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This etext as prepared by -ue =sscher >asschers?aia%net%au@

P,=E'9 by Plato

Translated by +enja$in 0o ett

/:T*9';CT/9:% =fter an inter!al of so$e $onths or years, and at Phlius, a to n of Peloponnesus, the tale of the last hours of -ocrates is narrated to Echecrates and other Phliasians by Phaedo the Nbelo!ed disciple%N The 'ialogue necessarily ta"es the for$ of a narrati!e, because -ocrates has to be described acting as ell as spea"ing% The $inutest particulars of the e!ent are interesting to distant friends, and the narrator has an eTual interest in the$% 'uring the !oyage of the sacred ship to and fro$ 'elos, hich has occupied thirty days, the execution of -ocrates has been deferred% BCo$pare Ren%

1e$%C The ti$e has been passed by hi$ in con!ersation ith a select co$pany of disciples% +ut no the holy season is o!er, and the disciples $eet earlier than usual in order that they $ay con!erse ith -ocrates for the last ti$e% Those ho ere present, and those ho $ight ha!e been expected to be present, are $entioned by na$e% There are -i$$ias and Cebes BCritoC, t o disciples of Philolaus ho$ -ocrates Nby his enchant$ents has attracted fro$ ThebesN B1e$%C, Crito the aged friend, the attendant of the prison, ho is as good as a friendFFthese ta"e part in the con!ersation% There are present also, ,er$ogenes, fro$ ho$ Renophon deri!ed his infor$ation about the trial of -ocrates B1e$%C, the N$ad$anN =pollodorus B-y$p%C, Euclid and Terpsion fro$ 1egara Bco$pare Theaet%C, Ctesippus, =ntisthenes, 1enexenus, and so$e other lessF"no n $e$bers of the -ocratic circle, all of ho$ are silent auditors% =ristippus, Cleo$brotus, and Plato are noted as absent% =l$ost as soon as the friends of -ocrates enter the prison Ranthippe and her children are sent ho$e in the care of one of CritoNs ser!ants% -ocrates hi$self has just been released fro$ chains, and is led by this circu$stance to $a"e the natural re$ar" that Npleasure follo s pain%N B9bser!e that Plato is preparing the ay for his doctrine of the alternation of opposites%C N=esop ould ha!e represented the$ in a fable as a t oFheaded creature of the gods%N The $ention of =esop re$inds Cebes of a Tuestion hich had been as"ed by E!enus the poet Bco$pare =pol%CA N&hy -ocrates, ho as not a poet, hile in prison had been putting =esop into !erseSNFFN+ecause se!eral ti$es in his life he had been arned in drea$s that he should practise $usicM and as he as about to die and as not certain of hat as $eant, he ished to fulfil the ad$onition in the letter as ell as in the spirit, by riting !erses as ell as by culti!ating philosophy% Tell this to E!enusM and say that / ould ha!e hi$ follo $e in death%N N,e is not at all the sort of $an to co$ply ith your reTuest, -ocrates%N N&hy, is he not a philosopherSN NQes%N NThen he ill be illing to die, although he ill not ta"e his o n life, for that is held to be unla ful%N Cebes as"s hy suicide is thought not to be right, if death is to be accounted a goodS &ell, B1C according to one explanation, because $an is a prisoner, ho $ust not open the door of his prison and run a ayFFthis is the truth in a N$ystery%N 9r BEC rather, because he is not his o n property, but a possession of the gods, and has no right to $a"e a ay ith that hich does not belong to hi$% +ut hy, as"s Cebes, if he is a

possession of the gods, should he ish to die and lea!e the$S (or he is under their protectionM and surely he cannot ta"e better care of hi$self than they ta"e of hi$% -i$$ias explains that Cebes is really referring to -ocrates, ho$ they thin" too un$o!ed at the prospect of lea!ing the gods and his friends% -ocrates ans ers that he is going to other gods ho are ise and good, and perhaps to better friendsM and he professes that he is ready to defend hi$self against the charge of Cebes% The co$pany shall be his judges, and he hopes that he ill be $ore successful in con!incing the$ than he had been in con!incing the court% The philosopher desires deathFF hich the ic"ed orld ill insinuate that he also deser!esA and perhaps he does, but not in any sense hich they are capable of understanding% Enough of the$A the real Tuestion is, &hat is the nature of that death hich he desiresS 'eath is the separation of soul and bodyFFand the philosopher desires such a separation% ,e ould li"e to be freed fro$ the do$inion of bodily pleasures and of the senses, hich are al ays perturbing his $ental !ision% ,e ants to get rid of eyes and ears, and ith the light of the $ind only to behold the light of truth% =ll the e!ils and i$purities and necessities of $en co$e fro$ the body% =nd death separates hi$ fro$ these corruptions, hich in life he cannot holly lay aside% &hy then should he repine hen the hour of separation arri!esS &hy, if he is dead hile he li!es, should he fear that other death, through hich alone he can behold isdo$ in her purityS +esides, the philosopher has notions of good and e!il unli"e those of other $en% (or they are courageous because they are afraid of greater dangers, and te$perate because they desire greater pleasures% +ut he disdains this balancing of pleasures and pains, hich is the exchange of co$$erce and not of !irtue% =ll the !irtues, including isdo$, are regarded by hi$ only as purifications of the soul% =nd this as the $eaning of the founders of the $ysteries hen they said, N1any are the andFbearers but fe are the $ystics%N BCo$pare 1att% xxii%A N1any are called but fe are chosen%NC =nd in the hope that he is one of these $ystics, -ocrates is no departing% This is his ans er to any one ho charges hi$ ith indifference at the prospect of lea!ing the gods and his friends% -till, a fear is expressed that the soul upon lea!ing the body $ay !anish a ay li"e s$o"e or air% -ocrates in ans er appeals first of all to the old 9rphic tradition that the souls of the dead are in the orld belo , and

that the li!ing co$e fro$ the$% This he atte$pts to found on a philosophical assu$ption that all oppositesFFe%g% less, greaterM ea"er, strongerM sleeping, a"ingM life, deathFFare generated out of each other% :or can the process of generation be only a passage fro$ li!ing to dying, for then all ould end in death% The perpetual sleeper BEndy$ionC ould be no longer distinguished fro$ the rest of $an"ind% The circle of nature is not co$plete unless the li!ing co$e fro$ the dead as ell as pass to the$% The Platonic doctrine of re$iniscence is then adduced as a confir$ation of the preFexistence of the soul% -o$e proofs of this doctrine are de$anded% 9ne proof gi!en is the sa$e as that of the 1eno, and is deri!ed fro$ the latent "no ledge of $athe$atics, hich $ay be elicited fro$ an unlearned person hen a diagra$ is presented to hi$% =gain, there is a po er of association, hich fro$ seeing -i$$ias $ay re$e$ber Cebes, or fro$ seeing a picture of -i$$ias $ay re$e$ber -i$$ias% The lyre $ay recall the player of the lyre, and eTual pieces of ood or stone $ay be associated ith the higher notion of absolute eTuality% +ut here obser!e that $aterial eTualities fall short of the conception of absolute eTuality ith hich they are co$pared, and hich is the $easure of the$% =nd the $easure or standard $ust be prior to that hich is $easured, the idea of eTuality prior to the !isible eTuals% =nd if prior to the$, then prior also to the perceptions of the senses hich recall the$, and therefore either gi!en before birth or at birth% +ut all $en ha!e not this "no ledge, nor ha!e any ithout a process of re$iniscenceM hich is a proof that it is not innate or gi!en at birth, unless indeed it as gi!en and ta"en a ay at the sa$e instant% +ut if not gi!en to $en in birth, it $ust ha!e been gi!en before birthFFthis is the only alternati!e hich re$ains% =nd if e had ideas in a for$er state, then our souls $ust ha!e existed and $ust ha!e had intelligence in a for$er state% The preFexistence of the soul stands or falls ith the doctrine of ideas% /t is objected by -i$$ias and Cebes that these argu$ents only pro!e a for$er and not a future existence% -ocrates ans ers this objection by recalling the pre!ious argu$ent, in hich he had sho n that the li!ing co$e fro$ the dead% +ut the fear that the soul at departing $ay !anish into air Bespecially if there is a ind blo ing at the ti$eC has not yet been char$ed a ay% ,e proceedsA &hen e fear that the soul ill !anish a ay, let us as" oursel!es hat is that hich e suppose to be liable to

dissolutionS /s it the si$ple or the co$pound, the unchanging or the changing, the in!isible idea or the !isible object of senseS Clearly the latter and not the for$erM and therefore not the soul, hich in her o n pure thought is unchangeable, and only hen using the senses descends into the region of change% =gain, the soul co$$ands, the body ser!esA in this respect too the soul is a"in to the di!ine, and the body to the $ortal% =nd in e!ery point of !ie the soul is the i$age of di!inity and i$$ortality, and the body of the hu$an and $ortal% =nd hereas the body is liable to speedy dissolution, the soul is al$ost if not Tuite indissoluble% BCo$pare Ti$%C Qet e!en the body $ay be preser!ed for ages by the e$bal$erNs artA ho unli"ely, then, that the soul ill perish and be dissipated into air hile on her ay to the good and ise God# -he has been gathered into herself, holding aloof fro$ the body, and practising death all her life long, and she is no finally released fro$ the errors and follies and passions of $en, and for e!er d ells in the co$pany of the gods% +ut the soul hich is polluted and engrossed by the corporeal, and has no eye except that of the senses, and is eighed do n by the bodily appetites, cannot attain to this abstraction% /n her fear of the orld belo she lingers about the sepulchre, loath to lea!e the body hich she lo!ed, a ghostly apparition, saturated ith sense, and therefore !isible% =t length entering into so$e ani$al of a nature congenial to her for$er life of sensuality or !iolence, she ta"es the for$ of an ass, a olf or a "ite% =nd of these earthly souls the happiest are those ho ha!e practised !irtue ithout philosophyM they are allo ed to pass into gentle and social natures, such as bees and ants% BCo$pare *epublic, 1eno%C +ut only the philosopher ho departs pure is per$itted to enter the co$pany of the gods% BCo$pare Phaedrus%C This is the reason hy he abstains fro$ fleshly lusts, and not because he fears loss or disgrace, hich is the $oti!e of other $en% ,e too has been a capti!e, and the illing agent of his o n capti!ity% +ut philosophy has spo"en to hi$, and he has heard her !oiceM she has gently entreated hi$, and brought hi$ out of the N$iry clay,N and purged a ay the $ists of passion and the illusions of sense hich en!elope hi$M his soul has escaped fro$ the influence of pleasures and pains, hich are li"e nails fastening her to the body% To that prisonFhouse she ill not returnM and therefore she abstains fro$ bodily pleasuresFFnot fro$ a desire of ha!ing $ore or greater ones, but because she "no s that only hen cal$ and free fro$ the do$inion of the body can she behold the light of

truth% -i$$ias and Cebes re$ain in doubtM but they are un illing to raise objections at such a ti$e% -ocrates onders at their reluctance% <et the$ regard hi$ rather as the s an, ho, ha!ing sung the praises of =pollo all his life long, sings at his death $ore lustily than e!er% -i$$ias ac"no ledges that there is co ardice in not probing truth to the botto$% N=nd if truth di!ine and inspired is not to be had, then let a $an ta"e the best of hu$an notions, and upon this frail bar" let hi$ sail through life%N ,e proceeds to state his difficultyA /t has been argued that the soul is in!isible and incorporeal, and therefore i$$ortal, and prior to the body% +ut is not the soul ac"no ledged to be a har$ony, and has she not the sa$e relation to the body, as the har$onyFF hich li"e her is in!isibleFFhas to the lyreS =nd yet the har$ony does not sur!i!e the lyre% Cebes has also an objection, hich li"e -i$$ias he expresses in a figure% ,e is illing to ad$it that the soul is $ore lasting than the body% +ut the $ore lasting nature of the soul does not pro!e her i$$ortalityM for after ha!ing orn out $any bodies in a single life, and $any $ore in successi!e births and deaths, she $ay at last perish, or, as -ocrates after ards restates the objection, the !ery act of birth $ay be the beginning of her death, and her last body $ay sur!i!e her, just as the coat of an old ea!er is left behind hi$ after he is dead, although a $an is $ore lasting than his coat% =nd he ho ould pro!e the i$$ortality of the soul, $ust pro!e not only that the soul outli!es one or $any bodies, but that she outli!es the$ all% The audience, li"e the chorus in a play, for a $o$ent interpret the feelings of the actorsM there is a te$porary depression, and then the enTuiry is resu$ed% /t is a $elancholy reflection that argu$ents, li"e $en, are apt to be decei!ersM and those ho ha!e been often decei!ed beco$e distrustful both of argu$ents and of friends% +ut this unfortunate experience should not $a"e us either haters of $en or haters of argu$ents% The ant of health and truth is not in the argu$ent, but in oursel!es% -ocrates, ho is about to die, is sensible of his o n ea"nessM he desires to be i$partial, but he cannot help feeling that he has too great an interest in the truth of the argu$ent% =nd therefore he ould ha!e his friends exa$ine and refute hi$, if they thin" that he is in error% =t his reTuest -i$$ias and Cebes repeat their objections% They do not go to the length of denying the preFexistence of ideas% -i$$ias is of opinion

that the soul is a har$ony of the body% +ut the ad$ission of the preF existence of ideas, and therefore of the soul, is at !ariance ith this% BCo$pare a parallel difficulty in Theaet%C (or a har$ony is an effect, hereas the soul is not an effect, but a causeM a har$ony follo s, but the soul leadsM a har$ony ad$its of degrees, and the soul has no degrees% =gain, upon the supposition that the soul is a har$ony, hy is one soul better than anotherS =re they $ore or less har$oni8ed, or is there one har$ony ithin anotherS +ut the soul does not ad$it of degrees, and cannot therefore be $ore or less har$oni8ed% (urther, the soul is often engaged in resisting the affections of the body, as ,o$er describes 9dysseus Nrebu"ing his heart%N Could he ha!e ritten this under the idea that the soul is a har$ony of the bodyS :ay rather, are e not contradicting ,o$er and oursel!es in affir$ing anything of the sortS The goddess ,ar$onia, as -ocrates playfully ter$s the argu$ent of -i$$ias, has been happily disposed ofM and no an ans er has to be gi!en to the Theban Cad$us% -ocrates recapitulates the argu$ent of Cebes, hich, as he re$ar"s, in!ol!es the hole Tuestion of natural gro th or causationM about this he proposes to narrate his o n $ental experience% &hen he as young he had pu88led hi$self ith physicsA he had enTuired into the gro th and decay of ani$als, and the origin of thought, until at last he began to doubt the selfFe!ident fact that gro th is the result of eating and drin"ingM and so he arri!ed at the conclusion that he as not $eant for such enTuiries% :or as he less perplexed ith notions of co$parison and nu$ber% =t first he had i$agined hi$self to understand differences of greater and less, and to "no that ten is t o $ore than eight, and the li"e% +ut no those !ery notions appeared to hi$ to contain a contradiction% (or ho can one be di!ided into t oS 9r t o be co$pounded into oneS These are difficulties hich -ocrates cannot ans er% 9f generation and destruction he "no s nothing% +ut he has a confused notion of another $ethod in hich $atters of this sort are to be in!estigated% BCo$pare *epublicM Char$%C Then he heard so$e one reading out of a boo" of =naxagoras, that $ind is the cause of all things% =nd he said to hi$selfA /f $ind is the cause of all things, surely $ind $ust dispose the$ all for the best% The ne teacher ill sho $e this Norder of the bestN in $an and nature% ,o great had been his hopes and ho great his disappoint$ent# (or he found that his

ne friend as anything but consistent in his use of $ind as a cause, and that he soon introduced inds, aters, and other eccentric notions% BCo$pare =rist% 1etaph%C /t as as if a person had said that -ocrates is sitting here because he is $ade up of bones and $uscles, instead of telling the true reasonFFthat he is here because the =thenians ha!e thought good to sentence hi$ to death, and he has thought good to a ait his sentence% ,ad his bones and $uscles been left by hi$ to their o n ideas of right, they ould long ago ha!e ta"en the$sel!es off% +ut surely there is a great confusion of the cause and condition in all this% =nd this confusion also leads people into all sorts of erroneous theories about the position and $otions of the earth% :one of the$ "no ho $uch stronger than any =tlas is the po er of the best% +ut this NbestN is still undisco!eredM and in enTuiring after the cause, e can only hope to attain the second best% :o there is a danger in the conte$plation of the nature of things, as there is a danger in loo"ing at the sun during an eclipse, unless the precaution is ta"en of loo"ing only at the i$age reflected in the ater, or in a glass% BCo$pare <a sM *epublic%C N/ as afraid,N says -ocrates, Nthat / $ight injure the eye of the soul% / thought that / had better return to the old and safe $ethod of ideas% Though / do not $ean to say that he ho conte$plates existence through the $ediu$ of ideas sees only through a glass dar"ly, any $ore than he ho conte$plates actual effects%N /f the existence of ideas is granted to hi$, -ocrates is of opinion that he ill then ha!e no difficulty in pro!ing the i$$ortality of the soul% ,e ill only as" for a further ad$issionAFFthat beauty is the cause of the beautiful, greatness the cause of the great, s$allness of the s$all, and so on of other things% This is a safe and si$ple ans er, hich escapes the contradictions of greater and less Bgreater by reason of that hich is s$aller#C, of addition and subtraction, and the other difficulties of relation% These subtleties he is for lea!ing to iser heads than his o nM he prefers to test ideas by the consistency of their conseTuences, and, if as"ed to gi!e an account of the$, goes bac" to so$e higher idea or hypothesis hich appears to hi$ to be the best, until at last he arri!es at a restingFplace% B*epublicM Phil%C The doctrine of ideas, hich has long ago recei!ed the assent of the -ocratic circle, is no affir$ed by the Phliasian auditor to co$$and the assent of any $an of sense% The narrati!e is continuedM -ocrates is desirous of explaining ho opposite ideas $ay appear to coFexist but do not

really coFexist in the sa$e thing or person% (or exa$ple, -i$$ias $ay be said to ha!e greatness and also s$allness, because he is greater than -ocrates and less than Phaedo% =nd yet -i$$ias is not really great and also s$all, but only hen co$pared to Phaedo and -ocrates% / use the illustration, says -ocrates, because / ant to sho you not only that ideal opposites exclude one another, but also the opposites in us% /, for exa$ple, ha!ing the attribute of s$allness re$ain s$all, and cannot beco$e greatA the s$allness hich is in $e dri!es out greatness% 9ne of the co$pany here re$ar"ed that this as inconsistent ith the old assertion that opposites generated opposites% +ut that, replies -ocrates, as affir$ed, not of opposite ideas either in us or in nature, but of opposition in the concreteFFnot of life and death, but of indi!iduals li!ing and dying% &hen this objection has been re$o!ed, -ocrates proceedsA This doctrine of the $utual exclusion of opposites is not only true of the opposites the$sel!es, but of things hich are inseparable fro$ the$% (or exa$ple, cold and heat are opposedM and fire, hich is inseparable fro$ heat, cannot coFexist ith cold, or sno , hich is inseparable fro$ cold, ith heat% =gain, the nu$ber three excludes the nu$ber four, because three is an odd nu$ber and four is an e!en nu$ber, and the odd is opposed to the e!en% Thus e are able to proceed a step beyond Nthe safe and si$ple ans er%N &e $ay say, not only that the odd excludes the e!en, but that the nu$ber three, hich participates in oddness, excludes the e!en% =nd in li"e $anner, not only does life exclude death, but the soul, of hich life is the inseparable attribute, also excludes death% =nd that of hich life is the inseparable attribute is by the force of the ter$s i$perishable% /f the odd principle ere i$perishable, then the nu$ber three ould not perish but re$o!e, on the approach of the e!en principle% +ut the i$$ortal is i$perishableM and therefore the soul on the approach of death does not perish but re$o!es% Thus all objections appear to be finally silenced% =nd no the application has to be $adeA /f the soul is i$$ortal, N hat $anner of persons ought e to beSN ha!ing regard not only to ti$e but to eternity% (or death is not the end of all, and the ic"ed is not released fro$ his e!il by deathM but e!ery one carries ith hi$ into the orld belo that hich he is or has beco$e, and that only% (or after death the soul is carried a ay to judg$ent, and hen she has recei!ed her punish$ent returns to earth in the course of ages% The ise

soul is conscious of her situation, and follo s the attendant angel ho guides her through the indings of the orld belo M but the i$pure soul anders hither and thither ithout co$panion or guide, and is carried at last to her o n place, as the pure soul is also carried a ay to hers% N/n order that you $ay understand this, / $ust first describe to you the nature and confor$ation of the earth%N :o the hole earth is a globe placed in the centre of the hea!ens, and is $aintained there by the perfection of balance% That hich e call the earth is only one of $any s$all hollo s, herein collect the $ists and aters and the thic" lo er airM but the true earth is abo!e, and is in a finer and subtler ele$ent% =nd if, li"e birds, e could fly to the surface of the air, in the sa$e $anner that fishes co$e to the top of the sea, then e should behold the true earth and the true hea!en and the true stars% 9ur earth is e!ery here corrupted and corrodedM and e!en the land hich is fairer than the sea, for that is a $ere chaos or aste of ater and $ud and sand, has nothing to sho in co$parison of the other orld% +ut the hea!enly earth is of di!ers colours, spar"ling ith je els brighter than gold and hiter than any sno , ha!ing flo ers and fruits innu$erable% =nd the inhabitants d ell so$e on the shore of the sea of air, others in Nislets of the blest,N and they hold con!erse ith the gods, and behold the sun, $oon and stars as they truly are, and their other blessedness is of a piece ith this% The hollo s on the surface of the globe !ary in si8e and shape fro$ that hich e inhabitA but all are connected by passages and perforations in the interior of the earth% =nd there is one huge chas$ or opening called Tartarus, into hich strea$s of fire and ater and liTuid $ud are e!er flo ingM of these s$all portions find their ay to the surface and for$ seas and ri!ers and !olcanoes% There is a perpetual inhalation and exhalation of the air rising and falling as the aters pass into the depths of the earth and return again, in their course for$ing la"es and ri!ers, but ne!er descending belo the centre of the earthM for on either side the ri!ers flo ing either ay are stopped by a precipice% These ri!ers are $any and $ighty, and there are four principal ones, 9ceanus, =cheron, Pyriphlegethon, and Cocytus% 9ceanus is the ri!er hich encircles the earthM =cheron ta"es an opposite direction, and after flo ing under the earth through desert places, at last reaches the =cherusian la"e,FFthis is the ri!er at hich the souls of the dead a ait their return to earth% Pyriphlegethon is a strea$ of fire, hich coils round the earth and flo s

into the depths of Tartarus% The fourth ri!er, Cocytus, is that hich is called by the poets the -tygian ri!er, and passes into and for$s the la"e -tyx, fro$ the aters of hich it gains ne and strange po ers% This ri!er, too, falls into Tartarus% The dead are first of all judged according to their deeds, and those ho are incurable are thrust into Tartarus, fro$ hich they ne!er co$e out% Those ho ha!e only co$$itted !enial sins are first purified of the$, and then re arded for the good hich they ha!e done% Those ho ha!e co$$itted cri$es, great indeed, but not unpardonable, are thrust into Tartarus, but are cast forth at the end of a year by ay of Pyriphlegethon or Cocytus, and these carry the$ as far as the =cherusian la"e, here they call upon their !icti$s to let the$ co$e out of the ri!ers into the la"e% =nd if they pre!ail, then they are let out and their sufferings ceaseA if not, they are borne unceasingly into Tartarus and bac" again, until they at last obtain $ercy% The pure souls also recei!e their re ard, and ha!e their abode in the upper earth, and a select fe in still fairer N$ansions%N -ocrates is not prepared to insist on the literal accuracy of this description, but he is confident that so$ething of the "ind is true% ,e ho has sought after the pleasures of "no ledge and rejected the pleasures of the body, has reason to be of good hope at the approach of deathM hose !oice is already spea"ing to hi$, and ho ill one day be heard calling all $en% The hour has co$e at hich he $ust drin" the poison, and not $uch re$ains to be done% ,o shall they bury hi$S That is a Tuestion hich he refuses to entertain, for they are burying, not hi$, but his dead body% ,is friends had once been sureties that he ould re$ain, and they shall no be sureties that he has run a ay% Qet he ould not die ithout the custo$ary cere$onies of ashing and burial% -hall he $a"e a libation of the poisonS /n the spirit he ill, but not in the letter% 9ne reTuest he utters in the !ery act of death, hich has been a pu88le to after ages% &ith a sort of irony he re$e$bers that a trifling religious duty is still unfulfilled, just as abo!e he desires before he departs to co$pose a fe !erses in order to satisfy a scruple about a drea$FFunless, indeed, e suppose hi$ to $ean, that he as no restored to health, and $ade the custo$ary offering to =sclepius in to"en of his reco!ery%

%%% 1% The doctrine of the i$$ortality of the soul has sun" deep into the heart of the hu$an raceM and $en are apt to rebel against any exa$ination of the nature or grounds of their belief% They do not li"e to ac"no ledge that this, as ell as the other Neternal ideasM of $an, has a history in ti$e, hich $ay be traced in Gree" poetry or philosophy, and also in the ,ebre -criptures% They con!ert feeling into reasoning, and thro a net or" of dialectics o!er that hich is really a deeplyFrooted instinct% /n the sa$e te$per hich -ocrates repro!es in hi$self they are disposed to thin" that e!en fallacies ill do no har$, for they ill die ith the$, and hile they li!e they ill gain by the delusion% =nd hen they consider the nu$berless bad argu$ents hich ha!e been pressed into the ser!ice of theology, they say, li"e the co$panions of -ocrates, N&hat argu$ent can e e!er trust againSN +ut there is a better and higher spirit to be gathered fro$ the Phaedo, as ell as fro$ the other ritings of Plato, hich says that first principles should be $ost constantly re!ie ed BPhaedo and Crat%C, and that the highest subjects de$and of us the greatest accuracy B*epublicCM also that e $ust not beco$e $isologists because argu$ents are apt to be decei!ers% E% /n for$er ages there as a custo$ary rather than a reasoned belief in the i$$ortality of the soul% /t as based on the authority of the Church, on the necessity of such a belief to $orality and the order of society, on the e!idence of an historical fact, and also on analogies and figures of speech hich filled up the !oid or ga!e an expression in ords to a cherished instinct% The $ass of $an"ind ent on their ay busy ith the affairs of this life, hardly stopping to thin" about another% +ut in our o n day the Tuestion has been reopened, and it is doubtful hether the belief hich in the first ages of Christianity as the strongest $oti!e of action can sur!i!e the conflict ith a scientific age in hich the rules of e!idence are stricter and the $ind has beco$e $ore sensiti!e to criticis$% /t has faded into the distance by a natural process as it as re$o!ed further and further fro$ the historical fact on hich it has been supposed to rest% =rgu$ents deri!ed fro$ $aterial things such as the seed and the ear of corn or transitions in the life of ani$als fro$ one state of being to another Bthe chrysalis and the butterflyC are not Nin pari $ateriaN ith argu$ents fro$ the !isible to the in!isible, and are therefore felt to be no longer applicable% The e!idence to the historical fact see$s to be ea"er than as once supposedA it is not consistent ith itself, and is

based upon docu$ents hich are of un"no n origin% The i$$ortality of $an $ust be pro!ed by other argu$ents than these if it is again to beco$e a li!ing belief% &e $ust as" oursel!es afresh hy e still $aintain it, and see" to disco!er a foundation for it in the nature of God and in the first principles of $orality% H% =t the outset of the discussion e $ay clear a ay a confusion% &e certainly do not $ean by the i$$ortality of the soul the i$$ortality of fa$e, hich hether orth ha!ing or not can only be ascribed to a !ery select class of the hole race of $an"ind, and e!en the interest in these fe is co$parati!ely shortFli!ed% To ha!e been a benefactor to the orld, hether in a higher or a lo er sphere of life and thought, is a great thingA to ha!e the reputation of being one, hen $en ha!e passed out of the sphere of earthly praise or bla$e, is hardly orthy of consideration% The $e$ory of a great $an, so far fro$ being i$$ortal, is really li$ited to his o n generationAFFso long as his friends or his disciples are ali!e, so long as his boo"s continue to be read, so long as his political or $ilitary successes fill a page in the history of his country% The praises hich are besto ed upon hi$ at his death hardly last longer than the flo ers hich are stre ed upon his coffin or the Ni$$ortellesN hich are laid upon his to$b% <iterature $a"es the $ost of its heroes, but the true $an is ell a are that far fro$ enjoying an i$$ortality of fa$e, in a generation or t o, or e!en in a $uch shorter ti$e, he ill be forgotten and the orld ill get on ithout hi$% G% 1odern philosophy is perplexed at this hole Tuestion, hich is so$eti$es fairly gi!en up and handed o!er to the real$ of faith% The perplexity should not be forgotten by us hen e atte$pt to sub$it the Phaedo of Plato to the reTuire$ents of logic% (or hat idea can e for$ of the soul hen separated fro$ the bodyS 9r ho can the soul be united ith the body and still be independentS /s the soul related to the body as the ideal to the real, or as the hole to the parts, or as the subject to the object, or as the cause to the effect, or as the end to the $eansS -hall e say ith =ristotle, that the soul is the entelechy or for$ of an organi8ed li!ing bodyS or ith Plato, that she has a life of her o nS /s the Pythagorean i$age of the har$ony, or that of the $onad, the truer expressionS /s the soul related to the body as sight to the eye, or as the boat$an to his boatS B=rist% de =ni$%C =nd in another state of being is the soul to be concei!ed of as !anishing into infinity, hardly possessing

an existence hich she can call her o n, as in the pantheistic syste$ of -pino8aA or as an indi!idual infor$ing another body and entering into ne relations, but retaining her o n characterS BCo$pare Gorgias%C 9r is the opposition of soul and body a $ere illusion, and the true self neither soul nor body, but the union of the t o in the N/N hich is abo!e the$S =nd is death the assertion of this indi!iduality in the higher nature, and the falling a ay into nothingness of the lo erS 9r are e !ainly atte$pting to pass the boundaries of hu$an thoughtS The body and the soul see$ to be inseparable, not only in fact, but in our conceptions of the$M and any philosophy hich too closely unites the$, or too idely separates the$, either in this life or in another, disturbs the balance of hu$an nature% :o thin"er has perfectly adjusted the$, or been entirely consistent ith hi$self in describing their relation to one another% :or can e onder that Plato in the infancy of hu$an thought should ha!e confused $ythology and philosophy, or ha!e $ista"en !erbal argu$ents for real ones% 4% =gain, belie!ing in the i$$ortality of the soul, e $ust still as" the Tuestion of -ocrates, N&hat is that hich e suppose to be i$$ortalSN /s it the personal and indi!idual ele$ent in us, or the spiritual and uni!ersalS /s it the principle of "no ledge or of goodness, or the union of the t oS /s it the $ere force of life hich is deter$ined to be, or the consciousness of self hich cannot be got rid of, or the fire of genius hich refuses to be extinguishedS 9r is there a hidden being hich is allied to the =uthor of all existence, ho is because he is perfect, and to ho$ our ideas of perfection gi!e us a title to belongS &hate!er ans er is gi!en by us to these Tuestions, there still re$ains the necessity of allo ing the per$anence of e!il, if not for e!er, at any rate for a ti$e, in order that the ic"ed N$ay not ha!e too good a bargain%N (or the annihilation of e!il at death, or the eternal duration of it, see$ to in!ol!e eTual difficulties in the $oral go!ern$ent of the uni!erse% -o$eti$es e are led by our feelings, rather than by our reason, to thin" of the good and ise only as existing in another life% &hy should the $ean, the ea", the idiot, the infant, the herd of $en ho ha!e ne!er in any proper sense the use of reason, reappear ith blin"ing eyes in the light of another orldS +ut our second thought is that the hope of hu$anity is a co$$on one, and that all or none ill be parta"ers of i$$ortality% *eason does not allo us to suppose that e ha!e any greater clai$s than others, and experience $ay often re!eal to us unexpected flashes of the higher nature in those ho$ e had despised% &hy should the

ic"ed suffer any $ore than oursel!esS had e been placed in their circu$stances should e ha!e been any better than theyS The orst of $en are objects of pity rather than of anger to the philanthropistM $ust they not be eTually such to di!ine bene!olenceS E!en $ore than the good they ha!e need of another lifeM not that they $ay be punished, but that they $ay be educated% These are a fe of the reflections hich arise in our $inds hen e atte$pt to assign any for$ to our conceptions of a future state% There are so$e other Tuestions hich are disturbing to us because e ha!e no ans er to the$% &hat is to beco$e of the ani$als in a future stateS ,a!e e not seen dogs $ore faithful and intelligent than $en, and $en ho are $ore stupid and brutal than any ani$alsS 'oes their life cease at death, or is there so$e Nbetter thing reser!edN also for the$S They $ay be said to ha!e a shado or i$itation of $orality, and i$perfect $oral clai$s upon the bene!olence of $an and upon the justice of God% &e cannot thin" of the least or lo est of the$, the insect, the bird, the inhabitants of the sea or the desert, as ha!ing any place in a future orld, and if not all, hy should those ho are specially attached to $an be dee$ed orthy of any exceptional pri!ilegeS &hen e reason about such a subject, al$ost at once e degenerate into nonsense% /t is a passing thought hich has no real hold on the $ind% &e $ay argue for the existence of ani$als in a future state fro$ the attributes of God, or fro$ texts of -cripture BN=re not t o sparro s sold for one farthingSN etc%C, but the truth is that e are only filling up the !oid of another orld ith our o n fancies% =gain, e often tal" about the origin of e!il, that great bugbear of theologians, by hich they frighten us into belie!ing any superstition% &hat ans er can be $ade to the old co$$onplace, N/s not God the author of e!il, if he "no ingly per$itted, but could ha!e pre!ented itSN E!en if e assu$e that the ineTualities of this life are rectified by so$e transposition of hu$an beings in another, still the existence of the !ery least e!il if it could ha!e been a!oided, see$s to be at !ariance ith the lo!e and justice of God% =nd so e arri!e at the conclusion that e are carrying logic too far, and that the atte$pt to fra$e the orld according to a rule of di!ine perfection is opposed to experience and had better be gi!en up% The case of the ani$als is our o n% &e $ust ad$it that the 'i!ine +eing, although perfect hi$self, has placed us in a state of life in hich e $ay or" together ith hi$ for good, but e are !ery far fro$ ha!ing attained to it% 3% =gain, ideas $ust be gi!en through so$ethingM and e are al ays prone

to argue about the soul fro$ analogies of out ard things hich $ay ser!e to e$body our thoughts, but are also partly delusi!e% (or e cannot reason fro$ the natural to the spiritual, or fro$ the out ard to the in ard% The progress of physiological science, ithout bringing us nearer to the great secret, has tended to re$o!e so$e erroneous notions respecting the relations of body and $ind, and in this e ha!e the ad!antage of the ancients% +ut no one i$agines that any seed of i$$ortality is to be discerned in our $ortal fra$es% 1ost people ha!e been content to rest their belief in another life on the agree$ent of the $ore enlightened part of $an"ind, and on the inseparable connection of such a doctrine ith the existence of a GodFFalso in a less degree on the i$possibility of doubting about the continued existence of those ho$ e lo!e and re!erence in this orld% =nd after all has been said, the figure, the analogy, the argu$ent, are felt to be only approxi$ations in different for$s to an expression of the co$$on senti$ent of the hu$an heart% That e shall li!e again is far $ore certain than that e shall ta"e any particular for$ of life% 7% &hen e spea" of the i$$ortality of the soul, e $ust as" further hat e $ean by the ord i$$ortality% (or of the duration of a li!ing being in countless ages e can for$ no conceptionM far less than a three yearsN old child of the hole of life% The na"ed eye $ight as ell try to see the furthest star in the infinity of hea!en% &hether ti$e and space really exist hen e ta"e a ay the li$its of the$ $ay be doubtedM at any rate the thought of the$ hen unli$ited us so o!er hel$ing to us as to lose all distinctness% Philosophers ha!e spo"en of the$ as for$s of the hu$an $ind, but hat is the $ind ithout the$S =s then infinite ti$e, or an existence out of ti$e, hich are the only possible explanations of eternal duration, are eTually inconcei!able to us, let us substitute for the$ a hundred or a thousand years after death, and as" not hat ill be our e$ploy$ent in eternity, but hat ill happen to us in that definite portion of ti$eM or hat is no happening to those ho passed out of life a hundred or a thousand years ago% 'o e i$agine that the ic"ed are suffering tor$ents, or that the good are singing the praises of God, during a period longer than that of a hole life, or of ten li!es of $enS /s the suffering physical or $entalS =nd does the orship of God consist only of praise, or of $any for$s of ser!iceS &ho are the ic"ed, and ho are the good, ho$ e !enture to di!ide by a hard and fast lineM and in hich of the t o classes should e place oursel!es and our friendsS 1ay e not suspect that

e are $a"ing differences of "ind, because e are unable to i$agine differences of degreeSFFputting the hole hu$an race into hea!en or hell for the greater con!enience of logical di!isionS =re e not at the sa$e ti$e describing the$ both in superlati!es, only that e $ay satisfy the de$ands of rhetoricS &hat is that pain hich does not beco$e deadened after a thousand yearsS or hat is the nature of that pleasure or happiness hich ne!er earies by $onotonyS Earthly pleasures and pains are short in proportion as they are "eenM of any others hich are both intense and lasting e ha!e no experience, and can for$ no idea% The ords or figures of speech hich e use are not consistent ith the$sel!es% (or are e not i$agining ,ea!en under the si$ilitude of a church, and ,ell as a prison, or perhaps a $adhouse or cha$ber of horrorsS =nd yet to beings constituted as e are, the $onotony of singing psal$s ould be as great an infliction as the pains of hell, and $ight be e!en pleasantly interrupted by the$% &here are the actions orthy of re ards greater than those hich are conferred on the greatest benefactors of $an"indS =nd here are the cri$es hich according to PlatoNs $erciful rec"oning,FF$ore $erciful, at any rate, than the eternal da$nation of soFcalled Christian teachers,FFfor e!ery ten years in this life deser!e a hundred of punish$ent in the life to co$eS &e should be ready to die of pity if e could see the least of the sufferings hich the riters of /nfernos and Purgatorios ha!e attributed to the da$ned% Qet these joys and terrors see$ hardly to exercise an appreciable influence o!er the li!es of $en% The ic"ed $an hen old, is not, as Plato supposes B*epublicC, $ore agitated by the terrors of another orld hen he is nearer to the$, nor the good in an ecstasy at the joys of hich he is soon to be the parta"er% =ge nu$bs the sense of both orldsM and the habit of life is strongest in death% E!en the dying $other is drea$ing of her lost children as they ere forty or fifty years before, Npattering o!er the boards,N not of reunion ith the$ in another state of being% 1ost persons hen the last hour co$es are resigned to the order of nature and the ill of God% They are not thin"ing of 'anteNs /nferno or Paradiso, or of the Pilgri$Ns Progress% ,ea!en and hell are not realities to the$, but ords or ideasM the out ard sy$bols of so$e great $ystery, they hardly "no hat% 1any noble poe$s and pictures ha!e been suggested by the traditional representations of the$, hich ha!e been fixed in for$s of art and can no longer be altered% 1any ser$ons ha!e been filled ith descriptions of celestial or infernal $ansions% +ut hardly e!en in childhood did the thought of hea!en and hell supply the $oti!es of our actions, or at any ti$e seriously affect the substance of our belief%

5% =nother life $ust be described, if at all, in for$s of thought and not of sense% To dra pictures of hea!en and hell, hether in the language of -cripture or any other, adds nothing to our real "no ledge, but $ay perhaps disguise our ignorance% The truest conception hich e can for$ of a future life is a state of progress or educationFFa progress fro$ e!il to good, fro$ ignorance to "no ledge% To this e are led by the analogy of the present life, in hich e see different races and nations of $en, and different $en and o$en of the sa$e nation, in !arious states or stages of culti!ationM so$e $ore and so$e less de!eloped, and all of the$ capable of i$pro!e$ent under fa!ourable circu$stances% There are punish$ents too of children hen they are gro ing up inflicted by their parents, of elder offenders hich are i$posed by the la of the land, of all $en at all ti$es of life, hich are attached by the la s of nature to the perfor$ance of certain actions% =ll these punish$ents are really educationalM that is to say, they are not intended to retaliate on the offender, but to teach hi$ a lesson% =lso there is an ele$ent of chance in the$, hich is another na$e for our ignorance of the la s of nature% There is e!il too inseparable fro$ good Bco$pare <ysisCM not al ays punished here, as good is not al ays re arded% /t is capable of being indefinitely di$inishedM and as "no ledge increases, the ele$ent of chance $ay $ore and $ore disappear% (or e do not argue $erely fro$ the analogy of the present state of this orld to another, but fro$ the analogy of a probable future to hich e are tending% The greatest changes of hich e ha!e had experience as yet are due to our increasing "no ledge of history and of nature% They ha!e been produced by a fe $inds appearing in three or four fa!oured nations, in a co$parati!ely short period of ti$e% 1ay e be allo ed to i$agine the $inds of $en e!ery here or"ing together during $any ages for the co$pletion of our "no ledgeS 1ay not the science of physiology transfor$ the orldS =gain, the $ajority of $an"ind ha!e really experienced so$e $oral i$pro!e$entM al$ost e!ery one feels that he has tendencies to good, and is capable of beco$ing better% =nd these ger$s of good are often found to be de!eloped by ne circu$stances, li"e stunted trees hen transplanted to a better soil% The differences bet een the sa!age and the ci!ili8ed $an, or bet een the ci!ili8ed $an in old and ne countries, $ay be indefinitely increased% The first difference is the effect of a fe thousand, the second of a fe hundred years% &e congratulate oursel!es that sla!ery has

beco$e industryM that la and constitutional go!ern$ent ha!e superseded despotis$ and !iolenceM that an ethical religion has ta"en the place of (etichis$% There $ay yet co$e a ti$e hen the $any $ay be as ell off as the fe M hen no one ill be eighed do n by excessi!e toilM hen the necessity of pro!iding for the body ill not interfere ith $ental i$pro!e$entM hen the physical fra$e $ay be strengthened and de!elopedM and the religion of all $en $ay beco$e a reasonable ser!ice% :othing therefore, either in the present state of $an or in the tendencies of the future, as far as e can entertain conjecture of the$, ould lead us to suppose that God go!erns us !indicti!ely in this orld, and therefore e ha!e no reason to infer that he ill go!ern us !indicti!ely in another% The true argu$ent fro$ analogy is not, NThis life is a $ixed state of justice and injustice, of great aste, of sudden casualties, of disproportionate punish$ents, and therefore the li"e inconsistencies, irregularities, injustices are to be expected in anotherMN but NThis life is subject to la , and is in a state of progress, and therefore la and progress $ay be belie!ed to be the go!erning principles of another%N =ll the analogies of this orld ould be against un$eaning punish$ents inflicted a hundred or a thousand years after an offence had been co$$itted% -uffering there $ight be as a part of education, but not hopeless or protractedM as there $ight be a retrogression of indi!iduals or of bodies of $en, yet not such as to interfere ith a plan for the i$pro!e$ent of the hole Bco$pare <a s%C .% +ut so$e one ill sayA That e cannot reason fro$ the seen to the unseen, and that e are creating another orld after the i$age of this, just as $en in for$er ages ha!e created gods in their o n li"eness% =nd e, li"e the co$panions of -ocrates, $ay feel discouraged at hearing our fa!ourite Nargu$ent fro$ analogyN thus su$$arily disposed of% <i"e hi$self, too, e $ay adduce other argu$ents in hich he see$s to ha!e anticipated us, though he expresses the$ in different language% (or e feel that the soul parta"es of the ideal and in!isibleM and can ne!er fall into the error of confusing the external circu$stances of $an ith his higher selfM or his origin ith his nature% /t is as repugnant to us as it as to hi$ to i$agine that our $oral ideas are to be attributed only to cerebral forces% The !alue of a hu$an soul, li"e the !alue of a $anNs life to hi$self, is inesti$able, and cannot be rec"oned in earthly or $aterial things% The hu$an being alone has the consciousness of truth and justice

and lo!e, hich is the consciousness of God% =nd the soul beco$ing $ore conscious of these, beco$es $ore conscious of her o n i$$ortality% 17% The last ground of our belief in i$$ortality, and the strongest, is the perfection of the di!ine nature% The $ere fact of the existence of God does not tend to sho the continued existence of $an% =n e!il God or an indifferent God $ight ha!e had the po er, but not the ill, to preser!e us% ,e $ight ha!e regarded us as fitted to $inister to his ser!ice by a succession of existences,FFli"e the ani$als, ithout attributing to each soul an inco$parable !alue% +ut if he is perfect, he $ust ill that all rational beings should parta"e of that perfection hich he hi$self is% /n the ords of the Ti$aeus, he is good, and therefore he desires that all other things should be as li"e hi$self as possible% =nd the $anner in hich he acco$plishes this is by per$itting e!il, or rather degrees of good, hich are other ise called e!il% (or all progress is good relati!ely to the past, and yet $ay be co$parati!ely e!il hen regarded in the light of the future% Good and e!il are relati!e ter$s, and degrees of e!il are $erely the negati!e aspect of degrees of good% 9f the absolute goodness of any finite nature e can for$ no conceptionM e are all of us in process of transition fro$ one degree of good or e!il to another% The difficulties hich are urged about the origin or existence of e!il are $ere dialectical pu88les, standing in the sa$e relation to Christian philosophy as the pu88les of the Cynics and 1egarians to the philosophy of Plato% They arise out of the tendency of the hu$an $ind to regard good and e!il both as relati!e and absoluteM just as the riddles about $otion are to be explained by the double conception of space or $atter, hich the hu$an $ind has the po er of regarding either as continuous or discrete% /n spea"ing of di!ine perfection, e $ean to say that God is just and true and lo!ing, the author of order and not of disorder, of good and not of e!il% 9r rather, that he is justice, that he is truth, that he is lo!e, that he is order, that he is the !ery progress of hich e ere spea"ingM and that here!er these Tualities are present, hether in the hu$an soul or in the order of nature, there is God% &e $ight still see hi$ e!ery here, if e had not been $ista"enly see"ing for hi$ apart fro$ us, instead of in usM a ay fro$ the la s of nature, instead of in the$% =nd e beco$e united to hi$ not by $ystical absorption, but by parta"ing, hether consciously or unconsciously, of that truth and justice and lo!e hich he hi$self is% Thus the belief in the i$$ortality of the soul rests at last on the belief

in God% /f there is a good and ise God, then there is a progress of $an"ind to ards perfectionM and if there is no progress of $en to ards perfection, then there is no good and ise God% &e cannot suppose that the $oral go!ern$ent of God of hich e see the beginnings in the orld and in oursel!es ill cease hen e pass out of life% 11% Considering the Nfeebleness of the hu$an faculties and the uncertainty of the subject,N e are inclined to belie!e that the fe er our ords the better% =t the approach of death there is not $uch saidM good $en are too honest to go out of the orld professing $ore than they "no % There is perhaps no i$portant subject about hich, at any ti$e, e!en religious people spea" so little to one another% /n the fulness of life the thought of death is $ostly a a"ened by the sight or recollection of the death of others rather than by the prospect of our o n% &e $ust also ac"no ledge that there are degrees of the belief in i$$ortality, and $any for$s in hich it presents itself to the $ind% -o$e persons ill say no $ore than that they trust in God, and that they lea!e all to ,i$% /t is a great part of true religion not to pretend to "no $ore than e do% 9thers hen they Tuit this orld are co$forted ith the hope NThat they ill see and "no their friends in hea!en%N +ut it is better to lea!e the$ in the hands of God and to be assured that Nno e!il shall touch the$%N There are others again to ho$ the belief in a di!ine personality has ceased to ha!e any longer a $eaningM yet they are satisfied that the end of all is not here, but that so$ething still re$ains to us, Nand so$e better thing for the good than for the e!il%N They are persuaded, in spite of their theological nihilis$, that the ideas of justice and truth and holiness and lo!e are realities% They cherish an enthusiastic de!otion to the first principles of $orality% Through these they see, or see$ to see, dar"ly, and in a figure, that the soul is i$$ortal% +ut besides differences of theological opinion hich $ust e!er pre!ail about things unseen, the hope of i$$ortality is ea"er or stronger in $en at one ti$e of life than at anotherM it e!en !aries fro$ day to day% /t co$es and goesM the $ind, li"e the s"y, is apt to be o!erclouded% 9ther generations of $en $ay ha!e so$eti$es li!ed under an Neclipse of faith,N to us the total disappearance of it $ight be co$pared to the Nsun falling fro$ hea!en%N =nd e $ay so$eti$es ha!e to begin again and acTuire the belief for oursel!esM or to in it bac" again hen it is lost% /t is really ea"est in the hour of death% (or :ature, li"e a "ind $other or nurse,

lays us to sleep ithout frightening usM physicians, ho are the itnesses of such scenes, say that under ordinary circu$stances there is no fear of the future% 9ften, as Plato tells us, death is acco$panied N ith pleasure%N BTi$%C &hen the end is still uncertain, the cry of $any a one has been, NPray, that / $ay be ta"en%N The last thoughts e!en of the best $en depend chiefly on the accidents of their bodily state% Pain soon o!erpo ers the desire of lifeM old age, li"e the child, is laid to sleep al$ost in a $o$ent% The long experience of life ill often destroy the interest hich $an"ind ha!e in it% -o !arious are the feelings ith hich different persons dra near to deathM and still $ore !arious the for$s in hich i$agination clothes it% (or this alternation of feeling co$pare the 9ld Testa$ent,FFPsal$ !i%M /saiahM Eccles% 1E% &hen e thin" of God and of $an in his relation to GodM of the i$perfection of our present state and yet of the progress hich is obser!able in the history of the orld and of the hu$an $indM of the depth and po er of our $oral ideas hich see$ to parta"e of the !ery nature of God ,i$selfM hen e consider the contrast bet een the physical la s to hich e are subject and the higher la hich raises us abo!e the$ and is yet a part of the$M hen e reflect on our capacity of beco$ing the Nspectators of all ti$e and all existence,N and of fra$ing in our o n $inds the ideal of a perfect +eingM hen e see ho the hu$an $ind in all the higher religions of the orld, including +uddhis$, not ithstanding so$e aberrations, has tended to ards such a beliefFF e ha!e reason to thin" that our destiny is different fro$ that of ani$alsM and though e cannot altogether shut out the childish fear that the soul upon lea!ing the body $ay N!anish into thin air,N e ha!e still, so far as the nature of the subject ad$its, a hope of i$$ortality ith hich e co$fort oursel!es on sufficient grounds% The denial of the belief ta"es the heart out of hu$an lifeM it lo ers $en to the le!el of the $aterial% =s Goethe also says, N,e is dead e!en in this orld ho has no belief in another%N 1H% /t is ell also that e should so$eti$es thin" of the for$s of thought under hich the idea of i$$ortality is $ost naturally presented to us% /t is clear that to our $inds the risen soul can no longer be described, as in a picture, by the sy$bol of a creature halfFbird, halfFhu$an, nor in any other for$ of sense% The $ultitude of angels, as in 1ilton, singing the =l$ighty Ns praises, are a noble i$age, and $ay furnish a the$e for the poet or the painter, but they are no longer an adeTuate expression of the "ingdo$ of God hich is ithin us% :either is there any $ansion, in this

orld or another, in hich the departed can be i$agined to d ell and carry on their occupations% &hen this earthly tabernacle is dissol!ed, no other habitation or building can ta"e the$ inA it is in the language of ideas only that e spea" of the$% (irst of all there is the thought of rest and freedo$ fro$ painM they ha!e gone ho$e, as the co$$on saying is, and the cares of this orld touch the$ no $ore% -econdly, e $ay i$agine the$ as they ere at their best and brightest, hu$bly fulfilling their daily round of dutiesFFselfless, childli"e, unaffected by the orldM hen the eye as single and the hole body see$ed to be full of lightM hen the $ind as clear and sa into the purposes of God% Thirdly, e $ay thin" of the$ as possessed by a great lo!e of God and $an, or"ing out ,is ill at a further stage in the hea!enly pilgri$age% =nd yet e ac"no ledge that these are the things hich eye hath not seen nor ear heard and therefore it hath not entered into the heart of $an in any sensible $anner to concei!e the$% (ourthly, there $ay ha!e been so$e $o$ents in our o n li!es hen e ha!e risen abo!e oursel!es, or been conscious of our truer sel!es, in hich the ill of God has superseded our ills, and e ha!e entered into co$$union ith ,i$, and been parta"ers for a brief season of the 'i!ine truth and lo!e, in hich li"e Christ e ha!e been inspired to utter the prayer, N/ in the$, and thou in $e, that e $ay be all $ade perfect in one%N These precious $o$ents, if e ha!e e!er "no n the$, are the nearest approach hich e can $a"e to the idea of i$$ortality% 1G% *eturning no to the earlier stage of hu$an thought hich is represented by the ritings of Plato, e find that $any of the sa$e Tuestions ha!e already arisenA there is the sa$e tendency to $aterialis$M the sa$e inconsistency in the application of the idea of $indM the sa$e doubt hether the soul is to be regarded as a cause or as an effectM the sa$e falling bac" on $oral con!ictions% /n the Phaedo the soul is conscious of her di!ine nature, and the separation fro$ the body hich has been co$$enced in this life is perfected in another% +eginning in $ystery, -ocrates, in the inter$ediate part of the 'ialogue, atte$pts to bring the doctrine of a future life into connection ith his theory of "no ledge% /n proportion as he succeeds in this, the indi!idual see$s to disappear in a $ore general notion of the soulM the conte$plation of ideas Nunder the for$

of eternityN ta"es the place of past and future states of existence% ,is language $ay be co$pared to that of so$e $odern philosophers, ho spea" of eternity, not in the sense of perpetual duration of ti$e, but as an e!erF present Tuality of the soul% Qet at the conclusion of the 'ialogue, ha!ing Narri!ed at the end of the intellectual orldN B*epublicC, he replaces the !eil of $ythology, and describes the soul and her attendant genius in the language of the $ysteries or of a disciple of Xoroaster% :or can e fairly de$and of Plato a consistency hich is anting a$ong oursel!es, ho ac"no ledge that another orld is beyond the range of hu$an thought, and yet are al ays see"ing to represent the $ansions of hea!en or hell in the colours of the painter, or in the descriptions of the poet or rhetorician% 14% The doctrine of the i$$ortality of the soul as not ne to the Gree"s in the age of -ocrates, but, li"e the unity of God, had a foundation in the popular belief% The old ,o$eric notion of a gibbering ghost flitting a ay to ,adesM or of a fe illustrious heroes enjoying the isles of the blestM or of an existence di!ided bet een the t oM or the ,esiodic, of righteous spirits, ho beco$e guardian angels,FFhad gi!en place in the $ysteries and the 9rphic poets to representations, partly fanciful, of a future state of re ards and punish$ents% B<a s%C The reticence of the Gree"s on public occasions and in so$e part of their literature respecting this NundergroundN religion, is not to be ta"en as a $easure of the diffusion of such beliefs% /f Pericles in the funeral oration is silent on the consolations of i$$ortality, the poet Pindar and the tragedians on the other hand constantly assu$e the continued existence of the dead in an upper or under orld% 'arius and <aius are still ali!eM =ntigone ill be dear to her brethren after deathM the ay to the palace of Cronos is found by those ho Nha!e thrice departed fro$ e!il%N The tragedy of the Gree"s is not NroundedN by this life, but is deeply set in decrees of fate and $ysterious or"ings of po ers beneath the earth% /n the caricature of =ristophanes there is also a itness to the co$$on senti$ent% The /onian and Pythagorean philosophies arose, and so$e ne ele$ents ere added to the popular belief% The indi!idual $ust find an expression as ell as the orld% Either the soul as supposed to exist in the for$ of a $agnet, or of a particle of fire, or of light, or air, or aterM or of a nu$ber or of a har$ony of nu$berM or to be or ha!e, li"e the stars, a principle of $otion B=rist% de =ni$%C% =t length =naxagoras, hardly distinguishing bet een life and $ind, or bet een $ind hu$an and di!ine, attained the pure

abstractionM and this, li"e the other abstractions of Gree" philosophy, san" deep into the hu$an intelligence% The opposition of the intelligible and the sensible, and of God to the orld, supplied an analogy hich assisted in the separation of soul and body% /f ideas ere separable fro$ pheno$ena, $ind as also separable fro$ $atterM if the ideas ere eternal, the $ind that concei!ed the$ as eternal too% =s the unity of God as $ore distinctly ac"no ledged, the conception of the hu$an soul beca$e $ore de!eloped% The succession, or alternation of life and death, had occurred to ,eracleitus% The Eleatic Par$enides had stu$bled upon the $odern thesis, that Nthought and being are the sa$e%N The Eastern belief in trans$igration defined the sense of indi!idualityM and so$e, li"e E$pedocles, fancied that the blood hich they had shed in another state of being as crying against the$, and that for thirty thousand years they ere to be Nfugiti!es and !agabonds upon the earth%N The desire of recogni8ing a lost $other or lo!e or friend in the orld belo BPhaedoC as a natural feeling hich, in that age as ell as in e!ery other, has gi!en distinctness to the hope of i$$ortality% :or ere ethical considerations anting, partly deri!ed fro$ the necessity of punishing the greater sort of cri$inals, ho$ no a!enging po er of this orld could reach% The !oice of conscience, too, as heard re$inding the good $an that he as not altogether innocent% B*epublic%C To these indistinct longings and fears an expression as gi!en in the $ysteries and 9rphic poetsA a Nheap of boo"sN B*epublicC, passing under the na$es of 1usaeus and 9rpheus in PlatoNs ti$e, ere filled ith notions of an underF orld% 13% Qet after all the belief in the indi!iduality of the soul after death had but a feeble hold on the Gree" $ind% <i"e the personality of God, the personality of $an in a future state as not inseparably bound up ith the reality of his existence% (or the distinction bet een the personal and i$personal, and also bet een the di!ine and hu$an, as far less $ar"ed to the Gree" than to oursel!es% =nd as Plato readily passes fro$ the notion of the good to that of God, he also passes al$ost i$perceptibly to hi$self and his reader fro$ the future life of the indi!idual soul to the eternal being of the absolute soul% There has been a clearer state$ent and a clearer denial of the belief in $odern ti$es than is found in early Gree" philosophy, and hence the co$parati!e silence on the hole subject hich is often re$ar"ed in ancient riters, and particularly in =ristotle% (or Plato and =ristotle are not further re$o!ed in their teaching about the i$$ortality of the soul than they are in their theory of "no ledge%

17% <i!ing in an age hen logic as beginning to $ould hu$an thought, Plato naturally cast his belief in i$$ortality into a logical for$% =nd hen e consider ho $uch the doctrine of ideas as also one of ords, it is not surprising that he should ha!e fallen into !erbal fallaciesA early logic is al ays $ista"ing the truth of the for$ for the truth of the $atter% /t is easy to see that the alternation of opposites is not the sa$e as the generation of the$ out of each otherM and that the generation of the$ out of each other, hich is the first argu$ent in the Phaedo, is at !ariance ith their $utual exclusion of each other, hether in the$sel!es or in us, hich is the last% (or e!en if e ad$it the distinction hich he dra s bet een the opposites and the things hich ha!e the opposites, still indi!iduals fall under the latter classM and e ha!e to pass out of the region of hu$an hopes and fears to a conception of an abstract soul hich is the i$personation of the ideas% -uch a conception, hich in Plato hi$self is but half expressed, is un$eaning to us, and relati!e only to a particular stage in the history of thought% The doctrine of re$iniscence is also a frag$ent of a for$er orld, hich has no place in the philosophy of $odern ti$es% +ut Plato had the onders of psychology just opening to hi$, and he had not the explanation of the$ hich is supplied by the analysis of language and the history of the hu$an $ind% The Tuestion, N&hence co$e our abstract ideasSN he could only ans er by an i$aginary hypothesis% :or is it difficult to see that his cro ning argu$ent is purely !erbal, and is but the expression of an instincti!e confidence put into a logical for$AFFNThe soul is i$$ortal because it contains a principle of i$perishableness%N :or does he hi$self see$ at all to be a are that nothing is added to hu$an "no ledge by his Nsafe and si$ple ans er,N that beauty is the cause of the beautifulM and that he is $erely reasserting the Eleatic being Ndi!ided by the Pythagorean nu$bers,N against the ,eracleitean doctrine of perpetual generation% The ans er to the N!ery serious TuestionN of generation and destruction is really the denial of the$% (or this he ould substitute, as in the *epublic, a syste$ of ideas, tested, not by experience, but by their conseTuences, and not explained by actual causes, but by a higher, that is, a $ore general notion% Consistency ith the$sel!es is the only test hich is to be applied to the$% B*epublic, and Phaedo%C 15% To deal fairly ith such argu$ents, they should be translated as far as possible into their $odern eTui!alents% N/f the ideas of $en are eternal, their souls are eternal, and if not the ideas, then not the

souls%N -uch an argu$ent stands nearly in the sa$e relation to Plato and his age, as the argu$ent fro$ the existence of God to i$$ortality a$ong oursel!es% N/f God exists, then the soul exists after deathM and if there is no God, there is no existence of the soul after death%N (or the ideas are to his $ind the reality, the truth, the principle of per$anence, as ell as of intelligence and order in the orld% &hen -i$$ias and Cebes say that they are $ore strongly persuaded of the existence of ideas than they are of the i$$ortality of the soul, they represent fairly enough the order of thought in Gree" philosophy% =nd e $ight say in the sa$e ay that e are $ore certain of the existence of God than e are of the i$$ortality of the soul, and are led by the belief in the one to a belief in the other% The parallel, as -ocrates ould say, is not perfect, but agrees in as far as the $ind in either case is regarded as dependent on so$ething abo!e and beyond herself% The analogy $ay e!en be pressed a step furtherA N&e are $ore certain of our ideas of truth and right than e are of the existence of God, and are led on in the order of thought fro$ one to the other%N 9r $ore correctlyA NThe existence of right and truth is the existence of God, and can ne!er for a $o$ent be separated fro$ ,i$%N 1.% The $ain argu$ent of the Phaedo is deri!ed fro$ the existence of eternal ideas of hich the soul is a parta"erM the other argu$ent of the alternation of opposites is replaced by this% =nd there ha!e not been anting philosophers of the idealist school ho ha!e i$agined that the doctrine of the i$$ortality of the soul is a theory of "no ledge, and that in hat has preceded Plato is acco$$odating hi$self to the popular belief% -uch a !ie can only be elicited fro$ the Phaedo by hat $ay be ter$ed the transcendental $ethod of interpretation, and is ob!iously inconsistent ith the Gorgias and the *epublic% Those ho $aintain it are i$$ediately co$pelled to renounce the shado hich they ha!e grasped, as a play of ords only% +ut the truth is, that Plato in his argu$ent for the i$$ortality of the soul has collected $any ele$ents of proof or persuasion, ethical and $ythological as ell as dialectical, hich are not easily to be reconciled ith one anotherM and he is as $uch in earnest about his doctrine of retribution, hich is repeated in all his $ore ethical ritings, as about his theory of "no ledge% =nd hile e $ay fairly translate the dialectical into the language of ,egel, and the religious and $ythological into the language of 'ante or +unyan, the ethical spea"s to us still in the sa$e !oice, and appeals to a co$$on feeling%

E7% T o argu$ents of this ethical character occur in the Phaedo% The first $ay be described as the aspiration of the soul after another state of being% <i"e the 9riental or Christian $ystic, the philosopher is see"ing to ithdra fro$ i$purities of sense, to lea!e the orld and the things of the orld, and to find his higher self% Plato recogni8es in these aspirations the foretaste of i$$ortalityM as +utler and =ddison in $odern ti$es ha!e argued, the one fro$ the $oral tendencies of $an"ind, the other fro$ the progress of the soul to ards perfection% /n using this argu$ent Plato has certainly confused the soul hich has left the body, ith the soul of the good and ise% BCo$pare *epublic%C -uch a confusion as natural, and arose partly out of the antithesis of soul and body% The soul in her o n essence, and the soul Nclothed uponN ith !irtues and graces, ere easily interchanged ith one another, because on a subject hich passes expression the distinctions of language can hardly be $aintained% E1% The ethical proof of the i$$ortality of the soul is deri!ed fro$ the necessity of retribution% The ic"ed ould be too ell off if their e!il deeds ca$e to an end% /t is not to be supposed that an =rdiaeus, an =rchelaus, an /s$enias could e!er ha!e suffered the penalty of their cri$es in this orld% The $anner in hich this retribution is acco$plished Plato represents under the figures of $ythology% 'oubtless he felt that it as easier to i$pro!e than to in!ent, and that in religion especially the traditional for$ as reTuired in order to gi!e !erisi$ilitude to the $yth% The $yth too is far $ore probable to that age than to ours, and $ay fairly be regarded as None guess a$ong $anyN about the nature of the earth, hich he cle!erly supports by the indications of geology% :ot that he insists on the absolute truth of his o n particular notionsA Nno $an of sense ill be confident in such $attersM but he ill be confident that so$ething of the "ind is true%N =s in other passages BGorg%, Ti$%, co$pare CritoC, he ins belief for his fictions by the $oderation of his state$entsM he does not, li"e 'ante or - edenborg, allo hi$self to be decei!ed by his o n creations% The 'ialogue $ust be read in the light of the situation% =nd first of all e are struc" by the cal$ness of the scene% <i"e the spectators at the ti$e, e cannot pity -ocratesM his $ien and his language are so noble and fearless% ,e is the sa$e that he e!er as, but $ilder and gentler, and he has in no degree lost his interest in dialecticsM he ill not forego the delight of an argu$ent in co$pliance ith the jailerNs inti$ation that he should not heat hi$self ith tal"ing% =t such a ti$e he naturally

expresses the hope of his life, that he has been a true $ystic and not a $ere retainer or andFbearerA and he refers to passages of his personal history% To his old ene$ies the Co$ic poets, and to the proceedings on the trial, he alludes playfullyM but he !i!idly re$e$bers the disappoint$ent hich he felt in reading the boo"s of =naxagoras% The return of Ranthippe and his children indicates that the philosopher is not N$ade of oa" or roc"%N -o$e other traits of his character $ay be notedM for exa$ple, the courteous $anner in hich he inclines his head to the last objector, or the ironical touch, N1e already, as the tragic poet ould say, the !oice of fate callsMN or the depreciation of the argu$ents ith hich Nhe co$forted hi$self and the$MN or his fear of N$isologyMN or his references to ,o$erM or the playful s$ile ith hich he Ntal"s li"e a boo"N about greater and lessM or the allusion to the possibility of finding another teacher a$ong barbarous races Bco$pare Polit%CM or the $ysterious reference to another science B$athe$aticsSC of generation and destruction for hich he is !ainly feeling% There is no change in hi$M only no he is in!ested ith a sort of sacred character, as the prophet or priest of =pollo the God of the festi!al, in hose honour he first of all co$poses a hy$n, and then li"e the s an pours forth his dying lay% Perhaps the extre$e ele!ation of -ocrates abo!e his o n situation, and the ordinary interests of life Bco$pare his jeu dNesprit about his burial, in hich for a $o$ent he puts on the N-ilenus $as"NC, create in the $ind of the reader an i$pression stronger than could be deri!ed fro$ argu$ents that such a one has in hi$ Na principle hich does not ad$it of death%N The other persons of the 'ialogue $ay be considered under t o headsA B1C pri!ate friendsM BEC the respondents in the argu$ent% (irst there is Crito, ho has been already introduced to us in the Euthyde$us and the CritoM he is the eTual in years of -ocrates, and stands in Tuite a different relation to hi$ fro$ his younger disciples% ,e is a $an of the orld ho is rich and prosperous Bco$pare the jest in the Euthyde$usC, the best friend of -ocrates, ho ants to "no his co$$ands, in hose presence he tal"s to his fa$ily, and ho perfor$s the last duty of closing his eyes% /t is obser!able too that, as in the Euthyde$us, Crito sho s no aptitude for philosophical discussions% :or a$ong the friends of -ocrates $ust the jailer be forgotten, ho see$s to ha!e been introduced by Plato in order to sho the i$pression $ade by the extraordinary $an on the co$$on% The gentle nature of the $an is indicated by his eeping at the announce$ent of his errand and then turning a ay, and also by the ords of

-ocrates to his disciplesA N,o char$ing the $an is# since / ha!e been in prison he has been al ays co$ing to $e, and is as good as could be to $e%N &e are re$inded too that he has retained this gentle nature a$id scenes of death and !iolence by the contrasts hich he dra s bet een the beha!iour of -ocrates and of others hen about to die% =nother person ho ta"es no part in the philosophical discussion is the excitable =pollodorus, the sa$e ho, in the -y$posiu$, of hich he is the narrator, is called Nthe $ad$an,N and ho testifies his grief by the $ost !iolent e$otions% Phaedo is also present, the Nbelo!ed discipleN as he $ay be ter$ed, ho is described, if not Nleaning on his boso$,N as seated next to -ocrates, ho is playing ith his hair% ,e too, li"e =pollodorus, ta"es no part in the discussion, but he lo!es abo!e all things to hear and spea" of -ocrates after his death% The cal$ness of his beha!iour, !eiling his face hen he can no longer restrain his tears, contrasts ith the passionate outcries of the other% =t a particular point the argu$ent is described as falling before the attac" of -i$$ias% = sort of despair is introduced in the $inds of the co$pany% The effect of this is heightened by the description of Phaedo, ho has been the eyeF itness of the scene, and by the sy$pathy of his Phliasian auditors ho are beginning to thin" Nthat they too can ne!er trust an argu$ent again%N =nd the intense interest of the co$pany is co$$unicated not only to the first auditors, but to us ho in a distant country read the narrati!e of their e$otions after $ore than t o thousand years ha!e passed a ay% The t o principal interlocutors are -i$$ias and Cebes, the disciples of Philolaus the Pythagorean philosopher of Thebes% -i$$ias is described in the Phaedrus as fonder of an argu$ent than any $an li!ingM and Cebes, although finally persuaded by -ocrates, is said to be the $ost incredulous of hu$an beings% /t is Cebes ho at the co$$ence$ent of the 'ialogue as"s hy Nsuicide is held to be unla ful,N and ho first supplies the doctrine of recollection in confir$ation of the preFexistence of the soul% /t is Cebes ho urges that the preFexistence does not necessarily in!ol!e the future existence of the soul, as is sho n by the illustration of the ea!er and his coat% -i$$ias, on the other hand, raises the Tuestion about har$ony and the lyre, hich is naturally put into the $outh of a Pythagorean disciple% /t is -i$$ias, too, ho first re$ar"s on the uncertainty of hu$an "no ledge, and only at last concedes to the argu$ent

such a Tualified appro!al as is consistent ith the feebleness of the hu$an faculties% Cebes is the deeper and $ore consecuti!e thin"er, -i$$ias $ore superficial and rhetoricalM they are distinguished in $uch the sa$e $anner as =dei$antus and Glaucon in the *epublic% 9ther persons, 1enexenus, Ctesippus, <ysis, are old friendsM E!enus has been already satiri8ed in the =pologyM =eschines and Epigenes ere present at the trialM Euclid and Terpsion ill reappear in the /ntroduction to the Theaetetus, ,er$ogenes has already appeared in the Cratylus% :o inference can fairly be dra n fro$ the absence of =ristippus, nor fro$ the o$ission of Renophon, ho at the ti$e of -ocratesN death as in =sia% The $ention of PlatoNs o n absence see$s li"e an expression of sorro , and $ay, perhaps, be an indication that the report of the con!ersation is not to be ta"en literally% The place of the 'ialogue in the series is doubtful% The doctrine of ideas is certainly carried beyond the -ocratic point of !ie M in no other of the ritings of Plato is the theory of the$ so co$pletely de!eloped% &hether the belief in i$$ortality can be attributed to -ocrates or not is uncertainM the silence of the 1e$orabilia, and of the earlier 'ialogues of Plato, is an argu$ent to the contrary% Qet in the Cyropaedia Renophon has put language into the $outh of the dying Cyrus hich recalls the Phaedo, and $ay ha!e been deri!ed fro$ the teaching of -ocrates% /t $ay be fairly urged that the greatest religious interest of $an"ind could not ha!e been holly ignored by one ho passed his life in fulfilling the co$$ands of an oracle, and ho recogni8ed a 'i!ine plan in $an and nature% BRen% 1e$%C =nd the language of the =pology and of the Crito confir$s this !ie % The Phaedo is not one of the -ocratic 'ialogues of PlatoM nor, on the other hand, can it be assigned to that later stage of the Platonic ritings at hich the doctrine of ideas appears to be forgotten% /t belongs rather to the inter$ediate period of the Platonic philosophy, hich roughly corresponds to the Phaedrus, Gorgias, *epublic, Theaetetus% &ithout pretending to deter$ine the real ti$e of their co$position, the -y$posiu$, 1eno, Euthyphro, =pology, Phaedo $ay be con!eniently read by us in this order as illustrati!e of the life of -ocrates% =nother chain $ay be for$ed of the 1eno, Phaedrus, Phaedo, in hich the i$$ortality of the soul is connected ith the doctrine of ideas% /n the 1eno the theory of ideas is based on the ancient belief in trans$igration, hich reappears again in the Phaedrus as ell as in the *epublic and Ti$aeus, and in all of the$ is

connected ith a doctrine of retribution% /n the Phaedrus the i$$ortality of the soul is supposed to rest on the conception of the soul as a principle of $otion, hereas in the *epublic the argu$ent turns on the natural continuance of the soul, hich, if not destroyed by her o n proper e!il, can hardly be destroyed by any other% The soul of $an in the Ti$aeus is deri!ed fro$ the -upre$e Creator, and either returns after death to her "indred star, or descends into the lo er life of an ani$al% The =pology expresses the sa$e !ie as the Phaedo, but ith less confidenceM there the probability of death being a long sleep is not excluded% The Theaetetus also describes, in a digression, the desire of the soul to fly a ay and be ith GodFFNand to fly to hi$ is to be li"e hi$%N The -y$posiu$ $ay be obser!ed to rese$ble as ell as to differ fro$ the Phaedo% &hile the first notion of i$$ortality is only in the ay of natural procreation or of posthu$ous fa$e and glory, the higher re!elation of beauty, li"e the good in the *epublic, is the !ision of the eternal idea% -o deeply rooted in PlatoNs $ind is the belief in i$$ortalityM so !arious are the for$s of expression hich he e$ploys% =s in se!eral other 'ialogues, there is $ore of syste$ in the Phaedo than appears at first sight% The succession of argu$ents is based on pre!ious philosophiesM beginning ith the $ysteries and the ,eracleitean alternation of opposites, and proceeding to the Pythagorean har$ony and trans$igrationM $a"ing a step by the aid of Platonic re$iniscence, and a further step by the help of the nous of =naxagorasM until at last e rest in the con!iction that the soul is inseparable fro$ the ideas, and belongs to the orld of the in!isible and un"no n% Then, as in the Gorgias or *epublic, the curtain falls, and the !eil of $ythology descends upon the argu$ent% =fter the confession of -ocrates that he is an interested party, and the ac"no ledg$ent that no $an of sense ill thin" the details of his narrati!e true, but that so$ething of the "ind is true, e return fro$ speculation to practice% ,e is hi$self $ore confident of i$$ortality than he is of his o n argu$entsM and the confidence hich he expresses is less strong than that hich his cheerfulness and co$posure in death inspire in us% 'ifficulties of t o "inds occur in the PhaedoFFone "ind to be explained out of conte$porary philosophy, the other not ad$itting of an entire solution% B1C The difficulty hich -ocrates says that he experienced in explaining generation and corruptionM the assu$ption of hypotheses hich proceed fro$

the less general to the $ore general, and are tested by their conseTuencesM the pu88le about greater and lessM the resort to the $ethod of ideas, hich to us appear only abstract ter$s,FFthese are to be explained out of the position of -ocrates and Plato in the history of philosophy% They ere li!ing in a t ilight bet een the sensible and the intellectual orld, and sa no ay of connecting the$% They could neither explain the relation of ideas to pheno$ena, nor their correlation to one another% The !ery idea of relation or co$parison as e$barrassing to the$% Qet in this intellectual uncertainty they had a conception of a proof fro$ results, and of a $oral truth, hich re$ained unsha"en a$id the Tuestionings of philosophy% BEC The other is a difficulty hich is touched upon in the *epublic as ell as in the Phaedo, and is co$$on to $odern and ancient philosophy% Plato is not altogether satisfied ith his safe and si$ple $ethod of ideas% ,e ants to ha!e pro!ed to hi$ by facts that all things are for the best, and that there is one $ind or design hich per!ades the$ all% +ut this Npo er of the bestN he is unable to explainM and therefore ta"es refuge in uni!ersal ideas% =nd are not e at this day see"ing to disco!er that hich -ocrates in a glass dar"ly foresa S -o$e rese$blances to the Gree" dra$a $ay be noted in all the 'ialogues of Plato% The Phaedo is the tragedy of hich -ocrates is the protagonist and -i$$ias and Cebes the secondary perfor$ers, standing to the$ in the sa$e relation as to Glaucon and =dei$antus in the *epublic% :o 'ialogue has a greater unity of subject and feeling% Plato has certainly fulfilled the condition of Gree", or rather of all art, hich reTuires that scenes of death and suffering should be clothed in beauty% The gathering of the friends at the co$$ence$ent of the 'ialogue, the dis$issal of Ranthippe, hose presence ould ha!e been out of place at a philosophical discussion, but ho returns again ith her children to ta"e a final fare ell, the dejection of the audience at the te$porary o!erthro of the argu$ent, the picture of -ocrates playing ith the hair of Phaedo, the final scene in hich -ocrates alone retains his co$posureFFare $asterpieces of art% =nd the chorus at the end $ight ha!e interpreted the feeling of the playA NThere can no e!il happen to a good $an in life or death%N NThe art of concealing artN is no here $ore perfect than in those ritings of Plato hich describe the trial and death of -ocrates% Their char$ is their si$plicity, hich gi!es the$ !erisi$ilitudeM and yet they touch, as if incidentally, and because they ere suitable to the occasion, on so$e of the deepest truths of philosophy% There is nothing in any tragedy, ancient

or $odern, nothing in poetry or history B ith one exceptionC, li"e the last hours of -ocrates in Plato% The $aster could not be $ore fitly occupied at such a ti$e than in discoursing of i$$ortalityM nor the disciples $ore di!inely consoled% The argu$ents, ta"en in the spirit and not in the letter, are our argu$entsM and -ocrates by anticipation $ay be e!en thought to refute so$e Neccentric notionsM current in our o n age% (or there are philosophers a$ong oursel!es ho do not see$ to understand ho $uch stronger is the po er of intelligence, or of the best, than of =tlas, or $echanical force% ,o far the ords attributed to -ocrates ere actually uttered by hi$ e forbear to as"M for no ans er can be gi!en to this Tuestion% =nd it is better to resign oursel!es to the feeling of a great or", than to linger a$ong critical uncertainties% P,=E'9 by Plato Translated by +enja$in 0o ett% PE*-9:- 9( T,E '/=<9G;EA Phaedo, ho is the narrator of the dialogue to Echecrates of Phlius% -ocrates, =pollodorus, -i$$ias, Cebes, Crito and an =ttendant of the Prison% -CE:EA The Prison of -ocrates% P<=CE 9( T,E :=**=T/9:A Phlius% EC,EC*=TE-A &ere you yourself, Phaedo, in the prison ith -ocrates on the day hen he dran" the poisonS P,=E'9A Qes, Echecrates, / as%

EC,EC*=TE-A / should so li"e to hear about his death% &hat did he say in his last hoursS &e ere infor$ed that he died by ta"ing poison, but no one "ne anything $oreM for no Phliasian e!er goes to =thens no , and it is a long ti$e since any stranger fro$ =thens has found his ay hitherM so that e had no clear account% P,=E'9A 'id you not hear of the proceedings at the trialS EC,EC*=TE-A QesM so$e one told us about the trial, and e could not understand hy, ha!ing been conde$ned, he should ha!e been put to death, not at the ti$e, but long after ards% &hat as the reason of thisS P,=E'9A =n accident, EchecratesA the stern of the ship hich the =thenians send to 'elos happened to ha!e been cro ned on the day before he as tried% EC,EC*=TE-A &hat is this shipS P,=E'9A /t is the ship in hich, according to =thenian tradition, Theseus ent to Crete hen he too" ith hi$ the fourteen youths, and as the sa!iour of the$ and of hi$self% =nd they ere said to ha!e !o ed to =pollo at the ti$e, that if they ere sa!ed they ould send a yearly $ission to 'elos% :o this custo$ still continues, and the hole period of the !oyage to and fro$ 'elos, beginning hen the priest of =pollo cro ns the stern of the ship, is a holy season, during hich the city is not allo ed to be polluted by public executionsM and hen the !essel is detained by contrary inds, the ti$e spent in going and returning is !ery considerable% =s / as saying, the ship as cro ned on the day before the trial, and this as the reason hy -ocrates lay in prison and as not put to death until long after he as conde$ned% EC,EC*=TE-A &hat as the $anner of his death, PhaedoS &hat as said or doneS =nd hich of his friends ere ith hi$S 9r did the authorities forbid the$ to be presentFFso that he had no friends near hi$ hen he diedS P,=E'9A :oM there ere se!eral of the$ ith hi$%

EC,EC*=TE-A /f you ha!e nothing to do, / ish that you ould tell $e hat passed, as exactly as you can% P,=E'9A / ha!e nothing at all to do, and ill try to gratify your ish% To be re$inded of -ocrates is al ays the greatest delight to $e, hether / spea" $yself or hear another spea" of hi$% EC,EC*=TE-A Qou ill ha!e listeners ho are of the sa$e $ind ith you, and / hope that you ill be as exact as you can% P,=E'9A / had a singular feeling at being in his co$pany% (or / could hardly belie!e that / as present at the death of a friend, and therefore / did not pity hi$, EchecratesM he died so fearlessly, and his ords and bearing ere so noble and gracious, that to $e he appeared blessed% / thought that in going to the other orld he could not be ithout a di!ine call, and that he ould be happy, if any $an e!er as, hen he arri!ed there, and therefore / did not pity hi$ as $ight ha!e see$ed natural at such an hour% +ut / had not the pleasure hich / usually feel in philosophical discourse Bfor philosophy as the the$e of hich e spo"eC% / as pleased, but in the pleasure there as also a strange ad$ixture of painM for / reflected that he as soon to die, and this double feeling as shared by us allM e ere laughing and eeping by turns, especially the excitable =pollodorusFFyou "no the sort of $anS EC,EC*=TE-A Qes% P,=E'9A ,e as Tuite beside hi$selfM and / and all of us ere greatly $o!ed% EC,EC*=TE-A &ho ere presentS P,=E'9A 9f nati!e =thenians there ere, besides =pollodorus, Critobulus and his father Crito, ,er$ogenes, Epigenes, =eschines, =ntisthenesM li"e ise Ctesippus of the de$e of Paeania, 1enexenus, and so$e othersM Plato, if / a$ not $ista"en, as ill% EC,EC*=TE-A &ere there any strangersS

P,=E'9A Qes, there ereM -i$$ias the Theban, and Cebes, and PhaedondesM Euclid and Terpison, ho ca$e fro$ 1egara% EC,EC*=TE-A =nd as =ristippus there, and Cleo$brotusS P,=E'9A :o, they ere said to be in =egina% EC,EC*=TE-A =ny one elseS P,=E'9A / thin" that these ere nearly all% EC,EC*=TE-A &ell, and hat did you tal" aboutS P,=E'9A / ill begin at the beginning, and endea!our to repeat the entire con!ersation% 9n the pre!ious days e had been in the habit of asse$bling early in the $orning at the court in hich the trial too" place, and hich is not far fro$ the prison% There e used to ait tal"ing ith one another until the opening of the doors Bfor they ere not opened !ery earlyCM then e ent in and generally passed the day ith -ocrates% 9n the last $orning e asse$bled sooner than usual, ha!ing heard on the day before hen e Tuitted the prison in the e!ening that the sacred ship had co$e fro$ 'elos, and so e arranged to $eet !ery early at the accusto$ed place% 9n our arri!al the jailer ho ans ered the door, instead of ad$itting us, ca$e out and told us to stay until he called us% N(or the Ele!en,N he said, Nare no ith -ocratesM they are ta"ing off his chains, and gi!ing orders that he is to die toFday%N ,e soon returned and said that e $ight co$e in% 9n entering e found -ocrates just released fro$ chains, and Ranthippe, ho$ you "no , sitting by hi$, and holding his child in her ar$s% &hen she sa us she uttered a cry and said, as o$en illA N9 -ocrates, this is the last ti$e that either you ill con!erse ith your friends, or they ith you%N -ocrates turned to Crito and saidA NCrito, let so$e one ta"e her ho$e%N -o$e of CritoNs people accordingly led her a ay, crying out and beating herself% =nd hen she as gone, -ocrates, sitting up on the couch, bent and rubbed his leg, saying, as he as rubbingA ,o singular is the thing called pleasure, and ho curiously related to pain, hich $ight be thought to be the opposite of itM for they are ne!er present to a $an at the sa$e instant, and yet he ho pursues either is generally co$pelled to ta"e the otherM their bodies are t o, but they are joined by a single head%

=nd / cannot help thin"ing that if =esop had re$e$bered the$, he ould ha!e $ade a fable about God trying to reconcile their strife, and ho , hen he could not, he fastened their heads togetherM and this is the reason hy hen one co$es the other follo s, as / "no by $y o n experience no , hen after the pain in $y leg hich as caused by the chain pleasure appears to succeed% ;pon this Cebes saidA / a$ glad, -ocrates, that you ha!e $entioned the na$e of =esop% (or it re$inds $e of a Tuestion hich has been as"ed by $any, and as as"ed of $e only the day before yesterday by E!enus the poet FFhe ill be sure to as" it again, and therefore if you ould li"e $e to ha!e an ans er ready for hi$, you $ay as ell tell $e hat / should say to hi$AFFhe anted to "no hy you, ho ne!er before rote a line of poetry, no that you are in prison are turning =esopNs fables into !erse, and also co$posing that hy$n in honour of =pollo% Tell hi$, Cebes, he replied, hat is the truthFFthat / had no idea of ri!alling hi$ or his poe$sM to do so, as / "ne , ould be no easy tas"% +ut / anted to see hether / could purge a ay a scruple hich / felt about the $eaning of certain drea$s% /n the course of $y life / ha!e often had inti$ations in drea$s Nthat / should co$pose $usic%N The sa$e drea$ ca$e to $e so$eti$es in one for$, and so$eti$es in another, but al ays saying the sa$e or nearly the sa$e ordsA NCulti!ate and $a"e $usic,N said the drea$% =nd hitherto / had i$agined that this as only intended to exhort and encourage $e in the study of philosophy, hich has been the pursuit of $y life, and is the noblest and best of $usic% The drea$ as bidding $e do hat / as already doing, in the sa$e ay that the co$petitor in a race is bidden by the spectators to run hen he is already running% +ut / as not certain of this, for the drea$ $ight ha!e $eant $usic in the popular sense of the ord, and being under sentence of death, and the festi!al gi!ing $e a respite, / thought that it ould be safer for $e to satisfy the scruple, and, in obedience to the drea$, to co$pose a fe !erses before / departed% =nd first / $ade a hy$n in honour of the god of the festi!al, and then considering that a poet, if he is really to be a poet, should not only put together ords, but should in!ent stories, and that / ha!e no in!ention, / too" so$e fables of =esop, hich / had ready at hand and hich / "ne FF they

ere the first / ca$e uponFFand turned the$ into !erse% Tell this to E!enus, Cebes, and bid hi$ be of good cheerM say that / ould ha!e hi$ co$e after $e if he be a ise $an, and not tarryM and that toFday / a$ li"ely to be going, for the =thenians say that / $ust% -i$$ias saidA &hat a $essage for such a $an# ha!ing been a freTuent co$panion of his / should say that, as far as / "no hi$, he ill ne!er ta"e your ad!ice unless he is obliged% &hy, said -ocrates,FFis not E!enus a philosopherS / thin" that he is, said -i$$ias% Then he, or any $an ho has the spirit of philosophy, ill be illing to die, but he ill not ta"e his o n life, for that is held to be unla ful% ,ere he changed his position, and put his legs off the couch on to the ground, and during the rest of the con!ersation he re$ained sitting% &hy do you say, enTuired Cebes, that a $an ought not to ta"e his o n life, but that the philosopher ill be ready to follo the dyingS -ocrates repliedA =nd ha!e you, Cebes and -i$$ias, ho are the disciples of Philolaus, ne!er heard hi$ spea" of thisS Qes, but his language as obscure, -ocrates% 1y ords, too, are only an echoM but there is no reason hy / should not repeat hat / ha!e heardA and indeed, as / a$ going to another place, it is !ery $eet for $e to be thin"ing and tal"ing of the nature of the pilgri$age hich / a$ about to $a"e% &hat can / do better in the inter!al bet een this and the setting of the sunS Then tell $e, -ocrates, hy is suicide held to be unla fulS as / ha!e certainly heard Philolaus, about ho$ you ere just no as"ing, affir$ hen he as staying ith us at ThebesA and there are others ho say the sa$e, although / ha!e ne!er understood hat as $eant by any of the$%

'o not lose heart, replied -ocrates, and the day $ay co$e hen you ill understand% / suppose that you onder hy, hen other things hich are e!il $ay be good at certain ti$es and to certain persons, death is to be the only exception, and hy, hen a $an is better dead, he is not per$itted to be his o n benefactor, but $ust ait for the hand of another% )ery true, said Cebes, laughing gently and spea"ing in his nati!e +oeotian% / ad$it the appearance of inconsistency in hat / a$ sayingM but there $ay not be any real inconsistency after all% There is a doctrine hispered in secret that $an is a prisoner ho has no right to open the door and run a ayM this is a great $ystery hich / do not Tuite understand% Qet / too belie!e that the gods are our guardians, and that e are a possession of theirs% 'o you not agreeS Qes, / Tuite agree, said Cebes% =nd if one of your o n possessions, an ox or an ass, for exa$ple, too" the liberty of putting hi$self out of the ay hen you had gi!en no inti$ation of your ish that he should die, ould you not be angry ith hi$, and ould you not punish hi$ if you couldS Certainly, replied Cebes% Then, if e loo" at the $atter thus, there $ay be reason in saying that a $an should ait, and not ta"e his o n life until God su$$ons hi$, as he is no su$$oning $e% Qes, -ocrates, said Cebes, there see$s to be truth in hat you say% =nd yet ho can you reconcile this see$ingly true belief that God is our guardian and e his possessions, ith the illingness to die hich e ere just no attributing to the philosopherS That the isest of $en should be illing to lea!e a ser!ice in hich they are ruled by the gods ho are the best of rulers, is not reasonableM for surely no ise $an thin"s that hen set at liberty he can ta"e better care of hi$self than the gods ta"e of hi$% = fool $ay perhaps thin" soFFhe $ay argue that he had better run a ay fro$ his $aster, not considering that his duty is to re$ain to the end, and not to run a ay fro$ the good, and that there ould be no sense in his running a ay% The ise $an ill ant to be e!er ith hi$ ho is better

than hi$self% :o this, -ocrates, is the re!erse of hat as just no saidM for upon this !ie the ise $an should sorro and the fool rejoice at passing out of life% The earnestness of Cebes see$ed to please -ocrates% ,ere, said he, turning to us, is a $an ho is al ays inTuiring, and is not so easily con!inced by the first thing hich he hears% =nd certainly, added -i$$ias, the objection hich he is no $a"ing does appear to $e to ha!e so$e force% (or hat can be the $eaning of a truly ise $an anting to fly a ay and lightly lea!e a $aster ho is better than hi$selfS =nd / rather i$agine that Cebes is referring to youM he thin"s that you are too ready to lea!e us, and too ready to lea!e the gods ho$ you ac"no ledge to be our good $asters% Qes, replied -ocratesM there is reason in hat you say% =nd so you thin" that / ought to ans er your indict$ent as if / ere in a courtS &e should li"e you to do so, said -i$$ias% Then / $ust try to $a"e a $ore successful defence before you than / did hen before the judges% (or / a$ Tuite ready to ad$it, -i$$ias and Cebes, that / ought to be grie!ed at death, if / ere not persuaded in the first place that / a$ going to other gods ho are ise and good Bof hich / a$ as certain as / can be of any such $attersC, and secondly Bthough / a$ not so sure of this lastC to $en departed, better than those ho$ / lea!e behindM and therefore / do not grie!e as / $ight ha!e done, for / ha!e good hope that there is yet so$ething re$aining for the dead, and as has been said of old, so$e far better thing for the good than for the e!il% +ut do you $ean to ta"e a ay your thoughts ith you, -ocratesS said -i$$ias% &ill you not i$part the$ to usSFFfor they are a benefit in hich e too are entitled to share% 1oreo!er, if you succeed in con!incing us, that ill be an ans er to the charge against yourself% / ill do $y best, replied -ocrates% +ut you $ust first let $e hear hat Crito antsM he has long been ishing to say so$ething to $e% 9nly this, -ocrates, replied CritoAFFthe attendant ho is to gi!e you the poison has been telling $e, and he ants $e to tell you, that you are not

to tal" $uch, tal"ing, he says, increases heat, and this is apt to interfere ith the action of the poisonM persons ho excite the$sel!es are so$eti$es obliged to ta"e a second or e!en a third dose% Then, said -ocrates, let hi$ $ind his business and be prepared to gi!e the poison t ice or e!en thrice if necessaryM that is all% / "ne Tuite ell hat you ould say, replied CritoM but / as obliged to satisfy hi$% :e!er $ind hi$, he said% =nd no , 9 $y judges, / desire to pro!e to you that the real philosopher has reason to be of good cheer hen he is about to die, and that after death he $ay hope to obtain the greatest good in the other orld% =nd ho this $ay be, -i$$ias and Cebes, / ill endea!our to explain% (or / dee$ that the true !otary of philosophy is li"ely to be $isunderstood by other $enM they do not percei!e that he is al ays pursuing death and dyingM and if this be so, and he has had the desire of death all his life long, hy hen his ti$e co$es should he repine at that hich he has been al ays pursuing and desiringS -i$$ias said laughinglyA Though not in a laughing hu$our, you ha!e $ade $e laugh, -ocratesM for / cannot help thin"ing that the $any hen they hear your ords ill say ho truly you ha!e described philosophers, and our people at ho$e ill li"e ise say that the life hich philosophers desire is in reality death, and that they ha!e found the$ out to be deser!ing of the death hich they desire% =nd they are right, -i$$ias, in thin"ing so, ith the exception of the ords Nthey ha!e found the$ outNM for they ha!e not found out either hat is the nature of that death hich the true philosopher deser!es, or ho he deser!es or desires death% +ut enough of the$AFFlet us discuss the $atter a$ong oursel!esA 'o e belie!e that there is such a thing as deathS To be sure, replied -i$$ias% /s it not the separation of soul and bodyS =nd to be dead is the co$pletion of thisM hen the soul exists in herself, and is released fro$

the body and the body is released fro$ the soul, hat is this but deathS 0ust so, he replied% There is another Tuestion, hich ill probably thro light on our present inTuiry if you and / can agree about itAFF9ught the philosopher to care about the pleasuresFFif they are to be called pleasuresFFof eating and drin"ingS Certainly not, ans ered -i$$ias% =nd hat about the pleasures of lo!eFFshould he care for the$S +y no $eans% =nd ill he thin" $uch of the other ays of indulging the body, for exa$ple, the acTuisition of costly rai$ent, or sandals, or other adorn$ents of the bodyS /nstead of caring about the$, does he not rather despise anything $ore than nature needsS &hat do you sayS / should say that the true philosopher ould despise the$% &ould you not say that he is entirely concerned ith the soul and not ith the bodyS ,e ould li"e, as far as he can, to get a ay fro$ the body and to turn to the soul% Uuite true% /n $atters of this sort philosophers, abo!e all other $en, $ay be obser!ed in e!ery sort of ay to disse!er the soul fro$ the co$$union of the body% )ery true% &hereas, -i$$ias, the rest of the orld are of opinion that to hi$ ho has no sense of pleasure and no part in bodily pleasure, life is not orth ha!ingM and that he ho is indifferent about the$ is as good as dead% That is also true% &hat again shall e say of the actual acTuire$ent of "no ledgeSFFis the

body, if in!ited to share in the enTuiry, a hinderer or a helperS / $ean to say, ha!e sight and hearing any truth in the$S =re they not, as the poets are al ays telling us, inaccurate itnessesS and yet, if e!en they are inaccurate and indistinct, hat is to be said of the other sensesSFFfor you ill allo that they are the best of the$S Certainly, he replied% Then hen does the soul attain truthSFFfor in atte$pting to consider anything in co$pany ith the body she is ob!iously decei!ed% True% Then $ust not true existence be re!ealed to her in thought, if at allS Qes% =nd thought is best hen the $ind is gathered into herself and none of these things trouble herFFneither sounds nor sights nor pain nor any pleasure,FF hen she ta"es lea!e of the body, and has as little as possible to do ith it, hen she has no bodily sense or desire, but is aspiring after true beingS Certainly% =nd in this the philosopher dishonours the bodyM his soul runs a ay fro$ his body and desires to be alone and by herselfS That is true% &ell, but there is another thing, -i$$iasA /s there or is there not an absolute justiceS =ssuredly there is% =nd an absolute beauty and absolute goodS 9f course% +ut did you e!er behold any of the$ ith your eyesS

Certainly not% 9r did you e!er reach the$ ith any other bodily senseSFFand / spea" not of these alone, but of absolute greatness, and health, and strength, and of the essence or true nature of e!erything% ,as the reality of the$ e!er been percei!ed by you through the bodily organsS or rather, is not the nearest approach to the "no ledge of their se!eral natures $ade by hi$ ho so orders his intellectual !ision as to ha!e the $ost exact conception of the essence of each thing hich he considersS Certainly% =nd he attains to the purest "no ledge of the$ ho goes to each ith the $ind alone, not introducing or intruding in the act of thought sight or any other sense together ith reason, but ith the !ery light of the $ind in her o n clearness searches into the !ery truth of eachM he ho has got rid, as far as he can, of eyes and ears and, so to spea", of the hole body, these being in his opinion distracting ele$ents hich hen they infect the soul hinder her fro$ acTuiring truth and "no ledgeFF ho, if not he, is li"ely to attain the "no ledge of true beingS &hat you say has a onderful truth in it, -ocrates, replied -i$$ias% =nd hen real philosophers consider all these things, ill they not be led to $a"e a reflection hich they ill express in ords so$ething li"e the follo ingS N,a!e e not found,N they ill say, Na path of thought hich see$s to bring us and our argu$ent to the conclusion, that hile e are in the body, and hile the soul is infected ith the e!ils of the body, our desire ill not be satisfiedS and our desire is of the truth% (or the body is a source of endless trouble to us by reason of the $ere reTuire$ent of foodM and is liable also to diseases hich o!erta"e and i$pede us in the search after true beingA it fills us full of lo!es, and lusts, and fears, and fancies of all "inds, and endless foolery, and in fact, as $en say, ta"es a ay fro$ us the po er of thin"ing at all% &hence co$e ars, and fightings, and factionsS hence but fro$ the body and the lusts of the bodyS ars are occasioned by the lo!e of $oney, and $oney has to be acTuired for the sa"e and in the ser!ice of the bodyM and by reason of all these i$pedi$ents e ha!e no ti$e to gi!e to philosophyM and, last and orst of all, e!en if e are at leisure and beta"e oursel!es to so$e

speculation, the body is al ays brea"ing in upon us, causing tur$oil and confusion in our enTuiries, and so a$a8ing us that e are pre!ented fro$ seeing the truth% /t has been pro!ed to us by experience that if e ould ha!e pure "no ledge of anything e $ust be Tuit of the bodyFFthe soul in herself $ust behold things in the$sel!esA and then e shall attain the isdo$ hich e desire, and of hich e say that e are lo!ers, not hile e li!e, but after deathM for if hile in co$pany ith the body, the soul cannot ha!e pure "no ledge, one of t o things follo sFFeither "no ledge is not to be attained at all, or, if at all, after death% (or then, and not till then, the soul ill be parted fro$ the body and exist in herself alone% /n this present life, / rec"on that e $a"e the nearest approach to "no ledge hen e ha!e the least possible intercourse or co$$union ith the body, and are not surfeited ith the bodily nature, but "eep oursel!es pure until the hour hen God hi$self is pleased to release us% =nd thus ha!ing got rid of the foolishness of the body e shall be pure and hold con!erse ith the pure, and "no of oursel!es the clear light e!ery here, hich is no other than the light of truth%N (or the i$pure are not per$itted to approach the pure% These are the sort of ords, -i$$ias, hich the true lo!ers of "no ledge cannot help saying to one another, and thin"ing% Qou ould agreeM ould you notS ;ndoubtedly, -ocrates% +ut, 9 $y friend, if this is true, there is great reason to hope that, going hither / go, hen / ha!e co$e to the end of $y journey, / shall attain that hich has been the pursuit of $y life% =nd therefore / go on $y ay rejoicing, and not / only, but e!ery other $an ho belie!es that his $ind has been $ade ready and that he is in a $anner purified% Certainly, replied -i$$ias% =nd hat is purification but the separation of the soul fro$ the body, as / as saying beforeM the habit of the soul gathering and collecting herself into herself fro$ all sides out of the bodyM the d elling in her o n place alone, as in another life, so also in this, as far as she canMFFthe release of the soul fro$ the chains of the bodyS )ery true, he said%

=nd this separation and release of the soul fro$ the body is ter$ed deathS To be sure, he said% =nd the true philosophers, and they only, are e!er see"ing to release the soul% /s not the separation and release of the soul fro$ the body their especial studyS That is true% =nd, as / as saying at first, there ould be a ridiculous contradiction in $en studying to li!e as nearly as they can in a state of death, and yet repining hen it co$es upon the$% Clearly% =nd the true philosophers, -i$$ias, are al ays occupied in the practice of dying, herefore also to the$ least of all $en is death terrible% <oo" at the $atter thusAFFif they ha!e been in e!ery ay the ene$ies of the body, and are anting to be alone ith the soul, hen this desire of theirs is granted, ho inconsistent ould they be if they tre$bled and repined, instead of rejoicing at their departure to that place here, hen they arri!e, they hope to gain that hich in life they desiredFFand this as isdo$FFand at the sa$e ti$e to be rid of the co$pany of their ene$y% 1any a $an has been illing to go to the orld belo ani$ated by the hope of seeing there an earthly lo!e, or ife, or son, and con!ersing ith the$% =nd ill he ho is a true lo!er of isdo$, and is strongly persuaded in li"e $anner that only in the orld belo he can orthily enjoy her, still repine at deathS &ill he not depart ith joyS -urely he ill, 9 $y friend, if he be a true philosopher% (or he ill ha!e a fir$ con!iction that there and there only, he can find isdo$ in her purity% =nd if this be true, he ould be !ery absurd, as / as saying, if he ere afraid of death% ,e ould, indeed, replied -i$$ias% =nd hen you see a $an ho is repining at the approach of death, is not his reluctance a sufficient proof that he is not a lo!er of isdo$, but a lo!er of the body, and probably at the sa$e ti$e a lo!er of either $oney or

po er, or bothS Uuite so, he replied% =nd is not courage, -i$$ias, a Tuality hich is specially characteristic of the philosopherS Certainly% There is te$perance again, hich e!en by the !ulgar is supposed to consist in the control and regulation of the passions, and in the sense of superiority to the$FFis not te$perance a !irtue belonging to those only ho despise the body, and ho pass their li!es in philosophyS 1ost assuredly% (or the courage and te$perance of other $en, if you ill consider the$, are really a contradiction% ,o soS &ell, he said, you are a are that death is regarded by $en in general as a great e!il% )ery true, he said% =nd do not courageous $en face death because they are afraid of yet greater e!ilsS That is Tuite true% Then all but the philosophers are courageous only fro$ fear, and because they are afraidM and yet that a $an should be courageous fro$ fear, and because he is a co ard, is surely a strange thing% )ery true% =nd are not the te$perate exactly in the sa$e caseS They are te$perate because they are inte$perateFF hich $ight see$ to be a contradiction, but is ne!ertheless the sort of thing hich happens ith this foolish

te$perance% (or there are pleasures hich they are afraid of losingM and in their desire to "eep the$, they abstain fro$ so$e pleasures, because they are o!erco$e by othersM and although to be conTuered by pleasure is called by $en inte$perance, to the$ the conTuest of pleasure consists in being conTuered by pleasure% =nd that is hat / $ean by saying that, in a sense, they are $ade te$perate through inte$perance% -uch appears to be the case% Qet the exchange of one fear or pleasure or pain for another fear or pleasure or pain, and of the greater for the less, as if they ere coins, is not the exchange of !irtue% 9 $y blessed -i$$ias, is there not one true coin for hich all things ought to be exchangedSFFand that is isdo$M and only in exchange for this, and in co$pany ith this, is anything truly bought or sold, hether courage or te$perance or justice% =nd is not all true !irtue the co$panion of isdo$, no $atter hat fears or pleasures or other si$ilar goods or e!ils $ay or $ay not attend herS +ut the !irtue hich is $ade up of these goods, hen they are se!ered fro$ isdo$ and exchanged ith one another, is a shado of !irtue only, nor is there any freedo$ or health or truth in herM but in the true exchange there is a purging a ay of all these things, and te$perance, and justice, and courage, and isdo$ herself are the purgation of the$% The founders of the $ysteries ould appear to ha!e had a real $eaning, and ere not tal"ing nonsense hen they inti$ated in a figure long ago that he ho passes unsanctified and uninitiated into the orld belo ill lie in a slough, but that he ho arri!es there after initiation and purification ill d ell ith the gods% (or N$any,N as they say in the $ysteries, Nare the thyrsusF bearers, but fe are the $ystics,NFF$eaning, as / interpret the ords, Nthe true philosophers%N /n the nu$ber of ho$, during $y hole life, / ha!e been see"ing, according to $y ability, to find a placeMFF hether / ha!e sought in a right ay or not, and hether / ha!e succeeded or not, / shall truly "no in a little hile, if God ill, hen / $yself arri!e in the other orldFFsuch is $y belief% =nd therefore / $aintain that / a$ right, -i$$ias and Cebes, in not grie!ing or repining at parting fro$ you and $y $asters in this orld, for / belie!e that / shall eTually find good $asters and friends in another orld% +ut $ost $en do not belie!e this sayingM if then / succeed in con!incing you by $y defence better than / did the =thenian judges, it ill be ell% Cebes ans eredA / agree, -ocrates, in the greater part of hat you say%

+ut in hat concerns the soul, $en are apt to be incredulousM they fear that hen she has left the body her place $ay be no here, and that on the !ery day of death she $ay perish and co$e to an endFFi$$ediately on her release fro$ the body, issuing forth dispersed li"e s$o"e or air and in her flight !anishing a ay into nothingness% /f she could only be collected into herself after she has obtained release fro$ the e!ils of hich you are spea"ing, there ould be good reason to hope, -ocrates, that hat you say is true% +ut surely it reTuires a great deal of argu$ent and $any proofs to sho that hen the $an is dead his soul yet exists, and has any force or intelligence% True, Cebes, said -ocratesM and shall / suggest that e con!erse a little of the probabilities of these thingsS / a$ sure, said Cebes, that / should greatly li"e to "no your opinion about the$% / rec"on, said -ocrates, that no one ho heard $e no , not e!en if he ere one of $y old ene$ies, the Co$ic poets, could accuse $e of idle tal"ing about $atters in hich / ha!e no concernAFF/f you please, then, e ill proceed ith the inTuiry% -uppose e consider the Tuestion hether the souls of $en after death are or are not in the orld belo % There co$es into $y $ind an ancient doctrine hich affir$s that they go fro$ hence into the other orld, and returning hither, are born again fro$ the dead% :o if it be true that the li!ing co$e fro$ the dead, then our souls $ust exist in the other orld, for if not, ho could they ha!e been born againS =nd this ould be conclusi!e, if there ere any real e!idence that the li!ing are only born fro$ the deadM but if this is not so, then other argu$ents ill ha!e to be adduced% )ery true, replied Cebes% Then let us consider the hole Tuestion, not in relation to $an only, but in relation to ani$als generally, and to plants, and to e!erything of hich there is generation, and the proof ill be easier% =re not all things hich ha!e opposites generated out of their oppositesS / $ean such things as good and e!il, just and unjustFFand there are innu$erable other opposites hich are generated out of opposites% =nd / ant to sho that in

all opposites there is of necessity a si$ilar alternationM / $ean to say, for exa$ple, that anything hich beco$es greater $ust beco$e greater after being less% True% =nd that hich beco$es less $ust ha!e been once greater and then ha!e beco$e less% Qes% =nd the ea"er is generated fro$ the stronger, and the s ifter fro$ the slo er% )ery true% =nd the orse is fro$ the better, and the $ore just is fro$ the $ore unjust% 9f course% =nd is this true of all oppositesS and are e con!inced that all of the$ are generated out of oppositesS Qes% =nd in this uni!ersal opposition of all things, are there not also t o inter$ediate processes hich are e!er going on, fro$ one to the other opposite, and bac" againM here there is a greater and a less there is also an inter$ediate process of increase and di$inution, and that hich gro s is said to ax, and that hich decays to aneS Qes, he said% =nd there are $any other processes, such as di!ision and co$position, cooling and heating, hich eTually in!ol!e a passage into and out of one another% =nd this necessarily holds of all opposites, e!en though not al ays expressed in ordsFFthey are really generated out of one another, and there is a passing or process fro$ one to the other of the$S

)ery true, he replied% &ell, and is there not an opposite of life, as sleep is the opposite of a"ingS True, he said% =nd hat is itS 'eath, he ans ered% =nd these, if they are opposites, are generated the one fro$ the other, and ha!e there their t o inter$ediate processes alsoS 9f course% :o , said -ocrates, / ill analy8e one of the t o pairs of opposites hich / ha!e $entioned to you, and also its inter$ediate processes, and you shall analy8e the other to $e% 9ne of the$ / ter$ sleep, the other a"ing% The state of sleep is opposed to the state of a"ing, and out of sleeping a"ing is generated, and out of a"ing, sleepingM and the process of generation is in the one case falling asleep, and in the other a"ing up% 'o you agreeS / entirely agree% Then, suppose that you analy8e life and death to $e in the sa$e $anner% /s not death opposed to lifeS Qes% =nd they are generated one fro$ the otherS Qes% &hat is generated fro$ the li!ingS The dead% =nd hat fro$ the deadS

/ can only say in ans erFFthe li!ing% Then the li!ing, hether things or persons, Cebes, are generated fro$ the deadS That is clear, he replied% Then the inference is that our souls exist in the orld belo S That is true% =nd one of the t o processes or generations is !isibleFFfor surely the act of dying is !isibleS -urely, he said% &hat then is to be the resultS -hall e exclude the opposite processS =nd shall e suppose nature to al" on one leg onlyS 1ust e not rather assign to death so$e corresponding process of generationS Certainly, he replied% =nd hat is that processS *eturn to life% =nd return to life, if there be such a thing, is the birth of the dead into the orld of the li!ingS Uuite true% Then here is a ne ay by hich e arri!e at the conclusion that the li!ing co$e fro$ the dead, just as the dead co$e fro$ the li!ingM and this, if true, affords a $ost certain proof that the souls of the dead exist in so$e place out of hich they co$e again% Qes, -ocrates, he saidM the conclusion see$s to flo necessarily out of our pre!ious ad$issions%

=nd that these ad$issions ere not unfair, Cebes, he said, $ay be sho n, / thin", as follo sA /f generation ere in a straight line only, and there ere no co$pensation or circle in nature, no turn or return of ele$ents into their opposites, then you "no that all things ould at last ha!e the sa$e for$ and pass into the sa$e state, and there ould be no $ore generation of the$% &hat do you $eanS he said% = si$ple thing enough, hich / ill illustrate by the case of sleep, he replied% Qou "no that if there ere no alternation of sleeping and a"ing, the tale of the sleeping Endy$ion ould in the end ha!e no $eaning, because all other things ould be asleep, too, and he ould not be distinguishable fro$ the rest% 9r if there ere co$position only, and no di!ision of substances, then the chaos of =naxagoras ould co$e again% =nd in li"e $anner, $y dear Cebes, if all things hich partoo" of life ere to die, and after they ere dead re$ained in the for$ of death, and did not co$e to life again, all ould at last die, and nothing ould be ali!eFF hat other result could there beS (or if the li!ing spring fro$ any other things, and they too die, $ust not all things at last be s allo ed up in deathS B+ut co$pare *epublic%C There is no escape, -ocrates, said CebesM and to $e your argu$ent see$s to be absolutely true% Qes, he said, Cebes, it is and $ust be so, in $y opinionM and e ha!e not been deluded in $a"ing these ad$issionsM but / a$ confident that there truly is such a thing as li!ing again, and that the li!ing spring fro$ the dead, and that the souls of the dead are in existence, and that the good souls ha!e a better portion than the e!il% Cebes addedA Qour fa!orite doctrine, -ocrates, that "no ledge is si$ply recollection, if true, also necessarily i$plies a pre!ious ti$e in hich e ha!e learned that hich e no recollect% +ut this ould be i$possible unless our soul had been in so$e place before existing in the for$ of $anM here then is another proof of the soulNs i$$ortality% +ut tell $e, Cebes, said -i$$ias, interposing, hat argu$ents are urged in

fa!our of this doctrine of recollection% / a$ not !ery sure at the $o$ent that / re$e$ber the$% 9ne excellent proof, said Cebes, is afforded by Tuestions% /f you put a Tuestion to a person in a right ay, he ill gi!e a true ans er of hi$self, but ho could he do this unless there ere "no ledge and right reason already in hi$S =nd this is $ost clearly sho n hen he is ta"en to a diagra$ or to anything of that sort% BCo$pare 1eno%C +ut if, said -ocrates, you are still incredulous, -i$$ias, / ould as" you hether you $ay not agree ith $e hen you loo" at the $atter in another ayMFF/ $ean, if you are still incredulous as to hether "no ledge is recollection% /ncredulous, / a$ not, said -i$$iasM but / ant to ha!e this doctrine of recollection brought to $y o n recollection, and, fro$ hat Cebes has said, / a$ beginning to recollect and be con!incedM but / should still li"e to hear hat you ere going to say% This is hat / ould say, he repliedAFF&e should agree, if / a$ not $ista"en, that hat a $an recollects he $ust ha!e "no n at so$e pre!ious ti$e% )ery true% =nd hat is the nature of this "no ledge or recollectionS / $ean to as", &hether a person ho, ha!ing seen or heard or in any ay percei!ed anything, "no s not only that, but has a conception of so$ething else hich is the subject, not of the sa$e but of so$e other "ind of "no ledge, $ay not be fairly said to recollect that of hich he has the conceptionS &hat do you $eanS / $ean hat / $ay illustrate by the follo ing instanceAFFThe "no ledge of a lyre is not the sa$e as the "no ledge of a $anS True% =nd yet hat is the feeling of lo!ers hen they recogni8e a lyre, or a gar$ent, or anything else hich the belo!ed has been in the habit of usingS

'o not they, fro$ "no ing the lyre, for$ in the $indNs eye an i$age of the youth to ho$ the lyre belongsS =nd this is recollection% /n li"e $anner any one ho sees -i$$ias $ay re$e$ber CebesM and there are endless exa$ples of the sa$e thing% Endless, indeed, replied -i$$ias% =nd recollection is $ost co$$only a process of reco!ering that hich has been already forgotten through ti$e and inattention% )ery true, he said% &ellM and $ay you not also fro$ seeing the picture of a horse or a lyre re$e$ber a $anS and fro$ the picture of -i$$ias, you $ay be led to re$e$ber CebesS True% 9r you $ay also be led to the recollection of -i$$ias hi$selfS Uuite so% =nd in all these cases, the recollection $ay be deri!ed fro$ things either li"e or unli"eS /t $ay be% =nd hen the recollection is deri!ed fro$ li"e things, then another consideration is sure to arise, hich isFF hether the li"eness in any degree falls short or not of that hich is recollectedS )ery true, he said% =nd shall e proceed a step further, and affir$ that there is such a thing as eTuality, not of one piece of ood or stone ith another, but that, o!er and abo!e this, there is absolute eTualityS -hall e say soS -ay so, yes, replied -i$$ias, and s ear to it, ith all the confidence in

life% =nd do e "no the nature of this absolute essenceS To be sure, he said% =nd hence did e obtain our "no ledgeS 'id e not see eTualities of $aterial things, such as pieces of ood and stones, and gather fro$ the$ the idea of an eTuality hich is different fro$ the$S (or you ill ac"no ledge that there is a difference% 9r loo" at the $atter in another ayAFF'o not the sa$e pieces of ood or stone appear at one ti$e eTual, and at another ti$e uneTualS That is certain% +ut are real eTuals e!er uneTualS or is the idea of eTuality the sa$e as of ineTualityS /$possible, -ocrates% Then these BsoFcalledC eTuals are not the sa$e ith the idea of eTualityS / should say, clearly not, -ocrates% =nd yet fro$ these eTuals, although differing fro$ the idea of eTuality, you concei!ed and attained that ideaS )ery true, he said% &hich $ight be li"e, or $ight be unli"e the$S Qes% +ut that $a"es no differenceM hene!er fro$ seeing one thing you concei!ed another, hether li"e or unli"e, there $ust surely ha!e been an act of recollectionS )ery true%

+ut hat ould you say of eTual portions of ood and stone, or other $aterial eTualsS and hat is the i$pression produced by the$S =re they eTuals in the sa$e sense in hich absolute eTuality is eTualS or do they fall short of this perfect eTuality in a $easureS Qes, he said, in a !ery great $easure too% =nd $ust e not allo , that hen / or any one, loo"ing at any object, obser!es that the thing hich he sees ai$s at being so$e other thing, but falls short of, and cannot be, that other thing, but is inferior, he ho $a"es this obser!ation $ust ha!e had a pre!ious "no ledge of that to hich the other, although si$ilar, as inferiorS Certainly% =nd has not this been our o n case in the $atter of eTuals and of absolute eTualityS Precisely% Then e $ust ha!e "no n eTuality pre!iously to the ti$e hen e first sa the $aterial eTuals, and reflected that all these apparent eTuals stri!e to attain absolute eTuality, but fall short of itS )ery true% =nd e recogni8e also that this absolute eTuality has only been "no n, and can only be "no n, through the $ediu$ of sight or touch, or of so$e other of the senses, hich are all ali"e in this respectS Qes, -ocrates, as far as the argu$ent is concerned, one of the$ is the sa$e as the other% (ro$ the senses then is deri!ed the "no ledge that all sensible things ai$ at an absolute eTuality of hich they fall shortS Qes% Then before e began to see or hear or percei!e in any ay, e $ust ha!e had a "no ledge of absolute eTuality, or e could not ha!e referred to that

standard the eTuals hich are deri!ed fro$ the sensesSFFfor to that they all aspire, and of that they fall short% :o other inference can be dra n fro$ the pre!ious state$ents% =nd did e not see and hear and ha!e the use of our other senses as soon as e ere bornS Certainly% Then e $ust ha!e acTuired the "no ledge of eTuality at so$e pre!ious ti$eS Qes% That is to say, before e ere born, / supposeS True% =nd if e acTuired this "no ledge before e ere born, and ere born ha!ing the use of it, then e also "ne before e ere born and at the instant of birth not only the eTual or the greater or the less, but all other ideasM for e are not spea"ing only of eTuality, but of beauty, goodness, justice, holiness, and of all hich e sta$p ith the na$e of essence in the dialectical process, both hen e as" and hen e ans er Tuestions% 9f all this e $ay certainly affir$ that e acTuired the "no ledge before birthS &e $ay% +ut if, after ha!ing acTuired, e ha!e not forgotten hat in each case e acTuired, then e $ust al ays ha!e co$e into life ha!ing "no ledge, and shall al ays continue to "no as long as life lastsFFfor "no ing is the acTuiring and retaining "no ledge and not forgetting% /s not forgetting, -i$$ias, just the losing of "no ledgeS Uuite true, -ocrates% +ut if the "no ledge hich e acTuired before birth as lost by us at birth, and if after ards by the use of the senses e reco!ered hat e

pre!iously "ne , ill not the process hich e call learning be a reco!ering of the "no ledge hich is natural to us, and $ay not this be rightly ter$ed recollectionS )ery true% -o $uch is clearFFthat hen e percei!e so$ething, either by the help of sight, or hearing, or so$e other sense, fro$ that perception e are able to obtain a notion of so$e other thing li"e or unli"e hich is associated ith it but has been forgotten% &hence, as / as saying, one of t o alternati!es follo sAFFeither e had this "no ledge at birth, and continued to "no through lifeM or, after birth, those ho are said to learn only re$e$ber, and learning is si$ply recollection% Qes, that is Tuite true, -ocrates% =nd hich alternati!e, -i$$ias, do you preferS ,ad e the "no ledge at our birth, or did e recollect the things hich e "ne pre!iously to our birthS / cannot decide at the $o$ent% =t any rate you can decide hether he ho has "no ledge ill or ill not be able to render an account of his "no ledgeS &hat do you sayS Certainly, he ill% +ut do you thin" that e!ery $an is able to gi!e an account of these !ery $atters about hich e are spea"ingS &ould that they could, -ocrates, but / rather fear that toF$orro , at this ti$e, there ill no longer be any one ali!e ho is able to gi!e an account of the$ such as ought to be gi!en% Then you are not of opinion, -i$$ias, that all $en "no these thingsS Certainly not%

They are in process of recollecting that hich they learned beforeS Certainly% +ut hen did our souls acTuire this "no ledgeSFFnot since e ere born as $enS Certainly not% =nd therefore, pre!iouslyS Qes% Then, -i$$ias, our souls $ust also ha!e existed ithout bodies before they ere in the for$ of $an, and $ust ha!e had intelligence% ;nless indeed you suppose, -ocrates, that these notions are gi!en us at the !ery $o$ent of birthM for this is the only ti$e hich re$ains% Qes, $y friend, but if so, hen do e lose the$S for they are not in us hen e are bornFFthat is ad$itted% 'o e lose the$ at the $o$ent of recei!ing the$, or if not at hat other ti$eS :o, -ocrates, / percei!e that / as unconsciously tal"ing nonsense% Then $ay e not say, -i$$ias, that if, as e are al ays repeating, there is an absolute beauty, and goodness, and an absolute essence of all thingsM and if to this, hich is no disco!ered to ha!e existed in our for$er state, e refer all our sensations, and ith this co$pare the$, finding these ideas to be preFexistent and our inborn possessionFFthen our souls $ust ha!e had a prior existence, but if not, there ould be no force in the argu$entS There is the sa$e proof that these ideas $ust ha!e existed before e ere born, as that our souls existed before e ere bornM and if not the ideas, then not the souls% Qes, -ocratesM / a$ con!inced that there is precisely the sa$e necessity for the one as for the otherM and the argu$ent retreats successfully to the position that the existence of the soul before birth cannot be separated fro$ the existence of the essence of hich you spea"% (or there is nothing hich to $y $ind is so patent as that beauty, goodness, and the other

notions of hich you ere just no spea"ing, ha!e a $ost real and absolute existenceM and / a$ satisfied ith the proof% &ell, but is Cebes eTually satisfiedS for / $ust con!ince hi$ too% / thin", said -i$$ias, that Cebes is satisfiedA although he is the $ost incredulous of $ortals, yet / belie!e that he is sufficiently con!inced of the existence of the soul before birth% +ut that after death the soul ill continue to exist is not yet pro!en e!en to $y o n satisfaction% / cannot get rid of the feeling of the $any to hich Cebes as referringFFthe feeling that hen the $an dies the soul ill be dispersed, and that this $ay be the extinction of her% (or ad$itting that she $ay ha!e been born else here, and fra$ed out of other ele$ents, and as in existence before entering the hu$an body, hy after ha!ing entered in and gone out again $ay she not herself be destroyed and co$e to an endS )ery true, -i$$ias, said CebesM about half of hat as reTuired has been pro!enM to it, that our souls existed before e ere bornAFFthat the soul ill exist after death as ell as before birth is the other half of hich the proof is still anting, and has to be suppliedM hen that is gi!en the de$onstration ill be co$plete% +ut that proof, -i$$ias and Cebes, has been already gi!en, said -ocrates, if you put the t o argu$ents togetherFF/ $ean this and the for$er one, in hich e ad$itted that e!erything li!ing is born of the dead% (or if the soul exists before birth, and in co$ing to life and being born can be born only fro$ death and dying, $ust she not after death continue to exist, since she has to be born againSFF-urely the proof hich you desire has been already furnished% -till / suspect that you and -i$$ias ould be glad to probe the argu$ent further% <i"e children, you are haunted ith a fear that hen the soul lea!es the body, the ind $ay really blo her a ay and scatter herM especially if a $an should happen to die in a great stor$ and not hen the s"y is cal$% Cebes ans ered ith a s$ileA Then, -ocrates, you $ust argue us out of our fearsFFand yet, strictly spea"ing, they are not our fears, but there is a child ithin us to ho$ death is a sort of hobgoblinM hi$ too e $ust persuade not to be afraid hen he is alone in the dar"%

-ocrates saidA <et the !oice of the char$er be applied daily until you ha!e char$ed a ay the fear% =nd here shall e find a good char$er of our fears, -ocrates, hen you are goneS ,ellas, he replied, is a large place, Cebes, and has $any good $en, and there are barbarous races not a fe A see" for hi$ a$ong the$ all, far and ide, sparing neither pains nor $oneyM for there is no better ay of spending your $oney% =nd you $ust see" a$ong yoursel!es tooM for you ill not find others better able to $a"e the search% The search, replied Cebes, shall certainly be $ade% =nd no , if you please, let us return to the point of the argu$ent at hich e digressed% +y all $eans, replied -ocratesM hat else should / pleaseS )ery good% 1ust e not, said -ocrates, as" oursel!es hat that is hich, as e i$agine, is liable to be scattered, and about hich e fearS and hat again is that about hich e ha!e no fearS =nd then e $ay proceed further to enTuire hether that hich suffers dispersion is or is not of the nature of soulFFour hopes and fears as to our o n souls ill turn upon the ans ers to these Tuestions% )ery true, he said% :o the co$pound or co$posite $ay be supposed to be naturally capable, as of being co$pounded, so also of being dissol!edM but that hich is unco$pounded, and that only, $ust be, if anything is, indissoluble% QesM / should i$agine so, said Cebes% =nd the unco$pounded $ay be assu$ed to be the sa$e and unchanging, hereas the co$pound is al ays changing and ne!er the sa$e%

/ agree, he said% Then no let us return to the pre!ious discussion% /s that idea or essence, hich in the dialectical process e define as essence or true existenceFF hether essence of eTuality, beauty, or anything elseFFare these essences, / say, liable at ti$es to so$e degree of changeS or are they each of the$ al ays hat they are, ha!ing the sa$e si$ple selfFexistent and unchanging for$s, not ad$itting of !ariation at all, or in any ay, or at any ti$eS They $ust be al ays the sa$e, -ocrates, replied Cebes% =nd hat ould you say of the $any beautifulFF hether $en or horses or gar$ents or any other things hich are na$ed by the sa$e na$es and $ay be called eTual or beautiful,FFare they all unchanging and the sa$e al ays, or Tuite the re!erseS 1ay they not rather be described as al$ost al ays changing and hardly e!er the sa$e, either ith the$sel!es or ith one anotherS The latter, replied CebesM they are al ays in a state of change% =nd these you can touch and see and percei!e ith the senses, but the unchanging things you can only percei!e ith the $indFFthey are in!isible and are not seenS That is !ery true, he said% &ell, then, added -ocrates, let us suppose that there are t o sorts of existencesFFone seen, the other unseen% <et us suppose the$% The seen is the changing, and the unseen is the unchangingS That $ay be also supposed% =nd, further, is not one part of us body, another part soulS

To be sure% =nd to hich class is the body $ore ali"e and a"inS Clearly to the seenFFno one can doubt that% =nd is the soul seen or not seenS :ot by $an, -ocrates% =nd hat e $ean by NseenN and Nnot seenN is that hich is or is not !isible to the eye of $anS Qes, to the eye of $an% =nd is the soul seen or not seenS :ot seen% ;nseen thenS Qes% Then the soul is $ore li"e to the unseen, and the body to the seenS That follo s necessarily, -ocrates% =nd ere e not saying long ago that the soul hen using the body as an instru$ent of perception, that is to say, hen using the sense of sight or hearing or so$e other sense Bfor the $eaning of percei!ing through the body is percei!ing through the sensesCFF ere e not saying that the soul too is then dragged by the body into the region of the changeable, and anders and is confusedM the orld spins round her, and she is li"e a drun"ard, hen she touches changeS )ery true% +ut hen returning into herself she reflects, then she passes into the other orld, the region of purity, and eternity, and i$$ortality, and

unchangeableness, hich are her "indred, and ith the$ she e!er li!es, hen she is by herself and is not let or hinderedM then she ceases fro$ her erring ays, and being in co$$union ith the unchanging is unchanging% =nd this state of the soul is called isdo$S That is ell and truly said, -ocrates, he replied% =nd to hich class is the soul $ore nearly ali"e and a"in, as far as $ay be inferred fro$ this argu$ent, as ell as fro$ the preceding oneS / thin", -ocrates, that, in the opinion of e!ery one ho follo s the argu$ent, the soul ill be infinitely $ore li"e the unchangeableFFe!en the $ost stupid person ill not deny that% =nd the body is $ore li"e the changingS Qes% Qet once $ore consider the $atter in another lightA &hen the soul and the body are united, then nature orders the soul to rule and go!ern, and the body to obey and ser!e% :o hich of these t o functions is a"in to the di!ineS and hich to the $ortalS 'oes not the di!ine appear to you to be that hich naturally orders and rules, and the $ortal to be that hich is subject and ser!antS True% =nd hich does the soul rese$bleS The soul rese$bles the di!ine, and the body the $ortalFFthere can be no doubt of that, -ocrates% Then reflect, CebesA of all hich has been said is not this the conclusionSFFthat the soul is in the !ery li"eness of the di!ine, and i$$ortal, and intellectual, and unifor$, and indissoluble, and unchangeableM and that the body is in the !ery li"eness of the hu$an, and $ortal, and unintellectual, and $ultifor$, and dissoluble, and changeable% Can this, $y dear Cebes, be deniedS

/t cannot% +ut if it be true, then is not the body liable to speedy dissolutionS and is not the soul al$ost or altogether indissolubleS Certainly% =nd do you further obser!e, that after a $an is dead, the body, or !isible part of hi$, hich is lying in the !isible orld, and is called a corpse, and ould naturally be dissol!ed and deco$posed and dissipated, is not dissol!ed or deco$posed at once, but $ay re$ain for a for so$e ti$e, nay e!en for a long ti$e, if the constitution be sound at the ti$e of death, and the season of the year fa!ourableS (or the body hen shrun" and e$bal$ed, as the $anner is in Egypt, $ay re$ain al$ost entire through infinite agesM and e!en in decay, there are still so$e portions, such as the bones and liga$ents, hich are practically indestructibleAFF'o you agreeS Qes% =nd is it li"ely that the soul, hich is in!isible, in passing to the place of the true ,ades, hich li"e her is in!isible, and pure, and noble, and on her ay to the good and ise God, hither, if God ill, $y soul is also soon to go,FFthat the soul, / repeat, if this be her nature and origin, ill be blo n a ay and destroyed i$$ediately on Tuitting the body, as the $any sayS That can ne!er be, $y dear -i$$ias and Cebes% The truth rather is, that the soul hich is pure at departing and dra s after her no bodily taint, ha!ing ne!er !oluntarily during life had connection ith the body, hich she is e!er a!oiding, herself gathered into herselfMFFand $a"ing such abstraction her perpetual studyFF hich $eans that she has been a true disciple of philosophyM and therefore has in fact been al ays engaged in the practice of dyingS (or is not philosophy the practice of deathSFF CertainlyFF That soul, / say, herself in!isible, departs to the in!isible orldFFto the di!ine and i$$ortal and rationalA thither arri!ing, she is secure of bliss and is released fro$ the error and folly of $en, their fears and ild passions and all other hu$an ills, and for e!er d ells, as they say of the

initiated, in co$pany ith the gods Bco$pare =pol%C% /s not this true, CebesS Qes, said Cebes, beyond a doubt% +ut the soul hich has been polluted, and is i$pure at the ti$e of her departure, and is the co$panion and ser!ant of the body al ays, and is in lo!e ith and fascinated by the body and by the desires and pleasures of the body, until she is led to belie!e that the truth only exists in a bodily for$, hich a $an $ay touch and see and taste, and use for the purposes of his lusts,FFthe soul, / $ean, accusto$ed to hate and fear and a!oid the intellectual principle, hich to the bodily eye is dar" and in!isible, and can be attained only by philosophyMFFdo you suppose that such a soul ill depart pure and unalloyedS /$possible, he replied% -he is held fast by the corporeal, hich the continual association and constant care of the body ha!e rought into her nature% )ery true% =nd this corporeal ele$ent, $y friend, is hea!y and eighty and earthy, and is that ele$ent of sight by hich a soul is depressed and dragged do n again into the !isible orld, because she is afraid of the in!isible and of the orld belo FFpro ling about to$bs and sepulchres, near hich, as they tell us, are seen certain ghostly apparitions of souls hich ha!e not departed pure, but are cloyed ith sight and therefore !isible% BCo$pare 1ilton, Co$usAFF N+ut hen lust, +y unchaste loo"s, loose gestures, and foul tal", +ut $ost by le d and la!ish act of sin, <ets in defile$ent to the in ard parts, The soul gro s clotted by contagion, /$bodies, and i$brutes, till she Tuite lose, The di!ine property of her first being% -uch are those thic" and gloo$y shado s da$p 9ft seen in charnel !aults and sepulchres,

<ingering, and sitting by a ne $ade gra!e, =s loath to lea!e the body that it lo!Nd, =nd lin"ed itself by carnal sensuality To a degenerate and degraded state%NC That is !ery li"ely, -ocrates% Qes, that is !ery li"ely, CebesM and these $ust be the souls, not of the good, but of the e!il, hich are co$pelled to ander about such places in pay$ent of the penalty of their for$er e!il ay of lifeM and they continue to ander until through the cra!ing after the corporeal hich ne!er lea!es the$, they are i$prisoned finally in another body% =nd they $ay be supposed to find their prisons in the sa$e natures hich they ha!e had in their for$er li!es% &hat natures do you $ean, -ocratesS &hat / $ean is that $en ho ha!e follo ed after gluttony, and antonness, and drun"enness, and ha!e had no thought of a!oiding the$, ould pass into asses and ani$als of that sort% &hat do you thin"S / thin" such an opinion to be exceedingly probable% =nd those ho ha!e chosen the portion of injustice, and tyranny, and !iolence, ill pass into ol!es, or into ha "s and "itesMFF hither else can e suppose the$ to goS Qes, said CebesM ith such natures, beyond Tuestion% =nd there is no difficulty, he said, in assigning to all of the$ places ans ering to their se!eral natures and propensitiesS There is not, he said% -o$e are happier than othersM and the happiest both in the$sel!es and in the place to hich they go are those ho ha!e practised the ci!il and social !irtues hich are called te$perance and justice, and are acTuired by habit and attention ithout philosophy and $ind% BCo$pare *epublic%C

&hy are they the happiestS +ecause they $ay be expected to pass into so$e gentle and social "ind hich is li"e their o n, such as bees or asps or ants, or bac" again into the for$ of $an, and just and $oderate $en $ay be supposed to spring fro$ the$% )ery li"ely% :o one ho has not studied philosophy and ho is not entirely pure at the ti$e of his departure is allo ed to enter the co$pany of the Gods, but the lo!er of "no ledge only% =nd this is the reason, -i$$ias and Cebes, hy the true !otaries of philosophy abstain fro$ all fleshly lusts, and hold out against the$ and refuse to gi!e the$sel!es up to the$,FFnot because they fear po!erty or the ruin of their fa$ilies, li"e the lo!ers of $oney, and the orld in generalM nor li"e the lo!ers of po er and honour, because they dread the dishonour or disgrace of e!il deeds% :o, -ocrates, that ould not beco$e the$, said Cebes% :o indeed, he repliedM and therefore they ho ha!e any care of their o n souls, and do not $erely li!e $oulding and fashioning the body, say fare ell to all thisM they ill not al" in the ays of the blindA and hen philosophy offers the$ purification and release fro$ e!il, they feel that they ought not to resist her influence, and hither she leads they turn and follo % &hat do you $ean, -ocratesS / ill tell you, he said% The lo!ers of "no ledge are conscious that the soul as si$ply fastened and glued to the bodyFFuntil philosophy recei!ed her, she could only !ie real existence through the bars of a prison, not in and through herselfM she as allo ing in the $ire of e!ery sort of ignoranceM and by reason of lust had beco$e the principal acco$plice in her o n capti!ity% This as her original stateM and then, as / as saying, and as the lo!ers of "no ledge are ell a are, philosophy, seeing ho terrible as her confine$ent, of hich she as to herself the cause, recei!ed and gently co$forted her and sought to release her, pointing out that the eye and the ear and the other senses are full of deception, and persuading her

to retire fro$ the$, and abstain fro$ all but the necessary use of the$, and be gathered up and collected into herself, bidding her trust in herself and her o n pure apprehension of pure existence, and to $istrust hate!er co$es to her through other channels and is subject to !ariationM for such things are !isible and tangible, but hat she sees in her o n nature is intelligible and in!isible% =nd the soul of the true philosopher thin"s that she ought not to resist this deli!erance, and therefore abstains fro$ pleasures and desires and pains and fears, as far as she is ableM reflecting that hen a $an has great joys or sorro s or fears or desires, he suffers fro$ the$, not $erely the sort of e!il hich $ight be anticipatedFFas for exa$ple, the loss of his health or property hich he has sacrificed to his lustsFFbut an e!il greater far, hich is the greatest and orst of all e!ils, and one of hich he ne!er thin"s% &hat is it, -ocratesS said Cebes% The e!il is that hen the feeling of pleasure or pain is $ost intense, e!ery soul of $an i$agines the objects of this intense feeling to be then plainest and truestA but this is not so, they are really the things of sight% )ery true% =nd is not this the state in hich the soul is $ost enthralled by the bodyS ,o soS &hy, because each pleasure and pain is a sort of nail hich nails and ri!ets the soul to the body, until she beco$es li"e the body, and belie!es that to be true hich the body affir$s to be trueM and fro$ agreeing ith the body and ha!ing the sa$e delights she is obliged to ha!e the sa$e habits and haunts, and is not li"ely e!er to be pure at her departure to the orld belo , but is al ays infected by the bodyM and so she sin"s into another body and there ger$inates and gro s, and has therefore no part in the co$$union of the di!ine and pure and si$ple% 1ost true, -ocrates, ans ered Cebes% =nd this, Cebes, is the reason hy the true lo!ers of "no ledge are te$perate and bra!eM and not for the reason hich the orld gi!es%

Certainly not% Certainly not# The soul of a philosopher ill reason in Tuite another ayM she ill not as" philosophy to release her in order that hen released she $ay deli!er herself up again to the thraldo$ of pleasures and pains, doing a or" only to be undone again, ea!ing instead of un ea!ing her PenelopeNs eb% +ut she ill cal$ passion, and follo reason, and d ell in the conte$plation of her, beholding the true and di!ine B hich is not $atter of opinionC, and thence deri!ing nourish$ent% Thus she see"s to li!e hile she li!es, and after death she hopes to go to her o n "indred and to that hich is li"e her, and to be freed fro$ hu$an ills% :e!er fear, -i$$ias and Cebes, that a soul hich has been thus nurtured and has had these pursuits, ill at her departure fro$ the body be scattered and blo n a ay by the inds and be no here and nothing% &hen -ocrates had done spea"ing, for a considerable ti$e there as silenceM he hi$self appeared to be $editating, as $ost of us ere, on hat had been saidM only Cebes and -i$$ias spo"e a fe ords to one another% =nd -ocrates obser!ing the$ as"ed hat they thought of the argu$ent, and hether there as anything antingS (or, said he, there are $any points still open to suspicion and attac", if any one ere disposed to sift the $atter thoroughly% -hould you be considering so$e other $atter / say no $ore, but if you are still in doubt do not hesitate to say exactly hat you thin", and let us ha!e anything better hich you can suggestM and if you thin" that / can be of any use, allo $e to help you% -i$$ias saidA / $ust confess, -ocrates, that doubts did arise in our $inds, and each of us as urging and inciting the other to put the Tuestion hich e anted to ha!e ans ered and hich neither of us li"ed to as", fearing that our i$portunity $ight be troubleso$e under present at such a ti$e% -ocrates replied ith a s$ileA 9 -i$$ias, hat are you sayingS / a$ not !ery li"ely to persuade other $en that / do not regard $y present situation as a $isfortune, if / cannot e!en persuade you that / a$ no orse off no than at any other ti$e in $y life% &ill you not allo that / ha!e as $uch of the spirit of prophecy in $e as the s ansS (or they, hen they percei!e that they $ust die, ha!ing sung all their life long, do then sing $ore

lustily than e!er, rejoicing in the thought that they are about to go a ay to the god hose $inisters they are% +ut $en, because they are the$sel!es afraid of death, slanderously affir$ of the s ans that they sing a la$ent at the last, not considering that no bird sings hen cold, or hungry, or in pain, not e!en the nightingale, nor the s allo , nor yet the hoopoeM hich are said indeed to tune a lay of sorro , although / do not belie!e this to be true of the$ any $ore than of the s ans% +ut because they are sacred to =pollo, they ha!e the gift of prophecy, and anticipate the good things of another orld, herefore they sing and rejoice in that day $ore than they e!er did before% =nd / too, belie!ing $yself to be the consecrated ser!ant of the sa$e God, and the fello Fser!ant of the s ans, and thin"ing that / ha!e recei!ed fro$ $y $aster gifts of prophecy hich are not inferior to theirs, ould not go out of life less $errily than the s ans% :e!er $ind then, if this be your only objection, but spea" and as" anything hich you li"e, hile the ele!en $agistrates of =thens allo % )ery good, -ocrates, said -i$$iasM then / ill tell you $y difficulty, and Cebes ill tell you his% / feel $yself, Band / daresay that you ha!e the sa$e feelingC, ho hard or rather i$possible is the attain$ent of any certainty about Tuestions such as these in the present life% =nd yet / should dee$ hi$ a co ard ho did not pro!e hat is said about the$ to the utter$ost, or hose heart failed hi$ before he had exa$ined the$ on e!ery side% (or he should perse!ere until he has achie!ed one of t o thingsA either he should disco!er, or be taught the truth about the$M or, if this be i$possible, / ould ha!e hi$ ta"e the best and $ost irrefragable of hu$an theories, and let this be the raft upon hich he sails through lifeFF not ithout ris", as / ad$it, if he cannot find so$e ord of God hich ill $ore surely and safely carry hi$% =nd no , as you bid $e, / ill !enture to Tuestion you, and then / shall not ha!e to reproach $yself hereafter ith not ha!ing said at the ti$e hat / thin"% (or hen / consider the $atter, either alone or ith Cebes, the argu$ent does certainly appear to $e, -ocrates, to be not sufficient% -ocrates ans eredA / dare say, $y friend, that you $ay be right, but / should li"e to "no in hat respect the argu$ent is insufficient% /n this respect, replied -i$$iasAFF-uppose a person to use the sa$e argu$ent about har$ony and the lyreFF$ight he not say that har$ony is a thing in!isible, incorporeal, perfect, di!ine, existing in the lyre hich is har$oni8ed, but that the lyre and the strings are $atter and $aterial,

co$posite, earthy, and a"in to $ortalityS =nd hen so$e one brea"s the lyre, or cuts and rends the strings, then he ho ta"es this !ie ould argue as you do, and on the sa$e analogy, that the har$ony sur!i!es and has not perishedFFyou cannot i$agine, he ould say, that the lyre ithout the strings, and the bro"en strings the$sel!es hich are $ortal re$ain, and yet that the har$ony, hich is of hea!enly and i$$ortal nature and "indred, has perishedFFperished before the $ortal% The har$ony $ust still be so$e here, and the ood and strings ill decay before anything can happen to that% The thought, -ocrates, $ust ha!e occurred to your o n $ind that such is our conception of the soulM and that hen the body is in a $anner strung and held together by the ele$ents of hot and cold, et and dry, then the soul is the har$ony or due proportionate ad$ixture of the$% +ut if so, hene!er the strings of the body are unduly loosened or o!erstrained through disease or other injury, then the soul, though $ost di!ine, li"e other har$onies of $usic or of or"s of art, of course perishes at once, although the $aterial re$ains of the body $ay last for a considerable ti$e, until they are either decayed or burnt% =nd if any one $aintains that the soul, being the har$ony of the ele$ents of the body, is first to perish in that hich is called death, ho shall e ans er hi$S -ocrates loo"ed fixedly at us as his $anner as, and said ith a s$ileA -i$$ias has reason on his sideM and hy does not so$e one of you ho is better able than $yself ans er hi$S for there is force in his attac" upon $e% +ut perhaps, before e ans er hi$, e had better also hear hat Cebes has to say that e $ay gain ti$e for reflection, and hen they ha!e both spo"en, e $ay either assent to the$, if there is truth in hat they say, or if not, e ill $aintain our position% Please to tell $e then, Cebes, he said, hat as the difficulty hich troubled youS Cebes saidA / ill tell you% 1y feeling is that the argu$ent is here it as, and open to the sa$e objections hich ere urged beforeM for / a$ ready to ad$it that the existence of the soul before entering into the bodily for$ has been !ery ingeniously, and, if / $ay say so, Tuite sufficiently pro!enM but the existence of the soul after death is still, in $y judg$ent, unpro!en% :o $y objection is not the sa$e as that of -i$$iasM for / a$ not disposed to deny that the soul is stronger and $ore lasting than the body, being of opinion that in all such respects the soul !ery far excels the body% &ell, then, says the argu$ent to $e, hy do you re$ain uncon!incedSFF&hen you see that the ea"er continues in existence

after the $an is dead, ill you not ad$it that the $ore lasting $ust also sur!i!e during the sa$e period of ti$eS :o / ill as" you to consider hether the objection, hich, li"e -i$$ias, / ill express in a figure, is of any eight% The analogy hich / ill adduce is that of an old ea!er, ho dies, and after his death so$ebody saysAFF,e is not dead, he $ust be ali!eMFFsee, there is the coat hich he hi$self o!e and ore, and hich re$ains hole and undecayed% =nd then he proceeds to as" of so$e one ho is incredulous, hether a $an lasts longer, or the coat hich is in use and earM and hen he is ans ered that a $an lasts far longer, thin"s that he has thus certainly de$onstrated the sur!i!al of the $an, ho is the $ore lasting, because the less lasting re$ains% +ut that, -i$$ias, as / ould beg you to re$ar", is a $ista"eM any one can see that he ho tal"s thus is tal"ing nonsense% (or the truth is, that the ea!er aforesaid, ha!ing o!en and orn $any such coats, outli!ed se!eral of the$, and as outli!ed by the lastM but a $an is not therefore pro!ed to be slighter and ea"er than a coat% :o the relation of the body to the soul $ay be expressed in a si$ilar figureM and any one $ay !ery fairly say in li"e $anner that the soul is lasting, and the body ea" and shortli!ed in co$parison% ,e $ay argue in li"e $anner that e!ery soul ears out $any bodies, especially if a $an li!e $any years% &hile he is ali!e the body deliTuesces and decays, and the soul al ays ea!es another gar$ent and repairs the aste% +ut of course, hene!er the soul perishes, she $ust ha!e on her last gar$ent, and this ill sur!i!e herM and then at length, hen the soul is dead, the body ill sho its nati!e ea"ness, and Tuic"ly deco$pose and pass a ay% / ould therefore rather not rely on the argu$ent fro$ superior strength to pro!e the continued existence of the soul after death% (or granting e!en $ore than you affir$ to be possible, and ac"no ledging not only that the soul existed before birth, but also that the souls of so$e exist, and ill continue to exist after death, and ill be born and die again and again, and that there is a natural strength in the soul hich ill hold out and be born $any ti$esFFne!ertheless, e $ay be still inclined to thin" that she ill eary in the labours of successi!e births, and $ay at last succu$b in one of her deaths and utterly perishM and this death and dissolution of the body hich brings destruction to the soul $ay be un"no n to any of us, for no one of us can ha!e had any experience of itA and if so, then / $aintain that he ho is confident about death has but a foolish confidence, unless he is able to pro!e that the soul is altogether i$$ortal and i$perishable% +ut if he cannot pro!e the soulNs i$$ortality, he ho is about to die ill

al ays ha!e reason to fear that hen the body is disunited, the soul also $ay utterly perish% =ll of us, as e after ards re$ar"ed to one another, had an unpleasant feeling at hearing hat they said% &hen e had been so fir$ly con!inced before, no to ha!e our faith sha"en see$ed to introduce a confusion and uncertainty, not only into the pre!ious argu$ent, but into any future oneM either e ere incapable of for$ing a judg$ent, or there ere no grounds of belief% EC,EC*=TE-A There / feel ith youFFby hea!en / do, Phaedo, and hen you ere spea"ing, / as beginning to as" $yself the sa$e TuestionA &hat argu$ent can / e!er trust againS (or hat could be $ore con!incing than the argu$ent of -ocrates, hich has no fallen into discreditS That the soul is a har$ony is a doctrine hich has al ays had a onderful attraction for $e, and, hen $entioned, ca$e bac" to $e at once, as $y o n original con!iction% =nd no / $ust begin again and find another argu$ent hich ill assure $e that hen the $an is dead the soul sur!i!es% Tell $e, / i$plore you, ho did -ocrates proceedS 'id he appear to share the unpleasant feeling hich you $entionS or did he cal$ly $eet the attac"S =nd did he ans er forcibly or feeblyS :arrate hat passed as exactly as you can% P,=E'9A 9ften, Echecrates, / ha!e ondered at -ocrates, but ne!er $ore than on that occasion% That he should be able to ans er as nothing, but hat astonished $e as, first, the gentle and pleasant and appro!ing $anner in hich he recei!ed the ords of the young $en, and then his Tuic" sense of the ound hich had been inflicted by the argu$ent, and the readiness ith hich he healed it% ,e $ight be co$pared to a general rallying his defeated and bro"en ar$y, urging the$ to acco$pany hi$ and return to the field of argu$ent% EC,EC*=TE-A &hat follo edS P,=E'9A Qou shall hear, for / as close to hi$ on his right hand, seated on a sort of stool, and he on a couch hich as a good deal higher% ,e stro"ed $y head, and pressed the hair upon $y nec"FFhe had a ay of playing ith $y hairM and then he saidA ToF$orro , Phaedo, / suppose that these

fair loc"s of yours ill be se!ered% Qes, -ocrates, / suppose that they ill, / replied% :ot so, if you ill ta"e $y ad!ice% &hat shall / do ith the$S / said% ToFday, he replied, and not toF$orro , if this argu$ent dies and e cannot bring it to life again, you and / ill both sha!e our loc"sM and if / ere you, and the argu$ent got a ay fro$ $e, and / could not hold $y ground against -i$$ias and Cebes, / ould $yself ta"e an oath, li"e the =rgi!es, not to ear hair any $ore until / had rene ed the conflict and defeated the$% Qes, / said, but ,eracles hi$self is said not to be a $atch for t o% -u$$on $e then, he said, and / ill be your /olaus until the sun goes do n% / su$$on you rather, / rejoined, not as ,eracles su$$oning /olaus, but as /olaus $ight su$$on ,eracles% That ill do as ell, he said% +ut first let us ta"e care that e a!oid a danger% 9f hat natureS / said% <est e beco$e $isologists, he replied, no orse thing can happen to a $an than this% (or as there are $isanthropists or haters of $en, there are also $isologists or haters of ideas, and both spring fro$ the sa$e cause, hich is ignorance of the orld% 1isanthropy arises out of the too great confidence of inexperienceMFFyou trust a $an and thin" hi$ altogether true and sound and faithful, and then in a little hile he turns out to be false and "na!ishM and then another and another, and hen this has happened se!eral ti$es to a $an, especially hen it happens a$ong those ho$ he dee$s to be his o n $ost trusted and fa$iliar friends, and he has often Tuarreled ith the$, he at last hates all $en, and belie!es that no one has any good in hi$ at all% Qou $ust ha!e obser!ed this trait of characterS / ha!e%

=nd is not the feeling discreditableS /s it not ob!ious that such an one ha!ing to deal ith other $en, as clearly ithout any experience of hu$an natureM for experience ould ha!e taught hi$ the true state of the case, that fe are the good and fe the e!il, and that the great $ajority are in the inter!al bet een the$% &hat do you $eanS / said% / $ean, he replied, as you $ight say of the !ery large and !ery s$all, that nothing is $ore unco$$on than a !ery large or !ery s$all $anM and this applies generally to all extre$es, hether of great and s$all, or s ift and slo , or fair and foul, or blac" and hiteA and hether the instances you select be $en or dogs or anything else, fe are the extre$es, but $any are in the $ean bet een the$% 'id you ne!er obser!e thisS Qes, / said, / ha!e% =nd do you not i$agine, he said, that if there ere a co$petition in e!il, the orst ould be found to be !ery fe S Qes, that is !ery li"ely, / said% Qes, that is !ery li"ely, he repliedM although in this respect argu$ents are unli"e $enFFthere / as led on by you to say $ore than / had intendedM but the point of co$parison as, that hen a si$ple $an ho has no s"ill in dialectics belie!es an argu$ent to be true hich he after ards i$agines to be false, hether really false or not, and then another and another, he has no longer any faith left, and great disputers, as you "no , co$e to thin" at last that they ha!e gro n to be the isest of $an"indM for they alone percei!e the utter unsoundness and instability of all argu$ents, or indeed, of all things, hich, li"e the currents in the Euripus, are going up and do n in ne!erFceasing ebb and flo % That is Tuite true, / said% Qes, Phaedo, he replied, and ho $elancholy, if there be such a thing as truth or certainty or possibility of "no ledgeFFthat a $an should ha!e lighted upon so$e argu$ent or other hich at first see$ed true and then turned out to be false, and instead of bla$ing hi$self and his o n ant of

it, because he is annoyed, should at last be too glad to transfer the bla$e fro$ hi$self to argu$ents in generalA and for e!er after ards should hate and re!ile the$, and lose truth and the "no ledge of realities% Qes, indeed, / saidM that is !ery $elancholy% <et us then, in the first place, he said, be careful of allo ing or of ad$itting into our souls the notion that there is no health or soundness in any argu$ents at all% *ather say that e ha!e not yet attained to soundness in oursel!es, and that e $ust struggle $anfully and do our best to gain health of $indFFyou and all other $en ha!ing regard to the hole of your future life, and / $yself in the prospect of death% (or at this $o$ent / a$ sensible that / ha!e not the te$per of a philosopherM li"e the !ulgar, / a$ only a partisan% :o the partisan, hen he is engaged in a dispute, cares nothing about the rights of the Tuestion, but is anxious only to con!ince his hearers of his o n assertions% =nd the difference bet een hi$ and $e at the present $o$ent is $erely thisFFthat hereas he see"s to con!ince his hearers that hat he says is true, / a$ rather see"ing to con!ince $yselfM to con!ince $y hearers is a secondary $atter ith $e% =nd do but see ho $uch / gain by the argu$ent% (or if hat / say is true, then / do ell to be persuaded of the truth, but if there be nothing after death, still, during the short ti$e that re$ains, / shall not distress $y friends ith la$entations, and $y ignorance ill not last, but ill die ith $e, and therefore no har$ ill be done% This is the state of $ind, -i$$ias and Cebes, in hich / approach the argu$ent% =nd / ould as" you to be thin"ing of the truth and not of -ocratesA agree ith $e, if / see$ to you to be spea"ing the truthM or if not, ithstand $e $ight and $ain, that / $ay not decei!e you as ell as $yself in $y enthusias$, and li"e the bee, lea!e $y sting in you before / die% =nd no let us proceed, he said% =nd first of all let $e be sure that / ha!e in $y $ind hat you ere saying% -i$$ias, if / re$e$ber rightly, has fears and $isgi!ings hether the soul, although a fairer and di!iner thing than the body, being as she is in the for$ of har$ony, $ay not perish first% 9n the other hand, Cebes appeared to grant that the soul as $ore lasting than the body, but he said that no one could "no hether the soul, after ha!ing orn out $any bodies, $ight not perish herself and lea!e her last body behind herM and that this is death, hich is the destruction not of the body but of the soul, for in the body the or" of destruction is

e!er going on% =re not these, -i$$ias and Cebes, the points hich e ha!e to considerS They both agreed to this state$ent of the$% ,e proceededA =nd did you deny the force of the hole preceding argu$ent, or of a part onlyS 9f a part only, they replied% =nd hat did you thin", he said, of that part of the argu$ent in hich e said that "no ledge as recollection, and hence inferred that the soul $ust ha!e pre!iously existed so$e here else before she as enclosed in the bodyS Cebes said that he had been onderfully i$pressed by that part of the argu$ent, and that his con!iction re$ained absolutely unsha"en% -i$$ias agreed, and added that he hi$self could hardly i$agine the possibility of his e!er thin"ing differently% +ut, rejoined -ocrates, you ill ha!e to thin" differently, $y Theban friend, if you still $aintain that har$ony is a co$pound, and that the soul is a har$ony hich is $ade out of strings set in the fra$e of the bodyM for you ill surely ne!er allo yourself to say that a har$ony is prior to the ele$ents hich co$pose it% :e!er, -ocrates% +ut do you not see that this is hat you i$ply hen you say that the soul existed before she too" the for$ and body of $an, and as $ade up of ele$ents hich as yet had no existenceS (or har$ony is not li"e the soul, as you supposeM but first the lyre, and the strings, and the sounds exist in a state of discord, and then har$ony is $ade last of all, and perishes first% =nd ho can such a notion of the soul as this agree ith the otherS :ot at all, replied -i$$ias% =nd yet, he said, there surely ought to be har$ony in a discourse of hich har$ony is the the$e%

There ought, replied -i$$ias% +ut there is no har$ony, he said, in the t o propositions that "no ledge is recollection, and that the soul is a har$ony% &hich of the$ ill you retainS / thin", he replied, that / ha!e a $uch stronger faith, -ocrates, in the first of the t o, hich has been fully de$onstrated to $e, than in the latter, hich has not been de$onstrated at all, but rests only on probable and plausible groundsM and is therefore belie!ed by the $any% / "no too ell that these argu$ents fro$ probabilities are i$postors, and unless great caution is obser!ed in the use of the$, they are apt to be decepti!e FFin geo$etry, and in other things too% +ut the doctrine of "no ledge and recollection has been pro!en to $e on trust orthy groundsM and the proof as that the soul $ust ha!e existed before she ca$e into the body, because to her belongs the essence of hich the !ery na$e i$plies existence% ,a!ing, as / a$ con!inced, rightly accepted this conclusion, and on sufficient grounds, / $ust, as / suppose, cease to argue or allo others to argue that the soul is a har$ony% <et $e put the $atter, -i$$ias, he said, in another point of !ie A 'o you i$agine that a har$ony or any other co$position can be in a state other than that of the ele$ents, out of hich it is co$poundedS Certainly not% 9r do or suffer anything other than they do or sufferS ,e agreed% Then a har$ony does not, properly spea"ing, lead the parts or ele$ents hich $a"e up the har$ony, but only follo s the$% ,e assented% (or har$ony cannot possibly ha!e any $otion, or sound, or other Tuality hich is opposed to its parts% That ould be i$possible, he replied%

=nd does not the nature of e!ery har$ony depend upon the $anner in hich the ele$ents are har$oni8edS / do not understand you, he said% / $ean to say that a har$ony ad$its of degrees, and is $ore of a har$ony, and $ore co$pletely a har$ony, hen $ore truly and fully har$oni8ed, to any extent hich is possibleM and less of a har$ony, and less co$pletely a har$ony, hen less truly and fully har$oni8ed% True% +ut does the soul ad$it of degreesS or is one soul in the !ery least degree $ore or less, or $ore or less co$pletely, a soul than anotherS :ot in the least% Qet surely of t o souls, one is said to ha!e intelligence and !irtue, and to be good, and the other to ha!e folly and !ice, and to be an e!il soulA and this is said trulyS Qes, truly% +ut hat ill those ho $aintain the soul to be a har$ony say of this presence of !irtue and !ice in the soulSFF ill they say that here is another har$ony, and another discord, and that the !irtuous soul is har$oni8ed, and herself being a har$ony has another har$ony ithin her, and that the !icious soul is inhar$onical and has no har$ony ithin herS / cannot tell, replied -i$$iasM but / suppose that so$ething of the sort ould be asserted by those ho say that the soul is a har$ony% =nd e ha!e already ad$itted that no soul is $ore a soul than anotherM hich is eTui!alent to ad$itting that har$ony is not $ore or less har$ony, or $ore or less co$pletely a har$onyS Uuite true%

=nd that hich is not $ore or less a har$ony is not $ore or less har$oni8edS True% =nd that hich is not $ore or less har$oni8ed cannot ha!e $ore or less of har$ony, but only an eTual har$onyS Qes, an eTual har$ony% Then one soul not being $ore or less absolutely a soul than another, is not $ore or less har$oni8edS Exactly% =nd therefore has neither $ore nor less of discord, nor yet of har$onyS -he has not% =nd ha!ing neither $ore nor less of har$ony or of discord, one soul has no $ore !ice or !irtue than another, if !ice be discord and !irtue har$onyS :ot at all $ore% 9r spea"ing $ore correctly, -i$$ias, the soul, if she is a har$ony, ill ne!er ha!e any !iceM because a har$ony, being absolutely a har$ony, has no part in the inhar$onical% :o% =nd therefore a soul hich is absolutely a soul has no !iceS ,o can she ha!e, if the pre!ious argu$ent holdsS Then, if all souls are eTually by their nature souls, all souls of all li!ing creatures ill be eTually goodS / agree ith you, -ocrates, he said%

=nd can all this be true, thin" youS he saidM for these are the conseTuences hich see$ to follo fro$ the assu$ption that the soul is a har$onyS /t cannot be true% 9nce $ore, he said, hat ruler is there of the ele$ents of hu$an nature other than the soul, and especially the ise soulS 'o you "no of anyS /ndeed, / do not% =nd is the soul in agree$ent ith the affections of the bodyS or is she at !ariance ith the$S (or exa$ple, hen the body is hot and thirsty, does not the soul incline us against drin"ingS and hen the body is hungry, against eatingS =nd this is only one instance out of ten thousand of the opposition of the soul to the things of the body% )ery true% +ut e ha!e already ac"no ledged that the soul, being a har$ony, can ne!er utter a note at !ariance ith the tensions and relaxations and !ibrations and other affections of the strings out of hich she is co$posedM she can only follo , she cannot lead the$S /t $ust be so, he replied% =nd yet do e not no disco!er the soul to be doing the exact oppositeFF leading the ele$ents of hich she is belie!ed to be co$posedM al$ost al ays opposing and coercing the$ in all sorts of ays throughout life, so$eti$es $ore !iolently ith the pains of $edicine and gy$nasticM then again $ore gentlyM no threatening, no ad$onishing the desires, passions, fears, as if tal"ing to a thing hich is not herself, as ,o$er in the 9dyssee represents 9dysseus doing in the ordsFF N,e beat his breast, and thus reproached his heartA Endure, $y heartM far orse hast thou endured#N 'o you thin" that ,o$er rote this under the idea that the soul is a

har$ony capable of being led by the affections of the body, and not rather of a nature hich should lead and $aster the$FFherself a far di!iner thing than any har$onyS Qes, -ocrates, / Tuite thin" so% Then, $y friend, e can ne!er be right in saying that the soul is a har$ony, for e should contradict the di!ine ,o$er, and contradict oursel!es% True, he said% Thus $uch, said -ocrates, of ,ar$onia, your Theban goddess, ho has graciously yielded to usM but hat shall / say, Cebes, to her husband Cad$us, and ho shall / $a"e peace ith hi$S / thin" that you ill disco!er a ay of propitiating hi$, said CebesM / a$ sure that you ha!e put the argu$ent ith ,ar$onia in a $anner that / could ne!er ha!e expected% (or hen -i$$ias as $entioning his difficulty, / Tuite i$agined that no ans er could be gi!en to hi$, and therefore / as surprised at finding that his argu$ent could not sustain the first onset of yours, and not i$possibly the other, ho$ you call Cad$us, $ay share a si$ilar fate% :ay, $y good friend, said -ocrates, let us not boast, lest so$e e!il eye should put to flight the ord hich / a$ about to spea"% That, ho e!er, $ay be left in the hands of those abo!e, hile / dra near in ,o$eric fashion, and try the $ettle of your ords% ,ere lies the pointAFFQou ant to ha!e it pro!en to you that the soul is i$perishable and i$$ortal, and the philosopher ho is confident in death appears to you to ha!e but a !ain and foolish confidence, if he belie!es that he ill fare better in the orld belo than one ho has led another sort of life, unless he can pro!e thisM and you say that the de$onstration of the strength and di!inity of the soul, and of her existence prior to our beco$ing $en, does not necessarily i$ply her i$$ortality% =d$itting the soul to be longli!ed, and to ha!e "no n and done $uch in a for$er state, still she is not on that account i$$ortalM and her entrance into the hu$an for$ $ay be a sort of disease hich is the beginning of dissolution, and $ay at last, after the toils of life are o!er, end in that hich is called death% =nd hether the soul enters into the body once only or $any ti$es, does not, as you say,

$a"e any difference in the fears of indi!iduals% (or any $an, ho is not de!oid of sense, $ust fear, if he has no "no ledge and can gi!e no account of the soulNs i$$ortality% This, or so$ething li"e this, / suspect to be your notion, CebesM and / designedly recur to it in order that nothing $ay escape us, and that you $ay, if you ish, add or subtract anything% +ut, said Cebes, as far as / see at present, / ha!e nothing to add or subtractA / $ean hat you say that / $ean% -ocrates paused a hile, and see$ed to be absorbed in reflection% =t length he saidA Qou are raising a tre$endous Tuestion, Cebes, in!ol!ing the hole nature of generation and corruption, about hich, if you li"e, / ill gi!e you $y o n experienceM and if anything hich / say is li"ely to a!ail to ards the solution of your difficulty you $ay $a"e use of it% / should !ery $uch li"e, said Cebes, to hear hat you ha!e to say% Then / ill tell you, said -ocrates% &hen / as young, Cebes, / had a prodigious desire to "no that depart$ent of philosophy hich is called the in!estigation of natureM to "no the causes of things, and hy a thing is and is created or destroyed appeared to $e to be a lofty professionM and / as al ays agitating $yself ith the consideration of Tuestions such as theseAFF/s the gro th of ani$als the result of so$e decay hich the hot and cold principle contracts, as so$e ha!e saidS /s the blood the ele$ent ith hich e thin", or the air, or the fireS or perhaps nothing of the "indFF but the brain $ay be the originating po er of the perceptions of hearing and sight and s$ell, and $e$ory and opinion $ay co$e fro$ the$, and science $ay be based on $e$ory and opinion hen they ha!e attained fixity% =nd then / ent on to exa$ine the corruption of the$, and then to the things of hea!en and earth, and at last / concluded $yself to be utterly and absolutely incapable of these enTuiries, as / ill satisfactorily pro!e to you% (or / as fascinated by the$ to such a degree that $y eyes gre blind to things hich / had see$ed to $yself, and also to others, to "no Tuite ellM / forgot hat / had before thought selfFe!ident truthsM e%g% such a fact as that the gro th of $an is the result of eating and drin"ingM for hen by the digestion of food flesh is added to flesh and bone to bone, and hene!er there is an aggregation of congenial ele$ents, the lesser bul" beco$es larger and the s$all $an great% &as not that a reasonable notionS

Qes, said Cebes, / thin" so% &ellM but let $e tell you so$ething $ore% There as a ti$e hen / thought that / understood the $eaning of greater and less pretty ellM and hen / sa a great $an standing by a little one, / fancied that one as taller than the other by a headM or one horse ould appear to be greater than another horseA and still $ore clearly did / see$ to percei!e that ten is t o $ore than eight, and that t o cubits are $ore than one, because t o is the double of one% =nd hat is no your notion of such $attersS said Cebes% / should be far enough fro$ i$agining, he replied, that / "ne the cause of any of the$, by hea!en / shouldM for / cannot satisfy $yself that, hen one is added to one, the one to hich the addition is $ade beco$es t o, or that the t o units added together $a"e t o by reason of the addition% / cannot understand ho , hen separated fro$ the other, each of the$ as one and not t o, and no , hen they are brought together, the $ere juxtaposition or $eeting of the$ should be the cause of their beco$ing t oA neither can / understand ho the di!ision of one is the ay to $a"e t oM for then a different cause ould produce the sa$e effect,FFas in the for$er instance the addition and juxtaposition of one to one as the cause of t o, in this the separation and subtraction of one fro$ the other ould be the cause% :or a$ / any longer satisfied that / understand the reason hy one or anything else is either generated or destroyed or is at all, but / ha!e in $y $ind so$e confused notion of a ne $ethod, and can ne!er ad$it the other% Then / heard so$e one reading, as he said, fro$ a boo" of =naxagoras, that $ind as the disposer and cause of all, and / as delighted at this notion, hich appeared Tuite ad$irable, and / said to $yselfA /f $ind is the disposer, $ind ill dispose all for the best, and put each particular in the best placeM and / argued that if any one desired to find out the cause of the generation or destruction or existence of anything, he $ust find out hat state of being or doing or suffering as best for that thing, and therefore a $an had only to consider the best for hi$self and others, and then he ould also "no the orse, since the sa$e science co$prehended both% =nd / rejoiced to thin" that / had found in =naxagoras a teacher of the causes of existence such as / desired, and / i$agined that he ould

tell $e first hether the earth is flat or roundM and hiche!er as true, he ould proceed to explain the cause and the necessity of this being so, and then he ould teach $e the nature of the best and sho that this as bestM and if he said that the earth as in the centre, he ould further explain that this position as the best, and / should be satisfied ith the explanation gi!en, and not ant any other sort of cause% =nd / thought that / ould then go on and as" hi$ about the sun and $oon and stars, and that he ould explain to $e their co$parati!e s iftness, and their returnings and !arious states, acti!e and passi!e, and ho all of the$ ere for the best% (or / could not i$agine that hen he spo"e of $ind as the disposer of the$, he ould gi!e any other account of their being as they are, except that this as bestM and / thought that hen he had explained to $e in detail the cause of each and the cause of all, he ould go on to explain to $e hat as best for each and hat as good for all% These hopes / ould not ha!e sold for a large su$ of $oney, and / sei8ed the boo"s and read the$ as fast as / could in $y eagerness to "no the better and the orse% &hat expectations / had for$ed, and ho grie!ously as / disappointed# =s / proceeded, / found $y philosopher altogether forsa"ing $ind or any other principle of order, but ha!ing recourse to air, and ether, and ater, and other eccentricities% / $ight co$pare hi$ to a person ho began by $aintaining generally that $ind is the cause of the actions of -ocrates, but ho, hen he endea!oured to explain the causes of $y se!eral actions in detail, ent on to sho that / sit here because $y body is $ade up of bones and $usclesM and the bones, as he ould say, are hard and ha!e joints hich di!ide the$, and the $uscles are elastic, and they co!er the bones, hich ha!e also a co!ering or en!iron$ent of flesh and s"in hich contains the$M and as the bones are lifted at their joints by the contraction or relaxation of the $uscles, / a$ able to bend $y li$bs, and this is hy / a$ sitting here in a cur!ed postureFFthat is hat he ould say, and he ould ha!e a si$ilar explanation of $y tal"ing to you, hich he ould attribute to sound, and air, and hearing, and he ould assign ten thousand other causes of the sa$e sort, forgetting to $ention the true cause, hich is, that the =thenians ha!e thought fit to conde$n $e, and accordingly / ha!e thought it better and $ore right to re$ain here and undergo $y sentenceM for / a$ inclined to thin" that these $uscles and bones of $ine ould ha!e gone off long ago to 1egara or +oeotiaFFby the dog they ould, if they had been $o!ed only by their o n idea of hat as best, and if / had not chosen

the better and nobler part, instead of playing truant and running a ay, of enduring any punish$ent hich the state inflicts% There is surely a strange confusion of causes and conditions in all this% /t $ay be said, indeed, that ithout bones and $uscles and the other parts of the body / cannot execute $y purposes% +ut to say that / do as / do because of the$, and that this is the ay in hich $ind acts, and not fro$ the choice of the best, is a !ery careless and idle $ode of spea"ing% / onder that they cannot distinguish the cause fro$ the condition, hich the $any, feeling about in the dar", are al ays $ista"ing and $isna$ing% =nd thus one $an $a"es a !ortex all round and steadies the earth by the hea!enM another gi!es the air as a support to the earth, hich is a sort of broad trough% =ny po er hich in arranging the$ as they are arranges the$ for the best ne!er enters into their $indsM and instead of finding any superior strength in it, they rather expect to disco!er another =tlas of the orld ho is stronger and $ore e!erlasting and $ore containing than the goodMFFof the obligatory and containing po er of the good they thin" nothingM and yet this is the principle hich / ould fain learn if any one ould teach $e% +ut as / ha!e failed either to disco!er $yself, or to learn of any one else, the nature of the best, / ill exhibit to you, if you li"e, hat / ha!e found to be the second best $ode of enTuiring into the cause% / should !ery $uch li"e to hear, he replied% -ocrates proceededAFF/ thought that as / had failed in the conte$plation of true existence, / ought to be careful that / did not lose the eye of $y soulM as people $ay injure their bodily eye by obser!ing and ga8ing on the sun during an eclipse, unless they ta"e the precaution of only loo"ing at the i$age reflected in the ater, or in so$e si$ilar $ediu$% -o in $y o n case, / as afraid that $y soul $ight be blinded altogether if / loo"ed at things ith $y eyes or tried to apprehend the$ by the help of the senses% =nd / thought that / had better ha!e recourse to the orld of $ind and see" there the truth of existence% / dare say that the si$ile is not perfectFF for / a$ !ery far fro$ ad$itting that he ho conte$plates existences through the $ediu$ of thought, sees the$ only Nthrough a glass dar"ly,N any $ore than he ho considers the$ in action and operation% ,o e!er, this as the $ethod hich / adoptedA / first assu$ed so$e principle hich / judged to be the strongest, and then / affir$ed as true hate!er see$ed to agree ith this, hether relating to the cause or to anything elseM and that hich disagreed / regarded as untrue% +ut / should li"e to explain $y

$eaning $ore clearly, as / do not thin" that you as yet understand $e% :o indeed, replied Cebes, not !ery ell% There is nothing ne , he said, in hat / a$ about to tell youM but only hat / ha!e been al ays and e!ery here repeating in the pre!ious discussion and on other occasionsA / ant to sho you the nature of that cause hich has occupied $y thoughts% / shall ha!e to go bac" to those fa$iliar ords hich are in the $outh of e!ery one, and first of all assu$e that there is an absolute beauty and goodness and greatness, and the li"eM grant $e this, and / hope to be able to sho you the nature of the cause, and to pro!e the i$$ortality of the soul% Cebes saidA Qou $ay proceed at once ith the proof, for / grant you this% &ell, he said, then / should li"e to "no hether you agree ith $e in the next stepM for / cannot help thin"ing, if there be anything beautiful other than absolute beauty should there be such, that it can be beautiful only in as far as it parta"es of absolute beautyFFand / should say the sa$e of e!erything% 'o you agree in this notion of the causeS Qes, he said, / agree% ,e proceededA / "no nothing and can understand nothing of any other of those ise causes hich are allegedM and if a person says to $e that the bloo$ of colour, or for$, or any such thing is a source of beauty, / lea!e all that, hich is only confusing to $e, and si$ply and singly, and perhaps foolishly, hold and a$ assured in $y o n $ind that nothing $a"es a thing beautiful but the presence and participation of beauty in hate!er ay or $anner obtainedM for as to the $anner / a$ uncertain, but / stoutly contend that by beauty all beautiful things beco$e beautiful% This appears to $e to be the safest ans er hich / can gi!e, either to $yself or to another, and to this / cling, in the persuasion that this principle ill ne!er be o!erthro n, and that to $yself or to any one ho as"s the Tuestion, / $ay safely reply, That by beauty beautiful things beco$e beautiful% 'o you not agree ith $eS / do%

=nd that by greatness only great things beco$e great and greater greater, and by s$allness the less beco$e lessS True% Then if a person ere to re$ar" that = is taller by a head than +, and + less by a head than =, you ould refuse to ad$it his state$ent, and ould stoutly contend that hat you $ean is only that the greater is greater by, and by reason of, greatness, and the less is less only by, and by reason of, s$allnessM and thus you ould a!oid the danger of saying that the greater is greater and the less less by the $easure of the head, hich is the sa$e in both, and ould also a!oid the $onstrous absurdity of supposing that the greater $an is greater by reason of the head, hich is s$all% Qou ould be afraid to dra such an inference, ould you notS /ndeed, / should, said Cebes, laughing% /n li"e $anner you ould be afraid to say that ten exceeded eight by, and by reason of, t oM but ould say by, and by reason of, nu$berM or you ould say that t o cubits exceed one cubit not by a half, but by $agnitudeSFfor there is the sa$e liability to error in all these cases% )ery true, he said% =gain, ould you not be cautious of affir$ing that the addition of one to one, or the di!ision of one, is the cause of t oS =nd you ould loudly asse!erate that you "no of no ay in hich anything co$es into existence except by participation in its o n proper essence, and conseTuently, as far as you "no , the only cause of t o is the participation in dualityFFthis is the ay to $a"e t o, and the participation in one is the ay to $a"e one% Qou ould sayA / ill let alone pu88les of di!ision and additionFF iser heads than $ine $ay ans er the$M inexperienced as / a$, and ready to start, as the pro!erb says, at $y o n shado , / cannot afford to gi!e up the sure ground of a principle% =nd if any one assails you there, you ould not $ind hi$, or ans er hi$, until you had seen hether the conseTuences hich follo agree ith one another or not, and hen you are further reTuired to gi!e an explanation of this principle, you ould go on to assu$e a higher

principle, and a higher, until you found a restingFplace in the best of the higherM but you ould not confuse the principle and the conseTuences in your reasoning, li"e the EristicsFFat least if you anted to disco!er real existence% :ot that this confusion signifies to the$, ho ne!er care or thin" about the $atter at all, for they ha!e the it to be ell pleased ith the$sel!es ho e!er great $ay be the tur$oil of their ideas% +ut you, if you are a philosopher, ill certainly do as / say% &hat you say is $ost true, said -i$$ias and Cebes, both spea"ing at once% EC,EC*=TE-A Qes, PhaedoM and / do not onder at their assenting% =ny one ho has the least sense ill ac"no ledge the onderful clearness of -ocratesN reasoning% P,=E'9A Certainly, EchecratesM and such as the feeling of the hole co$pany at the ti$e% EC,EC*=TE-A Qes, and eTually of oursel!es, ho ere not of the co$pany, and are no listening to your recital% +ut hat follo edS P,=E'9A =fter all this had been ad$itted, and they had that ideas exist, and that other things participate in the$ and deri!e their na$es fro$ the$, -ocrates, if / re$e$ber rightly, saidAFF This is your ay of spea"ingM and yet hen you say that -i$$ias is greater than -ocrates and less than Phaedo, do you not predicate of -i$$ias both greatness and s$allnessS Qes, / do% +ut still you allo that -i$$ias does not really exceed -ocrates, as the ords $ay see$ to i$ply, because he is -i$$ias, but by reason of the si8e hich he hasM just as -i$$ias does not exceed -ocrates because he is -i$$ias, any $ore than because -ocrates is -ocrates, but because he has s$allness hen co$pared ith the greatness of -i$$iasS True%

=nd if Phaedo exceeds hi$ in si8e, this is not because Phaedo is Phaedo, but because Phaedo has greatness relati!ely to -i$$ias, ho is co$parati!ely s$allerS That is true% =nd therefore -i$$ias is said to be great, and is also said to be s$all, because he is in a $ean bet een the$, exceeding the s$allness of the one by his greatness, and allo ing the greatness of the other to exceed his s$allness% ,e added, laughing, / a$ spea"ing li"e a boo", but / belie!e that hat / a$ saying is true% -i$$ias assented% / spea" as / do because / ant you to agree ith $e in thin"ing, not only that absolute greatness ill ne!er be great and also s$all, but that greatness in us or in the concrete ill ne!er ad$it the s$all or ad$it of being exceededA instead of this, one of t o things ill happen, either the greater ill fly or retire before the opposite, hich is the less, or at the approach of the less has already ceased to existM but ill not, if allo ing or ad$itting of s$allness, be changed by thatM e!en as /, ha!ing recei!ed and ad$itted s$allness hen co$pared ith -i$$ias, re$ain just as / as, and a$ the sa$e s$all person% =nd as the idea of greatness cannot condescend e!er to be or beco$e s$all, in li"e $anner the s$allness in us cannot be or beco$e greatM nor can any other opposite hich re$ains the sa$e e!er be or beco$e its o n opposite, but either passes a ay or perishes in the change% That, replied Cebes, is Tuite $y notion% ,ereupon one of the co$pany, though / do not exactly re$e$ber hich of the$, saidA /n hea!enNs na$e, is not this the direct contrary of hat as ad$itted beforeFFthat out of the greater ca$e the less and out of the less the greater, and that opposites ere si$ply generated fro$ oppositesM but no this principle see$s to be utterly denied% -ocrates inclined his head to the spea"er and listened% / li"e your courage, he said, in re$inding us of this% +ut you do not obser!e that

there is a difference in the t o cases% (or then e ere spea"ing of opposites in the concrete, and no of the essential opposite hich, as is affir$ed, neither in us nor in nature can e!er be at !ariance ith itselfA then, $y friend, e ere spea"ing of things in hich opposites are inherent and hich are called after the$, but no about the opposites hich are inherent in the$ and hich gi!e their na$e to the$M and these essential opposites ill ne!er, as e $aintain, ad$it of generation into or out of one another% =t the sa$e ti$e, turning to Cebes, he saidA =re you at all disconcerted, Cebes, at our friendNs objectionS :o, / do not feel so, said CebesM and yet / cannot deny that / a$ often disturbed by objections% Then e are agreed after all, said -ocrates, that the opposite ill ne!er in any case be opposed to itselfS To that e are Tuite agreed, he replied% Qet once $ore let $e as" you to consider the Tuestion fro$ another point of !ie , and see hether you agree ith $eAFFThere is a thing hich you ter$ heat, and another thing hich you ter$ coldS Certainly% +ut are they the sa$e as fire and sno S 1ost assuredly not% ,eat is a thing different fro$ fire, and cold is not the sa$e ith sno S Qes% =nd yet you ill surely ad$it, that hen sno , as as before said, is under the influence of heat, they ill not re$ain sno and heatM but at the ad!ance of the heat, the sno ill either retire or perishS )ery true, he replied% =nd the fire too at the ad!ance of the cold ill either retire or perishM and hen the fire is under the influence of the cold, they ill not re$ain

as before, fire and cold% That is true, he said% =nd in so$e cases the na$e of the idea is not only attached to the idea in an eternal connection, but anything else hich, not being the idea, exists only in the for$ of the idea, $ay also lay clai$ to it% / ill try to $a"e this clearer by an exa$pleAFFThe odd nu$ber is al ays called by the na$e of oddS )ery true% +ut is this the only thing hich is called oddS =re there not other things hich ha!e their o n na$e, and yet are called odd, because, although not the sa$e as oddness, they are ne!er ithout oddnessSFFthat is hat / $ean to as"FF hether nu$bers such as the nu$ber three are not of the class of odd% =nd there are $any other exa$plesA ould you not say, for exa$ple, that three $ay be called by its proper na$e, and also be called odd, hich is not the sa$e ith threeS and this $ay be said not only of three but also of fi!e, and of e!ery alternate nu$berFFeach of the$ ithout being oddness is odd, and in the sa$e ay t o and four, and the other series of alternate nu$bers, has e!ery nu$ber e!en, ithout being e!enness% 'o you agreeS 9f course% Then no $ar" the point at hich / a$ ai$ingAFFnot only do essential opposites exclude one another, but also concrete things, hich, although not in the$sel!es opposed, contain oppositesM these, / say, li"e ise reject the idea hich is opposed to that hich is contained in the$, and hen it approaches the$ they either perish or ithdra % (or exa$pleM &ill not the nu$ber three endure annihilation or anything sooner than be con!erted into an e!en nu$ber, hile re$aining threeS )ery true, said Cebes% =nd yet, he said, the nu$ber t o is certainly not opposed to the nu$ber threeS /t is not%

Then not only do opposite ideas repel the ad!ance of one another, but also there are other natures hich repel the approach of opposites% )ery true, he said% -uppose, he said, that e endea!our, if possible, to deter$ine hat these are% +y all $eans% =re they not, Cebes, such as co$pel the things of hich they ha!e possession, not only to ta"e their o n for$, but also the for$ of so$e oppositeS &hat do you $eanS / $ean, as / as just no saying, and as / a$ sure that you "no , that those things hich are possessed by the nu$ber three $ust not only be three in nu$ber, but $ust also be odd% Uuite true% =nd on this oddness, of hich the nu$ber three has the i$press, the opposite idea ill ne!er intrudeS :o% =nd this i$press as gi!en by the odd principleS Qes% =nd to the odd is opposed the e!enS True% Then the idea of the e!en nu$ber ill ne!er arri!e at threeS :o% Then three has no part in the e!enS

:one% Then the triad or nu$ber three is une!enS )ery true% To return then to $y distinction of natures hich are not opposed, and yet do not ad$it oppositesFFas, in the instance gi!en, three, although not opposed to the e!en, does not any the $ore ad$it of the e!en, but al ays brings the opposite into play on the other sideM or as t o does not recei!e the odd, or fire the coldFFfro$ these exa$ples Band there are $any $ore of the$C perhaps you $ay be able to arri!e at the general conclusion, that not only opposites ill not recei!e opposites, but also that nothing hich brings the opposite ill ad$it the opposite of that hich it brings, in that to hich it is brought% =nd here let $e recapitulateFFfor there is no har$ in repetition% The nu$ber fi!e ill not ad$it the nature of the e!en, any $ore than ten, hich is the double of fi!e, ill ad$it the nature of the odd% The double has another opposite, and is not strictly opposed to the odd, but ne!ertheless rejects the odd altogether% :or again ill parts in the ratio HAE, nor any fraction in hich there is a half, nor again in hich there is a third, ad$it the notion of the hole, although they are not opposed to the holeA Qou ill agreeS Qes, he said, / entirely agree and go along ith you in that% =nd no , he said, let us begin againM and do not you ans er $y Tuestion in the ords in hich / as" itA let $e ha!e not the old safe ans er of hich / spo"e at first, but another eTually safe, of hich the truth ill be inferred by you fro$ hat has been just said% / $ean that if any one as"s you N hat that is, of hich the inherence $a"es the body hot,N you ill reply not heat Bthis is hat / call the safe and stupid ans erC, but fire, a far superior ans er, hich e are no in a condition to gi!e% 9r if any one as"s you N hy a body is diseased,N you ill not say fro$ disease, but fro$ fe!erM and instead of saying that oddness is the cause of odd nu$bers, you ill say that the $onad is the cause of the$A and so of things in general, as / dare say that you ill understand sufficiently ithout $y adducing any further exa$ples% Qes, he said, / Tuite understand you%

Tell $e, then, hat is that of hich the inherence ill render the body ali!eS The soul, he replied% =nd is this al ays the caseS Qes, he said, of course% Then hate!er the soul possesses, to that she co$es bearing lifeS Qes, certainly% =nd is there any opposite to lifeS There is, he said% =nd hat is thatS 'eath% Then the soul, as has been ac"no ledged, ill ne!er recei!e the opposite of hat she brings% /$possible, replied Cebes% =nd no , he said, hat did e just no call that principle hich repels the e!enS The odd% =nd that principle hich repels the $usical, or the justS The un$usical, he said, and the unjust% =nd hat do e call the principle hich does not ad$it of deathS The i$$ortal, he said%

=nd does the soul ad$it of deathS :o% Then the soul is i$$ortalS Qes, he said% =nd $ay e say that this has been pro!enS Qes, abundantly pro!en, -ocrates, he replied% -upposing that the odd ere i$perishable, $ust not three be i$perishableS 9f course% =nd if that hich is cold ere i$perishable, hen the ar$ principle ca$e attac"ing the sno , $ust not the sno ha!e retired hole and un$eltedFFfor it could ne!er ha!e perished, nor could it ha!e re$ained and ad$itted the heatS True, he said% =gain, if the uncooling or ar$ principle ere i$perishable, the fire hen assailed by cold ould not ha!e perished or ha!e been extinguished, but ould ha!e gone a ay unaffectedS Certainly, he said% =nd the sa$e $ay be said of the i$$ortalA if the i$$ortal is also i$perishable, the soul hen attac"ed by death cannot perishM for the preceding argu$ent sho s that the soul ill not ad$it of death, or e!er be dead, any $ore than three or the odd nu$ber ill ad$it of the e!en, or fire or the heat in the fire, of the cold% Qet a person $ay sayA N+ut although the odd ill not beco$e e!en at the approach of the e!en, hy $ay not the odd perish and the e!en ta"e the place of the oddSN :o to hi$ ho $a"es this objection, e cannot ans er that the odd principle is i$perishableM for this has not been ac"no ledged, but if this had been ac"no ledged, there ould ha!e been no difficulty in contending that at the approach of the e!en the odd principle and the nu$ber three too" their departureM and

the sa$e argu$ent ould ha!e held good of fire and heat and any other thing% )ery true% =nd the sa$e $ay be said of the i$$ortalA if the i$$ortal is also i$perishable, then the soul ill be i$perishable as ell as i$$ortalM but if not, so$e other proof of her i$perishableness ill ha!e to be gi!en% :o other proof is needed, he saidM for if the i$$ortal, being eternal, is liable to perish, then nothing is i$perishable% Qes, replied -ocrates, and yet all $en ill agree that God, and the essential for$ of life, and the i$$ortal in general, ill ne!er perish% Qes, all $en, he saidFFthat is trueM and hat is $ore, gods, if / a$ not $ista"en, as ell as $en% -eeing then that the i$$ortal is indestructible, $ust not the soul, if she is i$$ortal, be also i$perishableS 1ost certainly% Then hen death attac"s a $an, the $ortal portion of hi$ $ay be supposed to die, but the i$$ortal retires at the approach of death and is preser!ed safe and soundS True% Then, Cebes, beyond Tuestion, the soul is i$$ortal and i$perishable, and our souls ill truly exist in another orld# / a$ con!inced, -ocrates, said Cebes, and ha!e nothing $ore to objectM but if $y friend -i$$ias, or any one else, has any further objection to $a"e, he had better spea" out, and not "eep silence, since / do not "no to hat other season he can defer the discussion, if there is anything hich he ants to say or to ha!e said% +ut / ha!e nothing $ore to say, replied -i$$iasM nor can / see any reason

for doubt after hat has been said% +ut / still feel and cannot help feeling uncertain in $y o n $ind, hen / thin" of the greatness of the subject and the feebleness of $an% Qes, -i$$ias, replied -ocrates, that is ell saidA and / $ay add that first principles, e!en if they appear certain, should be carefully consideredM and hen they are satisfactorily ascertained, then, ith a sort of hesitating confidence in hu$an reason, you $ay, / thin", follo the course of the argu$entM and if that be plain and clear, there ill be no need for any further enTuiry% )ery true% +ut then, 9 $y friends, he said, if the soul is really i$$ortal, hat care should be ta"en of her, not only in respect of the portion of ti$e hich is called life, but of eternity# =nd the danger of neglecting her fro$ this point of !ie does indeed appear to be a ful% /f death had only been the end of all, the ic"ed ould ha!e had a good bargain in dying, for they ould ha!e been happily Tuit not only of their body, but of their o n e!il together ith their souls% +ut no , inas$uch as the soul is $anifestly i$$ortal, there is no release or sal!ation fro$ e!il except the attain$ent of the highest !irtue and isdo$% (or the soul hen on her progress to the orld belo ta"es nothing ith her but nurture and educationM and these are said greatly to benefit or greatly to injure the departed, at the !ery beginning of his journey thither% (or after death, as they say, the genius of each indi!idual, to ho$ he belonged in life, leads hi$ to a certain place in hich the dead are gathered together, hence after judg$ent has been gi!en they pass into the orld belo , follo ing the guide, ho is appointed to conduct the$ fro$ this orld to the otherA and hen they ha!e there recei!ed their due and re$ained their ti$e, another guide brings the$ bac" again after $any re!olutions of ages% :o this ay to the other orld is not, as =eschylus says in the Telephus, a single and straight pathFFif that ere so no guide ould be needed, for no one could $iss itM but there are $any partings of the road, and indings, as / infer fro$ the rites and sacrifices hich are offered to the gods belo in places here three ays $eet on earth% The ise and orderly soul follo s in the straight path and is conscious of her surroundingsM but the soul hich desires the body, and hich, as / as relating before, has long been fluttering about the lifeless fra$e and the

orld of sight, is after $any struggles and $any sufferings hardly and ith !iolence carried a ay by her attendant genius, and hen she arri!es at the place here the other souls are gathered, if she be i$pure and ha!e done i$pure deeds, hether foul $urders or other cri$es hich are the brothers of these, and the or"s of brothers in cri$eFFfro$ that soul e!ery one flees and turns a ayM no one ill be her co$panion, no one her guide, but alone she anders in extre$ity of e!il until certain ti$es are fulfilled, and hen they are fulfilled, she is borne irresistibly to her o n fitting habitationM as e!ery pure and just soul hich has passed through life in the co$pany and under the guidance of the gods has also her o n proper ho$e% :o the earth has di!ers onderful regions, and is indeed in nature and extent !ery unli"e the notions of geographers, as / belie!e on the authority of one ho shall be na$eless% &hat do you $ean, -ocratesS said -i$$ias% / ha!e $yself heard $any descriptions of the earth, but / do not "no , and / should !ery $uch li"e to "no , in hich of these you put faith% =nd /, -i$$ias, replied -ocrates, if / had the art of Glaucus ould tell youM although / "no not that the art of Glaucus could pro!e the truth of $y tale, hich / $yself should ne!er be able to pro!e, and e!en if / could, / fear, -i$$ias, that $y life ould co$e to an end before the argu$ent as co$pleted% / $ay describe to you, ho e!er, the for$ and regions of the earth according to $y conception of the$% That, said -i$$ias, ill be enough% &ell, then, he said, $y con!iction is, that the earth is a round body in the centre of the hea!ens, and therefore has no need of air or any si$ilar force to be a support, but is "ept there and hindered fro$ falling or inclining any ay by the eTuability of the surrounding hea!en and by her o n eTuipoise% (or that hich, being in eTuipoise, is in the centre of that hich is eTuably diffused, ill not incline any ay in any degree, but ill al ays re$ain in the sa$e state and not de!iate% =nd this is $y first notion% &hich is surely a correct one, said -i$$ias%

=lso / belie!e that the earth is !ery !ast, and that e ho d ell in the region extending fro$ the ri!er Phasis to the Pillars of ,eracles inhabit a s$all portion only about the sea, li"e ants or frogs about a $arsh, and that there are other inhabitants of $any other li"e placesM for e!ery here on the face of the earth there are hollo s of !arious for$s and si8es, into hich the ater and the $ist and the lo er air collect% +ut the true earth is pure and situated in the pure hea!enFFthere are the stars alsoM and it is the hea!en hich is co$$only spo"en of by us as the ether, and of hich our o n earth is the sedi$ent gathering in the hollo s beneath% +ut e ho li!e in these hollo s are decei!ed into the notion that e are d elling abo!e on the surface of the earthM hich is just as if a creature ho as at the botto$ of the sea ere to fancy that he as on the surface of the ater, and that the sea as the hea!en through hich he sa the sun and the other stars, he ha!ing ne!er co$e to the surface by reason of his feebleness and sluggishness, and ha!ing ne!er lifted up his head and seen, nor e!er heard fro$ one ho had seen, ho $uch purer and fairer the orld abo!e is than his o n% =nd such is exactly our caseA for e are d elling in a hollo of the earth, and fancy that e are on the surfaceM and the air e call the hea!en, in hich e i$agine that the stars $o!e% +ut the fact is, that o ing to our feebleness and sluggishness e are pre!ented fro$ reaching the surface of the airA for if any $an could arri!e at the exterior li$it, or ta"e the ings of a bird and co$e to the top, then li"e a fish ho puts his head out of the ater and sees this orld, he ould see a orld beyondM and, if the nature of $an could sustain the sight, he ould ac"no ledge that this other orld as the place of the true hea!en and the true light and the true earth% (or our earth, and the stones, and the entire region hich surrounds us, are spoilt and corroded, as in the sea all things are corroded by the brine, neither is there any noble or perfect gro th, but ca!erns only, and sand, and an endless slough of $udA and e!en the shore is not to be co$pared to the fairer sights of this orld% =nd still less is this our orld to be co$pared ith the other% 9f that upper earth hich is under the hea!en, / can tell you a char$ing tale, -i$$ias, hich is ell orth hearing% =nd e, -ocrates, replied -i$$ias, shall be char$ed to listen to you% The tale, $y friend, he said, is as follo sAFF/n the first place, the earth, hen loo"ed at fro$ abo!e, is in appearance strea"ed li"e one of those balls hich ha!e leather co!erings in t el!e pieces, and is dec"ed ith !arious colours, of hich the colours used by painters on earth are in

a $anner sa$ples% +ut there the hole earth is $ade up of the$, and they are brighter far and clearer than oursM there is a purple of onderful lustre, also the radiance of gold, and the hite hich is in the earth is hiter than any chal" or sno % 9f these and other colours the earth is $ade up, and they are $ore in nu$ber and fairer than the eye of $an has e!er seenM the !ery hollo s Bof hich / as spea"ingC filled ith air and ater ha!e a colour of their o n, and are seen li"e light glea$ing a$id the di!ersity of the other colours, so that the hole presents a single and continuous appearance of !ariety in unity% =nd in this fair region e!erything that gro sFFtrees, and flo ers, and fruitsFFare in a li"e degree fairer than any hereM and there are hills, ha!ing stones in the$ in a li"e degree s$oother, and $ore transparent, and fairer in colour than our highlyF!alued e$eralds and sardonyxes and jaspers, and other ge$s, hich are but $inute frag$ents of the$A for there all the stones are li"e our precious stones, and fairer still Bco$pare *epublicC% The reason is, that they are pure, and not, li"e our precious stones, infected or corroded by the corrupt briny ele$ents hich coagulate a$ong us, and hich breed foulness and disease both in earth and stones, as ell as in ani$als and plants% They are the je els of the upper earth, hich also shines ith gold and sil!er and the li"e, and they are set in the light of day and are large and abundant and in all places, $a"ing the earth a sight to gladden the beholderNs eye% =nd there are ani$als and $en, so$e in a $iddle region, others d elling about the air as e d ell about the seaM others in islands hich the air flo s round, near the continentA and in a ord, the air is used by the$ as the ater and the sea are by us, and the ether is to the$ hat the air is to us% 1oreo!er, the te$pera$ent of their seasons is such that they ha!e no disease, and li!e $uch longer than e do, and ha!e sight and hearing and s$ell, and all the other senses, in far greater perfection, in the sa$e proportion that air is purer than ater or the ether than air% =lso they ha!e te$ples and sacred places in hich the gods really d ell, and they hear their !oices and recei!e their ans ers, and are conscious of the$ and hold con!erse ith the$, and they see the sun, $oon, and stars as they truly are, and their other blessedness is of a piece ith this% -uch is the nature of the hole earth, and of the things hich are around the earthM and there are di!ers regions in the hollo s on the face of the globe e!ery here, so$e of the$ deeper and $ore extended than that hich e inhabit, others deeper but ith a narro er opening than ours, and so$e are

shallo er and also ider% =ll ha!e nu$erous perforations, and there are passages broad and narro in the interior of the earth, connecting the$ ith one anotherM and there flo s out of and into the$, as into basins, a !ast tide of ater, and huge subterranean strea$s of perennial ri!ers, and springs hot and cold, and a great fire, and great ri!ers of fire, and strea$s of liTuid $ud, thin or thic" Bli"e the ri!ers of $ud in -icily, and the la!a strea$s hich follo the$C, and the regions about hich they happen to flo are filled up ith the$% =nd there is a s inging or seeFsa in the interior of the earth hich $o!es all this up and do n, and is due to the follo ing causeAFFThere is a chas$ hich is the !astest of the$ all, and pierces right through the hole earthM this is that chas$ hich ,o$er describes in the ords,FF N(ar off, here is the in$ost depth beneath the earthMN and hich he in other places, and $any other poets, ha!e called Tartarus% =nd the seeFsa is caused by the strea$s flo ing into and out of this chas$, and they each ha!e the nature of the soil through hich they flo % =nd the reason hy the strea$s are al ays flo ing in and out, is that the atery ele$ent has no bed or botto$, but is s inging and surging up and do n, and the surrounding ind and air do the sa$eM they follo the ater up and do n, hither and thither, o!er the earthFFjust as in the act of respiration the air is al ays in process of inhalation and exhalationMFFand the ind s inging ith the ater in and out produces fearful and irresistible blastsA hen the aters retire ith a rush into the lo er parts of the earth, as they are called, they flo through the earth in those regions, and fill the$ up li"e ater raised by a pu$p, and then hen they lea!e those regions and rush bac" hither, they again fill the hollo s here, and hen these are filled, flo through subterranean channels and find their ay to their se!eral places, for$ing seas, and la"es, and ri!ers, and springs% Thence they again enter the earth, so$e of the$ $a"ing a long circuit into $any lands, others going to a fe places and not so distantM and again fall into Tartarus, so$e at a point a good deal lo er than that at hich they rose, and others not $uch lo er, but all in so$e degree lo er than the point fro$ hich they ca$e% =nd so$e burst forth again on the opposite side, and so$e on the sa$e side, and so$e ind round the earth ith one or $any folds li"e the coils of a serpent, and descend as far as they can, but al ays return and fall into the chas$% The ri!ers flo ing in either direction can descend only to the centre and no further, for opposite to the ri!ers is a precipice%

:o these ri!ers are $any, and $ighty, and di!erse, and there are four principal ones, of hich the greatest and outer$ost is that called 9ceanus, hich flo s round the earth in a circleM and in the opposite direction flo s =cheron, hich passes under the earth through desert places into the =cherusian la"eA this is the la"e to the shores of hich the souls of the $any go hen they are dead, and after aiting an appointed ti$e, hich is to so$e a longer and to so$e a shorter ti$e, they are sent bac" to be born again as ani$als% The third ri!er passes out bet een the t o, and near the place of outlet pours into a !ast region of fire, and for$s a la"e larger than the 1editerranean -ea, boiling ith ater and $udM and proceeding $uddy and turbid, and inding about the earth, co$es, a$ong other places, to the extre$ities of the =cherusian <a"e, but $ingles not ith the aters of the la"e, and after $a"ing $any coils about the earth plunges into Tartarus at a deeper le!el% This is that Pyriphlegethon, as the strea$ is called, hich thro s up jets of fire in different parts of the earth% The fourth ri!er goes out on the opposite side, and falls first of all into a ild and sa!age region, hich is all of a dar"Fblue colour, li"e lapis la8uliM and this is that ri!er hich is called the -tygian ri!er, and falls into and for$s the <a"e -tyx, and after falling into the la"e and recei!ing strange po ers in the aters, passes under the earth, inding round in the opposite direction, and co$es near the =cherusian la"e fro$ the opposite side to Pyriphlegethon% =nd the ater of this ri!er too $ingles ith no other, but flo s round in a circle and falls into Tartarus o!er against PyriphlegethonM and the na$e of the ri!er, as the poets say, is Cocytus% -uch is the nature of the other orldM and hen the dead arri!e at the place to hich the genius of each se!erally guides the$, first of all, they ha!e sentence passed upon the$, as they ha!e li!ed ell and piously or not% =nd those ho appear to ha!e li!ed neither ell nor ill, go to the ri!er =cheron, and e$bar"ing in any !essels hich they $ay find, are carried in the$ to the la"e, and there they d ell and are purified of their e!il deeds, and ha!ing suffered the penalty of the rongs hich they ha!e done to others, they are absol!ed, and recei!e the re ards of their good deeds, each of the$ according to his deserts% +ut those ho appear to be incurable by reason of the greatness of their cri$esFF ho ha!e co$$itted $any and terrible deeds of sacrilege, $urders foul and !iolent, or the li"eFFsuch are hurled into Tartarus hich is their suitable destiny, and they ne!er co$e out% Those again ho ha!e co$$itted cri$es, hich, although great, are not irre$ediableFF ho in a $o$ent of anger, for

exa$ple, ha!e done !iolence to a father or a $other, and ha!e repented for the re$ainder of their li!es, or, ho ha!e ta"en the life of another under the li"e extenuating circu$stancesFFthese are plunged into Tartarus, the pains of hich they are co$pelled to undergo for a year, but at the end of the year the a!e casts the$ forthFF$ere ho$icides by ay of Cocytus, parricides and $atricides by PyriphlegethonFFand they are borne to the =cherusian la"e, and there they lift up their !oices and call upon the !icti$s ho$ they ha!e slain or ronged, to ha!e pity on the$, and to be "ind to the$, and let the$ co$e out into the la"e% =nd if they pre!ail, then they co$e forth and cease fro$ their troublesM but if not, they are carried bac" again into Tartarus and fro$ thence into the ri!ers unceasingly, until they obtain $ercy fro$ those ho$ they ha!e rongedA for that is the sentence inflicted upon the$ by their judges% Those too ho ha!e been preFe$inent for holiness of life are released fro$ this earthly prison, and go to their pure ho$e hich is abo!e, and d ell in the purer earthM and of these, such as ha!e duly purified the$sel!es ith philosophy li!e henceforth altogether ithout the body, in $ansions fairer still hich $ay not be described, and of hich the ti$e ould fail $e to tell% &herefore, -i$$ias, seeing all these things, hat ought not e to do that e $ay obtain !irtue and isdo$ in this lifeS (air is the pri8e, and the hope great# = $an of sense ought not to say, nor ill / be !ery confident, that the description hich / ha!e gi!en of the soul and her $ansions is exactly true% +ut / do say that, inas$uch as the soul is sho n to be i$$ortal, he $ay !enture to thin", not i$properly or un orthily, that so$ething of the "ind is true% The !enture is a glorious one, and he ought to co$fort hi$self ith ords li"e these, hich is the reason hy / lengthen out the tale% &herefore, / say, let a $an be of good cheer about his soul, ho ha!ing cast a ay the pleasures and orna$ents of the body as alien to hi$ and or"ing har$ rather than good, has sought after the pleasures of "no ledgeM and has arrayed the soul, not in so$e foreign attire, but in her o n proper je els, te$perance, and justice, and courage, and nobility, and truthFFin these adorned she is ready to go on her journey to the orld belo , hen her hour co$es% Qou, -i$$ias and Cebes, and all other $en, ill depart at so$e ti$e or other% 1e already, as the tragic poet ould say, the !oice of fate calls% -oon / $ust drin" the poisonM and / thin" that / had better repair to the bath first, in order that the o$en $ay not

ha!e the trouble of ashing $y body after / a$ dead% &hen he had done spea"ing, Crito saidA =nd ha!e you any co$$ands for us, -ocratesFFanything to say about your children, or any other $atter in hich e can ser!e youS :othing particular, Crito, he repliedA only, as / ha!e al ays told you, ta"e care of yoursel!esM that is a ser!ice hich you $ay be e!er rendering to $e and $ine and to all of us, hether you pro$ise to do so or not% +ut if you ha!e no thought for yoursel!es, and care not to al" according to the rule hich / ha!e prescribed for you, not no for the first ti$e, ho e!er $uch you $ay profess or pro$ise at the $o$ent, it ill be of no a!ail% &e ill do our best, said CritoA =nd in hat ay shall e bury youS /n any ay that you li"eM but you $ust get hold of $e, and ta"e care that / do not run a ay fro$ you% Then he turned to us, and added ith a s$ileAFF/ cannot $a"e Crito belie!e that / a$ the sa$e -ocrates ho ha!e been tal"ing and conducting the argu$entM he fancies that / a$ the other -ocrates ho$ he ill soon see, a dead bodyFFand he as"s, ,o shall he bury $eS =nd though / ha!e spo"en $any ords in the endea!our to sho that hen / ha!e drun" the poison / shall lea!e you and go to the joys of the blessed,FF these ords of $ine, ith hich / as co$forting you and $yself, ha!e had, as / percei!e, no effect upon Crito% =nd therefore / ant you to be surety for $e to hi$ no , as at the trial he as surety to the judges for $eA but let the pro$ise be of another sortM for he as surety for $e to the judges that / ould re$ain, and you $ust be $y surety to hi$ that / shall not re$ain, but go a ay and departM and then he ill suffer less at $y death, and not be grie!ed hen he sees $y body being burned or buried% / ould not ha!e hi$ sorro at $y hard lot, or say at the burial, Thus e lay out -ocrates, or, Thus e follo hi$ to the gra!e or bury hi$M for false ords are not only e!il in the$sel!es, but they infect the soul ith e!il% +e of good cheer, then, $y dear Crito, and say that you are burying $y body only, and do ith that hate!er is usual, and hat you thin" best%

&hen he had spo"en these ords, he arose and ent into a cha$ber to batheM Crito follo ed hi$ and told us to ait% -o e re$ained behind, tal"ing and thin"ing of the subject of discourse, and also of the greatness of our sorro M he as li"e a father of ho$ e ere being berea!ed, and e ere about to pass the rest of our li!es as orphans% &hen he had ta"en the bath his children ere brought to hi$FFBhe had t o young sons and an elder oneCM and the o$en of his fa$ily also ca$e, and he tal"ed to the$ and ga!e the$ a fe directions in the presence of CritoM then he dis$issed the$ and returned to us% :o the hour of sunset as near, for a good deal of ti$e had passed hile he as ithin% &hen he ca$e out, he sat do n ith us again after his bath, but not $uch as said% -oon the jailer, ho as the ser!ant of the Ele!en, entered and stood by hi$, sayingAFFTo you, -ocrates, ho$ / "no to be the noblest and gentlest and best of all ho e!er ca$e to this place, / ill not i$pute the angry feelings of other $en, ho rage and s ear at $e, hen, in obedience to the authorities, / bid the$ drin" the poisonFFindeed, / a$ sure that you ill not be angry ith $eM for others, as you are a are, and not /, are to bla$e% =nd so fare you ell, and try to bear lightly hat $ust needs beFFyou "no $y errand% Then bursting into tears he turned a ay and ent out% -ocrates loo"ed at hi$ and saidA / return your good ishes, and ill do as you bid% Then turning to us, he said, ,o char$ing the $an isA since / ha!e been in prison he has al ays been co$ing to see $e, and at ti$es he ould tal" to $e, and as as good to $e as could be, and no see ho generously he sorro s on $y account% &e $ust do as he says, CritoM and therefore let the cup be brought, if the poison is preparedA if not, let the attendant prepare so$e% Qet, said Crito, the sun is still upon the hillFtops, and / "no that $any a one has ta"en the draught late, and after the announce$ent has been $ade to hi$, he has eaten and drun", and enjoyed the society of his belo!edM do not hurryFFthere is ti$e enough% -ocrates saidA Qes, Crito, and they of ho$ you spea" are right in so

acting, for they thin" that they ill be gainers by the delayM but / a$ right in not follo ing their exa$ple, for / do not thin" that / should gain anything by drin"ing the poison a little laterM / should only be ridiculous in $y o n eyes for sparing and sa!ing a life hich is already forfeit% Please then to do as / say, and not to refuse $e% Crito $ade a sign to the ser!ant, ho as standing byM and he ent out, and ha!ing been absent for so$e ti$e, returned ith the jailer carrying the cup of poison% -ocrates saidA Qou, $y good friend, ho are experienced in these $atters, shall gi!e $e directions ho / a$ to proceed% The $an ans eredA Qou ha!e only to al" about until your legs are hea!y, and then to lie do n, and the poison ill act% =t the sa$e ti$e he handed the cup to -ocrates, ho in the easiest and gentlest $anner, ithout the least fear or change of colour or feature, loo"ing at the $an ith all his eyes, Echecrates, as his $anner as, too" the cup and saidA &hat do you say about $a"ing a libation out of this cup to any godS 1ay /, or notS The $an ans eredA &e only prepare, -ocrates, just so $uch as e dee$ enough% / understand, he saidA but / $ay and $ust as" the gods to prosper $y journey fro$ this to the other orldFFe!en soFFand so be it according to $y prayer% Then raising the cup to his lips, Tuite readily and cheerfully he dran" off the poison% =nd hitherto $ost of us had been able to control our sorro M but no hen e sa hi$ drin"ing, and sa too that he had finished the draught, e could no longer forbear, and in spite of $yself $y o n tears ere flo ing fastM so that / co!ered $y face and ept, not for hi$, but at the thought of $y o n cala$ity in ha!ing to part fro$ such a friend% :or as / the firstM for Crito, hen he found hi$self unable to restrain his tears, had got up, and / follo edM and at that $o$ent, =pollodorus, ho had been eeping all the ti$e, bro"e out in a loud and passionate cry hich $ade co ards of us all% -ocrates alone retained his cal$nessA &hat is this strange outcryS he said% / sent a ay the o$en $ainly in order that they $ight not $isbeha!e in this ay, for / ha!e been told that a $an should die in peace% +e Tuiet, then, and ha!e patience% &hen e heard his ords e ere asha$ed, and refrained our tearsM and he al"ed about until, as he said, his legs began to fail, and then he lay on his bac", according to the directions, and the $an ho ga!e hi$ the poison no and then loo"ed at his feet and legsM and after a hile he pressed his foot hard, and as"ed hi$ if he could feelM and he said, :oM and then his leg, and so up ards and up ards, and sho ed us that he as cold and stiff% =nd he felt the$

hi$self, and saidA &hen the poison reaches the heart, that ill be the end% ,e as beginning to gro cold about the groin, hen he unco!ered his face, for he had co!ered hi$self up, and saidFFthey ere his last ordsFFhe saidA Crito, / o e a coc" to =sclepiusM ill you re$e$ber to pay the debtS The debt shall be paid, said CritoM is there anything elseS There as no ans er to this TuestionM but in a $inute or t o a $o!e$ent as heard, and the attendants unco!ered hi$M his eyes ere set, and Crito closed his eyes and $outh% -uch as the end, Echecrates, of our friendM concerning ho$ / $ay truly say, that of all the $en of his ti$e ho$ / ha!e "no n, he as the isest and justest and best%

End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of Phaedo, by Plato