Medical Imaging

Fox, M..D., Frizzell, L.A., Franks, L.A., Darken, L.S., James, R.B.
Medical Imaging
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
116
NedIcaI ImagIng
116.1 Tomogiaphy
Computeiized Tomogiaphy Position Emission
Tomogiaphy Single Photon Emission Computed
Tomogiaphy Magnetic Resonance Imaging Imaging
116.2 Ultiasound
Fundamentals of Acoustics Piinciples of Pulse-Echo
Ultiasound Futuie Developments
116.3 Semiconductoi Detectois foi Radiation Measuiements
Ciyogenic Detectois Tiue Room-Tempeiatuie Detectois
Silicon Detectois Piices and Availability
116.1 Tumugraphy
M. D. ox
The teim tomography deiives fiom the Gieek omos (cutting) and gra|o (to wiite). Oiiginally the teim was
applied to sectional iadiogiaphy achieved by a synchionous motion of the x-iay souice and detectoi in oidei
to blui undesiied data while cieating a shaip image of the selected plane. The teim omogra|y was used to
distinguish between such slices and the moie conventional plain flm iadiogiaph, which iepiesents a two-
dimensional shadowgiaphic supeiposition of all x-iay absoibing stiuctuies within a volumetiic body.
Computeiized tomogiaphy, also known as computerized axial tomography, was intioduced by EMI, Ltd.
in 1973 and tiansfoimed medical imaging by obviating the supeiposition of inteivening stiuctuies piesent in
conventional iadiogiaphic images. Initially, the clinical application was foi imaging the head, but soon the
technique found wide application in body imaging.
As medical imaging has evolved into a multimodality feld, the meaning of tomogiaphy has bioadened to
include any images of thin cioss-sectional slices, iegaidless of the modality utilized to pioduce them. Thus,
tomogiaphic images can be geneiated by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultiasound (US), computeiized
tomogiaphy (CT), oi such nucleai medicine techniques as positron emission tomography (PET) oi single
photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT). Foi the puiposes of this discussion we will covei all of
the foiegoing modalities with the exception of ultiasound, which will be tieated sepaiately.
Since the powei of such computeiized techniques was iecognized, the piactice of iadiology has been ievo-
lutionized by making possible much moie piecise diagnosis of a wide iange of conditions. In this necessaiily
biief discussion we will desciibe the basic physical piinciples of the majoi tomogiaphic modalities as well as
theii key clinical applications.
Cumputerized Tumugraphy
The basic concept of computeiized tomogiaphy can be desciibed by consideiation of Fig. 116.1. An x-iay souice
is passed thiough an apeituie to pioduce a fan-shaped beam that passes thiough the body of inteiest with
absoiption along appioximately paiallel lines. The natuial logaiithm of the detected intensity will be the integial
of the lineai attenuation coeffcient of the object along the iay diiected fiom the souice to the detectoi element.
If the souice and the detectoi aiiay aie synchionously iotated about a point within the object, a numbei of
N. I. !ox
Inverry of Connecrcur
Leon A. !rIzzeII
Inverry of I||no
Larry A. !ranIs
Sondo Norono| Iobororore
Larry S. IarIen
Oxford Inrrumenr
RaIph B. }ames
Sondo Norono| Iobororore
AARATIS AI NTHI !R
ITCTIC CACR I TISSI
RaymonJ V. DamaJan
PaeneJ Fe|ruary 5, 1974
#J,789,8J2
Exceipts fiom Raymond Damadian`s patent application:
...I |as now |een [ounJ |a, |y measurng |e Jegree o[ organ:aon o[ |ese se|eteJ mo|etu|es n te||s
|eng suJeJ anJ tomarng |s w| |e Jegree o[ organ:aon n a |nown tanterous te||, tanter te||s tan
|e JeeteJ. Fur|ermore, |as now |een [ounJ |a |e |ess |e organ:aon |e greaer |e ma|gnanty,
|ere[ore a sta|e tan |e maJe o roJe a sanJarJ [or |asng a Jetson on |e Jegree o[ ma|gnanty...
...Fur|er aaraus s roJeJ [or stannng |roug|ou |e enre |oJy Jurng w|t| me |e re|axaon
mes are measureJ [or se|eteJ nut|e anJ tomareJ w| sanJarJs. In |s way a Jeermnaon tan |e
maJe o[ |e exsente o[ tanter oge|er w| |e |otaon anJ Jegree o[ ma|gnanty o[ |e tanterous te||s
resen....
This patent desciibes a device that uses veiy poweiful magnetic felds to iesonate the nuclei in cells
in a body. Collapsing the feld and measuiing the ielaxation times gave a compaiison to healthy cells.
Latei advances in digital signal piocessing have iesulted in magnetic iesonance imaging (MRI) equipment
with coloi-coded image viewing of living tissue and its chemical composition. (Copyiight C 1995, DewRay
Pioducts, Inc. Used with peimission.)
lines of data can be collected, each iepiesenting the piojected density of the object as a function of lateial
position and angle.
A numbei of mathematical techniques can and have been used to iecovei the two-dimensional distiibution
of the lineai attenuation coeffcient fiom this aiiay of measuiements. These include iteiative solution of a set
of simultaneous lineai equations, Fouiiei tiansfoim appioaches, and techniques utilizing back-piojection
followed by deconvolution Macovski, 1983]. Conceptually, the Fouiiei tiansfoim appioach is peihaps the most
stiaightfoiwaid, so we will desciibe it in some detail.
Using the cooidinate system of Fig. 116.1(A) and assuming paiallel iays, the intensity picked up by the
detectoi aiiay can be expiessed as
I
J
(y) I
0
exp-[a(x,y)Jx]
wheie a(x,y) iepiesents the lineai attenuation coeffcient to x-iay photons within the body as a function of x,y
position, and I
0
is the souice intensity. Reaiianging, we see that
wheie a
(y) is the piojected attenuation function. Taking a one-dimensional Fouiiei tiansfoim of this piojected
density function we see that
wheie
([
y
) is the Fouiiei tiansfoim of a single line of detected data. But this can also be wiitten
FIGURE 116.1 Compaiison of thiee photon-based tomogiaphic imaging modalities.
a y a x y Jx I y I
J
( ) ( , ) ln ( )/ ]
-

~
~
[
0
F a y [ a x y Jxe Jy
y
, [ y
y
( )] ( ) ( , )
-
- -

~
~
~
~
[ [
2r
Thus, the one-dimensional Fouiiei tiansfoim of the piojection of the lineai attenuation function, a
(y), is equal
to the two-dimensional Fouiiei tiansfoim of the oiiginal attenuation function evaluated along a line in the
fiequency domain (in this case the [
x
0 line).
It can ieadily be demonstiated that if we iotate a function a(x,y) thiough an angle o in the x,y plane, its
tiansfoim will be similaily iotated thiough an angle o Castleman, 1979]. Thus as we iotate the souice and
detectoi aiound the object, each piojected density function detected a
(p,o
) can be Fouiiei tiansfoimed to

piovide one iadial line of the two-dimensional Fouiiei tiansfoim of the desiied ieconstiucted image, (p,o
),
wheie p is a iadial spatial fiequency. The set of all (p,o
) foi small angulai displacements o
foim a set of
spokes in the tiansfoim domain which can be inteipolated to estimate ([
x
,[
y
), the two-dimensional Fouiiei
tiansfoim of the image in iectangulai cooidinates. The image can then be iecoveied by inveise tiansfoimation
of ([
x
,[
y
), which can ieadily be caiiied out digitally using fast Fouiiei tiansfoim algoiithms, i.e,
a(x,y) F
-1
([
x
,[
y
)]
While the Fouiiei tiansfoim appioach is mathematically stiaightfoiwaid, many commeicial scanneis utilize
the equivalent but moie easily implemented back-piojection/deconvolution appioach, wheie each iay is tiaced
back along its piopagation axis. When all iays have been back-piojected and the iesult summed, one obtains
an appioximate (bluiied) image of that plane. This image can then be shaipened (debluiied) thiough the use
of an appiopiiate fltei, which is usually implemented by convolving with an appiopiiate two-dimensional
debluiiing function. Refei to Macovski 1983] foi the details of this piocess.
Clinically, the impact of computeiized tomogiaphy was diamatic due to the vastly incieased density iesolu-
tion, coupled with the elimination of the supeiposition of oveilying stiuctuies, allowing enhanced diffeienti-
ation of tissues with similai x-iay tiansmittance, such as blood, muscle, and oigan paienchyma. CT scans of
the head aie useful foi evaluation of head injuiy and detection of tumoi, stioke, oi infection. In the body, CT
is also excellent in detecting and chaiacteiizing focal lesions, such as tumois and abscesses, and foi the evaluation
of the skeletal system. Axel et al., 1983]. In iecent yeais the advent of magnetic iesonance systems has piovided
even gieatei soft tissue contiast, and thus the iole of CT has been constiained by this at times competing
modality.
Pusitrun Emissiun Tumugraphy
Unlike computeiized tomogiaphy, which ielies on photons pioduced by an exteinal souice, in the modalities
of position emission tomogiaphy (PET) and single photon emission computed tomogiaphy (SPECT), the
souice of iadiation is a iadioisotope that is distiibuted within the body, and thus these modalities aie sometimes
iefeiied to as foims of emission computed tomogiaphy (ECT). While conventional CT can pioduce images
based upon anatomy of oigans, emission CT techniques can quantitate the distiibution of tiacei mateiials that
can potentially elucidate physiologic function.
The position oi positive election is a positively chaiged paiticle that can be emitted fiom the nucleus of a
iadionuclide. The position tiavels at most a few millimeteis befoie being annihilated by inteiaction with a
negative election fiom the suiiounding tissue. The pioduct of this event is the emission of 511-keV gamma
iay photons which tiavel in almost exactly opposite diiections. The detectois themselves can be eithei disciete
detectois oi a modifed Angei cameia like those used in conventional nucleai imaging. A coincidence detectoi
is employed to limit iecoided outputs to cases in which events aie detected simultaneously in both detectoi
aiiays, thus ieducing the pickup of noise oi scatteiing.
A possible detection scheme is illustiated in Fig. 116.1(B). The detectoi aiiays shown can be made eneigy
selective to eliminate lowei eneigy scatteied gamma iays. While the distiibution of iadioactivity can be iecon-
stiucted using the ieconstiuction fiom piojection techniques desciibed in the section on CT Huiculak, 1987],
[ a x y Jxe Jy
y
, x [ y
y
( , ) ( , )
- ( )
- -
0
2 0
+
~
~
~
~
[ [
r
the x,y souice position of an event can be deteimined diiectly fiom the detection geometiy as follows Macovski,
1983]:
x - x
L
J
R
/(J
R
- J
L
) - x
R
J
L
/(J
R
- J
L
)
y - y
L
J
R
/(J
R
- J
L
) - y
R
J
L
/(J
R
- J
L
)
Typically a single plane is studied, and no collimatois aie iequiied. A diawback of PET has been that because
of the shoit half-lives of position-pioducing iadioisotopes, the use of this modality has iequiied the piesence
of an expensive cyclotion facility located neai the hospital.
One impoitant iadionuclide commonly used in PET is oxygen 15 with a half-life of 2.07 minutes, which can
be bonded to watei foi measuiement of ceiebial blood ow oi to O
2
/CO
2
to assess ceiebial oxygen utilization.
Anothei is caibon 11 with a half-life of 20.4 minutes, which can be bonded to glucose to tiace glucose utilization.
F-18 uoiodeoxyglucose (FDG) has been used to demonstiate the degiee of malignancy of piimaiy biain
tumois, to distinguish neciosis fiom tumoi, and to piedict outcome Coleman, 1991]. Peihaps the most unusual
featuie of this modality is the ability to quantitate the iegional metabolism of the human heait Schelbeit, 1990].
Sing!e Phutun Emissiun Cumputed Tumugraphy
In contiast to PET, SPECT can be utilized with any iadioisotope that emits gamma iays, including such common
iadioisotopes as Tc-99m, I-125, and I-131 which have been utilized in conventional nucleai imaging foi the
last 30-35 yeais and which due to theii ielatively long half-lives aie available at ieasonable cost at neaily eveiy
modein hospital. Due to the need foi diiection sensitivity of the detectoi, a collimatoi must be used to eliminate
gamma iays fiom othei than the piesciibed diiection, thus iesulting in a 1-2 oidei of magnitude deciease in
quantum effciency as compaied with PET scanning Knoll, 1983].
The basic concept of SPECT is illustiated in Fig. 116.1(C). A gamma iay photon fiom a iadionuclide with
eneigy above 100 keV will typically escape fiom the body without fuithei inteiaction, and thus the body can
be iegaided as a tianspaient object with luminosity piopoitional to the concentiation of the iadionuclide at
each point. The ieconstiuction mathematics aie similai to those deiived foi absoiption CT, with the exception
that the vaiiable ieconstiucted is a souice distiibution iathei than an attenuation coeffcient. Some eiiois can
be intioduced in the ieconstiuction because of the inevitable inteiaction of gamma iays with oveilying tissue,
even at eneigies above 100 keV, although this can be compensated foi to some extent. Detection of scatteied
iadiation can be ieduced thiough the use of an eneigy acceptance window in the detectoi.
Technetium 99m can be used to tag ied blood cells foi blood pool measuiements, human seium albumin
foi blood pool and piotein distiibution, oi monoclonal antibodies foi potential detection of individual tumois
oi blood cells. Emission computed tomogiaphy techniques such as PET and SPECT follow the iecent tiend
towaid imaging techniques that image physiologic piocesses as opposed to anatomic imaging of oigan systems.
The ielatively low cost of SPECT systems has led to a iecent iesuigence of inteiest in this modality.
Magnetic Resunance Imaging
The basic magnetic iesonance concept has been used as a tool in
chemistiy and physics since its discoveiy by Bloch in 1946, but its use
expanded tiemendously in the 1980s with the development of means
to iepiesent magnetic iesonance signals in the foim of tomogiaphic
images. Magnetic iesonance imaging is based on the magnetic piop-
eities of atomic nuclei with odd numbeis of piotons oi neutions,
which exhibit magnetic piopeities because of theii spin. The piedom-
inant souice of magnetic iesonance signals in the human body is
hydiogen nuclei oi piotons. In the piesence of an exteinal magnetic
feld, these hydiogen nuclei align along the axis of the feld and can
piecess oi wobble aiound that feld diiection at a defnite fiequency
known as the Laimoui fiequency. This can be expiessed:
FIGURE 116.2 Geometiy of piecessing
pioton in a static magnetic feld oiiented
in the : diiection.
[
0
yH
wheie [
0
is the Laimoui fiequency, y is the gyiomagnetic iatio which is a piopeity of the atomic element, and
H is the magnitude of the exteinal magnetic feld. Foi example, given a gyiomagnetic iatio of 42.7 MHz/tesla
foi hydiogen and a feld stiength of 1 tesla (10 kilogauss), the Laimoui fiequency would be 42.7 MHz, which
falls into the iadio fiequency iange.
The magnetic iesonance effect occuis when nuclei in a static magnetic feld H aie excited by a iotating
magnetic feld H
1
in the x,y plane, iesulting in a total vectoi feld M given by
M H z - H
1
(x cos u
0
- y sin u
0
)
Upon cessation of excitation, the magnetic feld decays back to its oiiginal alignment with the static feld H,
emitting electiomagnetic iadiation at the Laimoui fiequency, which can be detected by the same coil that
pioduced the excitation Macovski, 1983].
Imaging
As shown in Fig. 116.3, one method foi imaging utilizes a tiansmit/ieceive coil to emit a magnetic feld at
fiequency [
0
which is the Laimoui fiequency of plane P. Subsequently, magnetic giadients aie applied in the y
and x diiections. The detected signal duiing the data collection window can be expiessed as
wheie s(x,y) iepiesents the magnetic iesonance signal at position (x,y) (C
x
,C
y
) aie the x and y giadients,
x
is
time within the data collection window,
y
is the y diiection giadient application times, and y is the gyiomagnetic
iatio. The two-dimensional spatial integiation is obtained by appiopiiate geometiy of the detection coil.
Collecting a numbei of such signals foi a iange of
y
, we can obtain the two-dimensional function S(
x
,
y
).
Compaiing this to the two-dimensional Fouiiei tiansfoim ielation
FIGURE 116.3 Concept of magnetic iesonance imaging. The static magnetic feld H
0
has a giadient such that excitation
at fiequency [
0
excites only the plane P. Giadient C
y
in the y diiection is applied foi time
y
, causing a phase shift along the
y diiection. Giadient C
x
in the x diiection is applied foi time
x
, causing a fiequency shift along the x diiection. Repetition
of this piocess foi diffeient
y
allows the ieceive coil to pick up a signal which is the two-dimensional Fouiiei tiansfoim of
the magnetic iesonance effect within the slice.
S s x y C x C y Jx Jy
x y x x y y
( , ) ( , ) exp- ( )]
- -
+
~
~
~
~
[ [
y
F u [ x y ux y Jx Jy ( , ) ( , ) exp- ( )]
- -
+
~
~
~
~
[ [
2r
we see that the detected signal S(
x
,
y
) is the two-dimensional Fouiiei tiansfoim of the magnetic iesonance
signal s(x,y) with u yC
x
x
/2r, yC
y
y
/2r. The magnetic iesonance signal s(x,y) depends on the piecise
sequence of pulses of magnetic eneigy used to peituib the nuclei. Foi a typical sequence known as spin-echo
consisting of a 90-degiee pulse followed by a 180-degiee pulse spaced at time t with the data collection at
e

2t, and
r
being the iepetition time between 90-degiee pulses, the detected magnetic iesonance signal can be
expiessed
s(x,y) p(1 - e
-r
/T
1
)(e
-e
/T
2
)
wheie p is the pioton density, and T
1
(the spin-lattice decay time) and T
2
(the spin-spin decay time) aie constants
of the mateiial ielated to the bonding of watei in cells Wolf and Popp, 1984]. Typically T
1
ianges fiom 0.2 to
1.2 seconds, while T
2
ianges fiom 0.05 to 0.15 seconds.
By modifcation of the iepetition and oiientation of excitation pulses, an image can be made T
1
, T
2
, oi pioton
density dominated. A pioton density image shows static blood and fat as white and bone as black, while a T
1
weighted image shows fat as white, blood as giay, and ceiebiospinal uid as black. T
2
weighted images tend to
highlight pathology since pathologic tissue tends to have longei T
2
than noimal.
In geneial, magnetic iesonance imaging has gieatei intiinsic ability to distinguish between soft tissues than
computeiized tomogiaphy. It also has some ability to visualize moving blood. As the pieceding discussion
indicates, magnetic iesonance is a iichei and moie complex modality than CT. Typically MRI has been moie
expensive than CT. Both MRI and CT have been used piimaiily foi anatomic imaging, but MRI has the potential
thiough spectioscopy (visualization of othei nuclei than hydiogen) to become a factoi in physiologic imaging.
Thus, it can be anticipated that magnetic iesonance imaging will continue to inciease and become an even
moie impoitant modality in the next decade.
Dehning Terms
Computerized axial tomography (CATscan, CT): A foim of medical imaging based upon the lineai attenu-
ation coeffcient of x-iays in which a tomogiaphic image is ieconstiucted fiom computei-based analysis
of a multiplicity of x-iay piojections taken at diffeient angles aiound the body.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI, NMR): Afoim of medical imaging with tomogiaphic display which
iepiesents the density and bonding of piotons (piimaiily in watei) in the tissues of the body, based upon
the ability of ceitain atomic nuclei in a magnetic feld to absoib and ieemit electiomagnetic iadiation
at specifc fiequencies.
Positron emission tomography (PET scan): A foim of tomogiaphic medical imaging based upon the density
of position-emitting iadionuclides in an object.
Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT): A foim of tomogiaphic medical imaging based
upon the density of gamma iay-emitting iadionuclides in the body.
Tomography: A method of image piesentation in which the data is displayed in the foim of individual slices
that iepiesent planai sections of the object.
Re!ated Tupic
35.1 Maxwell Equations
Relerences
L. Axel, P.H. Aigei, and R. Zimmeiman, Applications of computeiized tomogiaphy to diagnostic iadiology,"
ProteeJngs o[ |e IEEE, vol. 71, no. 3, p. 293, Maich 1983.
K.R. Castleman, Dga| Image Protessng, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1979.
R.E. Coleman, Single photon emission computed tomogiaphy and position emission tomogiaphy," Canter,
vol. 67 (4 Suppl.), pp. 1261-1270, Feb. 1991.
P.M. Huiculak, Position emission tomogiaphy," CanaJan Journa| o[ MeJta| RaJaon Tet|no|ogy, vol. 18,
no. 1, Maich 1987.
G.F. Knoll, Single-photon emission computed tomogiaphy," ProteeJngs o[ |e IEEE, vol. 71, no. 3, p. 320,
Maich 1983.
A. Macovski, MeJta| Imagng Sysems, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1983.
H.R. Schelbeit, Futuie peispectives: Diagnostic possibilities with position emission tomogiaphy," Roengen
B|aeer, vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 384-390, Sept. 1990.
G.L. Wolf and C. Popp, NMR, Prmer [or MeJta| Imagng, Thoiofaie, N.J.: Slack, Inc., 1984.
Further Inlurmatiun
The jouinal IEEE Transatons on MeJta| Imagng desciibes advances in imaging techniques and image pio-
cessing. Inesgae RaJo|ogy, published by the Association of Univeisity Radiologists, emphasizes ieseaich
caiiied out by hospital-based physicists and engineeis. RaJo|ogy, published by the Noith Ameiican Society of
Radiologists, contains aiticles which emphasize clinical applications of imaging technology. Dagnost Imagng,
publishing by Millei Fieeman, Inc., is a good souice of ieview aiticles and infoimation on the imaging
maiketplace.
116.2 L!trasuund
Ieon A. rzze||
Ultiasound, acoustic waves at fiequencies highei than those audible by humans, has developed ovei the past
35 yeais into an indispensable clinical diagnostic tool. Cuiiently, ultiasound is used to image most paits of the
body. Moie than half of all piegnant women in the United States aie examined with ultiasound. This widespiead
utilization has iesulted fiom ultiasound`s pioven clinical utility foi imaging soft tissues compaied to moie
expensive imaging techniques. The development of ultiasound, paiticulaily foi fetal examinations, has also
been fosteied by its safety iecoid; no case of an adveise biological effect induced by diagnostic ultiasound has
evei been iepoited in humans AIUM, 1988].
Diagnostic ultiasound systems aie used piimaiily foi soft tissue imaging, motion detection, and ow mea-
suiement. Except foi some Dopplei instiuments, these systems opeiate in a pulse-echo mode. A biief summaiy
of some of the fundamentals of acoustic wave piopagation and the piinciples of ultiasound imaging follows.
Fundamenta!s ul Acuustics
Unlike electiomagnetic waves, acoustic waves iequiie a medium foi piopagation. The acoustic wave phenom-
enon causes displacement of paiticles (consisting of many molecules), which iesults in piessuie and density
changes within the medium. Foi a tiaveling sinusoidal wave, the vaiiation in acoustic piessuie (the diffeience
between the total and ambient piessuie), excess density, paiticle displacement, paiticle velocity, and paiticle
acceleiation can all be iepiesented by the foim
P e
-ox
cos(u - |x) (116.1)
foi a wave piopagating in the positive x diiection, wheie is the piessuie (oi one of the othei paiameteis listed
above), P is its amplitude, u is the angulai fiequency, and u 2r[ wheie [ is the fiequency in heitz, | is the
piopagation constant and | u/t wheie t is the piopagation speed, o is the attenuation coeffcient, and is
the time. The wave can expeiience signifcant attenuation, as iepiesented by the exponential decay of amplitude
with distance, duiing piopagation in tissues. The attenuation coeffcient vaiies gieatly among tissues Goss
et al., 1978, 1980; Haney and O`Biien, 1986] but is low foi most body uids, much highei foi solid tissues, and
veiy high foi bone and lung (see Table 116.1). The skin depth is the distance that the wave can piopagate befoie
being attenuated to e
-1
of its oiiginal amplitude and is thus simply the inveise of the attenuation coeffcient.
Ultiasound is typically used to image soft body tissues such as livei, but the sound beam often tiavels thiough
uids, foi example, thiough amniotic uid when imaging the fetus. Geneially, bone and lung aie not imaged
with ultiasound. The attenuation piocesses include absoiption, which is the conveision of acoustic eneigy to
heat, and scatteiing, which will be addiessed latei. The attenuation incieases ioughly lineaily with fiequency
in the 2- to 10-MHz iange typically used foi medical imaging. This iange iepiesents a compiomise between
incieased penetiation at lowei fiequencies (because of decieased attenuation) and impioved iesolution asso-
ciated with highei fiequencies as discussed below. Thus, the lowei fiequencies aie used when gieatei penetiation
is iequiied, such as foi fetal imaging in the obese patient, and highei fiequencies foi lessei penetiation, such
as the examination of peiipheial vasculai ow.
When an acoustic wave impinges on an inteiface between two media of diffeient specifc acoustic impedance,
a poition of the incident eneigy is ieected. Foi noimal incidence on an infnite plane inteiface, the piessuie
ieection coeffcient is given by Kinslei et al., 1982]
(116.2)
wheie :
1
and :
2
aie the specifc acoustic impedance of the incident and tiansmitting media, iespectively. Foi a
plane wave the specifc acoustic impedance is equal to the chaiacteiistic impedance which is the pioduct of the
density and acoustic speed in the medium (see Table 116.1). The speed is dependent upon the density and the
elastic piopeities of the medium. Thus, at an inteiface between media exhibiting diffeient densities oi elastic
piopeities, i.e., compiessibility, some acoustic eneigy will be ieected. Although the ieection coeffcient at an
inteiface between muscle and bone is laige (appioximately 0.54) the ieection coeffcient between two soft
tissues such as livei and muscle is quite small (appioximately 0.006). Reection at oblique incidence obeys
Snell`s law in the same way it applies to electiomagnetic waves.
In addition to the speculai ieection that occuis at an inteiface between two media of diffeient specifc
acoustic impedance as desciibed above (wheie any cuivatuie along the inteiface is negligible ovei distances
compaiable to a wavelength), eneigy may also be scatteied in all diiections by inhomogeneities in the medium.
An acoustic image is foimed by using this scatteied eneigy as well as speculai ieections. The fiaction of the
incident eneigy ieected oi scatteied is veiy small foi soft tissues.
Although it is convenient to considei plane waves of infnite lateial extent, as was done above, ieal souices
geneiate fnite beams of ultiasound. These souices may be unfocused, but foi the typical diagnostic system
they aie focused. Figuie 116.4 shows the acoustic feld fiom a typical focused souice. The souice consists of a
piezoelectiic tiansducei which conveits electiical to acoustic eneigy and vice veisa. Most tiansduceis foi medical
applications aie made fiom ceiamic mateiials such as a lead ziiconate titanate (PZT) mixtuie. Foi a ciiculai
apeituie these may be ciiculai disks with a plano-concave lens mounted in fiont to pioduce spheiical focusing.
Alteinatively, the tiansducei itself may be a spheiical segment that pioduces a focused feld without a lens.
Some piobes utilize electionic focusing methods. Such a phased aiiay piobe consists of many individual
elements which can be excited with signals having a contiolled delay with iespect to one anothei such that the
TABLE 116.1 Appioximate Ultiasonic Attenuation Coeffcient, Speed, and
Chaiacteiistic Impedance foi Watei and Selected Tissues at 3.5 MHz
Attenuation Coeffcient Speed Chaiacteiistic Impedance
Tissue (m
-1
) (m/s) (10
6
Pa s/m)
Watei 0.2 1520 1.50
Amniotic uid 0.7 1510 1.51
Blood 7 1550 1.60
Livei 35 1580 1.74
Muscle 50 1560 1.72
Bone 800 3360 5.70
Lung 1000 340 0.25
R
: :
: :

+
2 1
2 1
signals constiuctively inteifeie at the desiied focal iegion. At a ieceivei the signals aie combined with delays
associated with vaiious elements to piovide ieinfoicement of the signals fiom a ieceiving focal iegion.
The 3 db lateial beam width D
L
is diiectly dependent upon the wavelength i and focal length F and inveisely
ielated to the apeituie diametei (diametei of the tiansducei) D Kino, 1987]:
(116.3)
Because [ i t, the highei the fiequency the smallei is i and D
L
. The smallei D
L
, the bettei the lateial iesolution
neai the focus, but the beam spiead is gieatei with distance fiom the focus. Thus, the stiength of the focusing
vaiies among tiansduceis so that the usei may choose veiy good iesolution ovei a shoit iegion oi somewhat
pooiei iesolution that is maintained ovei a gieatei depth. With phased aiiay tiansduceis, the focal iegion can
be vaiied dynamically to optimize lateial iesolution at all distances.
Princip!es ul Pu!se-Echu L!trasuund
Ultiasound imaging usually employs fiequencies in the 2- to 10-MHz iange, though some of the new intia-
vasculai piobes use highei fiequencies. Images aie foimed by using a tiansducei within a piobe to geneiate a
shoit pulse (typically on the oidei of 1 s in duiation) of ultiasound which is piopagated thiough the tissue.
A poition of the eneigy in this pulse is ieected back towaid the tiansducei fiom speculai ieectois and fiom
scatteieis in the tissue. These acoustic echoes, with amplitudes much lowei than the tiansmitted pulse, aie
conveited by the tiansducei to electiical signals which aie conveited to a (iectifed) video signal, amplifed by
a time gain contiolled amplifei, and displayed. The A-mode display is iaiely used but simply involves display
of the ieceived echoes as amplitude veisus time of aiiival. The time of aiiival is ielated by the wave speed to
the tissue depth fiom which the echo ietuins, i.e., J t/2. Figuie 116.5 piovides a veiy simple iepiesentation
of this piocess wheie the A-mode display associated with speculai ieection fiom thiee diffeient inteifaces is
illustiated. Foi clinical imaging the inteifaces would not necessaiily be peipendiculai to the axis of the sound
beam, and theie would be a continuum of echoes, a continuous ieceived signal, due to eneigy backscatteied
fiom within the tissues. Since the ultiasound pulse is attenuated as it piopagates, all ultiasonic imaging systems
use a logaiithmic vaiiation of amplifei gain with time to compensate the exponential attenuation of the tissue.
Thus, echoes fiom stiuctuies ieecting oi backscatteiing the same fiaction of the incident signal will have the
same amplitude aftei passing thiough the time gain contiolled amplifei.
A B-mode display is typically used foi ultiasound imaging. It involves display of the echoes at vaiious
biightness oi giay levels coiiesponding to theii amplitude. A two-dimensional B-mode display involves
movement of the tiansducei (manually oi automatically), movement of a miiioi to change the diiection of
the feld (automatically), oi movement of the ultiasound beam diiectly (electiically) such that it scans a plane
thiough the body. Figuie 116.6 piovides a simplifed iepiesentation (again, echoes aie shown as aiising fiom
inteifaces only) of the foimation of a B-mode image. The diiection of the beam is monitoied so that the ieceived
signals along each path aie placed in theii coiiect location on the display. Typically, the oiientation infoimation
and echoes aie piocessed by a digital scan conveitei foi appiopiiate display of the two-dimensional image on
FIGURE 116.4 Cioss section of a typical focused ciiculai ultiasound souice of apeituie diametei D and focal length F,
showing the focused beam of lateial beam width at the focus D
L
.
D
F
D
L
1 02 .
i
a cathode iay tube in the standaid foimat used foi television pictuie display. Most B-mode systems in use today
cieate an image in 0.1 s oi less, so that the image is displayed in ieal-time foi viewing of moving stiuctuies,
such as stiuctuies in the heait oi the fetus moving within the womb. This is not possible with the typical
magnetic iesonance oi computed tomogiaphy system.
FIGURE 116.5 (a) The tiansmitted pulse (heavy wave) and echoes fiom ieecting stiuctuies; (b) the iesulting A-mode
display.
FIGURE 116.6 (a) The tiansmitted pulse paths foi a iotating tiansducei piobe; (b) the iesulting two-dimensional B-mode
display of echoes fiom the inteifaces only.
Many systems now use digital piocessing to enhance poitions of the image. Foi example, it is possible to
emphasize the laige amplitude, small amplitude, oi midiange signals. It is also possible to peifoim a moie
sophisticated analysis to enhance edges.
Many specialty piobes have been designed foi intiacavitaiy examination. Examples include examination of
the fetus with a vaginal piobe, the piostate with a iectal piobe, and blood vessel walls with intiavasculai piobes.
The intiacavitaiy piobe offeis the advantage of decieasing the distance fiom the tiansducei to the tissue of
inteiest and thus decieasing attenuation such that highei fiequencies can be used foi gieatei iesolution. The
lateial iesolution of a focused piobe is impioved with fiequency as discussed in the pieceding subsection, but
the axial (along the ultiasound beam) iesolution also impioves with fiequency. The shoitei the tiansmitted
pulse, the bettei the axial iesolution. Shoitei pulses aie geneiated by souices with a laigei bandwidth, which
coiiesponds to a highei centei fiequency when the souices have bandwidths which aie appioximately the same
fiaction of the centei fiequency.
The use of ultiasound foi motion detection and measuiement has incieased tiemendously in iecent yeais.
Most of these systems use the Dopplei piinciple, but some use time domain detection. In Dopplei detection,
if the ultiasound is ieected fiom a taiget moving at some speed
towaid (away fiom) the souice at an angle

with iespect to the beam axis, the fiequency of the tiansmitted signal [ is shifted up (down) by an amount
[
D
, the Dopplei shift, accoiding to the following ielation:
(116.4)
In piinciple a measuiement of [
D
, when [, t, and aie known, will yield the speed of the taiget
t
. Howevei, it
is often diffcult to deteimine because the angle the tiansducei axis makes with a blood vessel, foi example,
is often unknown. Even when that angle is known, the ow is not necessaiily along the diiection of the vessel
at eveiy location and foi all times. Time domain detection of motion, by measuiing the movement of specifc
echoes fiom one pulse to anothei, is a iecently developed alteinative to Dopplei detection that is not cuiiently
widely used.
Foi many yeais duplex systems, which piovide both a two-dimensional image and a Dopplei signal, showing
the change of taiget speed with time, fiom a paiticulai selected taiget aiea, have been in wide use. Moie iecently,
color ow imaging has been employed, which piovides a two-dimensional coloi (typically ied oi blue) image
of ow towaid and away fiom the tiansducei supeiimposed on the giay scale image of stationaiy tissue
stiuctuies. Foi these systems the speed, whethei fiom Dopplei oi time domain detection schemes, is indicated
by coloi satuiation, hue, oi luminance. These systems have pioven veiy valuable foi detecting the existence of
ow in a iegion, detecting obstiuctions to ow and the tuibulence associated with this, detecting ieduced ow,
and so on. Some othei systems add to the coloi ow image a display of speed veisus time foi a iegion that is
defned by a usei-movable box.
Future Deve!upments
It seems cleai that the continuing development of intiacavitaiy tiansduceis, paiticulaily foi intiavasculai
imaging, and the use of ultiasound intiaopeiatively will lead to moie high-fiequency commeicially available
piobes that will pioduce bettei iesolution images foi these applications. The development of useful thiee-
dimensional ultiasonic imaging is piogiessing iapidly and should immediately impiove the measuiement of
tissue volumes Gilja et al., 1995].
Dehning Terms
A-mode display: Retuined ultiasound echoes displayed as amplitude veisus depth into the body.
B-mode display: Retuined ultiasound echoes displayed as biightness oi giay scale levels coiiesponding to
the amplitude veisus depth into the body.
[
[
t
D
2 cos
Color ow imaging or color Doppler: Two-dimensional image showing coloi-coded ow towaid and away
fiom the tiansducei displayed with the two-dimensional giay scale image of stationaiy taigets.
Duplex ultrasound: Simultaneous display of speed veisus time foi a chosen iegion and the two-dimensional
B-mode image.
Pulse-echo ultrasound: Using a piobe containing a tiansducei to geneiate a shoit ultiasound pulse and
ieceive echoes of that pulse, associated with speculai ieection fiom inteifaces between tissues oi scat-
teiing fiom inhomogeneities within the tissue, to foim a display of the tissue backscattei piopeities.
Two-dimensional B-mode display: Echoes fiom a tiansducei, oi beam, scanned in one plane displayed as
biightness (oi giay scale) veisus location foi the ietuined echo to pioduce a two-dimensional image.
Re!ated Tupic
48.1 Intioduction
Relerences
Ameiican Institute of Ultiasound in Medicine, Bioeffects consideiations foi the safety of diagnostic ultia-
sound," J. U|rasounJ MeJ., vol. 7, no. 9 (supplement), 1988.
O.H. Gilja, A.I. Smievoll, N. Thune, K. Matie, T. Hausken, S. Odegaaid, and A. Beistad, In vivo compaiison
of 3D ultiasonogiaphy and magnetic iesonance imaging in volume estimation of human kidneys,"
U|rasounJ MeJ. Bo|., vol. 21, pp. 25-32, 1995.
S.A. Goss, R.L. Johnston, and F. Dunn, Compiehensive compilation of empiiical ultiasonic piopeities of
mammalian tissues," J. tous. Sot. m., vol. 64, pp. 423-457, 1978.
S.A. Goss, R.L. Johnston, and F. Dunn, Compilation of empiiical ultiasonic piopeities of mammalian tissues.
II," J. tous. Sot. m., vol. 68, pp. 93-108, 1980.
M.J. Haney, and W.D. O`Biien, Ji., Tempeiatuie dependency of ultiasonic piopagation piopeities in biological
mateiials," in Tssue C|arater:aon w| U|rasounJ, vol. 1, J. Gieenleaf, Ed., Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC
Piess, 1986, pp. 15-55.
G. Kino, toust Vaes, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1987, p. 185.
L.E. Kinslei, A.R. Fiey, A.B. Coppens, and J.V. Sandeis, FunJamena|s o[ tousts, 3id ed., New Yoik: John
Wiley, 1982.
Further Inlurmatiun
The Ameiican Institute of Ultiasound in Medicine publishes monthly the Journa| o[ U|rasounJ n MeJtne,
which contains laigely clinically oiiented aiticles, and many clinically oiiented ultiasound texts aie available
coveiing almost any medical discipline. Howevei, theie aie only a few books that piovide moie than a cuisoiy
tieatment of the basic physics and instiumentation of ultiasound imaging.
One text that has been iegulaily updated since the fist volume appeaied in 1980 is Dagnost Sonogra|y.
Prnt|es anJ Insrumens, 4th edition, by F.W. Kiemkau (W.B. Saundeis, Philadelphia, 1993). Though this text
is designed piimaiily to tiain sonogiapheis who do not have a technical backgiound, it piovides the funda-
mentals of ultiasound imaging in a foimat that is veiy easy to iead and undeistand.
Othei texts that piovide a moie technical backgiound (though some aie a bit dated) include:
BomeJta| U|rasonts, by P. N. T. Wells (Academic Piess, New Yoik, 1977).
New Tet|nques anJ Insrumenaon n U|rasonogra|y, edited by P.N.T. Wells and M.C. Ziskin (Chuichill
Livingstone, New Yoik, 1980).
MeJta| P|ysts o[ CT anJ U|rasounJ, edited by G.D. Fulleiton and J.A. Zagzebski (Ameiican Institute of
Physics, New Yoik, 1980).
P|ysta| Prnt|es o[ MeJta| U|rasonts, edited by C. R. Hill (John Wiley, New Yoik, 1986).
U|rasont Bonsrumenaon, by D.A. Chiistensen (John Wiley, New Yoik, 1988).
T|e P|ysts o[ MeJta| Imagng, edited by S. Webb (IOP Publishing, New Yoik, 1988).
Prnt|es o[ MeJta| Imagng, by B. Tsui, M. Smith, and K.K. Shung (Academic Piess, New Yoik, 1992).
116.3 Semicunductur Detecturs Fur Radiatiun Measurements
Iorry A. ron|, Iorry S. Dor|en, ond Fo|| . jome
Since theii intioduction in the eaily 1960s, semiconductor radiation detectois have become the devices of choice
foi numeious X-iay, gamma-iay, and chaiged paiticle measuiements. They aie essential in applications wheie
maximum energy resolution (i.e., the ability to iecoid the eneigy of the incident photon oi paiticle) is iequiied.
In this chaiacteiistic, theii peifoimance gieatly exceeds that of gaseous sensois (piopoitional counteis, foi
example) oi scintillatoi/photocell-based spectiometeis. Theii supeiioi eneigy iesolution stems, in the main,
fiom the gieatei numbei of infoimation caiiieis geneiated in semiconductois pei unit of absoibed eneigy than
in, foi example, scintillatoi/photocell combinations, which aie widely used as low-iesolution spectiometeis. In
scintillatoi-based spectiometeis, appioximately 100 eV of absoibed eneigy is iequiied to geneiate a single
infoimation caiiiei. In a typical semiconductoi, only 3 to 5 eV aie iequiied to cieate one election-hole paii -
the infoimation caiiiei in semiconductoi detectois. The statistical vaiiation of the numbei of caiiieis pioduced
pei ionizing event is thus substantially gieatei in the case of the scintillatoi and is ieected in ieduced eneigy
iesolution. Similai aiguments apply to gaseous detectois, wheie the ielatively small numbei of infoimation
caiiieis is due to the combination of the low density of the absoibing gas and the signifcant eneigy iequiied
to pioduce ion-paiis ( 30 eV pei ion-paii, 1]), the infoimation caiiiei in the gas detectoi.
It is convenient to divide semiconductoi detectois into two gioups: those iequiiing cooling (noimally to
77K) and those capable of ioom tempeiatuie (oi neai ioom tempeiatuie) opeiation. The foimei gioup is
dominated by high-puiity geimanium (HPGe) and lithium diifted silicon (Si:Li) - a gioup chaiacteiized by
paiticulaily high eneigy iesolution. The lattei gioup includes detectois based on cadmium telluiide, cadmium
zinc telluiide, and meicuiic iodide, as well as a numbei of silicon-based devices. This gioup fnds application
in poitable X-iay and gamma-iay spectiometeis and counteis and imaging systems wheie the fieedom fiom
the weight and maintenance of a ciyogenic coolei is paiticulaily valued. This chaptei section is divided into
sections on ciyogenic detectois and ioom-tempeiatuie devices. Details of the physics of semiconductoi detectois
as well as theii peifoimance chaiacteiistics can be found in seveial texts 1-7].
Cryugenic Detecturs
Detectois in this gioup aie limited piincipally to high-puiity geimanium (HPGe) and lithium diifted silicon
(Si:Li). HPGe detectois aie available in a numbei of confguiations foi opeiation in the X-iay and gamma-iay
iegions. Si:Li detectois aie piimaiily foi the X-iay iegion. Ciyogenic detectois piovide the ultimate in eneigy
iesolution, as well as good detection effciency. Common to the gioup is the iequiiement that they be opeiated
in the iegion of 77K. In most cases, the detectoi tempeiatuie is maintained by liquid nitiogen (LN
2
) contained
in an attached ciyogenic vessel (dewai). Dewais aie available in capacities ianging fiom a few liteis to seveial
tens of liteis, depending on the seivice inteival that is acceptable and the degiee of poitability iequiied.
Alteinatively, electiomechanical cooleis aie also available.
Germanium Detecturs
High-puiity geimanium (HPGe) detectois aie widely used foi gamma-iay spectioscopy due to theii combina-
tion of effcient absoiption and high eneigy iesolution. Figuie 116.7 shows the cioss sections foi photoelectiic
absoiption, Compton scatteiing, and absoiption by election-position paii pioduction in seveial mateiials used
foi solid-state nucleai iadiation detectois. Attenuation is signifcantly stiongei in geimanium than in silicon.
Ovei much of the gamma spectium, the dominant inteiaction is Compton scatteiing. Howevei, it is piincipally
the stiongei photoelectiic absoiption in geimanium that makes it moie suitable than silicon foi gamma-iay
spectioscopy. In the typical geimanium detectoi, a gamma-iay can be scatteied seveial times befoie it is
photoelectiically absoibed. Thus, the eneigy of the gamma-iay is piimaiily tiansmitted diiectly to a small
numbei of elections. These eneigetic elections, in tuin, inteiact with elections in the valence bands to cieate
mobile paiis of elections and holes. The aveiage numbei of election-hole paiis N pioduced by a completely
absoibed gamma-iay of eneigy E becomes independent of the details of the initial ieaction path and vaiies
lineaily with E:
N E/ (116.5)
This ielationship is moie bioadly valid and is the foundation of eneigy spectioscopy of gamma-iays using
semiconductois, gases, and ciyogenic liquids ( depending on the mateiial). While is independent of the
gamma-iay eneigy (and is also viitually the same foi eneigy deposited by chaiged paiticles), in geimanium
does inciease slightly with decieasing tempeiatuie, as does the eneigy gap. At 77K, is 2.96 eV and the eneigy
gap is 0.72 eV.
Piactical exploitation of Eq. (116.5) depends on electionically detecting the motion of the ionized chaige in
an electiic feld. The signal-to-noise iatio is impioved by ieducing cuiient ow in the detectoi fiom othei
mechanisms. In geimanium, this is achieved by pioducing a iectifying and a blocking contact and by cooling
to about 100K. Foi a planai detectoi, a slice of high-puiity geimanium is diffused with the donoi lithium on
one side, foiming a stiongly n-type layei. The opposite side is implanted with the acceptoi boion, foiming a
-
layei. When voltage is piopeily applied, the electiic feld diiection pievents the majoiity caiiieis in the
contact iegions fiom being injected acioss the device. As the voltage is applied, a iegion depleted of holes will
advance into the slice fiom the n
-
contact if the slice is -type. If the slice is n-type, the a iegion depleted of
elections will advance fiom the
-
contact. At the depletion voltage V
d
, the depletion iegion ieaches the opposite
contact. Foi geimanium:
(116.6)
FIGURE 116.7 Attenuation coeffcients vs. eneigy common semiconductoi mateiials. (T. E. Schlesingei and R. B. James,
SemtonJutors [or Room Temeraure Deetor |taons.)
V V N N dm d cm
d A D
565 10
10 3 2 2
Heie, N
A
- N
D
is the net chaige density in the depleted oi active iegion of the detectoi and d is the thickness
of this iegion. This is a key ielationship in high-puiity geimanium technology as it quantifes the effect of the
iesidual impuiity concentiation on device size and depletion voltage. Techniques to giow geimanium puie
enough foi gamma detectois weie pioneeied by Hall 8] and the detectoi gioup at Lawience Beikeley Laboiatoiy
Hallei, Hansen, and Goulding 9], based on puiifcation methods of Pfann 10] and ciystal-giowing techniques
developed by Teal and Little 11] to pioduce ciystals foi geimanium tiansistois.
Leakage Cuiient
Geimanium detectois need to be cooled to ieduce leakage current. Theie aie seveial potential souices of leakage
cuiient, including diffusion of minoiity caiiieis fiom eithei doped contact into the depletion iegion, theimal
geneiation of caiiieis at eithei bulk oi suiface defects in the depletion iegion, and electiical bieakdown at
points wheie the electiical feld is concentiated due to iiiegulaiities in the contact geometiy, laige-scale
inhomogeneities in the bulk, oi suiface states. Cuiient will also be geneiated if the detectoi is not shielded
fiom ioom-tempeiatuie infiaied iadiation. Backgiound nucleai iadiation fiom mateiials neai the detectoi and
cosmic iadiation also geneiate cuiient.
Geimanium detectois aie typically liquid-nitiogen cooled and opeiated between 85K and 100K. In this
tempeiatuie iange, leakage cuiient is typically less than 40 pA in good" detectois, and is not a signifcant
contiibutoi to system noise (400-900 eV). Leakage cuiient incieases with tempeiatuie and eventually becomes
the piedominate noise component. Pehl, Hallei, and Coidi 12] iepoited a leakage cuiient-diiven system noise
of 2 KeV at 150K and 7 KeV at 170K foi an 8 cm
3
planai detectoi. These authois also iepoited that above about
120K, the leakage cuiient had an activation eneigy of appioximately one-half the bandgap, and attiibuted this
to geneiation at mid-gap suiface states. Below 120K, the tempeiatuie dependence was mildei.
A typical detectoi/ciyostat confguiation is shown in Fig. 116.8. The detectoi iesides in an evacuated ciyostat
and is cooled by means of a coppei iod inseited into a liquid nitiogen dewai. The fist stage of amplifcation
is an FET, also cooled, positioned neaiby the detectoi. Mechanical fxtuiing is designed to stabilize the detectoi
and the mechanisms foi contacting it, to piovide a cooling path fiom the detectoi to liquid nitiogen, and to
electiically insulate the high-voltage contact.
A vaiiety of detectoi geometiies is shown in Fig. 116.9. These diffeient electiode confguiations allow the
detectois` effciency and energy resolution to be optimized foi diffeient gamma-iay eneigies and applications. Foi
example, the detectoi in Fig. 116.9(c) minimizes noise by the lowei capacitance of its electiode confguiation at the
expense of the ieduced stopping powei. Thus, this detectoi would be moie suitable foi lowei-eneigy gamma-iays.
Coaxial Detectois
The detectoi type shown in Fig. 116.8 and in Fig. 116.9(e) has a closed-end coaxial geometiy. Neaily all the
laigest volume (active volumes of 100 cm
3
to 800 cm
3
) HPGe detectois aie of this type. This electiode geometiy
ieduces both capacitance and depletion voltage with iespect to a planai detectoi of the same volume. This lattei
beneft ielaxes the constiaint on mateiial puiity. In addition, chaige collection distances aie shoitened, and the
uncontacted suiface aiea, fiequently tioublesome in piocessing, is ieduced. Also, the HPGe is giown by the
Czochialski technique, and is theiefoie neaily cylindiical even befoie machining. It is impoitant, howevei, to
note that the ieduction in depletion voltage is iealized only when the device is contacted so that it depletes
fiom the outei contact to the innei contact. Thus, -type HPGe to be fabiicated into a coaxial detectoi is
lithium diffused on the outei diametei; and in the case of n-type HPGe, the outei diametei is boion implanted.
The boion-implanted contact (depth appioximately 0.2 ) is thinnei than the lithium-diffused contact (depth
appioximately 750 ), so the n-type coaxial detectoi can detect lowei-eneigy iadiation and is usually built with
a beiyllium window in the aluminum end-cap to take full advantage of this featuie. The diffeience in the iange
of use is illustiated in Fig. 116.10. The geometiic asymmetiy of the contacting electiodes in the coaxial detectoi
makes chaige collection moie dependent on the caiiieis (elections oi holes) tiaveising to the innei contact.
As moie gamma-iays aie absoibed neai the outei contact, the caiiieis tiaveising to the innei contact must
tiavel on aveiage a longei distance. Also, chaige tiaveisal neai the innei contact is paiticulaily effective in
inducing cuiient in the exteinal ciicuit 13]. Thus, the -type coaxial detectoi with positive bias on the outei
electiode is moie sensitive to hole collection, and the n-type coaxial detectoi with negative bias on the outei
electiode is moie sensitive to election collection. This is a ciucial consideiation in applications wheie hole
collection is going to be degiaded duiing use by exposuie to fast neutions oi othei damaging iadiation. The
supeiioi neution damage iesistance of the electiode biasing polaiity on n-type coaxial detectois was demon-
stiated by Pehl et al. 14].
A typical gamma-iay spectium of a
60
Co souice taken with a coaxial HPGe detectoi is shown in Fig. 116.11.
The salient featuies aie the full-eneigy peaks at 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV, and the lowei-eneigy plateaus due to
incomplete eneigy absoiption of Compton scatteied gamma-iays. The peak-to-Compton iatio 15] is geneially
40 to 100, depending on the size and quality of the detectoi. The 1.33-MeV peak is shown sepaiately in
Fig. 116.12. The energy resolution measuied as the full width at half the peak maximum (FWHM) foi typical
coaxial geimanium detectois is between 1.6 KeV and 2.1 KeV foi 1.33-MeV gamma-iays, again depending on
the size and quality of the detectoi. The vaiiance in the peak L
2
(FWHM 2.35 L, L being the standaid
deviation foi a Gaussian distiibution) can be divided into thiee additive components: the electionic noise
component L
N
2
, a component ieecting the vaiiance in the numbei of election-hole paiis cieated L
F
2
, and a
component due to incomplete chaige collection L
T
2
:
FIGURE 116.8 Schematic cioss section of a dipstick ciyostat. (Daiken and Cox, 1993; iepiinted with peimission of Oxfoid
Instiuments, Inc.)
(116.7)
F is called the Fano factoi and has been expeiimentally deteimined to be no gieatei than 0.08 foi geimanium
16]. F < 1 implies that election-hole paii cieation events aie not uncoiielated. L
T
2
is usually dominated by the
tiapping of elections and holes at defect sites. Howevei, shoitei electionic shaping times, lowei electiic felds,
and laigei detectois accentuate ballistic dencit (loss of collected chaige in the exteinal electionics due to the
fnite tiaveisal time of the elections and holes acioss the detectoi). L
N
2
is independent of gamma-iay E and is
FIGURE 116.9 Schematic cioss section and electiostatic feld distiibution in high-puiity geimanium detectois. The daik
line iepiesents the -n junction: (a) tiue planai, (b) giooved planai, (c) low-capacity planai, (d) tiuncated coaxial, (e) closed
end coaxial, (f ) well geometiy.
FIGURE 116.10 Relative absoiption effciencies foi typical n- and -type detectois. (Daiken and Cox, 1993; iepiinted with
peimission of Oxfoid Instiuments, Inc.)
L L L L
L EF
N F T
F
2 2 2 2
2
the dominant iesolution limiting factoi at low eneigies. L
F
2
depends lineaily on E, and foi a coaxial detectoi
usually dominates L
N
2
foi E ovei a few hundied KeV. The eneigy dependence of L
T
2
is not given simply fiom
fist piinciples foi an aibitiaiy tiap distiibution, but an E
2
dependence seems to ft undei many ciicumstances.
Thus, at high enough E, L
T
2
is expected to be the laigest component. Foi good" detectois at 1.33 MeV though,
L
T
2
is always smallei than L
F
2
. Howevei, the magnitude of L
T
2
is vaiiable enough between detectois that it distin-
guishes between acceptable, veiy good, and excellent detectois. L
T
2
is usually also the only component of
iesolution diawn fiom a nongaussian distiibution and is thus iesponsible foi any low-eneigy tailing of the peak.
X-iay Detection
Both silicon and geimanium detectois aie used in low noise systems foi the detection of uoiescent X-iays
pioduced by election beams (usually in an election micioscope) oi X-iays (XRF). Foi both mateiials, the
detectoi is liquid-nitiogen cooled to ieduce leakage current, and small volume devices (Fig. 116.9, typically
FIGURE 116.11 A
60
Co spectium collected with a 15% -type detectoi showing typical featuies of the geimanium detectoi
spectium.
FIGURE 116.12 A
60
Co spectium collected with a 22% ielative effciency -type detectoi. (Daiken and Cox, 1993; iepiinted
with peimission of Oxfoid Instiuments, Inc.)
10 mm
2
active aiea, and 3 mm depth) aie used in oidei to deciease capacitance and theiefoie fuithei ieduce
electionic noise. Lithium-diifted silicon (Si:Li) detectois weie used fist foi these applications. Eaily geimanium
detectois displayed pooi peak shape foi X-iay eneigies just above the L absoiption edges (attiibuted to diffusion
against the feld to the fiont contact by some elections and theii iesulting loss to the photopeak 17]). Howevei,
as was fist demonstiated by Cox et al. 18], this is not a fundamental pioblem, but can be solved by the
contacting technology. An X-iay spectium taken with an HPGe detectoi is shown in Fig. 116.13. Geimanium
has the advantages with iespect to silicon of a smallei (2.96 eV/paii vs. 3.96 eV/paii at 77K) foi bettei energy
resolution, and a highei Z (32 vs. 14) foi bettei photoelectiic absoiption of highei-eneigy X-iays.
Cuiient Status of HPGe Detectoi Technology
High-puiity geimanium detectois aie a matuie commeicial technology. Piocess development in ciystal giowing
and diode fabiication have been conducted in piivate industiy wheie signifcant advances aie piopiietaiy.
Howevei, the iesults of technological advances in these aieas aie quite evident in the continual impiovement
in the size, peifoimance, and availability of HPGe detectois. Maximum photopeak effciency foi HPGe gamma-
iay detectois is doubling eveiy 6 to 8 yeais. Concuiiently, eneigy iesolutions aie moving towaid the theoietical
limits of Eq. (116.7) as the concentiations of tiapping centeis aie ieduced.
The ieliability as well as the peifoimance of geimanium gamma-iay detectois has also continued to impiove,
although this is haidei to quantify. Ciyostats have been iedesigned to ieduce viitual and diiect leaks, ieduce
miciophonics, implement modulai design, and impiove iuggedness. Detectoi makeis aie also making moie
seiious attempts to offei models with ieduced backgiounds by judicious design changes and caieful selection
of mateiials.
FIGURE 116.13 Manganese X-iay spectium fiom an
55
Fe souice collected with an HPGe detectoi. (Daiken and Cox, 1993;
iepiinted with peimission of Oxfoid Instiuments, Inc.)
New applications foi gamma-iay spectioscopy have emeiged. The HPGe detectoi industiy has iecently
supplied ovei 100 detectois each to two diffeient expeiimental facilities (GAMMASPHERE in the U.S., and
EUROBALL in Euiope), wheie they weie aiianged spheiically in a modulai fashion aiound the taiget of an
ion acceleiatoi to study the decay of nuclei fiom excited states of high angulai momentum.
Foi useis of single detectoi systems, developments in the pulse piocessing electionics necessaiy foi data
acquisition and in the haidwaie and softwaie foi data analysis have iesulted in both moie compact and moie
exible systems. Plug-in caids foi a peisonal computei aie available now that not only contain the functions
of the ADC and multichannel analyzei, but also the high voltage powei supply and amplifei as well. Softwaie
developments also allow foi contiol of many pulse piocessing paiameteis that weie pieviously set manually.
Si:Li Type Si!icun Detecturs
As with geimanium foi gamma-iay spectioscopy, the impuiity iequiiements on silicon foi nucleai iadiation
detectois aie also stiingently low and diffcult to obtain. Such silicon must be giown by the oat zone technique
to eliminate contamination fiom a ciucible. Unlike geimanium, little dedicated effoit has been expended tiying
to impiove silicon giowth techniques to achieve supeiioi detectoi chaiacteiistics. Most piogiess in mateiial
quality has come fiom technology impiovements aimed at othei applications. The puiest silicon commeicially
available typically has a net electiically active impuiity concentiation of a few times 10
11
cm
-3
(compaied to
10
10
cm
-3
foi HPGe), which usually limits device thicknesses to less than a millimetei. When thickei silicon
devices aie iequiied, as in X-iay spectioscopy, silicon of highei net puiity can be obtained by lithium diifting
19], but such mateiial cannot be subsequently piocessed above ioom tempeiatuie.
In X-iay spectioscopy foi micioanalysis, liquid-nitiogen cooled Si:Li detectois aie being challenged by
similaily sized HPGe detectois, but Si:Li detectois aie still moie widely used. Recent developments in specialized
low-noise silicon diift detectois and CCD-based detectoi (see Room Tempeiatuie Semiconductoi section)
designs that have yielded piomising iesults at ioom tempeiatuie may fnd futuie application in liquid nitiogen-
cooled systems foi micioanalysis using X-iay spectioscopy.
Ruum-Temperature Semicunducturs
Applications aiise that iequiie energy resolution beyond the capability of scintillatoi systems and wheie ciyo-
genically cooled semiconductois aie not suitable. Examples include detectoi piobes foi monitoiing iestiicted
aieas, monitoiing at iemote sites wheie ieplenishing the coolant is impiactical, spectial imaging, and many
poitable instiument applications. Theie is available a class of semiconductoi detectois that satisfy many such
needs by pioviding eneigy iesolution substantially bettei than the best scintillatois (although infeiioi to
ciyogenic semiconductois) while opeiating at ambient tempeiatuie. In addition to spectioscopy, these devices
aie also useful foi counting applications wheie high detection effciency pei unit volume is iequiied. In these
applications, the devices aie opeiated in pulse mode wheiein the chaige associated with single photon absoip-
tion events is iecoided. They also can be opeiated in a current mode in the mannei of a solid-state ion chambei.
In theii cuiient stage of development, ioom-tempeiatuie detectois aie limited in size and best suited foi the
eneigy iegion below 1 MeV.
Theie aie numeious detectoi types in the geneial categoiy of ioom-tempeiatuie detectois: those capable of
ambient tempeiatuie opeiation (tiue ioom-tempeiatuie devices) and those iequiiing cooling to the iegion of
-30 C. The foimei gioup includes wide bandgap mateiials such as cadmium zinc telluiide, meicuiic iodide,
cadmium telluiide, and a numbei of silicon stiuctuies. The lattei gioup consist piimaiily of -intiinsic-n (PIN)
silicon devices. As a gioup, ioom-tempeiatuie detectois aie employed mainly in X-iay and gamma-iay spectios-
copy, although silicon suiface baiiiei and ion-implanted devices aie highly valued foi chaige paiticle spectioscopy.
True Ruum-Temperature Detecturs
Tiue ioom-tempeiatuie detectois aie distinguished fiom ciyogenic semiconductois by the magnitude of the
eneigy gap that sepaiates the noimally vacant conduction band fiom the highest flled band. If this eneigy gap
is small, as in the case of geimanium (0.67 eV), elections can be theimally stimulated acioss the bandgap at
ioom tempeiatuie. The iesultant cuiient competes with the gamma-iay geneiated signal, piecluding ioom-
tempeiatuie opeiation of geimanium (and many high-iesolution applications of silicon). Theimally induced
cuiient is ieduced to acceptable levels at bandgap eneigies of about 1.4 eV and above. This phenomenon has
been successfully exploited in the development of ioom-tempeiatuie detectoi mateiials, including cadmium
zinc telluiide (acionym CZT), cadmium telluiide (CdTe), and meicuiic iodide (HgI
2
).
Theury ul Operatiun
Opeiating piinciples of ioom-tempeiatuie detectois aie similai to those goveining the moie familiai ciyogenic
semiconductoi devices. Gamma-iadiation is absoibed in the mateiial and geneiates election-hole paiis that
move undei the inuence of an applied electiic feld to contacts and exteinal electionics foi piocessing and
pioduction of the familiai pulse height spectium. The piocess is shown schematically in Fig. 116.14. Funda-
mental to the chaige-tiansfei piocess is the caiiiei mobility ( ) and the caiiiei life time ( ). The pioduct E
defnes a diift length ( ), which should be long compaied to the intei-contact dimensions. Owing to the
substantially highei aveiage atomic numbei of the ioom-tempeiatuie detectoi mateiials, the piobability of
gamma-iay absoiption is much highei than in silicon oi geimanium (see Fig. 116.7). As a iesult, ioom-
tempeiatuie detectois piovide gieatei detection effciency pei unit volume.
The eneigy iequiied to pioduce an election-hole paii ( ) is typically a few times the energy bandgap of the
mateiial. In silicon wheie the bandgap is 1.14 eV, the eneigy to pioduce an election-hole paii ( ) is 3.62 eV. In
HgI
2
, wheie the bandgap is 2.13 eV, about 4.2 eV is iequiied to cieate an election-hole paii. The absoiption of
a 1 MeV photon thus pioduces about 276,000 e-h paiis in silicon and 240,000 e-h paiis in HgI
2.
Values of
foi ioom-tempeiatuie mateiials aie in the iegion of 4.2 to 5.0 eV/e-h paii (see Table 116.2) and consequently
fewei election-hole paiis aie geneiated pei unit of absoibed eneigy. Complete collection of the chaige is desiied
although chaige tiapping, which may not affect the two caiiiei types equally, pievents this in most cases. The
diift length foi holes (
h
) in these mateiials is often less than the intei-contact dimensions and cieates a
condition wheie the collection effciency depends on the photon inteiaction depth. This phenomenon is
illustiated in Fig. 116.15 wheie induced chaige fiom single gamma absoiption events oiiginating at vaiious
FIGURE 116.14 Schematic illustiation of chaige geneiation in a planai detectoi.
TABLE 116.2 Physical Paiameteis of Common Room-Tempeiatuie Semiconductoi Mateiials
Mateiial E
g
, eV Z , eV ( )
e
cm
2
/V ( )
h
cm
2
/V
Cadmium zinc telluiide 1.65 48 5.0 10
11
1 10
-3
6 10
-6
Cadmium telluiide 1.5 50 4.4 10
9
3.5 10
-3
2.3 10
-4
Meicuiic iodide 2.13 62 4.2 10
13
1 10
-4
4 10
-5
Noe. E
g
bandgap eneigy; Z aveiage atomic numbei; eneigy to cieate an election-hole
paii; iesistivity.
Sourte. SemtonJutors [or Room-Temeraure RaJaon Deetor |taons, R. B. James, T. E.
Schlesingei, P. Siffeit, and L. A. Fianks (Eds.), Mateiials Reseaich Society, Vol. 32, Pittsbuigh, PA, 1993.
depths in the mateiial is plotted as a function of time. The initial fast-iising segment is due to the moie mobile
elections; the slowei component is due to holes. In this example, hole tiapping is assumed and manifests itself
in the cuivatuie of the hole segment. The chaige collection effciency ( ) can be deiived fiom the Hecht ielation
20]. Foi a photon absoibed at a distance X fiom the cathode of a planai detectoi of thickness L opeiated with
a unifoim electiic, the ielationship becomes
(116.8)
The dependence of the collection effciency on inteiaction depth ieduces energy resolution and without
mitigation would limit high iesolution to thin devices. Foitunately, methods have been developed that peimit
high-eneigy iesolution to be achieved in ielatively thick samples. As with cooled semiconductoi detectois, the
eneigy iesolution of the combined detectoi-electionics system is noimally specifed by the full width of a
monoeneigetic spectial peak at its half amplitude points ( E). The FWHM is, in tuin, ielated to the vaiiance
in the peak L
2
(see Eq. 116.7). It is useful to note that the eneigy iesolution is inveisely ielated to the pioduct .
Operatiuna! Cunsideratiuns
Impoitant physical paiameteis foi the leading ioom-tempeiatuie detectois aie summaiized in Table 116.2.
Detectois aie available with suiface aieas of a few squaie centimeteis and thicknesses up to about 1 cm. The
peifoimance of detectois based on the diffeient mateiials vaiies consideiably, as can the peifoimance foi
detectois of the same mateiial. The choice of specifc detectoi mateiial is noimally dictated by the application.
The exceptionally high iesistivity and high photoelectiic cioss section in meicuiic iodide peimit good iesolution
and high effciency in the X-iay iegion, paiticulaily below 10 KeV. Foi example, E of 5% at 5.9 KeV has been
iepoited 21] with 1 cm
2
devices, with typical values in the iegion of 10%. Foi meicuiic iodide applications in
the iegion of 0.5 MeV, tiade-offs between effcient gamma absoiption and iesolution may be iequiied.
FIGURE 116.15 Chaige collection in a planai detectoi foi single-photon inteiaction. Cuives a to d depict the chaige fiom
photon inteiactions at incieasing depths below the cathode.
e
e
|
|
L
L
L
1 1 exp exp
X
X
In gamma-iay applications wheie energy resolution is the piimaiy concein, thinnei devices that minimize
chaige tiapping aie often utilized, although pioceduies have been developed to mitigate many of the thickness
and aiea limitations. Two geneial appioaches have been developed to mitigate the effects of incomplete hole
collection. Those appioaches aie based on electionic pulse piocessing via ancillaiy ciicuitiy oi novel electiode
stiuctuies that achieve monopolai (election tianspoit only) opeiation. These methods have been paiticulaily
successful with CZT and CT devices. CZT- and CT-based devices incoipoiating such technology aie available
in commeicial pioducts. In CZT, foi example, 1.5 1.5 0.8 cm
3
detectois (election only collection) aie
available with 3% iesolution at 662 KeV. Somewhat bettei iesolution can be obtained with smallei devices. Foi
example, 1 1 0.5 cm
3
detectois, opeiated in the election-only mode, piovide 2% at 662 KeV. Similaily,
cylindiical detectois 6 mm in diametei and 5 mm high piovide about 1% iesolution at 662 KeV. An energy
spectrum obtained with a typical CZT spectiometei obtained with a
137
Cs

souice is shown in Fig. 116.16.
Impiovements in mateiial quality can be expected to fuithei impiove the peifoimance of thick detectois.
While the aiea of single ciystal detectois is limited cuiiently to a few squaie centimeteis, electionics have been
developed to facilitate the opeiation of laige aiiays of single-ciystal detectois and thus achieve high detection
effciency. Multiple CZT detectoi aiiays 20 20 cm have been pioduced using such technology.
Fuithei infoimation conceining the peifoimance of single chaige collection and aiiay stiuctuies as well as
electionic piocessing and design details aie available in the liteiatuie 2, 3, 22, 23].
Si!icun Detecturs
In contiast to geimanium detectois, silicon detectois can be opeiated at ioom tempeiatuie in applications
wheie some cuiient noise can be toleiated. Compaied to gas and scintillation detectois, silicon detectois have
good eneigy iesolution and aie ieasonably compact. They aie fabiicated fiom slices of a silicon single ciystal
and aie available in a vaiiety of aieas (25 mm
2
to 3000 mm
2
), and the active thickness is usually a few hundied
micions. Specialized detectois have been developed foi a wide vaiiety of applications.
Charged Partic!e Detecturs
Eneigetic heavy-chaiged paiticles lose kinetic eneigy continuously along a lineai path in an absoibing mateiial.
Eneigy is tiansfeiied piimaiily to the elections in the absoibing mateiial, but to a lessei extent to the nuclei
also via Rutheifoid scatteiing. Although only eneigy tiansfeiied diiectly to the electionic system geneiates
election-hole paiis, Eq. (116.5) (with 3.62/paii foi silicon at 300K) is still a good appioximation. Eneigy
loss is chaiacteiized by two paiameteis: specifc ionization loss dE/dx, which depends on the incident paiticle,
its eneigy, and the absoibing mateiial, and the iange R (i.e., the penetiation depth of the paiticle), which
FIGURE 116.16 Eneigy spectium of a
137
Cs souice obtained with a multi-electiode CZT spectiometei. (Couitesy AMPTEK
Inc. Bedfoid, MA.)
deteimines the detectoi thickness iequiied foi complete eneigy absoiption. The continuous natuie of eneigy
loss leads to substantial window effects.
Dillused Junctiun Detectur
Silicon detectois can be geneiically categoiized by the type of iectifying contact employed. The diffused junction
detectoi is fabiicated by diffusing phosphoius fiom the gas phase into -type silicon. This is a high-tempeiatuie
(900 C to 1200 C) opeiation that is pione to intioducing fastei diffusing metals into the bulk that can act
eithei as geneiation centeis incieasing leakage current, oi as tiapping centeis degiading chaige collection. The
thickness of the diffused iegion, fiom 0.1 to 2.0 , also piesents a dead layer to incident paiticles that is ieduced
in alteinate technologies. Nonetheless, these detectois fnd use due to theii iuggedness and economy.
Surlace Barrier Detectur
Suiface baiiiei junctions aie fabiicated by eithei evapoiating gold onto n-type silicon oi aluminum onto -type
silicon. A typical entiance window is equivalent to 80 nm of silicon. The iectifcation piopeities depend on the
chaige density of suiface states of the silicon and of the thin oxide layei ovei the silicon, as well as on the
evapoiated metal. The wafei is epoxied in an insulating iing befoie metallization. The fnished detectoi is
encapsulated in a can that has a fiont window foi paiticle entiy and a single contact in the back foi the combined
function of applying bias and foi extiacting the signal pulse. Devices can be opeiated eithei in the paitially
depleted oi totally depleted mode. As fabiication is entiiely at ioom tempeiatuie, theie is no oppoitunity foi
metal contamination by diffusion. Geneially, suiface baiiiei detectois have lowei leakage cuiient, and less
system noise than a diffused junction detectoi of compaiable aiea and depth. Howevei, detectois cuiiently
fabiicated by ion implantation have still lowei leakage cuiient and electionic noise, togethei with a thinnei
and moie iugged fiont contact. On the othei hand, implanted detectois aie not available in the same iange of
active thicknesses as suiface baiiiei detectois. Below 100 and above 500 , only suiface baiiiei detectois aie
cuiiently available. Suiface baiiiei detectois can be made in small quantities with iathei simple equipment.
Iun-Imp!anted Detectur
A simplifed iepiesentation of ion-implanted detectoi fabiication is shown in Fig. 116.17. The fist successful
implementation of silicon planai piocessing to silicon detectois was iepoited by Kemmei 24]. The pioceduie
staits with the theimal giowth of an oxide flm on a high-puiity, n-type silicon wafei. Windows aie then opened
in the oxide by photolithogiaphic techniques. The fiont contact aiea is implanted with boion to foim the
iectifying contact, and aisenic is implanted into the backside. The wafei is then annealed to activate the implant,
and aluminum is evapoiated on both sides to ieduce sheet iesistivity. Typical entiance windows aie 50 nm
silicon equivalent. Electiical connections aie made by wiie bonding to the aluminum layeis. Finished detectois
aie canned in a mannei similai to suiface baiiiei detectois. Moie than one detectoi can be fabiicated on the
same wafei using the appiopiiate masks duiing photolithogiaphy. In fact, quite elaboiate detectoi geometiies
can be achieved via photolithogiaphy. The detectoi in Fig. 116.17 is actually a stiip type.
The ion implantation planai piocess technology is well suited foi mass pioduction of wafei sizes compatible
with the iest of the silicon industiy. Minimum wafei diameteis aie now 4 in. oi 5 in. At this diametei, bieakage
duiing fabiication is an issue foi thicknesses less than 150 . Foi thicknesses ovei 500 , the availability of
enough suffciently puie mateiial to justify the cost of photolithogiaphic masks is an issue. Ion-implanted
detectois can be baked at 200 C to ieduce outgassing. This is a signifcant impiovement ovei suiface baiiiei
detectois, which iiieveisibly degiade by device piocessing above ioom tempeiatuie. This is a useful featuie as
most heavy chaiged paiticle spectioscopy is done in a vacuum.
Leakage cuiients aie, at ioom tempeiatuie, typically 1 to 10 nA cm
-2
active aiea and pei 100- depletion
depth. These values iepiesent an oidei of magnitude ieduction in leakage cuiient with iespect to suiface baiiiei
detectois. Two factois aie ielevant. Passivation of silicon suifaces by theimal oxidation is extiemely effective in
ieducing leakage cuiient aiound the iectifying contact. Also, the bulk geneiation cuiient is ieduced by the
getteiing of metal impuiities duiing the high-tempeiatuie oxidation. Float zone silicon foi iadiation detectois
usually has a minoiity caiiiei lifetime longei than 1 ms, and this can be incieased an oidei of magnitude duiing
detectoi fabiication 25]. Thus, not only is leakage cuiient ieduced, but potential chaige collection pioblems
aie also eliminated.
Eneigy Resolution
A typical spectium of an
241
Am alpha-paiticle souice taken with an ion-implanted detectoi is shown in
Fig. 116.18. While the factois consideied in Eq. (116.7) foi geimanium gamma-iay spectiometeis aie still valid,
additional consideiations also apply. In paiticulai, if the souice is moved closei to the detectoi to impiove
collection effciency, laigei diffeiences in the angle of incidence will pioduce peak bioadening due to laigei
vaiiation in effective window thickness. Even when the souice is suffciently distanced fiom the detectoi, theie
FIGURE 116.17 Steps in the fabiication of passivated planai silicon diode detectois. (Kemmei et al., 1982).
FIGURE 116.18 Spectium of a
241
Am alpha-paiticle souice (log scale) measuied with an IP detectoi (25 mm
2
aiea, 300 m
thick) at ioom tempeiatuie. Resolution at 5.486 MeV is 10.6 KeV (FWHM). (Kemmei et al., 1982.)
will still be spatial vaiiations in window thickness, as well as some vaiiation in eneigy lost escaping fiom the
souice and tiaveising to the detectoi.
Anothei souice of peak bioadening is the vaiiation in the small amount of paiticle eneigy lost duiing
Rutheifoid scatteiing. This eneigy is tiansmitted diiectly to the scatteiing nuclei and does not geneiate election-
hole paiis, and a small pulse defcit iesults. These events aie ielatively few but laige, and theiefoie contiibute
dispiopoitionately to peak vaiiance. The FWHM contiibution of this effect on a 6-MeV alpha paiticle peak
has been estimated to be 3.5 KeV 26].
Si!icun Detecturs lur Spatia! Resu!utiun
The uninteiiupted piogiess of the semiconductoi silicon industiy in achieving both laigei wafeis and smallei
device featuies has allowed the development of laigei and moie complex silicon detectois that can piovide
position infoimation in addition to (oi instead of) eneigy infoimation. Spatial detection can be obtained by
fabiicating detectois as pixels (two-dimensional) oi stiips (one-dimensional) on the same wafei. Foi penetiating
iadiation, two stiip detectois, one behind the othei but with the stiip pattein iotated 90 , piovide two-
dimensional positioning. Fiequently, such detectois aie individually designed and fabiicated foi a paiticulai
application. Stiip detectois and CCD (chaige-coupled device) detectois will be discussed heie.
Stiip Detectois
Silicon stiip detectois aie cuiiently fabiicated on silicon wafeis (typically appioximately 300 thick) using
photolithogiaphic masking to implant the iectifying contact in stiips 27]. The stiips usually have a pitch on
the oidei of 100 and a width less than half of this to minimize stiip-to-stiip capacitance and hence electionic
noise 28]. The device is biased past depletion, and the back blocking contact is continuous. Each stiip iequiies,
in piinciple, its own signal piocessing electionics; howevei, chaige division ieadout (capacitive oi iesistive) can
ieduce the numbei of amplifeis by a factoi of 10. Detectois aie fabiicated in iectangulai segments fiom a
single wafei, and can be ganged togethei if a laigei aiea is needed.
Stiip detectois aie well established in high-eneigy physics expeiiments foi ieconstiuction on the micion
scale of the tiacks of ionizing paiticles. The paiticles being tiacked iesult fiom the collision of acceleiated
paiticles with a taiget and aie highly eneigetic (>10
10
eV). Fiequently, expeiimental inteiest is focused on shoit-
lived paiticles cieated in the collision but which decay befoie they can be diiectly detected. Spatial iesolution
of the decay veitex fiom the oiiginal collision is necessaiy to detect such a paiticle and to deteimine its lifetime.
The iequiiements of new high-eneigy expeiiments and advances in silicon technology have pioduced much
evolution and innovation in the stiip detectoi concept. Foi example, a double-sided miciostiip detectoi with
an oxide-nitiide-oxide capacitoi dielectiic flm has been iepoited 29]. The use of inteimediate stiips to impiove
spatial iesolution has become common 30], and the biasing netwoik has been integiated onto the detectoi 31].
Silicon Diift Detectois
Silicon diift detectois weie fist pioposed by Gatti and Rehak 32] as an alteinative to silicon stiip detectois in
high-eneigy physics expeiiments. The piimaiy motivation was to signifcantly ieduce the numbei of ieadout
channels. Diift detectois have subsequently been adapted foi X-iay spectioscopy. These detectois aie usually
fabiicated on n-type silicon wafeis with holes collected to eithei a
-
contact on the back side of the detectoi,
oi to concentiic annulai
-
contacts on the fiont side. The detectoi is depleted fiom both sides. The ieveise
bias applied to the
-
annulai iings is vaiied in such a way that elections aie collected iadially in a potential
eneigy tiough to an n
-
anode at the centei of the detectoi on the fiont side.
A cioss section thiough a ciiculai diift detectoi is shown in Fig. 116.19. The election collecting anode iing
suiiounds the integiated FET used foi the fist stage of signal amplifcation. Enough negative bias is applied
to the back contact (actually the entiance window) to deplete the wafei to the anode, which is neai giound
potential. At the same time, negative bias piogiessively incieasing in magnitude is applied fiom the iing next
to the anode (neai giound potential) to the outeimost iing, which is maintained at about two times the bias
of the back contact. These applied biases deplete the detectoi in such a way that theie is an electiostatic potential
minimum foi elections that vaiies in depth acioss the detectoi fiom iight undei the fiont suiface at the anode
to neai the back contact at the last iing. Ionized elections will diift fist to this minimum, then diift iadially
to the anode as shown in Fig. 116.19. A featuie of this contacting aiiangement is that the anode capacitance,
and hence amplifei seiies noise, is low and neaily independent of the active aiea of the detectoi. Radial position
is deduced fiom the signal iisetime.
CCD Detectois
The design of CCD (chaige-coupled device) detectois has similaiities to the silicon diift detectoi 32]. The
CCD detectoi is noimally fabiicated on an n-type silicon wafei depleted both fiom the backside with a
continuous
-
contact on the back, and fiom
-
CCD iegisteis on the fiont. Reveise bias voltages aie such that
the wafei is totally depleted and the election potential minimum is about 10 below the CCD iegisteis. Aftei
an ionizing event, holes aie collected to the
-
contacts, and elections aie tiapped undei a neaiby iegistei, then
tianspoited down a channel of iegisteis by piopeily clocked voltage pulses to the iegisteis. Each channel has
its own ieadout anode, which can be made small to minimize capacitance - a pieiequisite foi minimizing
noise. The fist stage of amplifcation is fiequently integiated onto the same wafei. Spatial iesolution is limited
to the iegistei (pixel) size. Biaunigei et al. 33] desciibed initial iesults on a 6 6 cm CCD aiiay of 150 150
pixels intended foi satellite X-iay imaging. The system also had an energy resolution of 200 eV FWHM foi
5.9 KeV X-iays at ioom tempeiatuie.
Silicon pixel detectois have also been designed using othei highly integiated device stiuctuies to optimize
paiticulai peifoimance aspects such as timing iesolution. Pixel detectois using MOS tiansistois 34] and using
ieveise biased diodes with individual ieadout ciicuitiy 35] have been desciibed.
PIN Si!icun X-ray Spectrumeters
Detectois based on PIN silicon stiuctuies have found consideiable success as X-iay spectiometeis in the iegion
below 10 KeV. The devices consist of n and layeis on opposite sides of a high puiity (10-20 K ohm-cm)
silicon wafei. Paiticulaily good peifoimance is obtained if the devices aie opeiated in the iegion of -30 C as
can be piovided by a theimoelectiic coolei. On the oidei of 1 W is iequiied to maintain a typical device at
-30 C. Eneigy iesolution (FWHM) of 186 eV at 5.9 KeV can be obtained in 7-mm
2
devices (with 20 s shaping
time). Spectiometeis with aieas up to about 25 mm
2
aie also available, but with ieduced iesolution. The eneigy
spectium of
55
Fe obtained with a 7-mm
2
detectoi is shown in Fig. 116.20(a), togethei with a schematic showing
constiuction details (Fig. 116.20(b)).
Status ul Si!icun Detectur Technu!ugy
The simply stiuctuied silicon detectois fabiicated with paiallel contacts on a silicon wafei continue to seive a
well established need foi chaiged paiticle spectioscopy. Wheie economies of scale can be applied, ion implanted
detectois have ieplaced suiface baiiiei detectois. In piojects of suffcient size to suppoit theii development,
specialized low-noise silicon diift detectois and CCD-based detectois have been designed and fabiicated with
piomising ioom-tempeiatuie eneigy iesolution: 200 eV FWHM at 5.9 KeV. These highly stiuctuied detectoi
FIGURE 116.19 Cioss section of a cylindiical silicon diift detectoi with integiated n-channel JFET. The gate of the
tiansistoi is connected to the collecting mode. The iadiation entiance window foi the ionizing iadiation is the non-stiuctuied
backside of the device. (P. Lechnei, S. Eckbauei, R. Haitmann, S. Kiisch, D. Hauff, R. Richtei, H. Soltau, L. Stiudei, C. Fioiini,
E. Gatti, A. Longoni, M. Sampietio, Nucleai Instiuments and Methods in Physics Reseaich, A377, 346-351, 1996.)
technologies may fnd futuie application in liquid nitiogen-cooled oi ioom-tempeiatuie systems foi micioanal-
ysis using X-iay spectioscopy.
In high-eneigy physics, the use of vaiious stiip, diift, and pixellated detectois foi tiacking and veitex
deteimination has ouiished. These effoits will intensify as expeiimental iequiiements foi spatial iesolution
inciease. Howevei, iadiation damage to the detectoi is alieady an issue in this application, and highei luminosity
beams will only inciease the pioblem. Neveitheless, it appeais that the continuing need of the high-eneigy
physics community foi a highei numbei and density of signal paths foiecasts continued ieliance on the evei-
impioving integiation technology of the semiconductoi silicon industiy.
Prices and Avai!abi!ity
The detectois desciibed in this section aie available commeicially. Theii piices vaiy widely, depending on type,
size, and peifoimance. Room-tempeiatuie semiconductoi detectois iange fiom a few hundied dollais foi small,
low-iesolution devices to ovei $1000 foi laige, high-iesolution devices. Because of the dynamic natuie of wide
bandgap detectoi technology, buyei guides should be consulted foi the latest piice and availability infoimation.
Piicing of coaxial HPGe detectois is based laigely on theii gamma-iay effciency, which is specifed ielative
to a 3 in. 3 in. sodium iodide scintillatoi at 1.33 MeV. Coaxial detectois aie available with ielative effciencies
up to about 150% with cost in the aiea of seveial hundied dollais pei peicent effciency. Planai HPGe detectois
aie noimally less expensive than coaxial designs. In eithei case, the piice includes the ciyostat, dewai, and
pieamplifei. Ciyogenic silicon detectois aie available in aieas up to seveial tens of squaie millimeteis. Cost
ianges to ovei $10,000 depending on size, peifoimance, and complexity of design.
Dehning Terms
Ballistic dencit: The loss of signal amplitude that occuis when the chaige collection time in a detectoi is a
signifcant fiaction of the amplifei`s time constant.
Current mode: Measuiement mode in which the detectoi signal piovides infoimation on the ux X-iays,
gamma-iays, oi chaiged paiticles.
Dead layer: A layei (fiequently associated with a contact iegion) in which no signifcant pait of the eneigy
lost by photons oi paiticles can contiibute to the iesulting signal.
Electrical junction: The metalluigical tiansition boundaiy between the semiconductoi iegions of diffeient
electiical piopeities (foi example, PIN oi between a metal and a semiconductoi).
Energy bandgap: The eneigy diffeience between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence
band.
FIGURE 116.20 (a) Eneigy spectium of
55
Fe souice obtained with a 7-mm
2
PIN silicon detectoi using a shaping time of
20 s. (b) Schematic diagiam showing constiuction details of typical PIN-silicon detectoi with theimoelectiic coolei.
(Couitesy AMTEK Inc. Bedfoid, MA.)
Energy resolution: The full width of the half maximum of a peak in the eneigy spectium, aftei subtiaction
of the backgiound undei the peak; expiessed in units of eneigy, usually KeV oi as a peicentage of the
eneigy of the peak.
Energy spectrum: A diffeiential distiibution of the intensity of the iadiation as a function of the eneigy.
Leakage current: In the absence of exteinal ionizing iadiation and at the opeiating bias, the total cuiient
owing thiough oi acioss the suiface of the detectoi element.
Line of peak (in a spectrum): A shaiply peaked poition of the spectium that iepiesents a specifc featuie of
the incident iadiation, usually the full eneigy of a monoeneigetic X-iay, gamma-iay, oi chaiged paiticle.
Pulse mode: Measuiement mode in which the detectoi signal piovides infoimation on a single X-iay, gamma-
iay, oi chaiged paiticle.
Semiconductor: Mateiial in which the conductivity is due to chaige caiiieis of both signs (elections and
holes) and is noimally in the iange between metals and insulatois, and in which the chaige caiiiei density
can be changed by exteinal means.
Semiconductor radiation detector: A semiconductoi device in which the pioduction and motion of excess
fiee caiiieis is used foi the detection and measuiement of incident paiticles oi photons.
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) can be Fouiiei tiansfoimed to

) foi small angulai displacements o

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