BTEC Level 5 HND Diploma in Music (Production) Acoustics Assignment 1 Scott Probert HND 2 A 28/12/85 138951 07/12/12 The

objective of this assignment is to analyse the frequency content and harmonics of one note produced by a musical instrument. There is no specified instrument for this assignment although it must fall under the Sachs Hornbostel classification of either an aerophone or chordophone. To evaluate the frequency response of the fundamental frequency and its harmonics fairly, three sustained notes will be recorded at different pitches to gain an insight into how the instruments harmonics change relative to the fundamental frequency at different pitches. The analysis of the frequency content will be carried out using a frequency analyser such as the one found in Steinbergs Wavelab software that allows a detailed picture of the frequency content to be taken and examined in detail. The conclusion to the analysis will be written up in a report along with any supporting evidence and handed in via Moodle by 3pm on the 7th December 2012. For the purpose of this investigation three instruments will be chosen to compare the frequency content and see if there is a pattern to the harmonic content of the instruments. For the analysis to be fair, two of the instruments will be from the same classification of the Sachs Hornbostel system and one instrument will be an un-pitched instrument from a different classification to analyse if there is a pattern to its harmonic content as is expected with pitched instruments. For the experiment to remain un-biased microphone choice will be of upmost importance. The microphones chosen should be able to capture the sounds created by the instruments in terms of frequency and have as little influence on the frequency content as possible. For these reasons the first decision will be choosing what instruments to record. After referring to the Sachs Hornbostel classification system it was decided that the two instruments from the same classification would be the flute and the Bb clarinet. As they both fall under the same classification of an aerophone according to the Sachs Hornbostel classification system but are made from different material (the flute being metal based and the clarinet being wood), and produce a different range of frequencies. This should allow an adequate comparison to be made between the two instruments and also allow the candidate to see if the different structure of an instrument can have an effect on the frequency content and harmonics produced by an instrument. The third un-pitched instrument chosen was a snare drum as according to Jon Fox of the Singapore Symphony Orchestra the snare drum has an indefinite pitch (Fox. 2006). Also by choosing a snare drum, although being un-pitched, will allow the player to produce three different sounds using different playing techniques (basic hit, rim shot and a basic hit without its rattle attached). This should in theory produce three different tones and allow an insight into how its

frequency content changes through different playing techniques and allow analysis to take place to decipher if there is a connection between the harmonic content of a pitched and un-pitched instrument through Fourier analysis. Sachs Hornbostel. Created by Erich Moritz von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs the Sachs Hornbostel classification system was devised to categorise instruments into groups depending on how they produced sound. First published in Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie in 1914 the system was based around four main catergories of instruments, idiophones, membranophones, chordophones and aerophones. Idiophones are described as instruments that produce sound through its resonating body such as the cymbal, xylophone, marimba and glass harmonica. The sound created when any of these instruments are struck causes the instruments main body (the cymbal itself, the wooden bars of the marimba) to vibrate and disperse sound waves through the air. Membranophones are instruments that produce their primary sound through a tightly stretched membrane stretched over or between a body of material. This includes instruments like the snare drum, bass drum and kettledrum where the membrane is struck and the membrane vibrates causing the air around it to fluctuate and produce sound waves that travel through the air. Chordophones are catergorised as instruments that produce their sound by a vibrating string that has been stretched between two points. Instruments such as the violin, piano, harp and guitar fall into this category as when struck, (either by the finger in the case of the harp, or a wooden mallet in the case of the piano) the strings of the instrument vibrate the air around them to produce the sound waves heard by the listener. The category of aerophones includes instruments such as the flute, clarinet and recorder whose sounds are produced by a vibrating column of air that is usually forced through the instrument by the player, covering different air holes on the instrument can produce different notes and timbres. Although these are the four main groups that the Sachs Hornbostel system uses for instrument classification there are several subcategories for each group that allow the system to become a little more precise. Idiophones can be subcategorized into directly struck idiophones such as the cymbal and indirectly struck idiophones such as the ratchet or maracas. Membranophones can be subcategorised into friction membranophones like a drum that is rubbed to produce sound and singing membranophones like the kazoo. Chordophones can be split into categories such as the simple chordophone (piano), or composite chordophone (guitar). Aerophones also has its own subcategories such as the non-free aerophone like a flute or the reed aerophone like a clarinet that uses a reed to help the air vibrate through the instrument. The timbre of the sound produced by the instruments in the Sachs Hornbostel system can altered by the material that the instrument is made from and is the reason why some instruments are more expensive than others. The size of the instrument can also change its sound and frequency output like the difference in size between the toms on a drum kit and the size and shape of a bass clarinet and Bb clarinet. Although they fall under the same classification of directly struck

idiophones and reed aerophones the size, material and shape of the instrument allows the them to be used to produce different tones and frequencies. Bb Clarinet. The Bb clarinet is labeled as a soprano woodwind instrument that falls under the reed aerophone category of the Sachs Hornbostel classification system. The Bb clarinet is one part of the clarinet family that also includes the alto clarinet that is one fourth lower in pitch range than the Bb clarinet and the bass clarinet that is a whole octave below the Bb clarinet. According to the Vienna Symphonic Library the clarinet was introduced into the symphonic orchestra during the period of Vinesse classicism during the second half of the 18th century (Unknown. 2012). This made it one of the newest members of the woodwind instruments to be introduced into the orchestra and has quickly established itself as one of the most important instruments in the woodwind section. The clarinet generally produces quite a warm full sound when played however when played using different techniques it can also sound quite harsh and shrill compared to the more mellow sound it is known for, this makes it quite a versatile instrument that can fit in many musical outfits from an orchestra to a marching band and for its wide range of notes through variations of the instrument (bass clarinet, alto clarinet and contrabass clarinet) it has been known that there are many clarinet only (Unknown. 2012) orchestras based in the USA (United States of America).

Most clarinets available are constructed from hardwoods such as the mpingo African Blackwood or the Honduran rosewood native to their namesakes and are fitted with keyholes made from metal that are usually nickel-plated.

Flute. The word flute comes from the Latin word flare which means to flow (Miller. 2002). This is a simple explanation as to how the instrument produces its sound. The player provides the source power for the instrument through blowing into the lip plate which forces air through the column of the instrument and out of the finger holes. This, depending on which finger holes are open causes air to vibrate the air around the instrument at a certain frequency creating the pitch of the note heard by the listener. The flute falls into the aerophone category of the Sachs Hornbostel classification system and belongs to the woodwind section of an orchestra, although only the piccolo flute is actually constructed from wood while the more common concert flute is made from a mixture of silver and nickel. The reason for it belonging in the woodwind section of an orchestra is mainly due to the fact that its an aerophone and has a light and airy sound similar to other instruments in the woodwind section. Often an airy breath can be heard from the instrument especially in soft passages that is provided by the player providing the source power that drives the instruments sound. This makes it easier to record an orchestra and not be overpowered by the other sections. The flute is split into three main sections, the head joint, middle joint (body) and the foot joint. All three sections of a concert flute are constructed from this silver nickel mixture and being made from this material can leave the instrument susceptible to the elements such as heat and humidity. High temperatures and humidity can make the instrument and keys swell and will change the timbre of the instrument and in some cases can even affect the pitch. Being so temperamental makes the instrument harder to control in certain conditions and requires special attention from the player to control the sound of the instrument to avoid any unwanted errors in pitch and consistency. The keys on the flute are made from the same material and are used to cover the air holes to allow the player and instrument to produce notes of different pitches. Another main component of the flute is the lip plate rested on an embouchure that the player blows into to provide the source power for the instrument.

Originating in the Stone Age and regarded as the first ever woodwind instrument (Unknown. 2012), the flute has over gone many changes over the years. Originally used by the Sumerians who used bamboo flutes with only four holes gave it a very limited range. However years of evolution means that todays flute has a range of D4-D6 on the modern western scale making the flute a versatile instrument that is capable of producing different fluctuating tones (depending on the players experience of course). The flute usually has quite a soft attack and decays to a sustained level depending on the source power provided by the player. It also has quite a quick but soft release as the flute isnt very long in length, as soon as the source power has ceased it doesnt take long for the air to empty out of the instrument that produces the sound waves. However the attack of the sound produced by the flute can become quicker by elevating the embouchure to become what is known as a reform embouchure. This along with different playing techniques allows the instrument to be played with different styles such as legato, staccato and the commonly known flutter style associated with the flute. Vibrato can be added to the sound by movement of the players lips or small movements of the instrument, while the flutter technique is produced by special tonguing techniques. Snare Drum. The snare drum, sometimes referred to as the side drum, which comes from its use in the military where the drum was held at the side of the player by a strap, is the smallest drum in a modern drum kit. However military snares are usually larger from having a thicker casing than the more common snare drums found in most musical genres. It falls into the category of a directly struck membranaphone in the Sachs Hornbostel classification system because of the way in which its sound is produced. The snare drum is a staple in most musical genres from jazz music to dance music and along with the bass drum usually keeps the timing of a musical piece to a predetermined tempo. The snare drum can also be found in the percussion section of most symphony orchestras and is described by the Vienna Symphonic Library as having no definitive pitch (Unknown. 2012). However even though it has no definitive pitch and is known for producing a sound that occupies the treble (higher) range of the frequency spectrum, it can be tuned to produce a different sound that changes its presence in the frequency spectrum and allows the instrument to fit more suitable with other instruments in musical pieces. Formed in the middle ages and referred to as a frame drum (perhaps as a description of its construction), it was later given the Latin name tympanum and why it is associated with the timpani section of an orchestra. Constructed mainly of wood or metal with only plastic being used in the construction of cheaper models, the timbre of the instrument can be affected by the type of wood or metal used as its resonating body. The snare drum often has a sharp abrasive sound and gets its distinctive sound from the wire rattle

otherwise known as the snare that is attached to the underside of the drum and vibrates against the bottom skin of the drum when struck. The skin of the instrument is the part that is directly struck and is usually made from calfskin or plastic and struck with a wooden stick, wire brush or timpani stick. Usually the snare drum is known for its sharp attack and fairly long release that can be shortened by tightening the wire rattle and using different playing techniques.

The character of the sound can be changed by using playing techniques like the stroke, often used when playing with a wire brush. A rim-shot is used to reduce the amount of snare rattle and produce a sharper attack with a shorter release and is achieved by striking the edge of the metal frame that holds the construction of the snare drum together. Another popular technique used when playing the snare drum is the grace note that involves a softer strike of the drum before the main strike that adds movement and rhythm to a drum pattern. These different playing techniques and construction materials allow the snare drum to become more versatile when used in different styles of music and why modern snare drums can range from 50 - 5000 to buy and why many people consider it to be the most important percussion instrument available. Constructing a fair test. The next task was to decide which microphones to use to record the three instruments. As the test would need to be kept as neutral as possible, the same three microphones should be used to record all three instruments while catering to the characteristics of the instruments frequencies. The first microphone chosen was the Studio Projects C3 condenser microphone as it has a frequency response of 30Hz-20,000Hz which was more than adequate to capture the subtle vibrations produced by sound waves travelling through the finger holes of the clarinet and the flute while also being able to handle the higher SPLs (sound pressure levels) produced by striking the snare drum. The next microphone chosen was the Sennheiser E604 dynamic microphone. Having a frequency response of 40Hz-18,00Hz would allow the sound produced through the clarinets bell to be captured while also being able to capture the lower frequencies produced by a flute for comparison and again will be able to handle the high SPLs produced by the snare drum.

The last microphone chosen was the Behringer ECM8000 condenser microphone which according to the manufacturers website has a flat frequency response from 15Hz to 20kHz (Unknown. 2011). This would be a perfect microphone for comparing the three instruments harmonic content as it shouldnt enhance any frequencies produced by the instruments and form a solid base for Fourier analysis. However from looking at the frequency response chart provided on the box of the microphone, several small peaks of up to 3dB can be seen at around 80-100Hz, 450Hz, 1500Hz, 4kHz, 10kHz and 18-20kHz. This will have to be taken into account when using Fourier analysis to analyse the frequency content of the instruments but shouldnt cause too much trouble as the same effects that the microphone has on the frequency content will be placed on all three instruments and will still allow an adequate comparison to be made. Although the three microphones chosen may not be the ideal choice for the recording each instrument, using these three microphones will produce a much fairer experiment and allow the conclusions made from the Fourier analysis to represent a fair experiment unbiased to any one instrument. If recording these instruments in a normal recording environment for musical reproduction and general distribution, different microphones would be used to allow a more musical recording to be made and possibly even enhance the frequencies produced to produce a recording that is more pleasing to the ears. A closely placed Shure SM57 dynamic microphone would probably be used to record the snare drum while a large diaphragm condenser microphone such as an AKG C414 XLS placed around one foot away from the finger holes could be used to mic the clarinet and the flute (separately) in order to capture a more aesthetically pleasing sound for listening. However this experiment is based on recording three sustained notes at three different pitches and analyzing their frequency content so a nice sounding musical recording is not necessary. Instead a fair equal recording of the three instruments is the key to a fair analysis, and by using the same three microphones placed at the same distance away from the sound source at the same angle will result in a fair experiment with more accurate results. Fourier analysis. French mathematician and physicist Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier determined that any periodic motion, no matter how complex, could be broken down into its harmonic components (Reid. 1999). This procedure was given the name Fourier analysis and allowed people to understand that no matter how complex a waveform, it is always made up of simply sine waves, known as partials, each of different pitches, phase and amplitudes. Of course different pitches equal different frequencies, and different frequencies complete one full wave cycle over a different time period. For example, here is a picture of two different pitched sine waves, and for the purpose of this example imagine that the two waves have an x axis representing time, and the x axis for both sine waves represents the same amount of time.

So from the example we can determine that the second wave completes more full cycles in the same amount of time as the first wave, and knowing that the faster the cycles the higher the pitch (and frequency) we now know that adding the two sine waves together would alter the resulting wave producing a more complex waveform as they are affecting each other. As the two waves are completing their cycles at different times, we can see that the peaks and troughs of the waves will not line up, so the waveform produced will not be a simple case of additive synthesis where the pitch of the wave form would stay the same but the amplitude would simply double increasing its perceived loudness. Instead the two differently pitched sine waves would affect each other when played simultaneously and would create a much more complex waveform. Having different amplitudes would also affect the waveform and represent a closer relationship to how real instruments produce their sound and timbre and would appear to look like this:

As can be seen from the image above, the constructed waveform appears to be a lot more complex than simply adding two sine waves with the same pitch together. The key to these complex waveforms is time. The time in which the added waveforms perform their cycles relate to the pitch of the sound waves and by adding them together the sound produced is not simply the two pitches of the two waves but is a complex wave of various pitches and this where the harmonics of a waveform are produced. These are what are known as Fourier series coefficients. So as you can see from the image above you can see that a complex noise such as the sound of an exhaust (which the image represents), when analysed using the algorithm fast Fourier transform (FFT) can be broken down into its components which show a complex repeating waveform over small increments

of time usually shown in milliseconds. Although most tuned instruments like flutes and clarinets produce these repeating waveforms that form the periodic tones that we recognise, some un-pitched instruments such as cymbals and drums produce non periodic tones or noises that dont conform to the Fourier theory of repeating waveforms. Real sounds also arent perfect sinewaves, and any distortion of a sinewave results in the production of a harmonic series (Corben. 2011). The harmonic series of a sound are known as the sounds harmonics and have a direct relationship to the sounds fundamental frequency (the lowest frequency of a sound). According to the world of physics the additional harmonics of a sound are exact multiples of the first harmonic (the fundamental frequency). So if the fundamental frequency were 1Hz the frequency of the second harmonic would be 2Hz, the third harmonic would be 3Hz, the fourth 4Hz, and so on (Unknown. 2012). So from this theory it should be relatively easy to find the harmonic series of a musical note, so long as we can determine the fundamental frequency. However as musical instruments have many factors that affect their sound production, like construction material, shape, humidity, temperature and source power (fingering, tonguing, plucking techniques and even how hard you blow) when providing the power source for an instruments sound production, the overall harmonics of a sound can vary and not collate to the theory behind the mathematical equation for a harmonic series. According to the University of New South Wales in Sydney Australia the seventh and eleventh harmonics of a stringed instrument actually fall halfway between notes on the equal tempered scale (Wolfe. 2005). This means that the frequency of these harmonics dont correspond with the frequency of any notes on the modern western musical scale. Instead these two harmonic frequencies fall in between two notes on the modern western scale and so we have no actual way of communicating the pitch of these frequencies in terms of a musical scale and no way of producing these notes frequencies by themselves on a traditional instrument. They could be created in the digital world using a sine wave generator and maybe a parametric EQ (equaliser), but these harmonics do not represent a musical pitch that we recognise as a musical interval. This makes an instruments harmonic content even more complex and is what gives an instrument its own individual sound, as if each different instrument had the same harmonic series for each note than each instrument would sound the same. So for this reason fast Fourier transform will be used to analyse the frequency content and harmonic series of the three instruments used for this assignment. This will be achieved by using the FFT analyser provided in Steinbergs Wavelab software and will allow an insight into whether the harmonic series of a real instrument does stick to the theory that each harmonic will be a multiple of the fundamental, or whether the results will show that there is no relationship between the theory and fact. Along with this, analysis will also show if there is a connection between the different instruments and their harmonic series. The FFT analyser provided with Steinbergs Wavelab software provides a snapshot of a sounds frequency content at any given time during a sound wave. It also features a camera button that allows the user to take a screenshot of the frequency analysis provided by the FFT analyser. While the imported sound

wave is shown as a whole wave by its length and how long the sound wave lasts over time in a linear manner. The FFT analyser simply provides a snapshot of the sound waves frequency content at any given point in time during the sound waves linear movement. This will need to be taken into account when analyzing the sound waves of the chosen instruments as in order to perform an accurate analysis of the frequency content of the sound a snapshot will need to be taken during the sounds repeating waveform during the sounds sustain period rather than during the instruments attack, decay or release stages where the sound, and its frequency content may be affected by the power source of the instrument (the player). The peaks in the frequency analysis will be examined using the FFT analyser that also gives the user the actual frequency that the peak is present in. This is achieved by simply holding the cursor of the mouse over the peak of the frequency snapshot. This process will be continued for the first seven harmonics provided by the FFT snapshot and will be determined by the size of the peak as the frequency spectrum is discrete, and only defined at the harmonic frequencies (Smith. 2011). This means that although there will be small peaks and troughs in-between the main harmonic frequency peaks, that the frequencies between the harmonics can be thought of as having a value of zero, or simply not existing (Smith. 2011). This applies only when analysing the harmonics of a sound as these extra frequencies obviously contribute to the overall sound and timbre of the instrument. So although they may not be very important when analyzing the harmonic content of a sound, they are still integral to an instruments sound production. Analysing the sounds. A table showing the frequency of each note in the modern western scale will be used as a reference for the FFT analysis of the chosen three instruments and can be found here http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~suits/notefreqs.html provided by the Michigan technology website. The first instrument that will be analysed using the FFT analyser will be the Flute playing a C note. This first FFT snapshot is from the repeating wave of the flute recorded using the Studio Projects C3 condenser microphone.

FFT snapshot of the note C played on a flute and recorded using a Studio Projects C3 microphone.

As can be seen from the screenshot of the snapshot of the FFT analyser there are many frequencies present in the frequency content of a repeating waveform of one note produced by the flute. For the purpose of this assignment the frequencies of the first seven harmonics will be written into a table similar the table used as a reference from the Michigan technology website. This will allow a direct comparison to the harmonics found in the FFT analysis to the frequencies of the notes provided by the Michigan technology website to be made and assessed to analyse any anomalies found in the theory of the instruments harmonic content. However as found out earlier, although all sound waves can be deconstructed using Fourier analysis to be seen to be made up of simple sine waves, real instruments consist of more complex waveforms and may not produce harmonics that can be compared to notes found in the modern western scale. For this reason the musical note that is represented by the harmonics will be taken by finding the closest frequency of the note represented by the modern western scale found in the table provided by the Michigan technology website.

FFT snapshot of a C note played on a flute and recorded using a Behringer ECM8000 microphone.

Flute playing the note C. Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 256.1 516.0 796.7 1054.3 1337.9 1594.0 1846.6 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. C4 C5 G5 C6 E6 G6 Bb6 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 261.63 523.25 783.99 1046.50 1318.51 1567.98 1864.66

Recording the same sound source with three different microphones was a way of constructing a fair test and allowed analysis of how different microphones could affect the results found. However as can be seen from the screenshots of the different microphones used, it is clear to see that although the microphones can affect the overall sound of the instrument by attenuating and boosting certain parts of the frequency spectrum. It is obvious that the choice of microphones doesnt affect the fundamental frequencies, except for maybe a slight gain or reduction in amplitude. So for this reason for the rest of this investigation the only microphone that will be used for analysis will be the Behringer ECM8000 condenser microphone as this seems to have the smallest effect on the overall frequency spectrum of all the microphones used. Flute playing the note D. Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 602.0 1204.0 1808.2 2409.8 2994.3 3617.8 4191.2 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. D5 D6 A6 D7 Gb7 A7 C8 Flute playing the note G. Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 387.2 796.7 1196.0 1594.0 1980.6 2376.3 2772.3 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. G4 G5 D6 G6 B6 D7 F7 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 392.00 783.99 1174.66 1567.98 1975.53 2349.32 2793.83 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 587.33 1174.66 1760.00 2349.32 2959.96 3520.00 4186.01

After comparing the three tables showing the results for the flute instrument and using the modern western musical scale to determine the difference between the harmonics, it is clear to see that there is a very solid pattern shared for all three notes played.

Analysing the difference between the harmonic series sequentially, the findings share the same difference between the different fundamentals all the way up to the sixth fundamental. However the seventh fundamental for each note does not share the same pattern and seems at this point to be completely random. The table below shows the pattern that occurs between each notes fundamental frequencies (with exception to the seventh) and will allow further analysis into why or how these patterns occur. Table showing the musical difference between the fundamental frequencies. Fundamental. C note. C4 C5 G5 C6 E6 G6 Bb6 Difference from previous note. 1 octave 3 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 tone 1 semitone 1 tone 1 semitone D note. D5 D6 A6 D7 Gb7 A7 C8 Difference from previous note. 1 octave 3 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 tone 1 semitone 3 tones G note. G4 G5 D6 G6 B6 D7 F7 Difference from previous note. 1 octave 3 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 tone 1 semitone 1 tone 1 semitone

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

As can be seen from the table above, the first six fundamentals of the three notes played on the flute share the same difference in musical tone. This could attribute to the timbre of a note played by the instrument and may explain why the note sounds pleasing to the listener. It doesnt have any fundamental frequencies that fall in between notes from the modern western scale, and that means that they are notes that are recognisable to the modern western listener. It could be said that when producing a single note from an instrument the fact that there are other frequencies present at the same time that represent other notes from the modern western musical scale, that this is a fault and that the only frequency that should be present when playing one note is that notes frequency. However as 1st fundamental frequency is the most prominent frequency with the highest amplitude, the other fundamentals simply provide harmony for the note and as their amplitudes are lower it isnt the same as just playing several notes together. Even using synthesis and layering several sine waves together at these fundamental frequencies wouldnt produce the same sound as when the note is played by a flute. Obviously by changing the amplitude of each sine wave to replicate the fundamentals of the flute note may produce a closer emulation of a flute but other factors such as the instruments construction, playing techniques and the subtle frequency content found between the fundamental frequencies all contribute to the sound and timbre of the instrument making the instrument sound unique and providing it with its place in the musical world.

Bb clarinet playing the note C. Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 257.9 516.0 796.7 1054.3 1310.0 1571.8 1846.6 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. C4 C5 G5 C6 E6 G6 Bb6 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 261.63 523.25 783.99 1046.50 1318.51 1567.98 1864.66

Bb clarinet playing the note D. Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 523.3 1061.7 1594.0 2094.8 2639.6 3166.9 3720.6 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. C5 C6 G6 C7 E7 G7 Bb7 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 523.25 1046.50 1567.98 2093.00 2637.02 3135.96 3729.31

Bb clarinet playing the note G. Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 346.1 712.2 1054.3 1424.9 1783.0 2139.2 2478.3 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. F4 F5 C6 F6 A6 C7 Eb7 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 349.23 698.46 1046.50 1396.91 1760.00 2093.00 2489.02

As can be seen from the tables above the clarinet notes were not as would be expected after analysing the results from the flute. After some research into why this may have happened it appears that the Bb clarinet has a different transposition for its notes when using the modern western music scale. The Bb clarinet is in the key of B flat. If you play the pitch C on your clarinet, it will register as a B flat on your tuner (Coughlin. 2009). For this reason all the notes written for a clarinet are actually a whole tone lower than what is actually written. This means that C note analysed was actually the note of D on the clarinet, the D note analysed had the fundamental frequency of a C note and the G note played by the clarinet actually had the frequency of a F note. This actually jeopardises the fairness of the test as the fundamental frequencies of the notes will not have the same frequencies and will therefore not allow a comparison between the patterns produced within the harmonic series. Fundamental. C note. C4 C5 G5 C6 E6 G6 Bb6 Difference from previous note. 1 octave 3 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 tone 1 semitone 1 tone 1 semitone D note. C5 C6 G6 C7 E7 G7 Bb7 Difference from previous note. 1 octave 3 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 tone 1 semitone 3 tones G note. F4 F5 C6 F6 A6 C7 Eb7 Difference from previous note. 1 octave 3 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 semitone 2 tones 1 tone 1 semitone 1 tone 1 semitone

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

After analysing the fundamental frequencies and the patterns between the frequencies when represented by their individual musical notes, it is clear that although the instruments are playing different notes in terms of pitch, they have the same patterns in terms of difference between their fundamental frequencies. This means that even though the test wasnt as fair as was initially intended, the fact that different notes of different pitches also show a pattern in the harmonic series that it actually further solidifies the results found when analysing the flute and its fundamental frequencies. However unlike the flute there also seems to be a pattern when reaching the seventh fundamental, in that they all have a difference of 1 tone and 1 semitone from the previous note. But, as the test is flawed due to the transposition of the Bb clarinet which caused the two first notes to be the same note (C) only an octave different. The fact that the seventh fundamentals of each note are the same can only seen as coincidence and not taken as a given due to other notes seventh fundamentals not being tested and could be different. We can say however that the clarinets fundamental frequencies contain the same fundamentals as the flutes when a C note is played.

FFT snapshot of a C note played on a Bb clarinet recorded with the Behringer ECM8000 microphone.

This shows a pattern between the two instruments when playing the same note however as can be seen from the FFT snapshot the frequency content in between the fundamentals have slight differences and the amplitudes of the fundamentals themselves are also different. This is an expected result as from earlier research performed explained that if the frequency content of both instruments playing the same note were exactly the same then both would sound exactly the same, but due to their different construction and playing methods they both produce different timbres unique to the individual instrument. Snare drum (standard hit). Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 128.0 194.9 371.2 474.4 712.2 842.6 998.0 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. C3 G3 Gb4 Bb4 F5 Ab5 B5 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 130.81 196.00 369.99 466.16 698.46 830.61 987.77

Snare drum (rim shot). Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 128.0 194.9 282.5 366.1 516.0 602.0 687.7 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. C3 G3 Db4 Gb4 C5 D5 F5 Snare drum (held snare). Fundamental frequencies (Harmonics) in Hz. 193.5 300.9 363.5 451.7 593.6 682.9 774.6 Musical note represented by the frequency found using the modern western scale. G3 D4 Gb4 A4 D5 F5 G5 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 196.00 293.66 369.99 440.00 587.33 698.46 783.99 Actual frequency of the note using the table found on the Michigan technology website. 130.81 196.00 277.18 369.99 523.25 587.33 698.46

From looking at the tables above of the different playing techniques of a snare drum it is clear that the patterns found in in the harmonic content of the flute and the Bb clarinet do not apply with the harmonic series found with the snare drum. This could be due to the snare drum not being a pitched instrument, but further analysis will need to be performed to obtain a more comprehensive conclusion for the harmonic series of the snare drum.

Fundamental.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

Snare Difference Snare Difference Snare Difference drum from drum from drum from (Standard previous (Rim previous (Held previous hit). note. shot). note. snare). note. C3 C3 G3 G3 3 tones 1 G3 3 tones 1 D4 3 tones 1 semitone semitone semitone Gb4 5 tones 1 Db4 3 tones Gb4 2 tones semitone Bb4 2 tones Gb4 2 tones 1 A4 1 tones 1 semitone semitone F5 3 tones 1 C5 3 tones D5 2 tones 1 semitone semitone Ab5 1 tone 1 D5 1 tone F5 1 tone 1 semitone semitone B5 1 tone 1 F5 1 tone 1 G5 1 tone semitone semitone

From analysing the results found in the table above it is clear to see that the patterns of the fundamentals in the harmonic series of the different playing techniques of the snare drum dont follow the same pattern as the flute and the Bb clarinet. In fact the only pattern that appears between the three different playing techniques of the snare drum are between the first and second fundamentals and show that they are all 1 tone and 1 semitone apart. The rest of the fundamentals show no pattern when compared to the other instruments or the different playing techniques used when striking the drum. This could simply be because the snare drum is known as having no definitive pitch (Unknown. 2012). This means that although snare drums can be tuned by changing the tension of the skin of the snare, it does not produce a definitive note that can be found using the modern western music scale.

FFT snapshot of a snare drum being struck (standard hit) and recorded using a Behringer ECM8000 microphone.

From looking at the FFT snapshot of the snare drum it is clear why the results turned out the way that they did. The fundamentals of the snare drum are clearly not as prominent as they are with the flute and the Bb clarinet and it is hard to distinguish the difference between the fundamentals and the rest of the

frequency content. This means that this could be the cause of the snare drum appearing to sound more like a burst of noise rather than a note of definitive pitch with a musical harmonic series, as was the case with the flute and the Bb clarinet. However as can be seen from the FFT snapshot there is still fundamental frequencies especially the first, there is no frequency content lower than the first fundamental which means that although it doesnt follow the pattern of pitched instrument in terms of harmonics, there is still some form of pitch in terms of a fundamental frequency. This is due to the tension of the skin and the resonating chamber (body) of the instrument and means that by changing the body of the instrument and the tension of the skin that a different fundamental frequency can be produced. This is why there are so many different snare drums available to consumers and why different snare drums appear to work better with different types of music. Obviously it is up to the player to decide which snare drum to buy but it actually has the advantage being able to work with other instruments in a way that pitched instruments cannot. A snare drum can be played with any pitched instrument playing any note in the modern western scale and due to the fact that it has no definitive harmonic series, it can gel with them without having to play in the same key as its accompanying instruments. Evaluation. Although from analysing the results of the investigation it has been determined that there is a pattern in the fundamental frequencies of different instruments and that they produce a musically pleasing sound for the listener. The experiment shows from the experiment with the snare drum that this pattern doesnt apply to all instruments found in the Sachs Hornbostel classification system. Also as only three notes were chosen for analysis and two of the Bb clarinet notes were transposed differently, it cannot be said definitively that the same pattern would occur in all the different pitched instruments found in the Sachs Hornbostel classification system. Nor can it be determined that the same pattern would apply to all the different notes in the modern western music scale as only three were tested. So to get a more precise understanding of the harmonic series of instruments, more instruments would need to be analysed as well as more notes and more un-pitched instruments. The experiment was also flawed in other ways as the microphone used for analysis was the Behringer ECM8000 condenser microphone, and although the microphone is described by Behringer as having a ruler-flat frequency response (Behringer. 2011), it is clear to see from the frequency response diagram provided by Behringer that the microphone does have small peaks and troughs in certain areas of the frequency spectrum.

Frequency response chart for the Behringer ECM800 condenser microphone.

This, although it should only affect the amplitude of the frequencies, proves that the microphone is not actually a flat frequency microphone as described by Behringer. Not only was the experiment flawed by the limited testing of the instruments and influential microphone, it was also flawed by the FFT analysis software not being as accurate as it could be. With a larger screen for analysis and a more detailed image of the frequency content, a more accurate analysis could be performed. This, along with the different materials and construction techniques used when creating instruments could affect the results and produce a different outcome. As it has been found from the research conducted that the quality of the material used can affect the instruments timbre and is what affects their pricing, it can only be assumed that this could also have affected the results found. Perhaps if a higher quality flute or clarinet was used than the fundamental frequencies found would not have fallen between the pitches frequencies on a note that doesnt correspond with a pitched note found in the modern western scale. However despite these flaws the fundamental frequencies found in the instruments notes all fell very close to the frequencies of notes found in the modern western scale and allowed comparisons to be made as fairly as possible. The difference in the frequencies of the fundamentals were so close to the frequencies of notes found in the modern western scale that the difference would only be detected by FFT analysis and they would be extremely difficult to detect by even the most distinguished music listener. So we can conclude that the patterns found in the fundamentals are close enough to use as evidence for a harmonic series and that the results show a very musical pattern that may explain why pitched instruments sound pleasing to listeners. As the results show that all the fundamentals of a single note contain frequencies that correspond with the major triad of the fundamental frequency (for the chord of C the notes used are C, E and G), it is easy to see why the notes of a pitched instrument work well with other instruments and are capable of

producing a very musically rich and pleasing melody. This is proven with all the instruments and notes used, except the un-pitched snare drum. The major triad of a D chord is D, Gb and A and the major triad of a G chord contain the notes G, B and D. This shows a very musical connection between the frequency content of a single note and the notes used in a major chord scale and from this we can predict that the fundamental frequencies of other notes that were not tested would follow the same pattern. So an E note played on a pitched instrument should contain fundamental frequencies that correspond to the notes E, Ab and B and an A note should contain frequencies that correspond to the notes A, Db and E. This would obviously need to be tested and confirmed with another experiment and would allow the flaws from this experiment to be reassessed and catered for to create more accurate results that could be used in academic studies. Bibliography. Behringer. (2011). Measurement Condenser Microphone ECM8000: Overview. Available: http://www.behringer.com/En/Products/ECM8000.aspx. Last accessed 4th December 2012. Coughlin, K. (2009). Understanding Clarinet Transposition. Available: http://clarinet-space.skyleapmusic.com/understanding-clarinettransposition.html. Last accessed 4th December 2012. Corben, C. (2011). Harmonics, Bats And Anabat. Available: http://users.lmi.net/corben/hrmncs.htm. Last accessed 28th November 2012. Fox, J. (2006). Sound Production. Available: http://www.sso.org.sg/outreach/per_soundproduction.html. Last accessed 17th October 2012. Miller, C. (2002). Mostly Wind. Available: http://www.mostlywind.co.uk/howmade.html. Last accessed 05th November 2012. Reid, G. (1999). Synth Secrets, Part 1: Whats In A Sound? Available: http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/may99/articles/synthsec.htm. Last accessed 28th November 2012. Smith, S. W. (2011). Continuous Signal Processing: The Fourier Series. Available: http://www.dspguide.com/ch13/4.htm. Last accessed 30th November 2012. Unknown. (2011). Measurement Condenser Microphone ECM800-Overview. Available: http://www.behringer.com/EN/Products/ECM8000.aspx. Last accessed 17th October 2012. Unknown. (2012). Bb Clarinet Brief Description. Available: http://www.vsl.co.at/en/70/3161/3173/3175/5576.vsl. Last accessed 5th October 2012.

Unknown. (2012). Concert Flute Brief History. Available: http://www.vsl.co.at/en/70/3161/3162/3164/5544.vsl. Last accessed 6th November 2012. Unknown. (2012). Snare Drum Sound Production. Available: http://www.vsl.co.at/en/70/3196/3211/3212/5787.vsl. Last accessed 6th November 2012. Unknown. (2012). The Physics Hypertextbook: Standing Waves. Available: http://physics.info/waves-standing/. Last accessed 28th November 2012. Wolfe, J. (2005). Strings, standing waves and harmonics. Available: http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/strings.html. Last accessed 28th November 2012.