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icrofilms,
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The Meaning
of
EDUCATION
-*!
ADULT
\W
v*J
by Eduard C.
Lindeman
Author
of:
The Community,
Social Discovery
NEW
NEW YORK
REPUBLIC, INC
1926
llCiSl
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nard Keynes.
May-
NEW
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..
m*^
;.
Copyright, 1926, by
NEW
REPUBLIC, INC
Printed in the
USA.
AW
CONTENTS
. .
Foreword
I
xiii
For Those
ers
Who
Need to Be Learn3
II
Faith in In17
III
With
31
IV In View of
pression
Need for
Sblf-bx-
47
.
V
VI
VII
VIII
Who Require Freedom For Those Who Would Create To Those Who Appreciate
For Those
.
65
83
97
To an Age
prise
of Specialism
.117
145
IX As Dynamic
In Terms of Method
Postscript
....
169 199
References Index
207
217
[ix]
FOREWORD
FOREWORD
"Each of us," wrote Anatole
France, "must
even be allowed to possess two or three philosophies at the same time," for the purpose, I
No
made
One
cannot, that
if
is,
make
use
But
it is
pre-
[xui]
FOREWORD
cisely because I
all
learning
just as creation
comes everywhere
The
My
one
after I
in various
could, of course,
least, the
Amerbut
it
was not
my
natural
medium of communication.
My
my
existence.
The
desire
somehow
to free education
from
stifling ritual,
FOREWORD
born in those frantic hours spent over books
my mind.
had
my way
in the
had participated in
strikes,
my
experi-
Out of
this confusion
worse confounded
it)
of the people
who do
the
work of the
world.
Later
came
people
who perform
productive
tasks
were
threads
my
dislo-
[xv]
FOREWORD
cated youth.
Here
came
civilization which,
Whereas the
vic-
torious
nations
territory,
scientific
how much
was within
of Schleswig-
Denmark. All of
it
Germany was
test
merely what
scientific research
could validate.
And
purposes of making
life
more
interesting; these
dairies,
creameries,
[xvi]
FOREWORD
cheese-factories,
egg-shipping
associations,
cetera
enterprises
which performed
so
many economic
Here,
it
which included
many
both
Danish
life
collective
economic organiza-
and
recreation,
finds
one
an
people in the
modern world.
FOREWORD
mark's material and spiritual impotence, Danish
adults have striven to close "the
yawning abyss
between
life
and enlightenment."
force
'What
the
from without,
we must
said
regain
and forthwith
illiteracy to literacy;
life's values.
for us?
Our
parison:
we
and
in
population;
ture;
we
possess
no homogeneous
cul-
In addition,
we have become
habituated to a
is
in essence anresults
We
measure
[xviii]
FOREWORD
quantitatively.
We
in
cation
movement
advertising psychologists
and super-salesmen
could "put
ation.
it
"put."
The
education
lies
we may
its
"Americanize"
meaning.
I
before
we understand
The
topic
is,
We shall
discover our
My
treat-
is
Walt Whitman,
"let
myself go free."
this essay
The
has
FOREWORD
short, that
is,
for one
who
is
accustomed to aim
It goes forth,
at accuracy of statement.
not
to those
"Greystone"
High Bridge,
New
Jersey.
August, 1926.
"We
We
seri-
add to
our purpose."
A.
"The
principle
E.
ZlMMERN.
we wish
to
establish
is
is
that the
an increased
demand on
tional
facilities,
vocational,
since
are
concerned
really
with
restoring balance
man who
of his
has, of
necessity,
his. charac-
livelihood
or
for
Albert Mansbridoe.
within a vicious
Youth educated
begins will
make no
who
too
fit
into the
succumb
indeed,
time.
circle be-
leads to a satis-
fying end.
in
But
there can be
no genuine joy
painful.
the end if
means are
[3]
irritating,
ADULT EDUCATION
Generally
therefore
those
promptly turn
tion.
lurks in the
For him,
affliction
dull, uninteresting,
degrading capitulations to
of his "set."
Within
world of
still
intelligence, or
what
is
worse, he will
colseri-
THOSE
WHO NEED
TO BE LEARNERS
will, in
"highbrows"; he
the
bag of education
the
game of
learning
cannot
break
if
the
circle.
Once the
tion
belief
only educa-
were free to
would become
affairs
managing the
of the
world.
We
made
But the
The
spirit
and meaning
by
addition,
more individuals.
fied,
If learning
is
to be revivi-
adventure,
we
shall
ADULT EDUCATION
new
motives,
new methods; we
shall need to
fresh hope
is astir.
From many
quarters
comes the
its initial
call to
life
an unknown
all static
Consequently
concepts of education which relegate the learning process to the period of youth are aban-
doned.
The whole of
no endings.
This new
venture
it is
is
not because
concept
is
maturity, defines
clusive.
The
in-
The
fact that
Britain
ducted the
experiments which
now
inis
THOSE
WHO NEED
TO BE LEARNERS
much
graduate for
it is
he
who makes
the most
coterminous with
tional ideals.
life
in
the
meaning of
his labor,
it
will be education of
a high order.
ac-
purpose
is
to put
meaning
whole of
life.
perform essential
whom
all
knowledge
is
merely
[7]
ADULT EDUCATION
decorative or conversational.
The
possibilities
itself
grow
workers
If the
machines.
good
to
come
to these,
total
more of the
called forth
by machines
learn to
make
in reverse orstart-
In conven-
required to ad-
is
built around
and
interests.
Every adult
[8]
THOSE
WHO NEED
TO BE LEARNERS
situations
which
Adult education
is
Subject-matter
brought
way
(Indeed, as
we
The
situation-
not abstractions.
If education
is life,
then
life is also
edu-
ADULT EDUCATION
ous substitution of some one
else's
is
experience
and knowledge.
Psychology
teaching us,
and thinking
together.
we do and
happen
to
If
we
lived sensibly,
we should
all discover
we grow
older.
Correspondingly,
we
should
we play
In teaching children
it
may
be necessary
by
is
uses of
already
Experience
[10]
THOSE
formulae
WHO NEED
all
TO BE LEARNERS
education.
says Yeaxlee,
teach
who
ous;
who
nent situations;
voirs
who
dig
down
by
teachers
who
modern quest
for
meaning.
for life's
meaning?
in]
ADULT EDUCATION
must be exercised
query.
in striving for answers to this
is
made
and
human
nature
is
uniform,
common
static
that all
human
meaning
in identical goals,
ends or aims
the
are
standardizing
process
begins:
teachers
and regulated
who must
we
all
examination
in short, if
it
of uniformity,
follows that
as
we
expect, e.g.,
mathematics, to
to another.
mean
much
to one student as
from
this
autocratic; if
we assume
we may
On
we
take for
granted that
human
nature
is
varied, changing
[12]
THOSE
and
fluid,
WHO NEED
we
will
TO BE LEARNERS
that
life's
know
meanings
are conditioned
by the
individual.
We
will
then entertain a
new
not before
In what
we
areas
to find life's
mean-
ing?
We
meaning must
which
people strive, the goals which they set for themselves, their
applicable only to
whose
pirations
to the
higher
levels
human
achievement.
The
men-
and willing
study
when study no
of pecuniary gain
sonality in
is,
whom many
[13]
ADULT EDUCATION
sires
Under
enjoyment,
Or,
stated
in
good
life.
They want
to count for
want
all
of these realizations of
be shared in com-
munities of fellowship.
Briefly they
want
to
improve themselves;
and
primary aim.
also to change
may
be properly expressed.
[hi
FAITH IN INTELLIGENCE
The
first
task of intelligence
the establishment of a
C.
"The most important
is
Delisle Burns.
scientific
question of to-day
one that
is
Science itself as a
what we
call
F.
"For reason
is
G. Crookshank.
and used
in the creation of
. . .
Intelligence
It is in con-
all.
and
its
retention requires
minded
will to learn
and courage
in readjustment."
John
Dewey.
TO THOSE
INTELLIGENCE
Psychologists have not yet told us what
intelligence is nor
how
who
it
operates.
In fact
those psychologists
wisdom
thinking
ities
has very
life.
little
of
takes place
on motor
is
what we
are pleased
i.e.,
to call thinking
way of
rationalizing conduct.
Thinking
furnishes
no energy
left-over energies
actions.
Before taking
sides, it will
prob-
may
[17]
ADULT EDUCATION
with perspective.
scientific as
At
least
it
forth take
neuro-muscular activity
not
rather democratized.
Conduct
is
best suited to
(integration)
of
Rational conduct
lectual; rather
is
not predominantly
intel-
it is
And
rational consay,
is still
and
so-called
uncivilized people.
Thought
is
somehow mixed
we
are
[18]
FAITH IN INTELLIGENCE
not likely to abandon the attempt to understand
its
"Man
is
unwilling to
own
dis-
Unamuno,
the
great
truster of reason.
:
The more
rational of us
may
meaning of
his
conduct to
and to
what can
its
function be?
More
precisely, in
in-
the interests of
The
ad-
proficiency
in doing some-
are obvious.
be elimi-
modern world.
The
of information
are like-
[19]
ADULT EDUCATION
wise apparent.
And
knowh
their
edge: a
way of comparing
facts
and noting
(Intelligence in-
Intelligence
is
is
ob-
which
lies
back
of appearances;
is
critical:
and phenomena
These are
all
significant
human
To
intelligence,
however,
service.
belongs
another
and transcendant
An
merely in
[20]
FAITH IN INTELLIGENCE
self.
first
marks of
intelli-
gence
of reality."
Intelligence then
becomes a
way of
appropriating facts
a way
Only
the
educated
specialist
He
speaks of the
"laws of nature" as
if
and de-
and mathematical
method of
them
their discovery
and man's
dis-
position of
From
and the
tools of
[21]
ADULT EDUCATION
est
ist,
human
acquisition
capitalists
(i.e.,
human
aim of
welfare.
seeing as
many
revealed;
its first
the capitalist
and the
have
fil-
in reality
sig-
created two
new
sets
of facts.
The most
is its
knowledge
relation
per-
FAITH IN INTELLIGENCE
sons.
Again
credit
critical
is
to the personal
fact-using.
Intelligence
all
is,
moreover, experimental.
Not
Our
significant acts
those which
we
remains true
may
be postponed.
When we
of action
deliberate about
we
However
short the
intellect's
[231
ADULT EDUCATION
force the organism to
do something outside
either
its
capacity but
it
can
by means of past
it
test conse-
nor can
can bring
is
doing has
But he cannot
learn
how and
the
why
experiment on his
own
behalf.
Intelligence
is
goodness in the sense that one cannot purposefully or positively experience the
good unless
realm
of
conscious
experimentation
in
the
Habitual good-
dynamic
qualities
is
in
fact not
Our
habits
FAITH IN INTELLIGENCE
can aid us in remaining alive in a changing
Intelli-
us to profit
personality
by experience ;
it is
the function of
its
past, pres-
ent
amount
is
the
problems,
knowledge
to
in evolving, continuing
accommodations
changing
environments.
adaptable.
Intelligent persons
are teachable,
Since life
since
is
growth
continuous changeand
static,
new
situa-
situa-
ADULT EDUCATION
tion confronted
telligence.
in-
Knowledge and
situations.
ties
are conditioned
by evolving
intellectual
capacities.
Education
the
is
means
intelligence.
The end
transfused with
meaning.
intelli-
who happen
make
we
are
the
most
quantity of intelligence
available,
we
shall
to
FAITH IN INTELLIGENCE
rise to its
that increased
Formal
The
to twelve
school complete
the course
may
an indictment, not
static
and
to the
an intellectual
class.
[27]
ADULT EDUCATION
ing, are
tinuing education;
advantage
This argument
We
in
shall never
adults desire
which they
Adult edu-
cation
is
and
create a
new
its
intel-
by the
rigid,
uncompromising requirements of
learning.
[28]
m
WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF POWER
"We
what democracy
we have
M.
P. FOLLETT.
strong, not
who
is
wrong."
M.
C. Otto.
power,"
since
said
"are synonymous,
the
Man
the
trolled
by
When
life is
mood
meaning of
known
causes.
we sink" beyond
is
temporary.
Human
nature
is
predisposed to
optimism.
gle to
who
create circum-
[31]
ADULT EDUCATION
for both our expectations
tific
and
illusions.
Scien-
but
it is
who
teaches us
and
shall
we
them?"
become
that
so far
all
imbued with
scientific elation
we
man
is
Our world
faith in
this
his destiny.
And, we
believe
knowl-
We
our
environment.
been prodigious.
We
can,
by taking thought,
welfare;
in
we can
man
for life
the tropics
although
it
is
we
men
we
in short,
alter,
we can by
Hu-
man
Man
his
Human
nature
is
itself
a part of
its
the
[33]
ADULT EDUCATION
naturalness.
We
are
free
and independent
vironment.
natural
exert over
to
forces
germane,
not external
nature's domain.
as
We
Bukharin
says,
we
the
"confusion
real
independence.
Nevertheless,
as
it
is,
our
has been
Scientific
method
is
a discovery,
if
not an invention, of
this
man's mind.
Moreover,
power which
to be also the
lives.
come
Inhabieffect
and
their thinking.
We
are all
we should
[34]
The
by science and a
life rationalized in
terms of
unscientific or anti-scientific
thought represents
lie in
simply
adding more
ricula.
intel-
lectual effort
and
its
If
we
dynamic
science
Adult
knowledge which
is
The urge
tion for
to
power
is
a many-faceted motiva-
our behavior.
We
desire
power over
many
[35]
ADULT EDUCATION
power over other human
beings.
Indeed, dur-
and
is,
for us at least,
the
The "Great
supremacy.
"pseudo-
all;
beneath these
more
glamorous
units
lies
the
pervading
upon
doubtful
competitive
ethic
and
crafty, the
Industrial organiza-
complex of sepaemployers,
stock-
groups
financiers,
holders,
workers,
consumers
[36]
each
of which
War-
Nothing positive
power;
this
is
from mere
shifts
of
move-
place.
in-
deed,
an
in-
by-product
of
sudden
power-ex-
changes.
trol
way
of a philosophy
[37]
ADULT EDUCATION
ists
will be zero.
We
mind
not a mere
"power over
in industry.
9
exchange of power-groups
be-
before
9
Labor
new and
cre-
ative
forces
when workers
are actuated
by cleaner
egy
its
will,
struggle-technique, that
from the
irrais
tional
method of attempting
to prove
is
who
strong.
The
This imtrade
obviously,
transformation of
now
so deeply
difficult if
not
impossible to
education,
the
make
the adjustment.
Workers'
adult
education movement,
industrial
forecasts
a
the
new phase of
readjustment:
Through
come
if
new
his
accessions of
will
new
concurrences and
its
own when
workers
dis-
meanings for
life.
We
desire, if
we
are normal
human
beings,
power over our environments, over the mechanized forces which surround us, over the fac-
[39]
ADULT EDUCATION
tors
is,
con-
We
for us
it.
we mean
to find
And
so
we go
and
Likewise, some
power vested
in
men shape
ours:
events.
is
man
with his
but
restless brain
has
and
dictators
now
We
are capable of
and we know
[40]
by
coercion.
But we
in-
power.
We
human
relations with
group that
ability;
my advantage
dis-
me
No human
that all
who
To wish
for
power
is
thoroughly
ADULT EDUCATION
self great while
is
ab-
normal.
one
Children do
power over
their
by watching
They
could,
by proper educational
more wholesome
is
accommodation to the
habits, cus-
its
complex of
If these compul-
no
and compromise.
Youth,
to
fluid,
generous
its life
adapt
which
is
rigid,
competitive and
[42]
quotient of which
flicts,
endless
and
useless con-
Somehow we
men
so
by young men
will not
"Whoso
neglects learning
is
future"
Adults
pathway of learning
tion to
do well
to give attenis
surely one
And, he who
will
would be at home
in the
modern world
however, he
is
level,
he will
is
fall short
which
wisdom.
To
[43]
ADULT EDUCATION
tional effort
self
to the Greeks.
tes.
"Know
is
"Learning
[44]
IV
IN
Walt Whitman.
"For
in both the life of
man and
Horace Kallbn.
consciousness in
actionis
is
directed becomes
We
questions
What
is
goals?
And,
with
re-
ends?
If
we
dis-
On
we
we
will regard
him
as a deficient personality
Vocational
[47]
ADULT EDUCATION
goals.
new
vindications
we have
dealt with
power
ple
one of
is
strive.
Power
that
is,
directive
to
energy,
we need
of
its use.
Power-over, even
when
exercised
by
the
those
its
who
obey.
Any
force, in fact,
which by
The
teacher
who
citizens,
[48]
dis-
integrate.
functional personality
its
hence
powers, that
is,
somehow
expressed.
selves
can get
self
realized,
discloses
Knowledge of the
what the
self is
capable of expressing.
set into
motion
tend to
We
all
become
specialists
which means
an immediate
that
we
all
This
loss to our-
but
addition
narrow
and limited
have pro-
[49]
ADULT EDUCATION
posed innumerable experiments for encouraging self-expression on the part of beginning
pupils.
Some
schools
still
too few in
number
base
their entire
the child
These exencouraged.
perimental
efforts
are
to
be
way
in a
self-
a com-
self.
Again we
to those adults
who
still
representation
personality.
resist;
demand
The whole of
resistances tends to
conformity;
toil
why go
of reeducating
my
me
well-fed, well-
clothed
will
this
and well-housed?
Most Americans
endures.
for
The eye of
tempted
the needle
into
is
forever small
those
self-indulgence
by
[5]
ADULT EDUCATION
wealth.
on the word
success
is
our
national disease."
They
also look
upon some
as
of
our
absurd
educational
assumptions
symptoms of
this
same
illness:
of
all
".
if
life is to
won
to excel-
lency,"
we
do well to
listen to these
few
who
ing
wholesome
society
out
of
partially
starved personalities.
What
uniqueness, difference.
Personality
is
in es-
and mental
[52]
Individuality
is
We
we
and move
Difference
is
the base of
personal integrity.
Only the
unintelligent fear
what
differs
from themselves.
intelligent,
We
should, if
we were bravely
give us
their
beg individuals to
difference,
world of uniis
and homogeneities.
which induces a
life
is,
6
Divergence
of succeeding
contingencies
a
is
life,
that
in
which
indi-
vidual conduct
of import.
of diversities"
freely
expressing individual
have
[53]
ADULT EDUCATION
been restricted mainly to
tremely wealthy.
artists
The
latter are
exempted from
them
make wealth
justify
is
Artists
freedom by
their works.
Great art
And,
life is
arts.
Persons in
who
traits
who have
formity.
In this sense
we can
achieve charis
acter solely
ourselves.
by expressing what
peculiar to
Many
zestful living
by virtue of native
We
[54]
life
about.
Adults
who have
arise
learned to respect
those values
which can
through individual
appreciative of their individualities, will inevitably feel the urge to participate in public
affairs;
background for
Mere
feel*
ing of difference
ferences
action
may
may
become negative
regrets
and
frustrations.
Once we
directive participation
in affairs,
we
sink to
what
is
worse, silent
opposition.
Politics
[55}
ADULT EDUCATION
sion to those
who have
the
power to manipulate.
in-
The
citizen,
terest in
aging make
no use of
is,
his
personal
gifts.
as one,
has
diffi-
We
ing counted;
If
we want
we
small be-
and the
state.
Each of us
influence
is
capable of
bringing intelligent
to
bear some-
where
in
home,
neighborhood,
community,
[56]
et cetera.
Adult education
specifically
which do so
ence.
to
much
to
mold
significant experi-
name
aspires
become
is
cation
experi-
We
need, then,
dividuality
we have
to
and
[57]
ADULT EDUCATION
One of
ings
human
befre-
quently overlooks
or enjoyable experiences.
other elements in
stereotyped,
modern
tends to become
are all supare college
standardized.
We
if
we
if
and dancing;
club
mem-
The hours of
pelling hours.
play, alas,
come
is
to be also com-
But, this
essence of play.
Necessity
may
lead us
to
its conse-
self-ex-
what compulsion
exists to
make
you pretend
fascinate
to enjoy the
is
me? Play
Recreation
[58]
Here,
else
integrity
and worth.
alert to discover
what
joy to par-
ticular students;
to
which
to the
may seem
in
hours of leisure.
Grown-up moderns
are
to
know how
its
own
Even
in games, the
is
end
victory
and
re-
dominant.
When my thought
ADULT EDUCATION
calls the
his leisure
One of
the canvases
showing a
typihis
which
so
adorned
me
much
that I offered
me
for presuming to
of his recreation.
dreamed
of
He
was a most
effic-
A young German
this aspiration to
skill;
him
him toward
now
at
his personal-
something
Even
in his
home when
the
topic of discussion
Whitman
"let
the American
to
himself go free."
He
Walt
me
still
when
I think of all
all that
man's poems
[61]
FOR THOSE
WHO
REQUIRE
FREEDOM
".
and a man
is
free in
whom
activity
strength.
...
It
has
been
assumed
which
that
is
freedom
limitation,
correct but
and
C.
when
their souls are
Delisle Burns.
cowed or perplexed."
George
Santayana.
thetic reception
of ideas on freedom.
If
John
first
time,
it
would surely
We
in Machiavel-
we
while
we
suppression.
And
all
because
we have
persistently miscon-
Our
error
may
di-
rections: (a)
of absence of control
cept;
(b)
practical
means
[65]
ADULT EDUCATION
vitiated
unities
by
false
separations of inseparable
We
from
things
which
appeared
as
obstacles:
civilization,
would
free
him from
The
naivete
re-
moment we attempt
to visualize an
endowed with a
will dissociated
from
his
We
then begin to
human
THOSE
WHO
REQUIRE FREEDOM
and a
society
and
at the
we
are
There
is
merely
many
The
doctrine of
freedom from
it
is
also irrational
and harmful.
The
per-
sonality
strives to
it
perhaps
is
more
escape realities
the
first
indication of a dis-
integrating personality.
plete the process.
Human
exist
We
behavior
a response
to,
a function
of, the
laws which
we dimly
understand.
[67]
ADULT EDUCATION
Stimuli or causes are
somehow
related to re-
of which
we
are parts.
We
is
can therefore be
Success-
scheme of nature.
ful
human adjustment
never wholly to or
we
and consequently
is
frco
dom-with.
The
by
knowing what
find
we can be
free with>
can we
freedom at
"is
all.
Ponsonby,
regulation."
tality,
man
[68]
THOSE
WHO
REQUIRE FREEDOM
Man
which
or
dependent upon
instinc-
tive responses.
"It
is
tex
which enables
man
10
thought,
and so acquire
and
integration.
Vol-
untary conduct
is,
new combination
which these new
of factors.
The manner
in
M.
P. Follett,
14
R. G. Gordon
li
and
here.
others
ADULT EDUCATION
For present purposes
an area of
exists for
it is sufficient
to
know
that
relative
freedom of thought-action
that the hypothesis
rests is
man and
upon
which
this
assumption
of supreme im-
portance to education.
We
things
number of
we can
create (not
what we already
have.
We
we combine old
ones
Thus
better
similar.
Freedom
is
an achievement, not
a gift.
We
we grow
still
into freedom.
ful,
many
of us are
wist-
disappointed seekers.
"He was
always,"
[70]
THOSE
writes
after
WHO
REQUIRE FREEDOM
there in
all."
And,
many of us
still
may
be found or bought by
The first
is
taken
when
subjugates him.
We learn to
freedom
desire.
be free
for
desire
first
look
Most of
the bar-
to
self-induced.
at least, that
We
many
are validated
and many
by
conflicts to
t7i]
ADULT EDUCATION
dom
is
conscious conduct.
The
psycho-thera-
merely
assists
the
patient
in
learning
the
the
is
methods of
self-recovery.
And
method
self-knowledge.
In another sense
discover
the
we become
free
when we
limitations
capacities.
Much
due to
or
of the discontent
fruitless
among
adults
is
practical
impossible objectives.
impossible targets,
We
set
Utopian
goals,
and then
all
miss
the
mark.
We
impotency because
we have
our capacities.
life as it is
On
we
take
in
we
will
THOSE
and renewal.
tive fantasy
WHO
REQUIRE FREEDOM
and the
possible.
Not
that
by
submitting to intelligence
forthwith to
inimical to growth.
plication
is
On
we
by means of
Limits
ex-
now
possible.
when we have
growing
tion of
capacities.
"Every important
satisfac-
Dewey,
in the order-
new
[73]
ADULT EDUCATION
Attention to the sources of freedom which
within
lie
human
many
We
want freedom
be-
cause
we
believe
it
in order to learn
a constant function.
be, not to
a subject called
to
know how
[74]
THOSE
i
WHO
REQUIRE FREEDOM
i
situations
are
to emerge
as
progressive
se-
quences of living.
The
to see
two
interacting
We
can progress
Propaganda
organizations
will
of
course
to
make
ends
which,
The
doctrinaire
revolutionist
in
who
sees the
problem of freedom
slaving social
will naturally
him and
his
X75]
ADULT EDUCATION
after the revolution which changes the social
order.
is
easily
condemned
ought
on
We
may, for
ex-
become a
its
further emphasis.
At
in-
At any
rate,
they do very
little either as
critics or
experimenters to create
new
motives.
on
its
tional sides,
sive
becomes too
and incapable of
sincere
THOSE
WHO
REQUIRE FREEDOM
But
if adults
approach
new
knowledge
is
Revolu-
when
We
its
revolt
or
when we
are
thinking has
lost
efficacy.
Revolution
The
egotist
is
slave to his
own
limitations;
is
in
an
artificial
praise."
Why
disappointed?
is
Because
self-
absurd since
to void.
it
has
no
reliable reference
and leads
[77]
The
ADULT EDUCATION
sense of freedom arrives
when we become
suffi-
and
our environments
feeling that both
tions.
critically, that
is,
with the
may
is
be projected as evolu-
Freedom
fol-
viewed
in relation to its
is
proper references.
To
preliminary; dynamic
freedom
stirs
The
to create.
who
know
their
their limitations;
who
seek a
way of
life
which
to
who aim
alter their
THOSE
WHO
REQUIRE FREEDOM
Each of
these
components of
intelli-
freedom
is
gence and
and learning
with
in-
dividuals.
absolute.
is
None of
us
self-determined.
Self
relative
to other selves
and
ment.
We
live in
[79]
VI
FOR THOSE
WHO WOULD
CREATE
not
to fancy
it
what were
fair in life
Provided
could be
What may
how
to
make
it
fair
Up
to our
means;"
Quoted
"Only
if
by Harry Snell.
to each
moment
it is
of life there
is
vividly
moment
of creation, and
moment be a joyous
one."
Edgar
A. Singer.
FOR THOSE
WHO WOULD
for power,
CREATE
self-
Intelligence
expression,
tives in
power for
and the
we
to create?
complex of life?
and
left
standing by
:
itself
becomes a
come
fulness; those
sion for its
who
concentrate on self-expres-
own
those
nition of
tators
ADULT EDUCATION
their slaves;
free-
dom an
absolutist goal
come ultimately
to be
and
free-
dom come
them
to
Only
the
have
justifiable
power; only
Consequently,
educate him-
who
sets forth to
any
his ends.
We
do
intelligence, next
and
last
freedom.
On
the contrary,
we
experi-
moments of
creativity.
[8 4 ]
THOSE
WHO WOULD
CREATE
some time or
distinct urge
feci at
untamed years a
toward crcativeness.
Which of
us has not
In a poignant
"Has
college standardized
it
you as
it
did
more
true,
our
ADULT EDUCATION
universities, for the
most
part,
have come
to
norm of
excel-
and
so
all life
Forgive me.
Your
you
see,
been otherwise.
He
is
fit
you know;
ried
his clothes
not wor-
ance payment; he has never been blackballed at a club nor sneered at in the street,
nor
tarred
and
was
He
wondering
1T
if
thing."
And,
those
this
is
modern
life:
even
who win
what we
call suc-
[86]
THOSE
WHO WOULD
To me
efforts
CREATE
become
is
uncreative.
nothing
more
pitiful
of art-collecting
the mere urge to
failure to create.
The newly
rich
man who
basis of
new
library
and
selected
them on the
may
who
life,
and
moreover, that
adults
may
be rekindled in those
of becoming
intelli-
gent.
Once more
it
if life is
is
learning and
then creativeness
a possibility
[87]
ADULT EDUCATION
is
attached.
The verb
who
Life
is
its
ultimate meaning
bore-
dom.
Esthetics
ex-
suffers
by reason of
clusiveness.
Beauty
and often
does,
become a hin-
creative
experiences.
The
impotency.
He may
is
life.
To him
beauty
is
[88]
THOSE
WHO WOULD
CREATE
pictures of
cooperative
inventions
effi-
much of
be
util-
Moreover,
Marks; he found
his subjects
on
Con-
life
and the
life
life
community
artificial
as well.
Between
and
no
[89]
ADULT EDUCATION
absent.
He
lived artistically.
Whenever we
tunity
harmony out of
tred,
potency out of
sterility, intelligence
it
out of
becomes pos-
The mo-
a creative mood.
We may
lems of importance.
If
we
our deliberations;
we
will
come out
as
we
went
in,
THOSE
turc.
WHO WOULD
CREATE
On
its
form
in terms of
if
mutually-exclusive
factors;
we
we
we
Or,
if
who
lie in
and reformulations of
the other hand, if
as
static situations.
On
life
we
drabness, futility
adventures.
We
who wish
[91]
to be called spe-
ADULT EDUCATION
cialists in art
is
not
common
artists
to all.
By
we
per-
mit them.
who wish
to create
new
to be-
national experiments.
If living too
is
creative arts,
we must
discover
solvents for those hard partitions which separate life into compartments.
We cannot expect
if their
The
rigidities of
adulthood
creative can
trol.
need
loosening
before
anything
happen
And we need
bers: a small
THOSE
WHO WOULD
CREATE
of the total
community
process.
The
creative
mood
is
more than an
attitude
of expectancy.
Many persons
approach adult-
the glorious
adventure which
is
bound
to
lose
extravagant conceits.
always
futuristic, anticipatory,
but
its
actuality;
"impossibles"
are
distillations
from "possibles."
Creativeness
is intrinsic
and
[93]
ADULT EDUCATION
seems fortuitous merely because
all
we
fail to see
dependent upon
its
ends than
object,
all
of supreme importance.
We
are not
[94]
vn
TO THOSE
WHO
APPRECIATE
"Annette,
who
it
instinctively loved
the
light,
had
sought for
studies
which
But the
filtered
;
light she
it
was
ROMAIN
"Integrating art and life would
ROLLAND.
mean
so transform-
ing of
life as
well."
Leo
"For
art fixes those standards of
Stein.
enjoyment and
it
stimulates
effort."
John
Dewey.
TO THOSE
The
many
WHO APPRECIATE
one of the
jump
and creatively
effectively
enjoyments.
Nothing so
to be told
unworthy, in bad
is,
taste.
The
proper retort
of course,
Whose
taste?
To
Our men-
we succumb
to Philistinism
But
T97]
ADULT EDUCATION
terns
essence of enjoyment
critical appreciation.
And
to appreciate
is
to assimilate, to appro-
priate, to
make
one's
own.
Appreciation
is
reference
the inatfail
dividual
who
appreciates, enjoys.
Every
by reason of individual
variations.
My enjoyin terms of
beneath these
is
common
forever
factors lies
yours or mine.
who enjoy
ganisms living
in
and
is
space.
may
The
foregoing
TO THOSE
shared.
WHO
APPRECIATE
to believe
Indeed,
it
may be justifiable
itself,
that language,
communication
arose out
social
means,
we
their
tive
enjoyment.
way
alone.
What
is
enjoyed registers
itself ulti-
the
new
social products
may
dividual enjoyments.
it
endures long
[99]
ADULT EDUCATION
In Denmark,
Classes
may
has
gone
far
the
vague
conscious-
ness that
man
is
euphemistically
who wish
to
The
tory
drawn from
presumed and
insistent claim
lift
somehow
us above
monotonous
enjoyments.
realm of pure
"Education
is
How
[100]
TO THOSE
WHO
APPRECIATE
sounds!
final this
At
commencement time
problems
is
life
with
all its
weighty
made
to fall suddenly
upon the
last they
At
to bring
it
to
make
it
yield success.
Who,
indeed,
can
make
classics
which
Yes,
may come
in packets
[101]
ADULT EDUCATION
we must at all
costs
pay our
dess of classicism.
The
question of enjoyment
the problem
is
or not.
Courage-
new
literature et
in-
by discovering what
And,
if
reeducated
new impetus;
[102]
TO THOSE
pression.
WHO
APPRECIATE
artistic
We
emi-
and
,
their stand-
On
the other
country so long as appreciation remains the inherited prerogative of a coterie of so-called cul-
tured people.
may
justly be expected to
do something toward
democratizing
art.
it
At
first
glance
who
of
human
life."
18
realize
become
In
run
down
things
they are
too
frequently
tempted to
[103]
ADULT EDUCATION
abandon the joy of
things.
After
it
all,
we ought
was undoubtedly
as
Feelings, sentiments
and emotions
lie
very close
an uncertain experiment.
But
it is
and emotions as
if
from
it
now
proceeding, not
by
creat-
ing
new
organs, but
by further integrations of
It is therefore
is,
existing organs
and functions.
we
shall
need to
[104]
TO THOSE
WHO
APPRECIATE
is
to save itself
type of intellectualism,
to
how
make
their thinking
honest feeling.
When
modern
critics
invariably end
by giving
art to
thus hoping
dent.
The
at least
intelligence,
and the
finest
intelligence that
which
is
[105]
ADULT EDUCATION
feeling. "I prefer to feel rather
than under-
M.
But we
may
to understand anything
properties
and
qualities.
Feeling adds
warmth
gives
to understanding
to feelings.
and understanding
meaning
Adult educators
in
may
the
to
draw out
.
of
aesthetic
is
apprehension.
The
habit of art
values."
19
"How
and beauty
men
constitutes one of
TO THOSE
WHO
APPRECIATE
But we
to
passive
rather
than
creative
en-
joyment.
We
get a
more
intense feeling of
of beauty"
is
an accompaniment of some
activity.
when not
which are
highest
The
which are
who
are called to
tempted to increase
[107]
ADULT EDUCATION
"that already large
amount of
ineffectual striv-
from
fulfilling
is
its
true mission in
life.
"What
then
of art and
letters,
differ
from
the tub-thumper, be he
more
or less refined?
Their function
is,
I imagine, to cooperate
with
and
illustrate,
so that choice
2l
may
be made
so
relevant to need."
that choice
may
be
made
relevant to growth
and capacity.
until he
is
perience.
Appreciation
it is
not merely a
way
of
!
finding values;
creating values.
also a
is
way of
discovering,
Art
its
essentially a
form of
mental release
but
its
inception
may
lie in feelings
is
"intellectual
[108]
TO THOSE
enrichment."
WHO
APPRECIATE
experience
is
Artistic
imme-
And
a meaning
its
is
because of
meanings opens the way toward successive enjoyments and enlarged meanings.
closed to the uses of beauty in IKe
Their eyes
by
their pre-
an ingenious
futility.
"En-
and
ripe scholar-
this
"second empire" of
many
But appreciation
lacks en-
warranted
specialism
specialism
un-
[109]
ADULT EDUCATION
related sophistication
whenever
critical atti-
tudes
eliminate
spontaneity
and
eagerness.
and
enthusiastic enjoyments
the discipline
their
day.
To
ously enjoyable
save
in a
post-mortem con-
versational sense.
Among
intelligent
adults
an
"art-spirit"
culti-
needed.
Such a
spirit at
find ex-
and
aspirations.
[no]
TO THOSE
WHO
APPRECIATE
offices
of art in
art be-
how
life:
"The
attractiveness
their,
and suggestiveness of
these
symbols,
by these
objects, only to
moreover, which
as well as
is
Here we
see
clearly
what
is
meant by an
art-spirit or art-
But
this is
an
modern
new paths of
de-
Tin]
ADULT EDUCATION
velopment; the spontaneous flow of art-impulses,
now
to
make
its
way
as a
competitor
alternatives.
Adult education,
and give
new meanings
preciation.
who have
Art,
leisure
its
by
ap-
who
sensi-
and the highest function of adult educawell be the discovery and release of
tion
may
among
the
many.
[112]
vm
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
''Effective
knowledge
is
professionalized knowledge,
its
dangers.
It
produces minds
it
progress in
own
groove.
"The dangers
arising
from
this
aspect of profesin
our democratic
is
The
weakened.
see this set
The
They
The
task of coordination
is left
to those
who
some
tions
definite career.
and
more
vision.
"The
we
point
is
Wisdom
is
the fruit of
balanced development."
A.
N. Whitehead.
"I take
is
it
that
what the
particularist
mainly needs
able
him
to see his
own
whole of thought.
It is
who
Charles
Horton Cooley.
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
The evils of specialism have been duly noted
by college presidents, publicists and philosophers
and then
dilemma
left to
multiply.
Here stands a
real
the division of
ing capacity
is
distinctly limited.
Moreover,
when one
science or branch of
problems must
Generalization
may
set
new probnew
facts.
The moment
curricula
became responsive
to
ADULT EDUCATION
research as distinguished
colleges
from
scholasticism,
and
universities
rule of specialization.
College presidents
who
was
when
science
the intruder
controller
may
They may go on
visualizing the
who know a
much about
may
be regarded,
Higher education,
so-called, has
come
to be
ing.
[118]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
Industry presents the same picture.
formists
Re-
may bemoan
modern
its
Ten
years hence
Mass
pro-
waste motion
an
act
which can
task.
may
Indeed, he
may
come at
which perform
functions.
Development of
plied science has
table chaos.
less
The
tii9]
ADULT EDUCATION
state
is
no longer
tenable.
The
significant
pri-
The
British Parliament
is
asked to decide a
Can
the mines be
and
at the
decent standard of
is
and
if so,
how? Here
in-
and
so-
of living.
But
parliament
is
In fact, the
problem involved
not because
cause
its
it is
political in character
but be-
[no]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
unity of the state.
In a
moment of
crisis
the
disposal:
not
what
is
how can
be decided in
how can
a technical matter be
made
to
appear political.
may
propositions
I.
1.
[121]
ADULT EDUCATION
with
world history,
the
evolution of
civilization,
the growth
of ideas,
the
march of
science,
the requirements of
citizenship, et cetera.
2.
amount of
specialization
and reserving
ini
knowledge of many
]
and
j
chiefly useful in
[122]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
college
students;
they
want
technical
and
Graduate study
is
still
considered
haps deservedly
perThe
doomed
to a life of scholar-
worthy of the
man
of action.
a reflex of industry.
So long
as our primary
make but
II.
In industry escape
sought in:
is
for the
most part
l.
Trade Unionism, or
collective struggles
ADULT EDUCATION
2.
for
ele-
ments
3.
in the industry.
alrelife
satis-
Criticism: (a)
it
as
new
prac-
tices
less
of what
its
j
it
will be a compensaits
inherent problems,
[124]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
true for the remaining three avenues of escape;
worker
still
(Industrial
those
managers,
technicians,
bosses
control
perhaps
less conscious
In government
among
the numerous
com-
to
advisory
recom-
[125]
ADULT EDUCATION
mendations made either to the executive,
judicial or legislative branches of gov-
ernment.
(Interstate
Commerce Com-
who
sometimes
sharing
authority
Wider use of
technical experts
by gov-
ernmental departments.
4.
Criticism:
As
He, the
citizen,
is
[126]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
fuller citizenship
trary, to
is
to be restricted to giving a
mild "yes" or an
else's
decisions.
But
base; questions
or
When
the
it
creativeness
meaning.
it
We
are committed,
must be repeated,
to
The problem
query
:
How can society secure the highest scrv-. ices of specialists? We may get a very efficient
service of experts in
who
to special-
ists
In either case,
we must be
[127]
ADULT EDUCATION
prepared to make corresponding
sacrifices.
Ad-
plished
when power
and
centralized.
But
we may
expect of specialists?
Power vested
in
dictators
and executive
specialists
It
means power
may
be that citizens
possess
it,
make poor
use of power
is
when they
for the
moment
is
irrel-
When
The
the sense of
power
gone, what
edge?
all
functions, atrophy
when not
used.
Our
choice
is
them
to dictators, or
formed publics.
alternatives.
It
But one
hesitates to propose
The
signs are
may
[128]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
metaphysical foundations must decay more or
less
completely before
Mussolini
we
find our
way with
science.
may
have
At any
fast
becoming a term
social structures
ment
feasible.
and
sufficient resiliency to
prevent the
new from
bursting forth.
[129]
ADULT EDUCATION
thinkers with vision turned occasion to ac-
Utopias.
The
function of Utopias
is
to
set activity
we
do not
utilize
our present
difficulties as
oppor-
adventurous challenges to
the future,
we
generation of people
things
lie
open
in
many
we must
confine
In the
first
and
specialists
whose functions
become external
have
been
'
to the people
whom
They
they serve
have,
in
miseducated.
[130]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
Cooky's
is,
,T
persons
who behave
Con-
when
is
seldom),
The
specialist
ticularist
spirit
who becomes
him and
his disciples
is
an
any of which
cialists
is
Spe-
(as distinguished
Educational
in-
program
ADULT EDUCATION
of learning
life;
is
to induce
an "organic view" of
it
how
happens that
those
stu-
dents
develop
blind-spots
negative
way
for specialism.
But
in the
end
specialists
intellec-
and quite
making
one's
way
with other
specialists.
We
shall
secure the
when they
learn to
problems.
Integration
is
[132]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
their specialized
integrated only
when
focussed
their functions.
But
this is
not enough.
attention,
is
We,
the objects of
specialists'
aware of what
we must become
ess.
At
;
this point
many
thinkers
abandon the
trail
by the
best,
and
doers, et cetera.
and secure
[133]
in
ADULT EDUCATION
breaks out in another.
The only
relatively
in their
to vest
power
in hereditary castes.
Even then
our purposes.
approach.
But
there
is
we abandon
ways of
intelligence
altogether.
My
which we learn
of meanings.
to
Now
be-
come confused
or lost;
we
we have no
to us.
sure knowledge
may mean
The
expert cuts
[134]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
ing authority, and we, having transferred decision to him, act
upon
his
achieve
the
adjustment.
But
alas,
this
is
those pur-
This
is,
however, preintel-
to take
meanings second-hand.
meanings when
is,
An
adjustment
future
precipitates
it facilitates
adjustments, that
when
it is
accompanied by
We
con'
[135]
ADULT EDUCATION
been annoyed by
difficulties in reading.
(The
felt, diffi-
knowing what
effects it
had produced.
we
Now,
the ordiall
here
is
of primary
interest to
him
at the
moment.
How
much
If he can under-
stand merely enough to be intelligent in carrying out the oculist's instructions, the experience
will have been profitable.
sufficient to
If he can understand
[136]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
to sec
effect
tion,
some of the
relations
and
to seek
improvement within
tive experience.
And
if
the relations
and
perience meanings
that
is,
We
can
purposes
to those relevant
When
is
we comprehend
relevant portions,
i.e.,
relevant
doing,
we
are in position to
become participants
we
Experience,
[137]
ADULT EDUCATION
the stuff out of which education
after all a
is
grown,
affairs
is
homely matter.
The
of
first
of
all,
doing something;
makes a
it
differ-
makes.
Our
of our actions.
to join with
Now
it
is
all
very wholesome
world
when
individual
human
Blessed
is
man whose
his acts.
may become
aspects of personality.
We
[138]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
glibly about problems, yes, even suggest the
when we
We
can
all
be experts
long
life
tends to accelerate
in-
at
first
human
more
relations.
Does
it
And
will
we not
respect for
This naive
relations
upon the
way
tion inventions.
undoubtedly causes us to
overlook the fact that highly-developed means of communication are indispensable to highlycentralized forms of social control.
Some im-
[139]
ADULT EDUCATION
portant differences persisted
in
the
various
we
all
same radio announcers, witnessed the same motion pictures, ate the
clothes, et cetera.
tion
easier of control
by
The
life
of
simplicity
is
gone
forever.
The
present argu-
ment allows
for as
many
conveniences and as
many
as
experts as
we can
afford
and
as
many
we can understand.
if
Our
upon
personalities can
be redeemed
we
insist
a proper share in
[140]
TO AN AGE OF SPECIALISM
cern us.
small groups;
tion, diversity
means
as
much
decentraliza-
and
local
autonomy
as
is
con-
sistent
fice
with order.
Indeed,
we may
well sacri-
ference.
Our hopes
more
likely to
make
life
The
chief disservice
is
is
accountable
little
external-
of us.
And
they
we supply
Ti4]
ENTERPRISE
"The problem
but
is
not
how
to produce great
men,
how
A.
"Modern
life is
N. Whitehead.
we
Questions of con-
of what
is
right or
wrong
what
is
who may
therefore
erty,
not share
our views.
as
Our
get
social
ideals,
lib-
such
ideals
godliness,
patriotism,
charity,
democracy
must
something more
complex.
The
ters
on
applying
them
an adjustment of various
part these interests must
To
be understood, and to
be allowed to
speak for
A.
D. Sheffield.
ENTERPRISE
Emphasis has been placed
chapters
in the foregoing
respect to in-
dividual personalities.
organisms
organisms
whose
from
to
satisfaction of simple
intellectual
itself.
is
physiological
needs
curiosity
is
Education
a manifestation of
Again, educa-
tion
is
having
up
frictions,
call
for
new adjustment.
struggle, learning
ADULT EDUCATION
could never have arisen as a means of adjust-
ment.
sion, stress
cannot endure since they are always accompanied by pain; consequently organisms strive
an
Most of
made
activities.
If,
then,
for,
we want
to
:
is
good
we must
being
ask
What
kinds of adjust-
ments
After
are
required
of
individuals'?
we have determined
ing adjustments
we
What
Or,
is
We
alities
have already seen that evolving personfollow the path of learning in an atin
which
self-
freedom and
creativity,
creative
ward under a
of
specialization.
of
education.
We
now must
qualities
effort
social contexts.
[147]
ADULT EDUCATION
relative,
human
beings.
of communication, and
cation
takes
forms of communiSelf-expression
are
social
products.
on meaning
From many
social practice
sources of social
theory and
comes the
insistent appeal to
The
call is gratuitous.
They have no
Every
is
man organism
justment.
The
individualist of
[i 4 8]
modern
life
The
are
human organism
satisfied
unlimited.
Each need
releases
discontent; the
new
life,
the
harmony of
lie
dissipated.
And, most
needs
are environto
mental.
To meet
the
need
is
confront
the environment
Man
social.
up
his
mind"
to
be
He
is
caught
he
must function
to
may
be to
all
who
predispositions of indi-
[H9]
ADULT EDUCATION
vidualism this
ern
is
mod-
The
are
tenderclasses
no
soon modulated to
The farmer
but his collec-
may not
wish to belong to a
class,
upon the
collective
Coal miners
the con-
may
when
collectivist
No
much
realism.
Nor can
the problem be
is
not to classes
distinction is
but to class-consciousness.
not without merit.
The
may
be more
In sub-
he says: Be a member of
see to
it
your class
if
that your
you
out.
Act collectively
Join the trade
function
individualism
in
thought
considerably
many
from doing."
The
[151]
ADULT EDUCATION
cipient in the current hiatus
between thought
and
activity.
alizing
how
temporaneous
qualities.
the
When
thinking
is
doing eventuate
in
man's
undoing.
tivism has
roots in science
and
industrial
its
origins
and
religious tradi-
The
in the effort to
leads
inevitably
cumulative collectivism.
ris
The
material compulsion
life.
a tergo
is
to live
the collective
On
[152]
Bankers,
manufacturers,
physicians,
mer-
chants,
wage-earners,
teachers,
farmers
definite
all
must pool
their interests
under
suffer the
is
Collectivism
the
To
exercise that
power without
is
in-
to
Collectivism in function
and a mystifying
How
answer
The most
concise
threefold: (a)
by transforming
by developing a method
[153]
for
ADULT EDUCATION
social functions
life
an educational experience.
The
first
two
forms
the
theme
for
our
concluding
chapter.
The
social process
28
is
essentially a "contact
between minds."
The "community
of
me
society.
Minds which
phenomena.
There
is
is
no
summa-
Burns aptly
"mind-groups,"
that
is,
A, B,
C and D,
B
re-
then responds to
[154]
b x a;
C now
[c
responds to (b x a) or
BA
and
x (b x a) ; D's
et cetera.
response
d x
x (b x a)],
We
with
at
meanings or understandings
which each
re-
sponding person
is
direction.
Many
fric-
on the
from
we respond
to others dishonestly
or unintelligently.
new
rela-
which
in turn
ADULT EDUCATION
and influencing
to see
tacts
all
future responses,
it is
we
begin
con-
how important
to
make our
Next we need
that
how
it
happens
we
collectivities
havior.
We
and
act
to
we need
to ask
will be evaluated
An
individual
may
called a
strike,
wishes.
as
citizen
may
opened
is
[156]
for
and on purely
ethical
grounds.
The
basic
pacifist
inviolability of
assumes
that in a
between individual
lie
higher values
procedure,
issue
:
situations,
facts,
problem
is
to
undergo no alteration.
from
pacifist
propa-
[157]
ADULT EDUCATION
vent even moralists from exercising a truly
and wisdom
and groups.
dividual
lost the
moment
in-
conduct
conceived as something
Values
is
arise
called "con-
we
we
means
for
achieving individual
ends.
We
we
believe
that our
Society
is
interests
will
thereby be advanced.
a process, not
an end or goal
viduals.
Collectivism
20
a representation of
will arise
individual interests.
ever
Groups
whenin-
terest
tion or enhancement.
And,
conflicts
between
Education
for
collective
life
begins
when
and
validified,
in
and
growing
ess
as
we
Modern
cannot direct
we
T159]
ADULT EDUCATION
are
doomed
to a warfare
between groups
in
"We
waste."
to prosecute our
interests collectively,
Nor can
in
we
find
our
way
in
placid acquiescence,
sacrifice
of our interests.
To overcome and
to
be
Sentimentality
savagery.
We
ests
inter-
to submit
test.
Em-
who
offer
wages
less
who
who
represent
[160]
ess.
How
we can
get
Our
alternative
is
"open diplomacy"
is
the as-
worth wanting,
son and
is
capable of making
coercion.
its
way on
merits
But honesty
ceivable
is
not enough;
it is
easily con-
that
conflict
among
honest people
might
result in nothing
righteousness.
eternal
but
specific diversities
rise
to creative levels
[161]
ADULT EDUCATION
when they combine
to produce
new
unities.
We
to
make frankness
Intelligent, ex-
plicit,
may
be expected.
80
These are
We are now on
in-
Method
is
still
lacking.
Like the
we may
foresee
what
research
until
we
our
foreknowledge
remains
impotent.
The
when we become
intelligent
enough
to
discover
into
For, after
It is
all, conflict
not in
itself creative.
merely prelimior
may
may
not
present
demand
is
We
the multiform
collective
enterprises,
and
the
various
aspects of group functioning, such as representation, consent, leadership, et cetera, are still
And
which con-
scious experimentation
fruitful.
most
likely to prove
Man
slightly;
crease his
capacity;
these being
[163]
ADULT EDUCATION
achieved completion or near-completion.
And
and
here pre-
Adults
who go
have travis
a delu-
Intelligence
is
itself
little
a relative term
or
no meaning save
when used
is
as a comparative.
One
individual
respect to
intelligent
less
or
more
with
is
not
in reality intelligence
[164]
and
in
its uses.
Consequently,
we
solely for
more knowledge
into our
is
own
behavior.
is
Knowing-behavior, which
social in
intelligence,
two
it
directions: it takes
and
calls forth
more
in-
from
others.
If then learn-
which
in
improve
themselves.
preparation for
agitating
is
an
instrumentality
changing
life.
Institutions,
within
the
of continuing,
advancing
[165]
ADULT EDUCATION
furnish the
medium
abandon the
from
in-
telligent persons.
most
lels
virile
tors of
Denmark and
Britain.
Adult education
if its
become an
agency of progress
changing the
uals
in
social order.
Changing individ-
continuous
adjustment to changing
social functions
though
Manifestly,
method adequate
to the pur-
[66]
X
IN TERMS OF
METHOD
not a
scientific
method
useful
and becomes
less
and
less practically
-W.
I.
Thomas.
is
build-
whereas education
is
leading out."
C.
P. Conger.
IN TERMS OF
Adult
learners
ence.
METHOD
significant experi-
education
is
become aware of
Recognition of significance
leads
to
evaluation.
ence !"
expectant
this
you want
to
new
what
upon
it.
make quick
feel cer-
[169]
ADULT EDUCATION
tion of pessimism;
or he sees opportunities
difficulties
know
increment of optimism.
new
and dramatic
setting
The
real distinction
is
uneducated persons
superficial criteria as
life.
Educated
bringing
satisfactions
in
still
ignorant
if
his
[170]
IN
knowing
living.
is
TERMS OF METHOD
But
is
Life
is
is
ex-
way
of
To
be educated
is
find illumination in
informed
living.
Periods
named
light of learning
upon ex-
new meanings
new
Our
ence
:
in
life its
(how
little
when
schools attempt to
make
Ti7>J
ADULT EDUCATION
intellectuals out of children
who need
so
much
meaning to emotions,
we
shall
clearly.
life.
Edu-
And
to
experience
proceeds
is
from
any situation
which adjustment
mental
release.
twice for
we move forward
responses.
Even
cynics
who
pretend that
all
experience ends in illusion continue to intellectualize their illusions, to search for the
meaning
of meaningless
life.
[172]
IN
TERMS OF METHOD
is
of others;
it
is
neatly divided
which
fit
into a
traditional
scheme
so
much mathematics,
so
much
history, so
much
above all so
as
much
to
make even
jects
an uninteresting
Happy
who
the stuhis
dent
whose
teacher
subject.
And
dares to
whole of
life
and learning.
to be reminded, are merely
Subjects,
we need
Re-
[173]
ADULT EDUCATION
search
is
probably
clarified
by the department-
alizing of knowledge;
calls himself
the investigator
who
profit
by
will ultimately
After
all, it
requires
mon
of
which
may
be
economic,
some
psychic,
It
some
social,
some
linguistic, et cetera.
may
are
phenomena which
economic experience.
The
[174]
falsest
view of
life,
IN
TERMS OF METHOD
men and
the
elephant,
is
one which
rests
larism as
in
its
point of reference.
man
certainly
the category of
is
who
not also
by
social
manner influencing or
Did
the
man buy
knowledge
Did he
pay the
right price?
Were
the shoes
made
in
a union shop?
Was
the salesman
who
sold the
[175]
ADULT EDUCATION
shoes
under-paid?
This
is,
of
course,
it
an
requires
how
pedantic
life
to assume that
we can understand
by
studying subjects.
Many
educators
to realize
at
they
if
will
know how
not possess
to find
it.
knowledge even
they do
knowledge
is
dumped
in the
hope that
If
it
can be
fish
we could
memory
ments knowledge
:
grows or
dies.
[i 7 6]
IN
TERMS OF METHOD
it is
And
if
knowledge grows,
because knowing
when
sufficiently
win
will
make
headway
until accom-
Our
kin-
from
content
is
committed to subthe
Preoccupation
with
of
now
The system
derives
its
chief
momentum from
is
subject-teaching
method which
ADULT EDUCATION
educated
congenial
is
also
indeed
it
How
could
and degree
deed,
requisites
how,
in-
finished
if institutions
prived of this
subjects?
ties
convenient measuring-rod of
and
enough to
see the
made
to subject-
who
take
all
and "de-
gree-hunters."
Adult learners
attend classes voluntarily and they leave whenever the teaching falls below
trie
standard of
ti?8]
IN
interest.
TERMS OF METHOD
they learn converges upon
life,
What
not
The
removed so
may
stand or fall on
intrinsic merits.
(It
would be an experi-
who
many
way
of a point
if
they
had
to
make
their
as teachers
on no
And
is
its
Indeed,
if
adult education
is
to produce a
Life
is
[179]
ADULT EDUCATION
occasions which necessitate action.
is
Education
is
teaching method
is
one
Or,
is
one
degree of observation,
forming of
ideas, reasoning
and experimental
and
that
testing required in
any
special case,
by mistakes
is
made
the
in the past.
What
is
important
that
mind should be
sensitive to
problems and
skilled in
"
[180]
IN
is
TERMS OF METHOD
upon our
case
away
in books
researches
or purposes
are impeded,
beneath our
needs
present
capacities.
Conscious
effort
two channels:
incidence, its
integrity with
its
its
and
we
have to deal.
[181]
ADULT EDUCATION
tion.
He
is
veals,
personality.
suggesting
that
can
reach him, he
is
discharged and
now
writes for
recommendaover-conscious
is
He
is
therefore
The
no educative
mood of resentment
difficulties
which
to similar situations.
On
ple
who
selves,
through self-depreciation.
We
have then in
[182]
IN
TERMS OF METHOD
which are predominantly relevant to the behaving personality, some to the impeding environ-
situation-as-a-whole
his
circumstances.
classified for
purposes
(a)
What
(b)
part of
my
I
personality
is
here involved
about which
What
environment?
(c)
What do
need to know
my
relatedness to impor-
when
the
viewed as a whole?
With
meet the
this
much
preparation or readiness to
situation,
to
its
intelligent consideration,
assuming of course,
is
[183]
ADULT EDUCATION
which we mean to derive educative experience.
and diligence to
is,
ar-
which are
satis-
Most of us
find
ourselves
in
significant situations
situ-
we might
lift
ourselves
but we might also find that we had lifted ourselves out of,
it.
Many
"self-made" business
men
find in
is
not
when
these collabora-
[i8 4 ]
IN
tors
TERMS OF METHOD
tive experiences.
Most of
us, if
we
are intent
its intellectual
those
who
who
who have
which
relevant
to our needs.
Discussion
is
more than
talk.
We
think in
who
are
more
likely to live
who
are inarticulate.
But mere talking has no more educational content than bellowing, mooing, barking.
Con-
upon
itself
so frequently does
among
those
who
use
to
and come
[is*]
ADULT EDUCATION
vocabulary as well as ideas.
(A
persistent de-
mand
words
to popularize; this
is
one way of
cir-
cumscribing language.
If an idea cannot be
it is
make
the attempt;
degrades those
who
read or listen by
Words become
habits
whereupon they
aimlessly,
the weather!
it,
Nobody
re-
as
Mark Twain
probin
is
more rampant
that of death.
The
talk of
[186]
IN
TERMS OF METHOD
circle
jump
Con-
theme.
no
rules
and
this
is
we
talk for
cation.
what
Discussion
is
organized talk.
When
two or
when
is itself
[187)
ADULT EDUCATION
regarded as an educative opportunity, a tacit
recognition to the effect that certain rules are
to be followed,
is
present.
If,
group exceeds
five or six in
number,
usually
its direction,
to en-
members of the
sum up arguments,
facts
is
and conclusions,
et
cetera.
When
discussion
adult
teaching,
;
the
teacher
sets
becomes group-
chairman he no longer
casts
nor
is
he the
oracle
who
his function
is
not
to
draw
out, not
pour
of
office
[188]
IN
interlocutor
TERMS OF METHOD
(one
who
questions
and
in-
who
who
and
strate-
(one
who
The
organize discussion
channels.
in the
82
he keeps
facts
it
in organized
Whatever he brings
to the group
form of opinions,
to question
and experiences
criticism
must be open
and
on the
The
His aim
represents
is
He
"militarism
in
the
intellectr'l
[189]
ADULT EDUCATION
life."
*
we can
Purposeless
conversation
may have
two
too
little
questions have
many
sides as
is
and no
situation
"Where
a debate makes
much
chology.
not so
as with reasons.
The
distinction
important.
recite
well.
They do
and
his logical
head.
His reasons
lie
more
truly so-called
are the
,,
are
things that
to
deeper.
They
meaning
him of
his
own
experience.
Rules for
[190]
IN
TERMS OF METHOD
a joint conclusion.
to
make
more important
rules to bear in
mind
it
is
this:
reveals
After
its
we
inin-
Ensuing
who
by preceding
qualities.
ADULT EDUCATION
the group process; subsequent activity brings
this
educative process
within
the
scope
of
liv-
deeper
ing.
tific
of necessitous
Discussion
within sight of
new
is
analogous to hypothesis in
Activities
method.
ultimately
it is
validate
or
invalidate
thought, but
tion
from
and
also
provides a social
medium
in
which experimen-
We
act
do not
we
far,
through.
Thinking
carries us
only so
then action
[192]
IN
TERMS OF METHOD
The
what
constitutes a situits
and experience
for pur-
poses of (e)
view of
and
if necessary,
The
subject-approach
to
52d
Street,
"(l)
(2)
(3) (4)
What situation have we here? What sort of problem does it show? What new information does it involve? What action will set us on towards a solution?"
[193]
ADULT EDUCATION
education, on the contrary, begins
student's
by
filling the
mind with
specialized sequences of
is
expected
But,
and use
in future situations.
come
ness
and vigor
if
it
needed.
new adjustments
with old
calls for a
new kind of
of
teacher.
text-book as well as a
new type
Under conventional
fit
subjects whereas
demand
is
to
make
[194]
IN
TERMS OF METHOD
how
the prac-
of
life
The purpose of
meaning
adult education
to give
classifications
of knowledge.
Specialists
who
how
to relate their
It
life
who
continue to
less."
less
and
[195]
POSTSCRIPT
POSTSCRIPT
"There are two ways of taking the present worldwide agitation.
We
may
take
it
negatively, as
an
new meanings."
M.
Modern
and
life
C. Otto.
derives
its
momentum from
We are modern in
is
predominantly
machine-production.
"The world
is
now
it
faced
cannot
is
Where
will
it
take us?
There
no
knowing.
[199]
ADULT EDUCATION
We
conclusion:
forces in the
the
propelling
fruitfully
and meaning
to life.
Our
;
ideas
and our
activities
science
traditional.
forces
which
We
still
superannuated
ethics,
irrational
re-
modern
life in
technologies
are
that
we
up;
or, if it
happens
that
we never can
[200]
POSTSCRIPT
of things will always be in advance of our
ability
to control,
we may
name
so
rest
content in
many
explanations
If
life is to
to the
com-
If life
is
to
have
is
implied in making up
we
shall
need to learn
how
to
make adjustments
we
shall
relate ourselves to
mate-
tative
differences
both.
If thinking can
retrospectively,
its
[201]
ADULT EDUCATION
dominant
influence,
it
will be scarcely
worth
how
to think.
is
If,
on the
re-
we
are
and lead us
to
dynamic fellowship
is
no
if,
to
is
sum
up, intelligence
man
effort directed
toward
its
increase can be
wasted.
Growth
edge,
is
the goal of
life.
Power, knowlcreativity
freedom,
all
enjoyment,
these
and
we
which
of
is
to grow, to become.
And
the
meaning
life is
striving.
ends
[202]
POSTSCRIPT
which can be achieved
which
are conceived in
at
in
life, it lies
there
are
no
in
of their mean-
Q.
"Does
ment
effort
"No. A.
success
But
it
tional."
is
be the
final
aim of
effort,
the
But
what
itself!
if
What
if
there were
no goal to be
[203]
ADULT EDUCATION
attained or,
what
is
tance?
What
if
meaning of
life
is
to be disreis
continuous
coterminous with
Education
is
the functions of
personality.
superficially
conlife.
ceived
when viewed
is life.
as a preparation for
Education
[204]
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
In addition to the following references which
bear a direct relationship to the present essay,
interested readers
tions
may
to
by applying
New
C.
W.
The American
EduCity;
cation,* 2
West 45th
New York
Illinois;
Association,
86 East
Pocono
Chicago,
Den-
mark.
*
The
is
now
preparing bibliographies.
[207]
ADULT EDUCATION
Foreword
For further elaboration of Danish civiliDenmark, A Co-operative Commonwealth by Frederic C. Howe, Harcourt 1921; Farm Life Abroad by E. C. Branson, University of North Carolina Press 1924; The Folk High Schools of Denmark and the Development of a Farming Community by Begtrup, Lund and Manniche, Oxford University Press, London; and the articles of Joseph K. Hart published in the Survey: Will Denmark Disarm? October 1,
1/
zation, see
1925; The Plastic Years, April 1, 1926; The Secret of the Independent Farmers of Denmark, June
1,
1926.
Chapter
2.
Chapter III
3.
Edgar A.
Singer,
[208]
REFERENCES
Same, p. 279. Bukharin, Historical Material* Nikolai 5. ism; International Publishers 1925; p. 34.
4.
Chapter IV
6. See
M.
P. Follett,
1920, and Creative Experience; 1924. 7. Horace M. Kallen, Culture and Democracy in the United States; Boni & Liveright
sion;
Doran 1922.
Chapter
10.
[209]
ADULT EDUCATION
13.
Edwin
B. Holt,
Holt 1915. 14. See No. 15. See No. 16. See No.
6.
10. 12.
Chapter VI
17.
16, 1926.
18. Charles
H.
Cooley,
Social
Process;
(See Chapters
XXXII
Mod-
and
ern
XXXV.)
A. N. Whitehead, Science and the
p.
19.
279-280.
20.
The
Way
and Purpose of Adult Education by Lord Haldane, A. E. Zimmern, Harold J. Laski, Albert Mansbridge and others; Oxford University
Press 1923; p. 100-101.
21
Leo
Stein,
On
REFERENCES
The New Republic, March
his
3, 1926.
2,
(See also
1925; ^Es-
thetic Experience, and Knowing and Feeling, March 17, 1926; Art and the Frame, March 24, 1926; Personality and Identification, March 31, 1926; Art and Society, April 14, 1926. 22. John Dewey, Experience and Nature;
p.
358.
IX on
23.
Knopf 1922;
p. 183.
Chapter VIII
25. See Modernizing the College, Adolph E. Meyer; American Review, Vol. IV, No. 3. 26. See Walter Lippmann's Public Opinion; Harcourt 1922; and The Phantom Public;
1925.
27. See
[211]
ADULT EDUCATION
Chapter
28. C. Delisle Burns,
IX
(London) 1925.
this
29. For a
Company
1924.
Chapter
31.
X
Think; Heath
John Dewey,
How We
1910; p. 78.
32. For further details in connection with
discussion methods, see Joining in Public Dis-
cussion
by A. D.
Sheffield;
Foundations of
Method by W. H.
and
Kilpatrick;
Macmillan
How
to
Run Them by
E. E.
per 1925;
The
Why
and
How
[212]
REFERENCES
cussion
by H.
S.
(published by
Street,
1923; Creative Discussion and other pamphlets The Inquiry, 129 East 52d
33.
Influencing
Human
also his
public^
Behavior; People's Institute 1925; p. 253. See Reason and the Fight Image, New Re-
34. Creative Discussion^ p. 16 (published by The Inquiry, 129 East 52d Street, New York
City).
Postscript
[213]
INDEX
INDEX
Casts, hereditary, 134
Cause and
Activity, 107 Activities, 162 Adjusting process, 135
Centrality,
effect,
132
of,
illusion
131
109
Class-consciousness, 151 Classic tradition, 97 Classicism, 102 Coercion, 161 Collective ideas, IOI Collectivism, 151, 152, 159
Collectivity,
Art
spirit,
no
148
Communication,
148
139,
140,
B
Bacon, Francis, 31, 32, 43 Beauty, 88, 106, 107 Behavior, 138
Bosses,
125
Communities, 53
Community,
50, 154
Community
Brandes, Georg, 109 British Parliament, 120 Bukharin, N., 34 Burns, Delisle, 154
Conference, 191
Conflict, 71, 146, 159, 163, Conflict, creative, 153
Capitalism, j6
Capitalist,
22t 36
Congress, 121 Conversation, 138, 185 Cooley, Charles H., 131 Cortex, 69 Creative discussion, 193 Creative mood, 90, 93
[217]
INDEX
Creativeness, 87, 93, 147
Creativity, 84
Critics, 108 Cultural ends, 99 Cultural ideas, 101 Culture, 101, in Curricula, 118, 122
Emotions, 104, 105 Employees, 160 Ends, 47, 94 England, 100 Enjoyable Experience, 99 Enjoyment, 98, 09, no
Enterprises,
Collective,
159
Customs, 42
Environment, 25, 74, 75, 183 Environment, social, 165 Essay on Liberty, 65 Esthetics, 88
60,
89
Denmark,
166
vii,
viii,
6,
IOO,
Esthetic Values, 107 Ethics, 158, 199 Euripides, 43 Europe, 103 Evolution, 104 Examinations, 178
Experience,
10,
24, 25,
137,
Departmental,
126
Government,
69, 73,
Dewey, John,
109,
184
55,
Uh
Experience, Emotional, 171 Experiences, Creative, 68 Experiment, 24 Expert Functions, 137 Experts, 125, 127, 130, 132,
134,
139,
Ml
.
Fact-finding, 23 Facts, 20, 21, 170 Fact-using, 23 Fantasies, 73, 93 Farmer, 150 Feelings, 100, 106
[218]
INDEX
Folk Expression, 102 Follett, M. P., 56, 69
Forbergr, Friedrich Carl, 203
Formalism, 27 France, Anatole, v, 106 Free Will, 65 Friction, 146 Functions, Collective, 166
67
Ideals, 72
Imperialism, 36
Incentives, 51
Independence, 34
Games,
59, 107
151
36
Goldenweiser,
Alexander,
in
Goodness, 24 Gordon, R. G., 69 Government, 125 Government, Parliamentary, 129 Graduate Study, 123 Great Britain, 166 Great Society, 36
Industry, 119, 123, 124 Information, 19 Institutions, 165 Integration, 18, 104, 132
Intellectual class, 27 Intellectualism, 105 Intelligence, 20, 105 Intelligence, Native, 164 Intelligence, Functional, 164 Intelligence tests, 73 Interests, 22, 153. 159 Interstate Commerce Commission, 126
Greek Culture, ix
157,
159,
165,
Inquiry,
172, 201
Growth,
Issues,
193 Technical,
126
H
Habits, 25, 187
James, William, 52
K
Knowledgment, 20 Knowledge, 31
[219]
INDEX
the Many, 66 Order, Social, 166 Organism, 145, 146 Organism as a whole, 133 Orientation Studies, 122 Organization, Social, 163
One and
Labor, 38, 39 of Nature, 21
Laws
Life,
Laymen, 136
Liberalism, 129
Collective,
159
Pacifists,
Painting,
157 102
M
Machiavellian, 65
Play, 58
Politics, 91 Politicians, 160 Practice, Social,
148
Morgan,
158 Lloyd, 69
129
N
Nationalism, 36
Need, 149
Nietzsche, 77
Reason,
161
[220]
INDEX
Revolution, 77
Revolutionists, 75 Revolution of the mind, 37 Rousseau, John Jacques, 66
Subject-teaching, 177 Superstition, 186 Survey Courses, 121 Survival, 160 Synthesis, 52-53
34 35
84,
Self-knowledge, 72 Sensibility, 112 Sentimentality, 160 Sentiments, 104 Singer, Edgar A., 32 Situations, 8, 180-181-182 Situations, Approach, 9, 193 Situation-as-a-whole, 183
19 Social Control, 92, 139 Social Order, 14 Socrates, 43 Society, 66, 159 Specialism, 49, 109-110, 117
Skill,
Tariff Commission, 126 Taste, 97 Teachers, 12, 107-108, 159, 194 Technicians, 125 Technique, Collective, 159 Technologies, 40 Technologists, 126 Textbook, 194 Theory, Social, 148 Thinkers, 133 Thinking, 104, 152 Thinking, orderly, 192 Thought, 18 Trade Unionism, 123-124
91, 156
U
Unamuno, Miguel,
Undergraduate United States,
19 Study,
Medical, 132 Stimulus, 23, 67, 68, 155 State, 120 Structure, Social, 153 Struggle, 145-146 Struggle Technique, 38 Subjects, 173, 176 Subject, approach, 177 Subject matter, 9
Specialists,
122
Universities, 118
[221]
INDEX
View, Organic, 13a
Vision, 130
xi, ix,
61
W
Wateau, 71 Western Civilization, 33 Whitehead, A. N., 106
Yeaxlee, Basil
M.
11
[222]
,-.
LC5215.L5 1926a
3 9358 00290182 2
Lindeman, Eduard Christian The meaning of adult education. New York, New Republic, inc., 1926.
290182