WASTE MANAGEMENT

Background

On a recent environmental mission to the central region of the Visayas in the Philippines, via the German organization Senior Experten Service (SES), I had the opportunity to visit the islands of Cebu, Bohol, Negros Oriental and Siquijor. During the one-month exploratory mission, I witnessed the damaging effect of large open solid waste dumps on the environment and human health. The non-segregated biodegradable and non-biodegradable municipal solid waste was dumped there over the years, exposing surrounding communities and people working at the site to bad and toxic smells.

Source: Jean Faullimmel, Tagbilaran landfill, Bohol island, Philippines

The open dump approach is the primitive stage of landfill development and remains 1

the predominant waste disposal option in most developing countries. It is the oldest form of waste treatment. A default strategy for municipal solid waste management, open dumps involve indiscriminate disposal of waste and limited measures to control operations. As towns grow and produce more waste, and with insufficient and/or inefficient solid waste collection systems, the environmental impact from open dumps becomes increasingly intolerable. In many developing countries such dumps are still the primary method of waste disposal as it is the cheapest and the most convenient. Yet such type of waste disposal can degrade water, soil and air quality, and can thereby affect human health and causing ecological harm.

Leachates and landfill gases

Solid waste dumps create new types of waste or pollution. As garbage decomposes, moisture and rainwater produce a toxic liquid known as leachates. Water passes through the solid waste dump and extracts dissolved and suspended matter from it, and then slowly migrate down in the form of leachate to contaminate the groundwater.

Once the contaminant reaches the environment, it is acted on by chemical reactions and processes that tend to cause it to move within that medium or to move it to another medium. Chemicals may migrate from the site either by evaporation and then dispersed by winds, and in the form of leachates that can reach groundwater. Usually groundwater is the main source of drinking water for the population. If contaminated, less fresh water is available for the communities. Without remedial measures, open dump sites act as a continuing source of pollution as illustrated in the picture below:

Source: Council of Europe 2007

Landfills also generate gas that is composed of a mixture of hundreds of different gases. Aerobic and anaerobic bacterial decomposition, volatilization, and chemical reactions are responsible for the formation of landfill gas. The major and typical gas composition found in a mature landfill is the following:

Types of solid waste Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source: a) Household waste is generally classified as municipal waste, b) Industrial waste as hazardous waste, and c) Biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste. Municipal solid waste Municipal solid waste consists of household waste, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets. This garbage is generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes. With rising urbanization and change in lifestyle and food habits, the amount of municipal solid waste has been increasing rapidly and its composition changing. In 1947 cities and towns in India generated an estimated 6 million tonnes of solid waste, in 1997 it was about 48 million tonnes. More than 25% of the municipal solid waste is not collected at all; 70% of the Indian cities lack adequate capacity to transport it and there are no sanitary landfills to dispose of the waste. The existing landfills are neither well equipped or well managed and are not lined properly to protect against contamination of soil and groundwater. Over the last few years, the consumer market Garbage: the four broad has grown rapidly leading to products being categories packed in cans, aluminium foils, plastics, and other such nonbiodegradable items that cause Organic waste: kitchen waste, incalculable harm to the environment. In India, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits. some municipal areas have banned the use of plastics and they seem to have achieved success. Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, For example, today one will not see a single chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, piece of plastic in the entire district of Ladakh fertilizer and pesticide containers, where the local authorities imposed a ban on batteries, shoe polish. plastics in 1998. Other states should follow the example of this region and ban the use of items Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, that cause harm to the environment. One plastics. positive note is that in many large cities, shops have begun packing items in reusable or Soiled: hospital waste such as cloth biodegradable bags. Certain biodegradable soiled with blood and other body items can also be composted and reused. In fact fluids. proper handling of the biodegradable waste will considerably lessen the burden of solid waste that each city has to tackle. There are different categories of waste generated, each take their own time to degenerate (as illustrated in the table below).

The type of litter we generate and the approximate time it takes to degenerate Type of litter Approximate time it takes to degenerate the litter

Organic waste such as vegetable a week or two. and fruit peels, leftover foodstuff, etc. Paper Cotton cloth Wood Woolen items 1030 days 25 months 1015 years 1 year

Tin, aluminium, and other metal 100500 years items such as cans Plastic bags Glass bottles one million years? undetermined

Hazardous waste Industrial and hospital waste is considered hazardous as they may contain toxic substances. Certain types of household waste are also hazardous. Hazardous wastes could be highly toxic to humans, animals, and plants; are corrosive, highly inflammable, or explosive; and react when exposed to certain things e.g. gases. India generates around 7 million tonnes of hazardous wastes every year, most of which is concentrated in four states: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Household waste that can be categorized as hazardous waste include old batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and medicine bottles. Hospital waste contaminated by chemicals used in hospitals is considered hazardous. These chemicals include formaldehyde and phenols, which are used as disinfectants, and mercury, which is used in thermometers or equipment that measure blood pressure. Most hospitals in India do not have proper disposal facilities for these hazardous wastes. In the industrial sector, the major generators of hazardous waste are the metal, chemical, paper, pesticide, dye, refining, and rubber goods industries. Direct exposure to chemicals in hazardous waste such as mercury and cyanide can be fatal.

Hospital waste Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities in these fields or in the production or testing of biologicals. It may include wastes like sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, etc. These are in the form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta, etc. This waste is highly infectious and can be a serious threat to human health if not managed in a scientific and discriminate manner. It has been roughly estimated that of the 4 kg of waste generated in a hospital at least 1 kg would be infected. Surveys carried out by various agencies show that the health care establishments in India are not giving due attention to their waste management. After the notification of the Bio-medical Waste (Handling and Management) Rules, 1998, these establishments are slowly streamlining the process of waste segregation, collection, treatment, and disposal. Many of the larger hospitals have either installed the treatment facilities or are in the process of doing so.

Gases

% (dry volume)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Methane Carbon dioxide Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfides, disulfides, mercaptans Ammonia 7 45-60 40-60 2.0-5.0 0.1-1.0 0.0-1.0 0.1-1.0

Hydrogen Carbon monoxide Trace constituents (volatile organic compounds)

0.0-0.2 0.0-0.2 0.01-0.06

Carbon dioxide and methane are the most potent greenhouse gases responsible for global warming and climate change.

Odors and health symptoms

People in communities living near or working at landfills are often concerned about odors. They wonder whether these odors are a source of undesirable health effects, such as headaches and nausea. At low-level concentrations, as in the case of landfills, it is unclear whether it is the chemical odors that trigger a response. However, the continued exposure to landfill odors may result in chronic diseases. They develop slowly over a long period of time. The symptoms of chronic poisoning occur at low level of contaminants and are usually not apparent over a long period of time. For example, workers in the asbestos and coal mines, or people who drink and smoke a lot, develop chronic illnesses, such a respiratory and cardio-vascular diseases, and different types of cancer. The same diseases can develop from landfill long-term gas exposure.

Source: Jean Faullimmel, Dumaguete landfill, Negros Oriental, Philippines

Potential landfill gases are sulfides, ammonia and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These gases can migrate to surrounding communities. Among sulfides, hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl sulfide and mercaptans are the three most common sulfides responsible for landfill odors. These gases produce a strong rotten-egg smell, even at very low concentrations. The human olfactory system is extremely sensitive to hydrogen sulfide and can smell such gas at a concentration as low as 5 part per billion (ppb).

Ammonia is another odorous landfill gas that is produced by the decomposition of organic matter. Ammonia is common in the environment and is an important chemical for maintaining plant and animal life. People are exposed daily to low levels of ammonia coming from the natural breakdown of manure and dead plants. Humans are much less sensitive to the odor of ammonia than they are to sulfide odors. The olfactory threshold for ammonia is between 28,000 and 50,000 ppb. Hydrocarbons or VOCs, may also cause odors, but they are usually emitted at very low concentration and may not pose severe odors problem and health effects. 9

Upgrading open landfills

An operated or semi-controlled dump is often the first stage in a countrys efforts t o upgrade landfills. Controlled dumps operate with some form of inspection and recording of incoming wastes and practice extensive compaction of waste. Operated dumps, however, implement only limited measures to mitigate other environmental impacts. In developing countries, most operated dumps still practice unmanaged contaminant release and do not take into account environmental cautionary measures such as leachate and landfill gas management. This is especially relevant where leachate is produced and is unconstrained by permeable underlying rock or fissured geology. This issue may be less critical in semi-arid and arid climates, where dumps do not generate leachate in measurable quantities.

The conversion of open or operated dumps to engineered landfills or sanitary landfills is an essential step to avoid continuous air and water pollution and future costs from present mismanagement.

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Sanitary landfill

Sanitary Landfills are solid waste dumping sites where waste is isolated from the environment to prevent air pollution and contamination of land and groundwater. The Figure below illustrates such type of landfill:

Source: Environment by S. Brennan and J. Withgott, 2004.

Basic conditions should be met before a site can be regarded as a sanitary landfill: 1. If a site cannot be isolated on land, additional lining materials should be brought to the site to reduce leakage of leachate from the base of the site and help reduce damage to the ecosystem.

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2. If a liner - soil or synthetic - is provided without a system of leachate collection, all leachate will eventually reach the surrounding environment. Leachate collection and treatment must be stressed as a basic requirement.

3. A groundwater monitoring system is necessary to prevent contamination of drinking water.

4. A methane recovering well to use the gas as household fuel or to use it to generate electricity.

5. A permanent control waste management: training of staff should be based at the landfill to supervise the handling of incoming waste, that is, waste location, segregation of it, covering and the regular maintenance.

The goal of waste management

The goal of waste management is to dispose of solid waste safely and effectively and to reduce the amount of waste generated. Waste is a sign of inefficiency, so reducing or preventing it makes economic sense. Waste treatment has a cost, the less waste is generated by industries and households, the less costs of disposal. A successful solid waste management policy supports a resource-conserving hierarchy. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has ranked the most environmentally sound strategies for municipal solid waste: (1) Source reduction is the most preferred method, followed by (2) reuse, (3) recycling, (4) composting, (5) 12

incineration, and finally (6) landfills. It can be summarized in the figure below:

Source: European Commission, Environment

There are different approaches that industries and consumers can take to achieve source reduction or waste minimization. Source reduction involves: 1. Improving manufacturing processes, 2. Minimizing packaging, 3. Purchasing green product, 4. Composting household organic matters, 5. Reuse items whenever possible. Waste that needs to be managed: 1. Recovering items for recycling and reuse, 2. Recovering material for composting, Waste disposal involves: 1. Incineration of waste to energy, 13

2. Waste disposal in landfill.

Classification of waste
For management purposes, solid waste is classified into different categories depending on their sources: 1) Household waste or municipal waste. 2) Industrial waste as hazardous waste, 3) Biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste. Basically there is biodegradable and non-biodegradable solid waste. Biodegradable refers to any organic waste that is easily biodegraded by bacteria, either in aerobic or anaerobic conditions (with or without oxygen). The chemical industry deals also with hazardous waste that has even a more toxic effect on the environment and human health. All this waste can be classified in four different broad categories: (1) Organic waste (kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits, etc.); (2) toxic waste (old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, etc.); (3) recyclable or reuse waste (paper, glass, metals, plastics, electronics, etc.); and (4) hospital solid waste. Among all types of solid waste, packaging represents about 50% by volume.

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Incineration waste to energy

When waste that cannot be recycled or reused, it can be safely incinerated, with landfill disposal only used as a last resort. Both these methods need close monitoring of air emission and possible groundwater contamination because of their potential for causing severe environmental damage.

Incineration reduces the stress on landfills, but they create other environmental sideeffects. The ashes must be disposed of, either at a landfill, or if they are toxic, at a hazardous waste facility. The waste to energy process is illustrated below: Incinerating waste generates heat, which then transformed water into steam that will turn turbines to generate electricity.

Source: Environment by S. Brennan and J. Withgott, 2004

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Burning waste also produces air contaminants that must be treated with expensive air pollution control equipment to avoid contributing to acid rain, ozone depletion and air pollution.

The construction of an incineration facility not only involves proper treatment of the resulting combustion gases, but also requires adequate air emission legislation. This concerns contaminants such as: VOCs, SO2, NOx (NO+NO2), HCl, HF, methane, dioxins, heavy metals and dust. In Europe the standard limits of these contaminants are very severe in order to mitigate their impact on the environment. If this legislation is not severe enough or incomplete, air pollution continues.

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Resources recovery policy

Without a sound and reinforced waste recovery policy, reducing solid waste at the source will not work. Here the government and local authorities have a major role to play in implementing such policy. The policy must integrate appropriate resourcerecovery practices in order to minimize the amount of solid waste that requires disposal, and that increases the use of reused and recycled materials. The goal of the policy must be the following:

1. Incorporate solid waste reduction by resource recovery into waste management activities of industries, citizens and governments.

2. Integrate a waste management hierarchy as follows:

Reduce the amount of solid waste created, Reuse, recycle and compost, Recover landfill gases, Incinerate or dispose of in sanitary landfill.

3. Facilitate the use of recycled material and encourage the development of such markets.

4. Give technical and financial assistance for alternative waste treatment technologies, and promote legislation consistent with resource-recovery policy 17

European solid municipal waste treatment methods

The picture below illustrates the different municipal waste treatment methods used in Europe.

Source: Eurostat, 2009

The chart is divided into: recycling, composting, incineration, and landfill disposal. If we look at the two charts concerning the methods used in Poland and Germany, we realize that the former has the least inefficient solid waste management method, that is, most of the solid waste goes to landfills, with little recycling and no incineration. On the other hand, we have Germany, with the most efficient treatment methods, that is, recycling is the most important, followed by incineration, then composting and finally very little going to landfills. The latter meaning that what goes into the landfill, is ultimate waste, that cannot be recycled, reused, composted or incinerated. Efficient solid waste 18

management also means reduction of greenhouse gases.

If the final decision is between a sanitary landfill or incineration, the current waste handling method must first be improved by source reduction, reuse, recycling and composting practices. Waste segregation is very important in order to minimize the amount of waste that should be disposed of in landfill or incinerated. The better the 19

segregation, the more waste can be reuse and recycled. In view that the islands have limited space, the growing cost of land, and a growing population generating more waste, the construction of sanitary landfills may not be the best solution.

Another issue to be considered is the rehabilitation of old landfills. What to do with the open dumps that continue to generate air and water pollution? The best way would be to use the waste to energy method to rehabilitate the land as quickly as possible. In this context, the German approach of prioritizing first reuse and recycling, then incineration and composting, and only landfill disposal as a last resource may seem to be most appropriate.

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Waste Management and Disposal

There are four steps necessary to properly manage waste: 1. Identify Wastes 2. Evaluate Wastes 3. Manage Wastes 4. Arrange for Disposal of Waste

1. Identify Wastes
Members of the University community must be aware of the wastes that they produce and the appropriate University management system for each type of waste. The diverse University of Minnesota community generates an equally diverse range of wastes that must be properly managed. Individual community members are responsible for the proper management of their waste. The University provides safe, effective and efficient waste management services to each student and staff for all types of waste. Example: A University employee may produce (generate) various types of waste and employ a few waste management mechanisms. Unwanted office paper and newspaper go to the paper recycling bins. Candy wrappers and apple cores go into the solid waste trash basket. Dead batteries from the pager go into the battery recycling bucket. The old personal computer contains lead and other toxins in its components so it needs to be collected for electronics recycling by established collection systems. For assistance in identifying wastes, consult the Resources for Managing Waste Materials listed below. Department of Environmental Health and Safety (612-626-6002) can also assist in identifying wastes.

2. Evaluate Wastes
Members of the University community must evaluate their waste for its physical and hazard characteristics to determine how it is to be properly managed. Mismanaged waste, especially hazardous waste, may endanger human health and the environment. A waste may be: a. Non-hazardous Waste (e.g., regular solid waste, paper, soda cans, yesterdays coffee)

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b. Hazardous Radioactive Waste: waste containing or contaminated with a radioactive isotope. c. Hazardous Biological Waste: waste containing or contaminated with an infectious or potentially infectious agent, a biological toxin, an animal carcass, a genetically modified organism, recombinant DNA, etc.

d. Hazardous Chemical Waste: waste chemicals, products which are chemical in nature (cleaning agents, paint, motor oil, pharmaceutics), products that contain chemicals (fluorescent lamps, thermometers) or materials contaminated with chemicals (e.g.,; contaminated soil or rags). e. Otherwise Regulated Waste (e.g., asbestos, car batteries, electronics, construction debris)

The evaluation must determine the characteristics of the waste and whether the waste is regulated or managed as hazardous. When evaluating your waste refer to the Resources for Managing Waste Materials listed below for guidance, instructions and to ensure compliance with University waste programs. The evaluation process should also include a waste minimization and pollution prevention process. Why is the waste being generated? Can the waste be eliminated? Can the amount of waste be reduced? If the waste is hazardous, can it be replaced by something non-hazardous or can the process generating the waste be modified to render the waste non-hazardous?

3. Manage Wastes
Once the waste has been identified and evaluated, generators must manage their waste according to applicable University of Minnesota waste management instructions. These waste management instructions have been developed to keep the University in compliance with all applicable laws and regulations and to induce a safe and healthy workplace. Waste minimization and pollution prevention strategies must be given due consideration in the waste material management determination. When managing wastes, refer to the Resources for Managing Waste Materials listed below for guidance, instructions and to ensure compliance with University programs.

4. Arrange for Disposal of Waste

The generator must arrange for removal of the waste for proper disposal. The University provides waste management programs for disposal of all types of waste. Waste Management Program for: a. Non-hazardous Waste(i.e., regular solid waste): contact Facilities Management on each campus; in the Twin Cities, call FM Waste Abatement Services at 612-625-6481. b. Hazardous Radioactive Waste: call DEHS Radiation Protection at 612-626-6002. c. Hazardous Biological Waste: call DEHS Biosafety Program at 612-626-6002.

d. Hazardous Chemical Waste: call DEHS Chemical Waste Program at 612-626-6002. e. Otherwise Regulated Waste (e.g., asbestos, electronics, construction debris): contact Facilities Management on each campus; in the Twin Cities, call FM Waste Abatement Services at 612-6256481.

The Resources for Managing Waste Materials listed below also contain information on waste removal at the University of Minnesota.

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References: 1. Jean Faullimmel, Environmental mission to Cebu, Philippines, May 2011. 2. Rene Burt Llanto, Head of Depart. of Science and Technology, Cebu. 3. S. Brennan and J. Withgott, Environment Pearson, 2004. 4. P.L. Bishop Pollution Prevention McGraw-Hill, 2000. 5. Agency for toxic substances and disease Registry. 6. US Environmental Protection Agency.

Effects of waste If not managed

-economic conditions

environment

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Conclusion

In the context that the Visayas region of the Philippines wants to promote tourism, sustainable solid waste management must be developed. First, existing local environmental legislation must be reviewed, changed or improved, and reinforced, in the context of the reality on the ground. An inventory and the development of an analytical database of the existing waste practices is necessary. It is important to know (1) how much waste is generated, (2) how it is handled, (3) where it is disposed of, and (4) its impact on the environment and human health. Without a clear idea of what exists, it is difficult to set objectives and targets on how to improved the situation. The current practices are not anymore acceptable as it leads to more water and air pollution. In the long run, pollution has a high cost: long term pollution leads to increasing human health and environmental damaging costs.

Based on the inventory and proper legislation, the questions to be asked is what type of waste management method should be adopted on the islands of Cebu, Bohol, Negros Oriental and Sequijor? It is clear that the open dump practices must be stopped. But replaced with what, sanitary landfills, incineration waste to energy or simply upgrading current waste disposal practices? Which one is feasible in the context of the legislation, investment budget, economics, and the opinion of the surrounding communities, in order to be able to promote a clean island?

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