 303, 304, 311-313, 376, 440, 462, 467, 5?0 552

HOLZHAUSEH, 25 1 HORBIGER, 516, 517, 544-545, Howl of j e t s , 3 1

Human b e i n g s on d i s t a n t c e l e s t i a l bodies, 5\37

Hydrogen atmosphere, 365 Hydrogen e f f e c t on t h e r e s i s t a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t , 365-366 Hyperbola t r a j e c t o r y , 157 I d e a l a c c e l e r a t i o n , 63, 100 I d e a l propulsion, 5 3 f f I d e a l v e l o c i t y , 56 I g n i t i o n , 10 I n d i v i s i b l e u n i t s , 403, 575 I n f l u e n c i n g of weather ( a l s o eee meteorological r o c k e t ) , 480, 504 f f I n n a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 538 I n n e r ear, 131 I n t e r p l a n e t a r y space-ref1 e c t o r , 204-306, 449, 477 f f , 585

Jet-propel l e d a i r c r a f t , s e e r o c k e t a i r c r a f t J u p i t e r . 515, 556

TW!,

188

KANT, 144, 538

I U P P ~ ~ 810 I ~ ,

ICEPLEt, 156, 161, 208, 423, 553, 527

ILerosene, 385 Knowledge, innate and acquired, 537 f f
ICOHY~A~~'?STER rays, 367, 444, 445

KOLRE, 14, 16, 17

IUJRLBAUb!, 292, 438

LADELANK, 150
I T ,
451

Landing, 178 f f , 28i f f , 366 Large a r c meter, 457 LASSiYITZ, 117, 147, 443 Law of impulse, 62-63,
LENARD, 458
196

L'EVER.RIEt3, 468
LTX, 144, 153, 403

L i f e on d i s t a n t planets, 533 f f
Lighting, 10, 350

LIMB, 449 E I W S JOHN C.

, 878

lo cat in^, 330, 366, 359 LODGE, 459

L O S Z E R , 460 Long-distance rockets, 175 f f , %30-aRO, 368-370,

404

L O m T Z , 458
LORENZ, 61, 96, 103, 250, 466 Low t a p e r a t u r e e , 14-16,
459

LUDWIG A N T O N , 144, 147, 305, 436

Machine b u i l d e r , 250
Mail rocket, 175 f f , 260 f f , 870 f f , 404

k r r , 117, 454,

a, a 9

i f , 574

Liar8 a l i n s t e , 539 f f %ra people, 537 f f ldsrr r a t i o , 54, 55, 60, 61, 64 i f , 98, 118, 341 f f Mattrrar f o m r , 15, 71-11 MAXWJU, 474, 488 Mesaurtrment of a c o e l e r a t i m , 183, m 0 , 331, 336 Meniere'r bodier, 131 Meniere' a d i r e a r e , 183

Moppen, 169 Mercury, 556 Metal f o i l 574 Meteorological rocket, 81, OR, 87, 118, W6, 388, 349, 36P f f , 404 see Weather and Meteorol ogioal rocketr Meteorol 00, Meteorr, W6-1186, 470 f f , 475, 516 Methyl alcohol, 367 8 Y o WILHo, 617 MICXELSON, 458 M i l i t a r y imporfence, 811, 876 f f , 368, 479, 498, 508 Mineralr, 516, 517, 581, 57a Mirtral, 505

-- B,

MOM

A,

a, ae, u a

a, 117, 89, 41, 115, 315 f f C, 8, t?, 30, 115, aO5, PIS, 858 D, al, l a 5 E, P7, 41, 140, 350, 351, 404, 406 f f
P, 899 i f

2 F,

Mmroon, 551 Moon, 411-484, 439, 460, 46a, 463, 508 i f , 575 Most, advantsgeoun vslocity, see Velocity Mutationr, 544

Natural laws, c e r t e i n t y of, 376, 473 Neck of j e t , 9, 34 f f Neptune, 556 N E W T O N , 44, 148

X I B W , 543
Night f r o r t s , 505 Night p o l e of Venus, 551 Nitrogens, 365 Nitrosy1 campomda, 365, 399 Non-Eucl i d i a n geometry, 459

NOORMTNG, 56, 138, 810, 847, 308, 308, 309, 351, 358, 554, 417, 478
Xozzl es, oven1 esa, 394
hWNGGSSEZ, 480

NUSSELT, 89a, 295

Oblique, s t r a i g h t ascent, 83, 160, 185, 187 f f , 873 f f Observation of the sun, 458 Obaervation fitation, 140, 848, 449, 477 f f , 595 Obaerverl s cabin, 399, 412-495,
OESTER,XE'1[CII, 460

439-453

OPEL, 133

Optimum d i v i s i o n , 358
Orbiting of planetJay 585 Organ of e q u i l i h r i u n , 131 Orientation, 881 O r i ~ i n a lgeneration, 535 Outside e t a t i o n s , 204, S06, e48, 449, 477 f f , 535, 557 Oven, 10, 47 f f , 398 f f , 334, 345 Parabola tro jectory, 157 Parabolic velocity, 156 f f Parachute, 176 f f , 298, 299 f f Parachute f l a p s , 183 P a r a l l a x , 981

Parapsych 01o w , 460 Passive s t e e r i n g , 253-961, 267

PEGOUD, 123

Period of f l i g h t , 161, 468 Periscope, 412, 453 P i l o t ' s cabin, eee Observer' R cabin PTPCUEYT, 153, 178, 3M, 403, 406, 461, 520, 585

Place of descent, 366

PLANA, 466 Planetoids, 458, 518 f f P l a t o , 513 Plumb1 ine, 123 POIS$ON formula, 47, 286 Pores, 9 f f , 334 Preceseion-free guidance, 498 f f Precession movenents, 495 f f

Precision inatrunents, 331, 335, 458

Preservation of the c e n t r e of gravity, 56 f f , 196 Pressure, 8 3 Pressure of l i g h t , 474, 488 f f , 535 P r i n c i p l e of r e l a t i v e work, 193 f f PR~LL, 45 Propeller, 378 Propulsion apparatus, 14 P r o t e c t i v e jacket, 78 Pump chambers, 21, 23, 3P5 f f , 349, 393, 469 P u r i f i c a t i o n of a i r , 418, 419, 442-448

PUSCN, 308

Question of material, 16 f f , 64 f f , 344, 415 Radiation i n t e n s i t y , 437-438,

548, 569

Radiation pressure, 474, 488 f f , 335

Pain worms, 540 Range, 154 f f Reachibil ity of t h e c e l e s t l a l bodies, s e e HOIEAAH'

Rearward t h r u s t , 3 f f

- s p e c i f i c rearward t h r u s t ,
Rearward t h r u s t p i s t o l s , 449 Regulating f l a p s , 183 f f

100

Itearnard t h r u s t p r i n c i p l e , 3 f f R e f l e c t o r s t a t i o n s , 804406, 449, 477 f f , 525 R e * p l a t i n g pin, 46, 868 R e p l a t i o n of temperature i n t h e apace-ship, R e p l u s , 198

418, 435-444

REICI1BJHEILI, 560 R E I E I E R , 10, 1 1

Relativity .principle of work, 193 f f 581 Residual v e l o c i t y , 200, 283, 508-510, Resistance c o e f f i c i e n t , 83-86, 164 f f Revolution, 484

.REIM, 4
Rigid f i l l i n g , 16, 91, 7 7 . 343, 350, 386 Risk, 403 Rocket a i r c r a f t , 371, 575 Rocket l i n e a , 887 Rocket p r o j e c t i l e , 811, 876 Rocket space-ship, eee space-ship c e r t . asaoc., 130, 144 Rocket, v e r t i c a l , 184 of t h e Society f o r space-flight, Rotation wheels, 865, 456 Ruin of t h e Vest, 543 S a f e t y of apace-flight, S e g i t t a l d i r e c t i o n , 489 Saturn, 556 376, 468 f f

- Journal

S a f e t y valves, 141, S 5 , 458

SCHEINER, 474, 488, 583

SCHERSCHEVSKY, 18, 83, 398

SCHIIPAlmLI, 550 Scopolsmiae, 14, 147

Sea-sickness,
135

S e a l i n g , 14, 1 9 4 0 S e c u r i t y f a c t o r , 74 Seismograph, a69 Senee of l o c a l i t y , 540, 541 Shooting d i s t a ~ c e , 158 f f Short-rave r a y s , 367, 443, 445 s h o t i n t o t h e u n i v e r s e , 141 S i b e r i a n p o r t s , 503 S i m i l a r 1i v i n g beings, 536-638 S i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , 358-359 S l e e p i n g i n t h e space-ship, Smell p l a n e t s , 457, 518 f f Smithsonian I n s t i t u t e , 5 S o l a r c o n s t a n t , 437438, 548, 569 Solenoid
483

w,

193, 404

8 o l d r r e d joinfr, 18 S o l i d i t y , 16 f f , 61 f f , 311 f f S o l i d i t y , pneumatic, 16, 81, 78, 386 Space-boat, e l e c t r i c , 575 Space c u r v a t u r e , 469 Space d i v e r , 417, -130, 441, 4 4 9 4 5 Q Space-rhip, 37, 41, 140, 350, 351, 404, 406 i f see electric space-ship

- electric,

Space t e l e s c o p e , 417, 453-457 Speed of l i g h t , 473 Speed of out-f 1o r , 34 f f Speed of out-flow,

SPENGLW, 543

, 387

effective, 45

S p i d e r s , 541 Spinning, 307

STUtKE3JSTEIK, 146 S t a r t i n g , 10, 340, 350, 351 S t a t i o n s i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y spece, 140, a05-806, 585, 557 S t e e r i n g automatic, & I 6 0 ff i n t e r p l a n e t a r y apace, 5, 341
STEFAN BOLTBWtS law, 891, 895, 430, 651b

948, 449, 477 f f ,

- in

STEIN, 478 S t o i c h i m e t r i c f a c t o r , 38 Stone from t h e moon, 144, 864, 484 f f , 454

STONEY, JOHNSTONE G.,

S T O , 140

588

S t r a t e g i c importance, 813, 276 f f , 368, 479, 498, 503 Subdivision of propulsion rocket, 395, 534 Support, 45, 118, 189 Supporting mass, 189-190 Synergetic ascent, 87, 88, 151, 230 fi, 514, 535 Synergetic continuatioo of propulaion, 948 Synerw curve, 8 8 , 830 f f , 509 SJmergy problem, 80, $217 f f , 5e4 f f Tail rocket, 27, 114, 1b59, $60 Tapeworm rocket, 31 Technical economy, 403 f f , 575 Tel epathy, 460 Telephone, 417, 490-1133, 449 Telescope, 417, 430-435,
449, 453

Tension of net, 497 f f Theory of i c e i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space, 489, 516, 544 Theory of natural descent, 536 f f , 544 Theory of r e l a t i v i t y , see EIllSTEIN Thermal efficiency, SO8 Thermopil e, 568 Thermos f l a s k , 418, 439, 441 Three-body calculation, 104, a07, 467, 521

Tip, &6, 78, 324, 414 T i t a n i c , 480 TOAfASCIiEK, 458, 459 Toroid (mas8 r a t i o ) , 74 Trade-rind, 551 T r a j e c t o r y curves, 154 f f , T r a j e c t o r y disturbances, 208, 220, 467, 474, 508 Transverse d i r e c t i o n , 489

Turning wheels, 365, 539

ULINSICI, 56, 56$, 568
U l t r a v i o l e t rays, 444-445 Undertow, 84-86

UNGE, 869
Units, d i v i s i b l e and i n d i v i s i b l e , 403 f f Up ~d down, 117, 144
Uranus, 556 U t i l i z a t i o n of f u e l s , 808 f f , 218, 396

VALIER, 74-75, 86, 93, 145, 150, 188, 189, 105, 809, 218, 303,
303, Sel; 370, 373, 576, 377, 378-3809 398, 401, 408, 406, 409, 440, 516 Vesano t a b l e t s , 146 Velocity control, autometic, 270 f f , 181, 330 Velocity,
r0.f

favorable ( ; ) ,

78 f f , 164, 875, St, 338, 339,

- most favorable,
- parebolic,
i d e a l , 56 Venturi tubes, 45 Venus, 547, 576

350, 396, 397

ainpl e v e l o c i t y (vg), 88-90

151, 156 f f

VETWE, 182, 147, 199 Vertical aeoent, 101 f f , 164 f f

Vertical d i r e c t i o n , 489 Virtual rocket, 184 V i r t u a l speed, 55

WAEBLIR, 19g

Waap ant, 541 Vaeter, 448-4113

WEBW, 34, 41, 188, 514

VIWLER, 130, 397 Witchf a ointment, 143 I Y I T 1 , 133, 145

IVOLF, 49, 50 W a r n e n in the moon, P49, l65, 881, ma, 509, 585 WOhPFEISDOW, 563 Work, r e l a t i v i t y p r b c i p l e of, 193 ff World ether, 106, 457, 479

Plate I1

Pl a t e IV

a r t i p of the alcohol roclcct and the hydrogem rocket

f a parachute

entrance t o I

e a tank f o r t h e hydrogen or f o r t h e alcohol-water

S I

orygen tank cabin f o r t h e o b ~ e r r e rand f o r the p r e c i s i o n instrummta

P : periscope

m, n :

h e a t i n g g a s pumps
pqmp chambere f o r t h e fuel

Pi'
pa,

a r

x p m p chambers for t h e oxygen

, F

: s m a l l e s t cross-,section of n o z z l e

z : atomizer
1 : r e c u l a t i n g rods

t : n o z z l e wall
v : inflow behind t and reppilatin;: d e v i c e s f o r the i n f l o w
w :

fins

o t oven