Cohesion in Academic Writing Cohesion in Academic Writing

Good writing needs to be as clear as possible so that the reader can easily follow sentences, ideas and details. One of the most important aspects is to show the connections and relationships between ideas. Using particular types of words and phrases, known as 'cohesive devices', to link individual sentences and parts of sentences, helps the reader to follow the movement of ideas without any difficulty. They help the writing to flow naturally, without unnecessary repetition.

1. Referring backwards
The reader needs to know who and what is being referred to in a passage of text. ut it's not good to repeat the same phrase too often, so we use words such as
o o o o

it, he, she, they etc.!pronouns" this, that !demonstratives", the !definite article" previously

to refer back to people #things mentioned earlier in the text. Example: The $ustralian prime minister has called an early election. The date was selected to coincide with the start of the Olympic Games. This decision was based on the views of his ministerial advisers, who predicted that voter confidence in the government's policies would be strong at this time. ... $s previously mentioned, decisions on the timing of elections are based on predictions of voter confidence in the existing government. Comment: The date refers back to an early election. This decision refers to the prime minister having called an early election. %is refers to the $ustralian prime minister. $s previously mentioned refers to all of the earlier information about the selection of election dates.

2. Looking forwards
&e often use words and phrases warning the reader to expect new information. This helps make a smooth transition from one point to another. 'uch phrases include( the following, as follows, below, next, subse)uently
o o o

*xample !i"( The following dates have been proposed for the forthcoming election( 'eptember +, 'eptember ,- and . October. *xample !ii" The results of the analysis of voter confidence are shown in Table , below. *xample !iii" The next issue to be discussed is the influence of the media on voter confidence in the government.

. Repetition and a!oiding repetition

To keep the reader aware of the focus of attention, we sometimes repeat the same word or phrase. ut we also try to avoid too much repetition by using words and phrases with similar meaning !synonyms". Example : The government's election campaign commenced with a media blit/ outlining a series of election promises. This beginning to the campaign sparked numerous media commentaries. Comment :
,

The word campaign repeated in the second sentence continues the topic of the first. 0eplacing commenced with beginning adds variety but also keeps a focus on the topic of attention.

"ransitional de!ices#Connecting words

$cademic writing usually deals with complex ideas. To enable the reader to follow your thoughts and the connections between them, they need to be clearly and smoothly linked. To 1oin ideas and sentences, we use a number of connecting words and phrases, such as the following few examples(
o o

and, but, so !to add, contrast, show cause and effect" although, because, whilst !to )ualify, show cause and effect, signal concurrency"

Example: $lthough the government was elected for a three2year term, the 3rime 4inister decided to hold an early election. 4eanwhile, the opposition parties, which had anticipated this move, had been planning their own election campaigns, but they had not expected such immediate public support.

$. Repeated#parallel str%ct%res
0epeated !or parallel" grammatical structures often indicate that statements are closely related.
o o

*xample !i"( &hen editing your writing, notice what you have repeated, what you have omitted and what you have not expressed clearly. !5otice how what is repeated here." *xample !ii"( $s 3resident 6ennedy once said( '$nd so, my fellow $mericans( $sk not what your country can do for you 2 ask what you can do for your country.' !5otice how 6ennedy changed the order of ask, you, can and do in the last part of the sentence 2 thus emphasising his point."

Example: The following passage in the centre column shows how the various cohesive forms work. The cohesive forms are in bold, and explained in the columns on the left and right. 7. 5owadays 2 a connective ,. This parallel list of plural 4ost people in the *nglish2 word to signal the present, nouns 2 books, lectures, speaking world used to think in contrast to the past, used tutorials 2 emphasises the that the student's mind is an to think, in the first similarity of these things empty bucket to be filled by sentence. and 2 also a books, lectures and tutorials. connective signals addition , 5owadays 7, physiologists and 7 psychologists tell us .. this 2 refers back to the that the brain doesn't work in idea of an empty bucket to this . passive, accepting be filled by books etc. manner. - to learn, to write, to make On the contrary :, to learn :. on the contrary 2 sense 2 parallel structures, and to write - is, first 8, to coordinating phrase to using the infinitive form of make sense - for ourselves of signal a contrasting idea the verb, emphasise the links our new experience in terms between ideas of our old. 'o ; you need to ;. so 2 coordinating be aware at the outset that, connective to signal even to sub1ects you have 8. first 2 a connective to conse)uence signal the start of a se)uence never studied before, you can bring certain preconceptions, ,<. of yourself etc 2 parallel a certain amount of +. certain 2 repetition of a structure of = noun phrase word to emphasise the point knowledge, and a certain + facility with language 2 all of which 9 can get you started. 9. all of which 2 relative The most baffling of essay phrase referring back to certain preconceptions etc. topics can soon yield some meaning if you take the initiative and begin to ask
7

)uestions 2 of yourself, of the essay topic, of your books and lectures, and of the department you are writing for. ,< $dapted from G. Taylor !,9+9" The 'tudent's &riting Guide for the $rts and 'ocial 'ciences. Common errors
Examples of common errors Explanation and suggested version

Overusing connectives *xample( >f people stopped drinking, they might be able to prevent liver cirrhosis. %owever, governments permit the production and sale of alcohol. 'o, the government should help in preventing this disease. 5evertheless, government resources are limited.

>t is important not to use too many connectives and to vary their position in sentences i.e. not always at the start of sentences. *xample( >f people stopped drinking, they might be able to prevent liver cirrhosis. The government should help in preventing this disease because they permit the production and sale of alcohol. Government resources, however, are limited. 4issing subordinators 'ubordinators !although, because, whilst, *xample( 'he went to work. $lthough she while" cannot be used with only one clause. felt sick. They 1oin two clauses together *xample( $lthough she felt sick, she went to work. ?aulty parallel structures @ou need to use parallel forms with the *xample( %ouses play an important role notexpression '5ot only ... but also'. >n this only to provide a place to live, but also for case, to provide and to give. *xample( giving a sense of security. %ouses play an important role not only to provide a place to live, but also to give a sense of security.

Exercise 1:
$nalyse the following paragraph for cohesion !reference, con1unctions and parallel structures". $n answer is provided below. "he Wind and the &%n The &ind said to the 'un, A> am much stronger than you.A A@ou are not,A replied the 'un. A> can prove my strength,A said the &ind. A'ee that manB > will blow off his hat and coat. &atch me do it nowCA %e blew with all his might, but the harder he blew the more the man wrapped his coat around him. Then the 'un had a turn. %is happy beams calmed the air, warmed the earth and made the man feel so hot that he took off his hat and coat. >t is better to be gentle than rough. $esop's ?ables, ,98;

Strategies to improve cohesion

,. 'elect a piece of writing !textbook or 1ournal articles" from your area of study. 7. Take a paragraph and underline all the different forms of cohesion used !reference, connectives and parallel structures" .. &hich forms are the most commonB :. Dhoose a couple that you think are effective and practise using them in your own writing. -. Try to use a variety of ways to show the relationship between your ideas. Useful references on cohesion Taylor, G. !,9+9". The 'tudent's &riting Guide for the $rts and 'ocial 'ciences. Dambridge( Dambridge University 3ress .

Eordan, 0.0. !,99<". $cademic &riting Dourse. Fondon( Dollins. $nswers to *xercise ,( "he Wind and the &%n 0eference The &ind 2 > 2 you 2 my 2 the wind 2 > 2 me 2 %e 2 his might 2 %e The 'un 2 the 'un 2 the 'un 2 his That man 2 his 2 his 2 him 2 the man 2 he 2his low off his hat and coat 2 it Donnectives and, but, then 3arallel structures calmed the air, warmed the earth, made the man 2 past tense verb phrase