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A John Dewey source page

Originally published as:
$oh% Dewey. &'o!(cal )o%d(t(o%" o* a +c(e%t(*(c ,reatme%t o* Moral(ty&- Decennial Publications of the University of Chicago- .(r"t +er(e"- /ol. 3- 019031: 1123139.

Logical Conditions of a Scientific Treatment of Morality

! The "se of the Term #Scientific#
,45 *am(l(ar %ot(o% that "c(e%ce (" a body o* "y"temat(6ed k%owled!e w(ll "er7e to (%troduce co%"(derat(o% o* the term &"c(e%t(*(c& a" (t (" employed (% th(" art(cle. ,he phra"e &body o* "y"temat(6ed k%owled!e& may be take% (% d(**ere%t "e%"e". 8t may de"(!%ate a property wh(ch re"(de" (%here%tly (% arra%!ed *act"- apart *rom the way" (% wh(ch the *act" ha7e bee% "ettled upo% to be *act"- a%d apart *rom the way (% wh(ch the(r arra%!eme%t ha" bee% "ecured. 9r- (t may mea% the (%tellectual act(7(t(e" o* ob"er7(%!de"cr(b(%!- compar(%!- (%*err(%!- e:per(me%t(%!- a%d te"t(%!- wh(ch are %ece""ary (% obta(%(%! *act" a%d (% putt(%! them (%to cohere%t *orm. ,he term "hould (%clude both o* the"e mea%(%!". But "(%ce the "tat(c property o* arra%!eme%t (" depe%de%t upo% a%tecede%t dy%am(c proce""e"- (t (" %ece""ary to make e:pl(c(t "uch depe%de%ce. ;e %eed to throw the empha"(" (% u"(%! the term &"c(e%t(*(c& *(r"t upo% method.- a%d the% upo% re"ult" throu!h re*ere%ce to method". <" u"ed (% th(" art(cle- &"c(e%t(*(c& mea%" re!ular method" o* co%troll(%! the *ormat(o% o* jud!me%t" re!ard(%! "ome "ubject3 matter. ,he tra%"(t(o% *rom a% ord(%ary to a "c(e%t(*(c att(tude o* m(%d co(%c(de" w(th cea"(%! to take certa(% th(%!" *or !ra%ted a%d a""um(%! a cr(t(cal or (%=u(r(%! a%d te"t(%! att(tude. ,h(" tra%"*ormat(o% mea%" that "ome bel(e* a%d (t" accompa%y(%! "tateme%t are %olo%!er take% a" "el*3"u**(c(%! a%d complete (% them"el7e"- but are re!arded a" conclusions. ,o re!ard a "tateme%t a" a co%clu"(o%- mea%" 011 that (t" ba"(" a%d !rou%d l(e out"(de o* (t"el*. ,h(" re*ere%ce beyo%d (t"el* "et" u" upo% the "earch *or pr(or a""ert(o%" wh(ch are %eeded (% order to make th(" o%e- i. e.- upo% (%=u(ry. 0 1 +uch pr(or "tateme%t" are co%"(dered w(th re*ere%ce to the(r bear(%!" or (mport (% the determ(%at(o% o* "ome *urther "tateme%t- i. e.- a co%"e=ue%t. ,he mea%(%! or "(!%(*(ca%ce o* a !(7e% "tateme%t l(e"- lo!(cally- (% other "tateme%t" to wh(ch we are comm(tted (% mak(%! the o%e (% =ue"t(o%. ,hu" we are "et upo% rea"o%(%!- the de7elopme%t o* the a""ert(o%" to

wh(ch a part(cular a""ert(o% or 7(ew comm(t" a%d e%t(tle" u". 9ur att(tude become" "c(e%t(*(c (% the de!ree (% wh(ch we look (% both d(rect(o%" w(th re"pect to e7ery jud!me%t pa""ed> *(r"t- check(%! or te"t(%! (t" 7al(d(ty by re*ere%ce to po""(b(l(ty o* mak(%! *(%er a%d more certa(% jud!me%t" w(th wh(ch th(" o%e (" bou%d up> "eco%dly*(:(%! (t" mea%(%! 0or "(!%(*(ca%ce1 by re*ere%ce to (t" u"e (% mak(%! other "tateme%t". ,he determ(%at(o% o* validity by re*ere%ce to po""(b(l(ty o* mak(%! other jud!me%t" upo% wh(ch the o%e (% =ue"t(o% depe%d"- a%d the determ(%at(o% o* meaning by re*ere%ce to the %ece""(ty o* mak(%! other "tateme%t" to wh(ch the o%e (% =ue"t(o% e%t(tle" u"- are the two mark" o* "c(e%t(*(c procedure.

011?1 +o *ar a" we e%!a!e (% th(" procedure- we look at our re"pect(7e act" o* jud!(%! %ot a" (%depe%de%t a%d detached- but a" a% (%terrelated "y"tem- w(th(% wh(ch e7ery a""ert(o% e%t(tle" u" to other a""ert(o%" 0wh(ch mu"t be care*ully deduced "(%ce they co%"t(tute (t" mea%(%!1 a%d to wh(ch we are e%t(tled o%ly throu!h other a""ert(o%" 0"o that they mu"t be care*ully "earched *or1. &+c(e%t(*(c& a" u"ed (% th(" art(cle thu" mea%" the po""(b(l(ty o* e"tabl("h(%! a% order o* jud!me%t" "uch that each o%e whe% made (" o* u"e (% determ(%(%! other jud!me%t"- thereby "ecur(%! co%trol o* the(r *ormat(o%. +uch a co%cept(o% o* &"c(e%t(*(c-& throw(%! the empha"(" upo% the (%here%t lo!(c o* a% (%=u(ry rather tha% upo% the part(cular *orm wh(ch the re"ult" o* the (%=u(ry a""umemay "er7e to ob7(ate "ome o* the object(o%" wh(ch at o%ce "u!!e"t them"el7e" whe% there (" me%t(o% o* a "c(e%ce o* co%duct. @%le"" th(" co%cept(o% (" empha"(6ed- the term &"c(e%ce& (" l(kely to "u!!e"t tho"e bod(e" o* k%owled!e wh(ch are mo"t *am(l(ar to u" (% phy"(cal matter"> a%d thu" to !(7e the (mpre""(o% that what (" "ou!ht (" reduct(o% o* matter" o* co%duct to "(m(larly phy"(cal or e7e% =ua"(3mathemat(cal *orm. 8t ("howe7er- a%alo!y w(th the method o* (%=u(ry- %ot w(th the *(%al product- wh(ch (" (%te%ded. Aet- wh(le th(" e:pla%at(o% may preclude certa(% object(o%"- (t (" *ar- (% the pre"e%t "tate o* d("cu""(o%- *rom remo7(%! all object(o%" a%d thu" "ecur(%! a *ree a%d ope% *(eld. ,he po(%t o* 7(ew e:pre""ly d("cla(m" a%y e**ort to reduce the "tateme%t o* matter" o* co%duct to *orm" comparable w(th tho"e o* phy"(cal "c(e%ce. But (t al"o e:pre""ly procla(m" a% (de%t(ty o* lo!(cal procedure (% the two ca"e". ,h(" a""ert(o% w(ll meet w(th "harp a%d *(at de%(al. 4e%ce- be*ore de7elop(%! the lo!(c o* moral "c(e%ce- (t (" %ece""ary to d("cu"" the object(o%" wh(ch a**(rm "uch a% (%here%t d("par(ty betwee% moral jud!me%t" a%d phy"(cal jud!me%t" that there (" %o !rou%d (% the co%trol o* the jud!(%! act(7(ty (% o%e ca"e *or (%*err(%! the po""(b(l(ty o* l(ke co%trol (% the other.

$! The %ossibility of Logical Control of Moral Judgments

8% co%"(der(%! th(" po""(b(l(ty- we are met- a" ju"t (%d(cated- by a% a""ert(o% that there (" "ometh(%! (% the 7ery %ature o* co%duct wh(ch pre7e%t" the u"e o* lo!(cal method" (% the way they are employed (% already reco!%(6ed "phere" o* "c(e%t(*(c (%=u(ry. ,he object(o% (mpl(e" that moral jud!me%t (" o* "uch character that %oth(%! ca% be "y"temat(cally e:tracted *rom a%y o%e wh(ch (" o* u"e (% *ac(l(tat(%! a%d !uara%tee(%! the *ormat(o% o* other". 8t de%(e"- *rom the lo!(cal "(de- the co%t(%u(ty o* moral e:per(e%ce. 8* there were "uch co%t(%u(ty- a%y o%e jud!me%t could be dealt w(th (% "uch a way a" to make o* (t a co%"c(ou" tool *or *orm(%! other jud!me%t". ,he !rou%d o* de%(al o* co%t(%u(ty (% moral e:per(e%ce re"t" upo% the bel(e* that the ba"(" a%d

ju"t(*y(%! pr(%c(ple o* the eth(cal jud!me%t (" *ou%d (% tra%"ce%de%tal co%cept(o%"- 7(6.co%"(derat(o%" that do %ot *low *rom the cour"e o* e:per(e%ce a" that (" jud!ed (% term" o* (t"el*- but wh(ch ha7e a "(!%(*(ca%ce (%depe%de%t o* the cour"e o** e:per(e%ce a" "uch.

011B1 ,he a""ert(o% o* "uch lo!(cal d("par(ty a""ume" a 7ar(ety o* *orm"- all com(%! back to pretty much the "ame pre"uppo"(t(o%. 9%e way o* putt(%! the matter (" that eth(cal jud!me%t" are (mmed(ate a%d (%tu(t(7e. 8* th(" be true- a% eth(cal jud!me%t ca%%ot be co%"(dered a co%clu"(o%> a%d he%ce there ca% be %o =ue"t(o% o* putt(%! (t (%to orderly (%tellectual 0or lo!(cal1 relat(o%" w(th other l(ke jud!me%t". < merely (mmed(ate jud!me%t ("- by the %ature o* the ca"e- (%capable o* e(ther (%tellectual rect(*(cat(o% or o* (%tellectual appl(cat(o%. ,h(" 7(ew *(%d" e:pre""(o% (% popular co%"c(ou"%e"" (% the %ot(o% that "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t" depe%d upo% rea"o%- wh(le moral 7aluat(o%" proceed *rom a "eparate *aculty- co%"c(e%ce- ha7(%! (t" ow% cr(ter(a a%d method" %ot ame%able to (%tellectual "uper7("(o%. <%other way o* a**(rm(%! rad(cal d("par(ty (" that "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t" depe%d upo% the pr(%c(ple o* cau"at(o%- wh(ch o* %ece""(ty carr(e" w(th (t the depe%de%ce o* o%e phe%ome%o% upo% a%other- a%d thu" the po""(b(l(ty o* "tat(%! e7ery *act (% co%%ect(o% w(th the "tateme%t o* "ome other *act> wh(le moral jud!me%t" (%7ol7e the pr(%c(ple o* *(%al cau"e- o* e%d a%d (deal. 4e%ce to e%dea7or to co%trol the co%"truct(o% a%d a**(rmat(o% o* a%y co%te%t o* moral jud!me%t by re*ere%ce to a%tecede%t propo"(t(o%" (" to de"troy (t" pecul(ar moral =ual(ty. 9r- a" (t (" popularly e:pre""ed- eth(cal jud!me%t (" eth(cal ju"t becau"e (t (" %ot "c(e%t(*(c> becau"e (t deal" w(th %orm"- 7alue"-- (deal"- %ot w(th !(7e% *act"> w(th what ought to be- e"t(mated throu!h pure "p(r(tual a"p(rat(o%- %ot w(th what is- dec(ded a*ter (%7e"t(!at(o%. Pretty much the "ame po(%t o* 7(ew (" e:pre""ed whe% (t (" "a(d that "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t"- a" "uch- "tate *act" (% term" o* "e=ue%ce" (% t(me a%d o* co3e:("te%ce" (% "pace. ;here7er we are deal(%! w(th relat(o%" o* th(" "ort- (t (" appare%t that a k%owled!e o* o%e term or member "er7e" a" a !u(de a%d check (% the a""ert(o% o* the e:("te%ce a%d character o* the other term or member. But moral jud!me%t"- (t (" "a(ddeal w(th act(o%" wh(ch are "t(ll to be per*ormed. )o%"e=ue%tly (% th(" ca"e character("t(c mea%(%! (" *ou%d o%ly (% the =ual(t(e" wh(ch e:("t after a%d by mea%" o* the jud!me%t. .or th(" rea"o%- moral jud!me%t (" thou!ht e""e%t(ally to tra%"ce%d a%yth(%! *ou%d (% pa"t e:per(e%ce> a%d "o- o%ce more- to try to co%trol a moral jud!me%t throu!h the med(um o* other jud!me%t" (" to el(m(%ate (t" d("t(%ct(7e eth(cal =ual(ty. ,h(" %ot(o% *(%d" (t" popular e=u(7ale%t (% the co%7(ct(o% that moral jud!me%t" relate to real(t(e" where *reedom (" (mpl(cated (% "uch a way that %o (%tellectual co%trol (" po""(ble. ,he jud!me%t (" co%"(dered to be ba"ed- %ot upo% object(7e *act"- but upo% arb(trary cho(ce or 7ol(t(o% e:pre""ed (% a certa(% "ort o* appro7al or d("appro7al. 8 ha7e %o (%te%t(o% o* d("cu""(%! the"e po(%t" (% the(r *ull bear(%!. 8 "hall reduce them to a "(%!le lo!(cal *ormulat(o%- a%d the% d("cu"" the latter (% (t" mo"t !e%eral "(!%(*(ca%ce. ,he ju"t(*(cat(o% o* the "(%!le "tateme%t a" a *ormulat(o% o* the object(o%" ju"t "et *orth 0a%d o* other l(ke o%e"1 w(ll %ot be attempted- *or *urther d("cu""(o% doe" %ot tur% upo% that po(%t. ;he% !e%eral(6ed- the 7ar(ou" "tateme%t" o* the lo!(cal !ul* betwee% the

moral jud!me%t a%d the "c(e%t(*(c reduce" (t"el* to a% a""ert(o% o* two a%t(%om(e": o%ethe "eparat(o% betwee% the u%(7er"al a%d the

011C1 (%d(7(dual> the other- betwee% the (%tellectual a%d the pract(cal. <%d the"e two a%t(%om(e" *(%ally reduce them"el7e" to o%e: +c(e%t(*(c "tateme%t" re*er to generic conditions a%d relat(o%"- wh(ch are there*ore capable o* complete a%d object(7e "tateme%t> eth(cal jud!me%t" re*er to a% individual act wh(ch by (t" 7ery %ature tra%"ce%d" object(7e "tateme%t. ,he !rou%d o* "eparat(o% (" that "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t (" u%(7er"al- he%ce o%ly hypothet(cal- a%d he%ce (%capable o* relat(%! to act"- wh(le moral jud!me%t (" cate!or(cal- a%d thu" (%d(7(dual(6ed- a%d he%ce re*er" to act". ,he "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t "tate" that where "ome co%d(t(o% or "et o* co%d(t(o%" (" *ou%d- there al"o (" *ou%d a "pec(*(ed other co%d(t(o% or "et o* co%d(t(o%". ,he moral jud!me%t "tate" that a certa(% e%d ha" cate!or(cal 7alue- a%d (" thu" to be real(6ed w(thout a%y re*ere%ce what"oe7er to a%tecede%t co%d(t(o%" or *act". ,he "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t "tate" a co%%ect(o% o* co%d(t(o%"> the moral jud!me%t "tate" the u%co%d(t(o%ed cla(m o* a% (dea to be made real. ,h(" *ormulat(o% o* the lo!(c o* the problem u%der co%"(derat(o% *(:e" atte%t(o% upo% the two po(%t" wh(ch are (% %eed o* d("cu""(o%. .(r"t: 8" (t true that "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t deal" w(th co%te%t" wh(ch ha7e- (% a%d o* them"el7e"- a u%(7er"al %ature 33 that (t" whole "(!%(*(ca%ce (" e:hau"ted (% "ett(%! *orth a certa(% co%%ect(o% o* co%d(t(o%" D +eco%dly: 8" (t true that the attempt to re!ulate- by mea%" o* a% (%tellectual tech%(=ue- moral jud!me%t" 33 wh(ch- o* cour"e- are thorou!hly (%d(7(dual(6ed 33 de"troy" or (% a%y way le""e%" d("t(%ct(7ely eth(cal 7alueD 8% d("cu""(%! the two =ue"t(o%" ju"t propou%ded- 8 "hall e%dea7or to "how: .(r"t- that "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t" ha7e all the lo!(cal character("t(c" o* eth(cal jud!me%t"> "(%ce they re*er 011 to (%d(7(dual ca"e"- a%d 0 1 to act". 8 "hall e%dea7or to "how that the "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t- the *ormulat(o% o* a co%%ect(o% o* co%d(t(o%- ha" (t" or(!(%- a%d (" de7eloped a%d employed *or the "pec(*(c a%d "ole purpo"e o* *ree(%! a%d re(%*orc(%! act" o* jud!me%t that apply to u%(=ue a%d (%d(7(dual ca"e". 8% other word"- 8 "hall try to "how that there (" %o =ue"t(o% o* el(m(%at(%! the d("t(%ct(7e =ual(ty o* eth(cal jud!me%t" by a""(m(lat(%! them to a d(**ere%t lo!(cal type- *ou%d (% "o3called "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t"> prec("ely becau"e the lo!(cal type *ou%d (% reco!%(6ed "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t" (" o%e wh(ch already take" due accou%t o* (%d(7(dual(6at(o% a%d act(7(ty. 8 "hall- the%- "eco%dlye%dea7or to "how that (%d(7(dual(6ed eth(cal jud!me%t" re=u(re *or the(r co%trol !e%er(c propo"(t(o%"- wh(ch "tate a co%%ect(o% o* rele7a%t co%d(t(o%" (% u%(7er"al 0or object(7e1 *orm> a%d that (t (" po""(ble to d(rect (%=u(ry "o a" to arr(7e at "uch u%(7er"al". <%d *(%ally- 8 "hall br(e*ly "et *orth the three typ(cal l(%e" alo%! wh(ch the co%"truct(o% o* "uch !e%er(c "c(e%t(*(c propo"(t(o%" mu"t proceed- (* there (" to be a "c(e%t(*(c treatme%t o* eth(c".

&! 'ature of Scientific Judgments

,he propo"(t(o% that "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t" are hypothet(c becau"e they are u%(7er"al (" almo"t commo%place (% rece%t lo!(cal theory. ,here (" %o doubt that there (" a "e%"e (% wh(ch th(" propo"(t(o% "tate" a% u%=ue"t(o%ed truth. ,he a(m o* "c(e%ce (" law. < law (" ade=uate (% the de!ree (% wh(ch (t take" the *orm- (* %ot o* a% e=uat(o%-

01191 at lea"t o* *ormulat(o% o* co%"ta%cy- o* relat(o%"h(p- or order. 8t (" clear that a%y law- whether "tated a" *ormulat(o% o* order or a" a% e=uat(o%- co%7ey"- (% a%d o* (t"el*%ot a% (%d(7(dual(6ed real(ty- but a certa(% co%%ect(o% o* co%d(t(o%". @p to th(" po(%t there (" %o d("pute. ;he%- howe7er- (t (" ar!ued that th(" d(rect a%d ob7(ou" co%cer% o* "c(e%ce w(th !e%er(c "tateme%t" e:hau"t" the lo!(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce o* "c(e%t(*(c methodcerta(% *u%dame%tal pre"uppo"(t(o%" a%d certa(% *u%dame%tal bear(%!" are (!%ored> a%d the- lo!(cal =ue"t(o% at (""ue (" be!!ed. ,he real =ue"t(o% (" %ot whether "c(e%ce a(m" at "tateme%t" wh(ch take the *orm o* u%(7er"al"- or *ormula o* co%%ect(o% o* co%d(t(o%".but how (t come" to do "o- a%d what it does with the u%(7er"al "tateme%t" a*ter they ha7e bee% "ecured. 8% other word"- we ha7e- *(r"t- to a"k *or the lo!(cal (mport o* !e%er(c jud!me%t". <ccord(%!ly- %ot =ue"t(o%(%! the (mporta%ce o* !e%eral *ormulae a" the object(7e co%te%t o* the "c(e%ce"- th(" "ect(o% w(ll e%dea7or to "how that "uch (mporta%ce l(e" (% the de7elopme%t o* &"c(e%ce"& or bod(e" o* !e%er(c *ormulae a" (%"trume%tal(t(e" a%d method" o* co%troll(%! (%d(7(dual(6ed jud!me%t". 1. ,he boa"t a%d pr(de o* moder% "c(e%ce (" (t" d("t(%ctly emp(r(cal a%d e:per(me%tal character. ,he term &emp(r(cal& re*er" to or(!(% a%d de7elopme%t o* "c(e%t(*(c "tateme%t" out o* co%crete e:per(e%ce"> the term &e:per(me%tal& re*er" to the te"t(%! a%d check(%! o* the "o3called law" a%d u%(7er"al" by re*ere%ce to the(r appl(cat(o% (% *urther co%crete e:per(e%ce. 8* th(" %ot(o% o* "c(e%ce be correct- (t "how"- w(thout *urther ar!ume%t- that !e%er(c propo"(t(o%" occupy a purely (%termed(ate po"(t(o%. ,hey are %e(ther (%(t(al %or *(%al. ,hey are the br(d!e" by wh(ch we pa"" o7er *rom o%e part(cular e:per(e%ce to a%other> they are (%d(7(dual e:per(e%ce" put (%to "uch "hape a" to be a7a(lable (% re!ulat(%! other e:per(e%ce". 9therw("e "c(e%t(*(c law" would be o%ly (%tellectual ab"tract(o%" te"ted o% the ba"(" o* the(r ow% rec(procal co%"("te%c(e"> a%d the tra(t wh(ch (" "uppo"ed to demarcate "c(e%ce *rom med(ae7al "peculat(o% would at o%ce *ade away. Moreo7er- (* the !e%er(c character o* propo"(t(o%" o* phy"(cal a%d b(olo!(cal "c(e%ce" were ult(mate- "uch propo"(t(o%" would be e%t(rely u"ele"" *rom a pract(cal po(%t o* 7(ew> they would be =u(te (%capable o* pract(cal appl(cat(o% becau"e they would be ("olated *rom (%tellectual co%t(%u(ty w(th the part(cular ca"e" to wh(ch appl(cat(o% (" "ou!ht. Eo amou%t o* purely deduct(7e ma%(pulat(o% o* ab"tract(o%" br(%!" a re"ult(%! co%clu"(o% a%y %earer a co%crete *act tha% were the or(!(%al prem("e". Deduct(o% (%troduce" (% re!ular "e=ue%ce %ew (dea"- a%d thu" compl(cate" the u%(7er"al co%te%t. But to "uppo"e that by compl(cat(%! the co%te%t o* a u%(7er"al we !et %earer the (%d(7(dual o* e:per(e%ce (" the *allacy at o%ce o* med(ae7al real("m a%d o* the o%tolo!(cal ar!ume%t *or the e:("te%ce o* Fod. Eo ra%!e o* "y%the"(" o* u%(7er"al propo"(t(o%" (% chem("try- phy"(c"- a%d b(olo!y would 0(* "uch propo"(t(o%" were lo!(cally "el*3"u**(c(%!1 a""("t u" (% bu(ld(%! a br(d!e or (% locat(%! the "ource o* a% ep(dem(c o* typho(d *e7er. 8*- howe7er- u%(7er"al propo"(t(o%" a%d the(r deduct(7e "y%the"(" are to be (%terpreted (% the "e%"e o* the ma%u*actur(%! a%d employ(%! o* (%tellectual tool"

01 01 *or the e:pre"" purpo"e o* *ac(l(tat(%! our (%d(7(dual e:per(e%ce"- the outcome (" =u(te other.

,he emp(r(cal or(!(%- the e:per(me%tal te"t- a%d the pract(cal u"e o* the "tateme%t" o* "c(e%ce are e%ou!h o* them"el7e" to (%d(cate the (mpo""(b(l(ty o* hold(%! to a%y *(:ed lo!(cal d(7("(o% o* jud!me%t" (%to u%(7er"al a" "c(e%t(*(c- a%d (%d(7(dual a" pract(cal. 8t "u!!e"t" that what we term "c(e%ce (" ju"t the *or!(%! a%d arra%!(%! o* (%"trume%tal(t(e" *or deal(%! w(th (%d(7(dual ca"e" o* e:per(e%ce 33 ca"e" wh(ch- (* (%d(7(dual- are ju"t a" u%(=ue a%d (rreplaceable a" are tho"e o* moral l(*e. ;e m(!ht e7e% "ay that the 7ery *act wh(ch lead" u" upo% a "uper*(c(al 7(ew (%to bel(e7(%! (% the lo!(cal "eparat(o% o* the !e%er(c jud!me%t *rom the (%d(7(dual- 7(6.- the e:("te%ce o* a lar!e a%d "el*3co%ta(%ed body o* u%(7er"al propo"(t(o%"- (" proo* that a" to "ome (%d(7(dual e:per(e%ce" we ha7e already worked out method" o* re!ulat(%! our re*lect(7e tra%"act(o%" w(th them- wh(le *or a%other pha"e o* e:per(e%ce th(" work rema(%" to be do%e> i. e.- (" the problem o* curre%t eth(cal "c(e%ce. ,he co%"(derat(o% o* the tech%(=ue by wh(ch the de"(red e%d o* co%trol (" accompl("hed doe" %ot belo%! here. 8t "u**(ce" to %ote that the hypothet(c jud!me%t (" a mo"t pote%t (%"trume%tal(ty. 8* we (%h(b(t the te%de%cy to "ay- &,h("- A- (" B.& a%d ca% 011 *(%d !rou%d *or "ay(%!- &;here7er there (" mn there (" B.& a%d ca% 0 1 "how that where7er there (" op there (" mn, a%d 031 ha7e a tech%(=ue *or d("co7er(%! the pre"e%ce o* op (% A, we "hall ha7e warra%t *or (de%t(*y(%! ,h("- A, a" B. e7e% (* all the outward a%d cu"tomary tra(t" are lack(%!- a%d e7e% (* ,h("- A, pre"e%t" certa(% tra(t" wh(ch- w(thout the med(at(o% o* a !e%er(c propo"(t(o% would ha7e (%e7(tably led u" to (de%t(*y (t a" C. 8de%t(*(cat(o%- (% other word"- (" "ecure o%ly whe% (t ca% be made throu!h 011 break(%! up the a%aly6ed ,h(" o* %a7e jud!me%t (%to determ(%ate tra(t"- 0 1 break(%! up the pred(cate (%to a "(m(lar comb(%at(o% o* eleme%t"- a%d 031 e"tabl("h(%! u%(*orm co%%ect(o% betwee% "ome o* the eleme%t" (% the "ubject a%d "ome (% the pred(cate. <ll jud!me%t" o* e7eryday l(*e- a%d (%deed all jud!me%t" (% "uch "c(e%ce" a" !eolo!y!eo!raphy- h("tory- 6olo!y- a%d bota%y 0all "c(e%ce" that ha7e to duo w(th h("tor(c %arrat(o% or w(th de"cr(pt(o% o* "pace coe:("te%ce"1- come back ult(mately to =ue"t(o%" o* (de%t(*(cat(o%. 57e% jud!me%t" (% phy"(c" a%d chem("try- (% the(r ult(mate a%d co%crete *orm- are co%cer%ed w(th (%d(7(dual ca"e". 9* all the "c(e%ce"- mathemat(c" alo%e ( ) (" co%cer%ed w(th pure !e%eral propo"(t(o%" 33 he%ce the (%d("pe%"able "(!%(*(ca%ce o* mathemat(c" a" a tool *or all jud!me%t" o* tech%olo!y a%d o* the other "c(e%ce". 8t al"o (" true (% all the art"- whether commerc(al- pro*e""(o%al- or art("t(c- that jud!me%t" reduce them"el7e" to matter" o* correct (de%t(*(cat(o%. 9b"er7at(o%d(a!%o"("- (%terpretat(o%- a%d e:pert "k(ll all d("play them"el7e" (% tra%"act(o%" w(th (%d(7(dual ca"e" a" "uch. . ,hu" *ar we ha7e "ee% that the (mporta%ce o* !e%er(c "tateme%t" (% "c(e%ce (" %o !rou%d *or a""um(%! (% the(r lo!(c *rom that o* a "c(e%t(*(c treatme%t

01 11 o* co%duct. 8%deed- "(%ce we ha7e *ou%d that !e%er(c propo"(t(o%" or(!(%atede7elop- a%d *(%d the(r te"t (% co%trol o* (%d(7(dual ca"e"- the pre"umpt(o% (" o* "(m(lar(ty rather tha% o* d(""(m(lar(ty. )a% we e:te%d the parallel("m *arther D Doe" (t apply e=ually well to the other character("t(c tra(t o* eth(cal jud!me%t- 7(6.- (t" re*ere%ce to a% act D $u"t a" moder% lo!(c ha" "e(6ed upo% the hypothet(c a%d u%(7er"al character o* "c(e%t(*(c "tateme%t"- the(r bear(%! upo% (%d(7(dual jud!me%t" (%to the back!rou%d 0but (% truth "o rele!at(%! them o%ly becau"e that bear(%! (" alway" take% *or !ra""ed1- "o moder% lo!(c

ha" empha"(6ed the a"pect o* co%te%t (% jud!me%t at the e:pe%"e o* the act o* jud!(%!. 8 "hall %ow try to "how- howe7er- that th(" empha"(" al"o occur" becau"e re*ere%ce to act (" "o thorou!hly take% *or !ra%ted that (t (" po""(ble to (!%ore (t 33 that ("- *a(l to !(7e (t e:pl(c(t "tateme%t. 8 "hall try to "how that e7ery jud!me%t mu"t be re!arded a" a% act> that- (%deed- the (%d(7(dual character o* jud!me%t proper- wh(ch ha" ju"t bee% brou!ht out- mea%"- (% *(%al a%aly"("- that the jud!me%t (" a u%(=ue act *or wh(ch there (" %o "ub"t(tute. 9ur *u%dame%tal po(%t (" the co%trol o* the co%te%t or mea%(%! wh(ch (" a""erted (% a%y !(7e% jud!me%t. 4ow ca% "uch co%trol be obta(%ed D +o *ar we ha7e "poke% a" (* the co%te%t o* o%e jud!me%t m(!ht be elaborated "(mply by re*ere%ce to the co%te%t o* a%other 33 part(cularly a" (* the co%te%t o* a% (%d(7(dual jud!me%t- a jud!me%t o* (de%t(*(cat(o%- m(!ht be "ecured by re*ere%ce to the co%te%t o* a u%(7er"al or hypothet(c propo"(t(o%. 8% truth- there (" %o "uch th(%! a" co%trol o* o%e co%te%t by- mere re*ere%ce to a%other co%te%t a" "uch. ,o reco!%(6e th(" (mpo""(b(l(ty (" to reco!%(6e that the co%trol o* the *ormat(o% o* the jud!me%t (" alway" throu!h the med(um o* a% act by wh(ch the re"pect(7e co%te%t" o* both the (%d(7(dual jud!me%t a%d o* the u%(7er"al propo"(t(o% are "elected a%d brou!ht (%to relat(o%"h(p to each other. ,here (" %o road ope% *rom a%y !e%er(c *ormula to a% (%d(7(dual jud!me%t. ,he road lead" throu!h the hab(t" a%d me%tal att(tude" o* the o%e co%cer%ed (% jud!(%!. ,he u%(7er"al !et" lo!(cal *orce- a" well a" p"ych(cal real(ty- o%ly (% the act" by wh(ch (t (" (%7e%ted a%d co%"tructed a" a tool a%d the% (" employed *or the purpo"e *or wh(ch (t wa" (%te%ded. 8 "hall accord(%!ly try to "how that act(7(ty "how" (t"el* at e7ery cr(t(cal po(%t (% the G *ormat(o% o* jud!me%t: 0a1 that (t "how" (t"el* (% the !e%e"(" o* the !e%er(c or u%(7er"al employed> 0b1 that (t "how" (t"el* (% the "elect(o% o* the part(cular "ubject3matter wh(ch (" jud!ed> a%d 0c1 that (t "how" (t"el* (% the way (% wh(ch the 7al(d(ty o* the hypothe"(" (" te"ted a%d 7er(*(ed- a%d the "(!%(*(ca%ce o* the part(cular "ubject3matter determ(%ed. a1 +o *ar we ha7e a""umed the po""(b(l(ty o* bu(ld(%! up a%d "elect(%! *or u"e "ome !e%er(c pr(%c(ple wh(ch co%trol" the (de%t(*(cat(o% reached (% a% (%d(7(dual ca"e. ;e ca%%ot- that (" to "ay- re!ulate jud!me%t" o* the type- &,h(" (" typho(d-& or- &,hat (" BelaH" comet-& u%le"" we ha7e certa(% !e%er(c co%cept"- wh(ch are de*(%ed a" co%%ect(o% o* part(cular co%d(t(o%"- a%d u%le"" we k%ow whe% a%d how to "elect *ro%d the "tock o* "uch co%cept" at our d("po"al the part(cular o%e re=u(red. ,he e%t(re "c(e%ce co%"(dered a" a body o* *ormulae ha7(%! cohere%t relat(o%" to o%e

01 1 a%other (" ju"t a "y"tem o* po""(ble pred(cate" 33 that ("- o* po""(ble "ta%dpo(%t" or method" to be employed (% =ual(*y(%! "ome part(cular e:per(e%ce who"e %ature or mea%(%! (" %ot clear to u". 8t *ur%("he" u" w(th a "et o* tool" *rom wh(ch cho(ce ha" to be made. ,he cho(ce- o* cour"e- depe%d" upo% the %eed" o* the part(cular *act" wh(ch ha7e to be d("cr(m(%ated a%d (de%t(*(ed (% the !(7e% ca"e 33 ju"t a" the carpe%ter dec(de"- o% the ba"(" o* what he (" !o(%! to do- whether he w(ll a hammer- a "aw- or a pla%e *rom h(" tool3che"t. 9%e m(!ht a" well "uppo"e that the e:("te%ce o* po""(ble ca%d(date" *or o**(ce- plu" the mathemat(cally po""(ble comb(%at(o%" a%d permutat(o%" o* themco%"t(tute" a% elect(o% o* o%e o* them to o**(ce- a" to "uppo"e that a "pec(*(c jud!me%t *ollow" *rom e7e% a% (deally e:hau"t(7e "y"tem o* !e%eral pr(%c(ple". ,he lo!(cal proce"" (%clude"- a" a% or!a%(c part o* (t"el*- the "elect(o% a%d re*ere%ce o* that part(cular o%e o* the "y"tem wh(ch (" rele7a%t to the part(cular ca"e. ,h(" (%d(7(dual(6ed

"elect(o% a%d adaptat(o% (" a% (%te!ral port(o% o* the lo!(c o* the "(tuat(o%. <%d "uch "elect(o% a%d adju"tme%t (" clearly (% the %ature o* a% act. Eor mu"t we *a(l to make clear that we are co%cer%ed- %ot w(th "elect(%! a%d adapt(%! a ready3made u%(7er"al- but w(th the origin o* the u%(7er"al ab"olutely *or the "ake o* ju"t "uch adaptat(o%. 8* (%d(7(dual ca"e" (% e:per(e%ce %e7er !a7e u" a%y d(**(culty (% (de%t(*(cat(o%- (* they %e7er "et a%y problem- u%(7er"al" would "(mply %ot e:("t- to "ay %oth(%! o* be(%! u"ed. ,he u%(7er"al (" prec("ely "uch a "tateme%t o* e:per(e%ce a" w(ll *ac(l(tate a%d !uara%tee the 7aluat(o% o* (%d(7(dual(6ed e:per(e%ce". 8t ha" %o e:("te%cea" (t ha" %o check o* 7al(d(ty- out"(de o* "uch a *u%ct(o%. 8% "ome ca"e where "c(e%ce ha" already made co%"(derable headway- we may- w(thout error- "peak a" (* u%(7er"al" were already at ha%d- a%d a" (* the o%ly =ue"t(o% were wh(ch o%e o* them to p(ck out a%d employ. But "uch a way o* "peak(%! mu"t %ot bl(%d u" to the *act that (t wa" o%ly becau"e o* the %eed o* "ome more object(7e way o* determ(%(%! a !(7e% ca"e that a u%(7er"al e7er or(!(%ated a%d took o% *orm a%d character. D(d %ot the u%(7er"al de7elop a" med(um o* co%c(l(at(o% (% ju"t the "ame "ort o* "(tuat(o% o* co%*l(ct a" that (% wh(ch (t *(%d" (t" u"e- "uch u"e would be ab"olutely arb(trary- a%d co%"e=ue%tly w(thout lo!(cal l(m(t. ,he act(7(ty wh(ch "elect" a%d employ" (" lo!(cal- %ot e:tra3lo!(cal- ju"t becau"e the tool "elected a%d employed ha" bee% (%7e%ted a%d de7eloped prec("ely *or the "ake o* ju"t "uch *uture "elect(o% a%d u"e. ($) b1 ,he (%d(7(dual(6ed act 0or cho(ce1 (% jud!me%t" o* (de%t(*(cat(o% "how" (t"el* %ot o%ly (% "elect(o% *rom a body o* po""(b(l(t(e" o* the "pec(*(c pred(cate re=u(red- but (% the determ(%at(o% o* the &,h("-& or "ubject- a" well. +tude%t" o* lo!(c are

01 31 *am(l(ar w(th the d("t(%ct(o% betwee% the *act o* part(cular(ty a%d the =ual(*(cat(o%" or d("t(%!u("h(%! tra(t" o* a part(cular 33 a d("t(%ct(o% wh(ch ha" bee% 7ar(ou"ly termed o%e betwee% the & ,hat& a%d the & ;hat-& or betwee% &,h("& a%d &,h("%e"".& (&) ,h("%e"" re*er" to a =ual(ty wh(ch- howe7er "e%"uou" (t be 0"uch a" hot- red- loud1- may yet (% (t" ow% mea%(%! belo%! e=ually well to a lar!e %umber o* part(cular". 8t (" "ometh(%! a pre"e%tat(o% has, rather tha% what (t ju"t (". +uch a 7ar(ety o* appl(cat(o%" (t" (%7ol7ed (% the 7ery %ot(o% o* =ual(ty. 8t make" all =ual(t(e" capable o* co%"(derat(o% a" de!ree". 8t (" re"po%"(ble *or the ea"e w(th wh(ch %ame" o* =ual(t(e" tra%"*orm them"el7e" (%to ab"tract term"- blue (%to blue%e""- loud (%to loud%e""- hot (%to heat- etc. ,he part(cular(ty- or better- "(%!ular(ty- o* the jud!me%t (" co%"t(tuted by the (mmed(ate demo%"trat(7e re*ere%ce o* the & ,h(".& (*) ,h(" demo%"trat(7e character mea%" a pre*ere%t(al "elect(o%> (t (" a matter o* act(o%. 9r- *rom the p"ycholo!(cal "(de- the "e%"ory =ual(ty become" "pec(*(c o%ly (% motor re"po%"e. Ied- blue- hot- etc.- a" (mmed(ate e:per(e%ce"- alway" (%7ol7e motor adju"tme%t" wh(ch determ(%e them. )ha%!e the k(%d o* motor adju"tme%t a%d the =ual(ty o* the e:per(e%ce cha%!e"> d(m(%("h (t a%d the =ual(ty relap"e" more a%d more (%to (%de*(%(te 7a!ue%e"". ,he "elect(o% o* a%y part(cular &,h("& a" the (mmed(ate "ubject o* jud!me%t (" %ot arb(traryhowe7er- but (" depe%de%t upo% the e%d (%7ol7ed (% the (%tere"t wh(ch (" uppermo"t. ,heoret(cally- a%y object w(th(% the ra%!e o* percept(o%- or a%y =ual(ty or a%- cleme%t o* a%y o%e object- may *u%ct(o% a" the &,h("-& or the "ubject3matter to be determ(%ed (% jud!me%t. Purely object(7ely- there (" %o rea"o% *or choo"(%! a%y o%e o* the (%*(%(te po""(b(l(t(e" rather tha% a%other. But the a(m (% 7(ew 0wh(ch- o* cour"e- *(%d" (t"

e:pre""(o% (% the pred(cate o* the jud!me%t1 !(7e" a ba"(" *or dec(d(%! what object or what eleme%t o* a%y object (" lo!(cally *(t. ,he (mpl(cat(o% o* "elect(7e act(7(ty (" thu" a% or!a%(c part o* the lo!(cal operat(o%- a%d %ot a% arb(trary pract(cal add(t(o% clapped o% a*ter the lo!(cal act(7(ty a" "uch (" complete. ,he 8 7ery "ame (%tere"t wh(ch lead" to the bu(ld(%! up a%d "elect(o% o* the u%(7er"al lead" to the co%"truct(7e "elect(o% o* the (mmed(ate data or mater(al w(th re*ere%ce to l wh(ch the u%(7er"al (" to be employed. (+) c1 ,he e:per(me%tal character o* all "c(e%t(*(c (de%t(*(cat(o% (" a commo%place. 8t (" "o commo%place that we are apt to o7erlook (t" treme%dou" (mport 33 the u%co%d(t(o%al %ece""(ty o* o7ert act(7(ty to the (%te!r(ty o* the lo!(cal proce"" a" "uch. <" we ha7e ju"t "ee%- a% act (" (%7ol7ed (% the determ(%at(o% o* both the pred(cate- or the (%terpret(%! mea%(%!- a%d o* the & ,h("-& or *act to be (de%t(*(ed. ;ere %ot both o*

01 J1 the"e act" correlat(7e" (% a lar!er "cheme o* cha%!e o* 7alue (% e:per(e%ce- they would both be arb(trary> a%d the(r ult(mate appropr(ate%e"" or adaptat(o% to each other would be a "heer m(racle. 8* o%e arb(trary act o* cho(ce reached *orth to lay hold o* "ome pred(cate *rom out the whole "y"tem o* po""(ble =ual(*(cat(o%"- wh(le a%other act o* cho(ce- e%t(rely (%depe%de%t (% or(!(%- reached out to "e(6e a !(7e% area *rom the whole po""(ble re!(o% o* "e%"e3percept(o%"- (t would be the "heere"t acc(de%t (* the two "elect(o%" thu" made "hould *(t (%to each other- "hould play (%to each otherH" ha%d". But (* o%e a%d the "ame e%d or (%tere"t operate" (% re!ulat(%! both "elect(o%"- the ca"e "ta%d" =u(te otherw("e. 8% "uch ca"e- the e:per(me%tal act(7(ty o* 7er(*(cat(o% (" the carry(%! o% o* prec("ely the "ame purpo"e wh(ch *ou%d e:pre""(o% (% the cho(ce o* "ubject a%d pred(cate re"pect(7ely. 8t (" (% %o "e%"e a th(rd proce""- but (" the e%t(re act(7(ty wh(ch we ha7e already co%"(dered (% two part(al but typ(cal a"pect". ,he cho(ce o* mea%(%! or pred(cate (" alway" made w(th re*ere%ce to the (%d(7(dual ca"e to be (%terpreted> a%d the co%"t(tut(o% o* the part(cular object(7e ca"e (" alway" colored throu!hout by the po(%t o* 7(ew or (dea w(th re*ere%ce to wh(ch (t (" to be ut(l(6ed. ,h(" rec(procal re*ere%ce (" the check or te"t co%t(%uou"ly employed> a%d a%y part(cular more ob7(ou" e:per(me%tal act(7(ty o* 7er(*(cat(o% mea%" "(mply that co%d(t(o%" are "uch that the check(%! proce"" (" re%dered o7ert. 8 ha7e %ow e%dea7ored to "how that (* we take "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t (% (t" o%ly ult(mate *orm- 7(6.- that wh(ch (de%t(*(e" or d("cr(m(%ate" a% (%d(7(dual(6ed port(o% o* e:per(e%ce- jud!me%t appear" a" a% act o* jud!(%!> the act "how(%! (t"el* both (% the "elect(o% a%d determ(%at(o% o* the "ubject a%d the pred(cate- a%d (% the determ(%at(o% o* the(r 7alue" w(th re*ere%ce or (% re"pect to each other- a%d he%ce (% dec(d(%! a" to truth a%d 7al(d(ty. +(%ce (% the d("cu""(o% 8 ha7e u"ed a term(%olo!y wh(ch (" hardly "el*3e:pla%atory- a%d ha7e (%troduced a 7ar(ety o* "tateme%t" wh(ch to ma%y w(ll appear- (% the pre"e%t "tate or co%d(t(o% o* lo!(cal d("cu""(o%- to %eed rather tha% to a**ord "upport- 8 may po(%t out that the *orce o* the ar!ume%t re"(de" (% matter" capable o* complete emp(r(cal co%*(rmat(o%. ,he truth or *al"(ty o* the co%clu"(o% reached depe%d" upo% the"e two %ot(o%": .(r"t- e7ery jud!me%t (" (% (t" co%crete real(ty a% act o* atte%t(o%- a%d- l(ke all atte%t(o%(%7ol7e" the *u%ct(o%(%! o* a% (%tere"t or e%d a%d the deploy(%! o* hab(t" a%d (mpul"(7e

te%de%c(e" 0wh(ch ult(mately (%7ol7e motor adju"tme%t"1 (% the "er7(ce o* that (%tere"t. 4e%ce (t (%7ol7e" "elect(o% a" re!ard" both the object o* atte%t(o% a%d the "ta%dpo(%t a%d mode o* &apperce(7(%!& or (%terpret(%!. )ha%!e the (%tere"t or e%d- a%d the "elected mater(al 0the "ubject o* the jud!me%t1 cha%!e"- a%d the po(%t o* 7(ew *rom wh(ch (t (" re!arded 0a%d co%"e=ue%tly the k(%d o* pred(cat(o%1 cha%!e" al"o. +eco%d- the ab"tract !e%eral(6(%! propo"(t(o%" o* "c(e%ce ha7e de7eloped out o* the %eed" o* "uch (%d(7(dual(6ed jud!me%t" or act" o* atte%t(o%> they ha7e a""umed the(r pre"e%t *orm 33 that ("- de7eloped the(r character("t(c "tructure" or co%te%t" 33 a" (%"trume%tal(t(e" *or e%abl(%! a% (%d(7(dual jud!me%t to do (t" work mo"t e**ect(7ely>

01 21 that (" to "ay- to accompl("h mo"t "urely a%d eco%om(cally the e%d *or wh(ch (t (" u%dertake%. )o%"e=ue%tly the 7alue or 7al(d(ty o* "uch co%cept" (" co%"ta%tly checked throu!h wh(ch- by (t" "ucce"" a%d *a(lure- pa""e" upo% the compete%cy o* !e%eral pr(%c(ple"- etc.- to "er7e the re!ulat(7e *u%ct(o% *or wh(ch they are (%"t(tuted. (,) +o *ar a" the "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t (" (de%t(*(ed a" a% act- all a priori rea"o% d("appear" *or3 draw(%! a l(%e betwee% the lo!(c o* the mater(al o* the reco!%(6ed "c(e%ce" a%d that o* co%duct. ;e are thu" *ree to proceed- (* we ca% *(%d a%y po"(t(7e ba"(". ,he reco!%(t(o% that the act(7(ty o* jud!(%! doe" %ot e:("t (% !e%eral- but (" o* "uch a %ature a" to re=u(re re*ere%ce to a% (%(t(al po(%t o* departure a%d to a term(%al *ul*(lme%t"uppl(e" e:actly th(" po"(t(7e !rou%d. ,he act o* jud!(%! (" %ot merely a% act(7e e:per(e%ce at lar!e- but o%e wh(ch re=u(re" "pec(*(c mot(7at(o%. ,here mu"t be "ome "t(mulu" wh(ch mo7e" to per*orm(%! th(" part(cular "ort o* act rather tha% "ome other. ;hy e%!a!e (% that part(cular k(%d o* act(7(ty that we call jud!(%!D )o%ce(7ably "ome other act(7(ty m(!ht be !o(%! o% 33 the "aw(%! o* wood- the pa(%t(%! o* a p(cture- the cor%er(%! o* the wheat market- the adm(%("ter(%! o* reproo*. ,here mu"t be "ometh(%! out"(de the mo"t complete a%d correct collect(o% o* (%tellectual propo"(t(o%" wh(ch (%duce" to e%!a!e (% the occupat(o% o* jud!(%! rather tha% (% "ome other act(7e pur"u(t. +c(e%ce *ur%("he" co%d(t(o%" wh(ch are to be u"ed (% the mo"t e**ect(7e e:ecut(o% o* the jud!(%! act(7(ty- if o%e mea%" to jud!e at all. But (t pre"uppo"e" the 8*. Eo theoret(cal "y"tem ca% "ettle that the (%d(7(dual "hall at a !(7e% mome%t jud!e rather tha% do "ometh(%! el"e. 9%ly the whole "cheme o* co%duct a" *ocu"(%! (% the (%tere"t" o* a% (%d(7(dual ca% a**ord that determ(%(%! "t(mulu". Eot o%ly mu"t a pract(cal mot(7e be *ou%d *or the u"e o* the or!a%(6ed "c(e%t(*(c "y"tembut a "(m(lar mot(7e mu"t be *ou%d *or (t" correct a%d ade=uate u"e. ,he lo!(cal 7alue o* a%y (%tellectual propo"(t(o%- (t" d("t(%ct(7ely lo!(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce a" d("t(%ct *rom e:("te%ce a" mere ens rationis, depe%d" upo% pract(cal- a%d ult(mately upo% moralco%"(derat(o%". ,he (%tere"t mu"t be o* a k(%d %ot o%ly to mo7e the (%d(7(dual to jud!ebut to (%duce h(m to jud!e cr(t(cally- br(%!(%! (%to u"e all %ece""ary precaut(o%" a%d all a7a(lable re"ource" wh(ch may (%"ure the ma:(mum probab(l(ty o* truth (% the co%clu"(o%. ,he "y"tem o* "c(e%ce 0employ(%! the term &"c(e%ce& to mea% a% or!a%(6ed (%tellectual co%te%t1 (" ab"olutely depe%de%t *or lo!(cal worth upo% a moral (%tere"t: the "(%cere a(m to jud!e truly. Iemo7e "uch a% (%tere"t- a%d the "c(e%t(*(c "y"tem become" a purely ae"thet(c object- wh(ch may awake% emot(o%al re"po%"e (% 7(rtue o* (t" (%ter%al harmo%y a%d "ymmetry- but wh(ch ha" %o lo!(cal (mport. 8* we "uppo"e- o%ce morethat (t (" a ca"e o* (de%t(*(cat(o% o* typho(d *e7er- (t (" the pro*e""(o%al- "oc(al- a%d

"c(e%t(*(c (%tere"t" o* the phy"(c(a% wh(ch lead h(m to take the trouble a%d pa(%" to !et all the data that bear upo% the

01 ?1 *orm(%! o* jud!me%t- a%d to co%"(der w(th "u**(c(e%t del(berate%e"" a" to br(%! to bear the %ece""ary (%"trume%tal(t(e" o* (%terpretat(o%. ,he (%tellectual co%te%t" !et a lo!(cal *u%ct(o% o%ly throu!h a "pec(*(c mot(7e wh(ch (" out"(de o* them barely a" co%te%t" but wh(ch (" ab"olutely bou%d up w(th them (% lo!(cal *u%ct(o%. 8* the u"e made o* "c(e%t(*(c re"ource"- o* tech%(=ue o* ob"er7at(o% a%d e:per(me%t- o* "y"tem" o* cla""(*(cat(o%- etc.- (% d(rect(%! the act o* jud!(%! 0a%d thereby *(:(%! the co%te%t o* the jud!me%t1 depe%d" upo% the (%tere"t a%d d("po"(t(o% o* the jud!er- we ha7e o%ly to make "uch depe%de%ce e:pl(c(t- a%d the "o3called "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t appear" de*(%(tely a" a moral jud!me%t. 8* the phy"(c(a% (" carele"" a%d arb(trary becau"e o* o7era%:(ety to !et h(" work do%e- or (* he let" h(" pecu%(ary %eed" (%*lue%ce h(" ma%%er o* jud!me%t- we may "ay that he ha" *a(led both lo!(cally a%d morally. +c(e%t(*(cally he ha" %ot employed the method" at comma%d *or d(rect(%! h(" act o* jud!(%! "o a" to !(7e (t ma:(mum correct%e"". But the !rou%d *or "uch lo!(cal *a(lure l(e" (% h(" ow% mot(7e or d("po"(t(o%. ,he !e%er(c propo"(t(o%" or u%(7er"al" o* "c(e%ce ca% take e**ect- (% K word- o%ly throu!h the med(um o* the hab(t" a%d (mpul"(7e te%de%c(e" o* the o%e who jud!e". ,hey ha7e %o modus operandi o* the(r ow%. (-) ,he po""(b(l(ty o* a d("t(%ct(7ely moral =ual(ty attach(%! to a% (%tellectual act(7(ty (" due to the *act that there (" %o part(cular po(%t at wh(ch o%e hab(t be!" a%d other" lea7e oa*. 8* a !(7e% hab(t could become e%t(rely ("olated a%d detached- we m(!ht ha7e a% act o* jud!(%! depe%de%t upo% a purely (%tellectual tech%(=ue- @po% a hab(t o* u"(%! "pec(al(6ed "k(ll (% deal(%! w(th certa(% matter"- (rre"pect(7e o* a%y eth(cal =ual(*(cat(o%". But the pr(%c(ple o* the co%t(%uum (" ab"olute. Eot o%ly throu!h hab(t doe" a !(7e% p"ych(cal att(tude e:pa%d (%to a part(cular ca"e- but e7ery hab(t (% (t" ow% operat(o% may d(rectly or (%d(rectly call up a%y other hab(t. ,he term & character & de%ote" th(" comple: co%t(%uum o* (%teract(o%" (%3 (t" o**(ce o* (%*lue%c(%! *(%al jud!me%t.

*! The Logical Character of .thical Judgment

;e %ow recur to our or(!(%al propo"(t(o%: +c(e%t(*(c treatme%t o* a%y "ubject mea%" comma%d o* a% apparatu" wh(ch may be u"ed to co%trol the *ormat(o% o* jud!me%t" (% all matter" apperta(%(%! to that "ubject. ;e ha7e do%e away w(th the a priori object(o% that the "ubject3matter to wh(ch reco!%(6ed "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t" apply (" "o u%l(ke that w(th wh(ch moral jud!me%t" are co%cer%ed that there (" %o commo% de%om(%ator. ;e are %ow *ree to re7ert to the or(!(%al =ue"t(o%: ;hat are the d(**ere%t(at(%! lo!(cal co%d(t(o%" o* a "c(e%t(*(c treatme%t o* co%ductD 57ery "ort o* jud!me%t ha" (t" ow% e%d to reach: a%d the (%"trume%tal(t(e" 0the cate!or(e" a%d

01 B1 method" u"ed1 mu"t 7ary a" the e%d 7ar(e". 8* (% !e%eral we co%ce(7e the lo!(cal %ature o* "c(e%t(*(c tech%(=ue- o* *ormulae- u%(7er"al"- etc.- to re"(de (% the(r adaptat(o% to !uara%tee(%! the act o* jud!(%! (% accompl("h(%! a purpo"e- we are thereby comm(tted to the *urther propo"(t(o% that the lo!(cal apparatu" %eeded 7ar(e" a" the e%d" to be reached are d(7er"e. 8*- the%- there (" a%yth(%! typ(cally d("t(%ct(7e (% the e%d

wh(ch the act o* eth(cal jud!(%! ha" to "ub"er7e- there mu"t be e=ually d("t(%ct(7e *eature" (% the lo!(c o* (t" "c(e%t(*(c treatme%t. ,he =ue"t(o% thu" recur" to the character("t(c d(**ere%t(al *eature" o* the eth(cal jud!me%t a" "uch. ,he"e *eature" read(ly pre"e%t them"el7e" (* we retur% to tho"e ca"e" o* "c(e%t(*(c (de%t(*(cat(o% (% wh(ch eth(cal co%"(derat(o%" become e:pl(c(t. ,here are ca"e"- we "aw- (% wh(ch the %ature o* the (de%t(*(cat(o% 33 a%d (t" co%"e=ue%t truth or *al"(ty 33 (" consciously depe%de%t upo% the att(tude or d("po"(t(o% o* the jud!er. ,he term &co%"c(ou"ly& d(**ere%t(ate" a pecul(ar type o* jud!me%t. 8% all ca"e" o* (%d(7(dual jud!me%t there (" a% act> a%d (%3 all ca"e" the act (" a% e:pre""(o% o* mot(7e- a%d thu" o* hab(t- a%d *(%ally o* the whole body o* hab(t or character. But (% ma%y ca"e" th(" (mpl(cat(o% o* character rema(%" a pre"uppo"(t(o%. 8t (" %ot %ece""ary to take %ot(ce o* (t. 8t (" part o* the pract(cal co%d(t(o%" o* mak(%!3 a jud!me%t> but (" %o part o* the lo!(cal co%d(t(o%"- a%d he%ce (" %ot called upo% to e%ter (%to a co%te%t 33 a co%"c(ou" object(*(cat(o% (% the jud!me%t. ,o re!ard (t a" a pract(cal (%"tead o* a lo!(cal co%d(t(o% mea%" that wh(le (t (" %ece""ary to any jud!me%t- the o%e act o* jud!me%t (% =ue"t(o% re=u(re" (t %o more tha% a%y other. 8t a**ect" all al(ke> a%d th(" 7ery (mpart(al(ty o* re*ere%ce (" e=u(7ale%t to %o re*ere%ce at ad a" re!ard" the truth or *al"(ty o* the part(cular jud!me%t. $ud!(%! (% "uch ca"e" (" co%trolled by re*ere%ce to co%d(t(o%" o* a%other =ual(ty tha% tho"e o* character> (t" pre"e%ted data are jud!ed (% term" o* object" o* the "ame order or =ual(ty a" them"el7e". Eot o%ly (" there %o co%"c(ou" (%clu"(o% o* mot(7e a%d d("po"(t(o% w(th(% the co%te%t jud!ed- but there (" e:pre"" hold(%! o**(%h(b(t(o%- o* all eleme%t" proceed(%! *rom the jud!er. .rom the "ta%dpo(%t o* jud!me%t" o* th(" type- "uch eleme%t" are re!arded a" lo!(cally merely "ubject(7e- a%d he%ce a" d("turb(%! *actor" w(th re"pect to the atta(%me%t o* truth. 8t (" %o parado: to "ay that the act(7(ty o* the a!e%t (% the act o* jud!(%! e:pre""e" (t"el* (% e**ort to pre7e%t (t" act(7(ty *rom ha7(%! a%y (%*lue%ce upo% the mater(al jud!ed. <ccord(%!ly throu!h "uch jud!me%t" & e:ter%al& object" are determ(%ed- the act(7(ty o* the jud!er be(%! kept ab"olutely %eutral or (%d(**ere%t a" to (t" re*ere%ce. ,he "ame (dea (" e:pre""ed by "ay(%! that the operat(o% o* mot(7e a%d character may be pre"uppo"ed- a%d he%ce le*t out o* accou%t- whe% they are "o u%(*orm (% the(r e:erc("e that they make %o d(**ere%ce w(th re"pect to the particular object or co%te%t jud!ed. But whe%e7er the (mpl(cat(o% o* character- the operat(o% o* hab(t a%d mot(7e- (" reco!%(6ed a" a *actor a**ect(%! the =ual(ty o* the "pec(*(c object jud!ed- the lo!(cal a(m make" (t %ece""ary to take %ot(ce o* th(" *act by mak(%! the relat(o%"h(p a% e:pl(c(t eleme%t o* co%te%t (% the "ubject3matter u%der!o(%! jud!me%t. ;he% character ("

01 C1 %ot a% (%d(**ere%t or %eutral *actor- whe% (t =ual(tat(7ely color" the mea%(%! o* the "(tuat(o% wh(ch the jud!er pre"e%t" to h(m"el*- a character("t(c *eature (" (%troduced (%to the 7ery object jud!ed> o%e wh(ch (" %ot a mere re*(%eme%t- homo!e%eou" (% k(%d w(th *act" already !(7e%- but o%e wh(ch tra%"*orm" the(r "(!%(*(ca%ce- becau"e (%troduc(%! (%to the 7ery co%te%t jud!ed the "ta%dard o* 7aluat(o%. 8% other word"- character a" a pract(cal co%d(t(o% become" logical whe% (t" (%*lue%ce (" pre*ere%t(al (% e**ect 33 whe% (%"tead o* be(%! a u%(*orm a%d (mpart(al co%d(t(o% o* a%y jud!me%t (t ("- (* le*t to3(t"el* 0or u%"tated1- a determ(%a%t o* this co%te%t37alue o* jud!me%t rather tha% that. Put *rom the other "(de- (% the &(%tellectual& jud!me%t- (t make" %o difference to character what object (" jud!ed- "o be (t the o%e jud!ed (" jud!ed accurately> wh(le (% the moral

jud!me%t the %ub o* the matter (" the d(**ere%ce wh(ch the determ(%at(o% o* the co%te%t a" th(" or that e**ect" (% character a" a %ece""ary co%d(t(o% o* jud!(%! qua jud!(%!. ,he co%"c(ou" re*ere%ce to d("po"(t(o% make" the object a% act(7e object- 7(6.- a proce"" de*(%ed by certa(% l(m(t" 33 !(7e% *act" o% o%e "(de a%d the "ame *act" a" tra%"*ormed by a!e%cy o* a !(7e% type o% the other. ,he object jud!ed (" act(7e- %ot He:ter%al-& becau"e (t re=u(re" a% act o* jud!(%!- %ot merely a" a%tecede%t- but a" a %ece""ary eleme%t (% (t" ow% "tructure. 8% jud!me%t" o* the d("t(%ct(7ely (%tellectual type- the a""umpt(o% (" that "uch act(7(ty a" (" %ece""ary to e**ect certa(% comb(%at(o%" a%d d("t(%ct(o%" w(ll keep (t"el* out"(de the mater(al jud!ed- ret(r(%! a" "oo% a" (t ha" do%e (t" work (% br(%!(%! to!ether the eleme%t" that belo%! to!ether a%d remo7(%! tho"e that ha7e %o bu"(%e"". But (% the eth(cal jud!me%t the a""umpt(o% (" (% the co%trary "e%"e> 7(6.- that the "(tuat(o% (" made what (t (" throu!h the att(tude wh(ch *(%d" e:pre""(o% (% the 7ery act o* jud!(%!. .rom the "tr(ctly lo!(cal "ta%dpo(%t 0w(thout re*ere%ce- that ("- to o7ertly moral co%"(derat(o%"1 the eth(cal jud!me%t thu" ha" a d("t(%ct(7e a(m o* (t" ow%: (t (" e%!a!ed w(th jud!(%! a "ubject3matter- a de*(%(t(7e eleme%t (% who"e determ(%at(o% (" the att(tude or d("po"(t(o% wh(ch lead" to the act o* jud!(%!. 8t *ollow" (mmed(ately that the a(m o* the eth(cal jud!me%t may be "tated a" *ollow": 8t" purpo"e (" to co%"truct the act o* jud!me%t a" (t"el* a comple: object(7e co%te%t. 8t !oe" back o* the jud!(%! act a" that (" employed (% d("t(%ct(7ely (%tellectual proce""e"- a%d make" (t" =ual(ty a%d %ature 0a" d("t(%ct *rom (t" *orm 33 a =ue"t(o% *or p"ycholo!y1 a% object o* co%"(derat(o%. $u"t becau"e character or d("po"(t(o% (" (%7ol7ed (% the mater(al pa""ed (% re7(ew a%d or!a%(6ed (% jud!me%t- character (" determ(%ed by the jud!me%t. ,h(" (" a *act o* treme%dou" eth(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce> but here (t" (mport (" %ot eth(cal- but lo!(cal. 8t "how" that we are deal(%!- *rom the "tr(ctly lo!(cal po(%t o* 7(ew- w(th a character("t(c type o* jud!me%t 33 that (% wh(ch the co%d(t(o%" o* jud!(%! act(7(ty are them"el7e" to be object(7ely determ(%ed. ,he jud!er (" e%!a!ed (% jud!(%! h(m"el*> a%d thereby (% "o *ar (" *(:(%! the co%d(t(o%" o* all *urther jud!me%t" o* a%y type what"oe7er. Put (% more p"ycholo!(cal term"- we may "ay the jud!me%t real(6e"throu!h co%"c(ou" del(berat(o% a%d cho(ce- a certa(% mot(7e h(therto more or le"" 7a!ue a%d (mpul"(7e> or (t e:pre""e" a hab(t (% "uch a way a" %ot merely to "tre%!the% (t pract(cally- but a" to br(%! to co%"c(ou"%e"" both

01 91 (t" emot(o%al worth a%d (t" "(!%(*(ca%ce (% term" o* certa(% k(%d" o* co%"e=ue%ce". But *rom the lo!(cal "ta%dpo(%t we "ay that the jud!er (" co%"c(ou"ly e%!a!ed (% co%"truct(%! a" a% object 0a%d thereby !(7(%! object(7e *orm a%d real(ty to1 the co%troll(%! co%d(t(o% o* e7ery e:erc("e o* jud!me%t.

+! The Categories of a Science of .thics

,he eth(cal jud!me%t (" o%e wh(ch e**ect" a% ab"olutely rec(procal determ(%at(o% o* the "(tuat(o% jud!ed- a%d o* the character or d("po"(t(o% wh(ch (" e:pre""ed (% the act o* jud!(%!. <%y part(cular moral jud!me%t mu"t %ece""ar(ly re*lect w(th(% (t"el* all the character("t(c" wh(ch are e""e%t(al to moral jud!me%t berhaupt. Eo matter how "tr(k(%! or how u%(=ue the mater(al o* a%y part(cular eth(cal e:per(e%ce- (t (" at lea"t a% eth(cal e:per(e%ce> a%d a" "uch (t" co%"(derat(o% or (%terpretat(o% mu"t co%*orm to the co%d(t(o%" (%7ol7ed (% the 7ery act o* jud!(%!. < jud!me%t wh(ch (%"t(tute" the rec(procal determ(%at(o% ju"t de"cr(bed ha" (t" ow% character("t(c "tructure or

or!a%(6at(o%. ,he work that (t ha" to do !(7e" (t certa(% l(m(t(%! or de*(%(%! eleme%t" a%d propert(e". ,he"e co%"t(tute the ult(mate ,erm" or )ate!or(e" o* all eth(cal "c(e%ce. Moreo7er- "(%ce the"e term" are re*lected (% e7ery moral e:per(e%ce that (" (% cour"e o* jud!me%t- they do %ot rema(% *ormal or barre%- but are (%"trume%t" o* a%aly"(" o* a%y co%crete "(tuat(o% that (" "ubjected to "c(e%t(*(c "crut(%y. ,he d("t(%ct(7ely (%tellectual jud!me%t- that o* co%"tru(%! o%e object (% term" o* other "(m(lar object"- ha" %ece""ar(ly (t" ow% (%here%t "tructure wh(ch "uppl(e" the ult(mate cate!or(e" o* all phy"(cal "c(e%ce. @%(t" o* "pace- t(me- ma""- e%er!y- etc.- de*(%e to u" the l(m(t(%! co%d(t(o%" u%der wh(ch jud!me%t" o* th(" type do the(r work. Eow- a type o* jud!me%t wh(ch determ(%e" a "(tuat(o% (% term" o* character- wh(ch (" co%cer%ed w(th co%"truct(%! what may be termed (%d(**ere%tly a% act(7e "(tuat(o% or a co%"c(ou"ly act(7e a!e%cy- ha" a l(ke lo!(cal t(tle to the "ta%dpo(%t" a%d method"> the tool"- wh(ch are %ece""ary to (t" ta"k. 5th(cal d("cu""(o% (" *ull o* "uch term": the %atural a%d the "p(r(tual- the "e%"uou" a%d the (deal- the "ta%dard a%d the r(!ht- obl(!at(o% a%d duty*reedom a%d re"po%"(b(l(ty- are "ample". ,he d("cu""(o% a%d u"e o* the"e term" "u**erhowe7er- *rom a *u%dame%tal d(**(culty. ,he term" are !e%erally take% a" "omehow !(7e% ready3made a%d he%ce a" (%depe%de%t a%d ("olated th(%!". ,he% theory co%cer%" (t"el*- *(r"t- w(th debat(%! a" to whether the cate!or(e" ha7e 7al(d(ty or %ot> a%d"eco%dly- a" to what the(r "pec(*(c "(!%(*(ca%ce (". ,he d("cu""(o% (" arb(trary prec("ely becau"e the cate!or(e" are %ot take% a" l(m(t(%! term"> a" co%"t(tue%t eleme%t" (% a lo!(cal operat(o% wh(ch- ha7(%! (t" ow% ta"k to per*orm- mu"t ha7e the mea%" or tool" %ece""ary *or (t" "ucce""*ul accompl("h(%!. )o%"e=ue%tly the pr(mary co%d(t(o% o* a "c(e%t(*(c treatme%t o* eth(c" (" that the *u%dame%tal term"- the (%tellectual "ta%dpo(%t" a%d (%"trume%tal(t(e"- u"ed- be d("cu""ed w(th re*ere%ce to the po"(t(o% they occupy a%d the part they play (% a jud!me%t o* a pecul(ar type- 7(6.- o%e wh(ch br(%!" about the rec(procal object(7e determ(%at(o% o* a% act(7e "(tuat(o% a%d a p"ych(cal d("po"(t(o%.

01301 ;he% the cate!or(e" rece(7e the *ate wh(ch (" meted out to them (% curre%t d("cu""(o%whe% they are take% up (% acc(de%tal becau"e ("olated way"- there (" %o method o* co%troll(%! *ormat(o% o* jud!me%t re!ard(%! them. )o%"e=ue%tly other jud!me%t" wh(ch depe%d upo% the(r u"e are (% a% (%crea"(%! mea"ure u%co%trolled. ,he 7ery tool" wh(ch are %ece""ary (% order that more "pec(*(c jud!me%t" may work eco%om(cally a%d e**ect(7ely are o%ly 7a!uely k%ow% a" to the(r ow% "tructure a%d mode" o* operat(o%. Eaturally they are bu%!led (% employ. Becau"e cate!or(e" are d("cu""ed a" (* they had "ome ready3made (%depe%de%t mea%(%!- each o* (t" ow%- there (" %o check upo% the mea%(%! wh(ch (" a""(!%ed to a%y o%e o* them- a%d %o reco!%(6ed "ta%dard *or jud!(%! the 7al(d(ty o* a%y. 9%ly re*ere%ce to a "(tuat(o% w(th(% wh(ch the cate!or(e" emer!e a%d *u%ct(o% ca% *ur%("h the ba"(" *or e"t(mat(o% o* the(r 7alue a%d (mport. 9therw("e the de*(%(t(o% o* ult(mate eth(cal term" (" le*t to ar!ume%tat(o% ba"ed upo% op(%(o%- a% op(%(o% wh(ch "%atche" at "ome o* the "%ore ob7(ou" *eature" o* the "(tuat(o% 0a%d thereby may alway" po""e"" "ome mea"ure o* truth1- a%d wh(ch- *a(l(%! to !ra"p the "(tuat(o% a" a whole- *a(l" to !ra"p the e:act "(!%(*(ca%ce o* (t" character("t(c term". D("cu""(o%- *or (%"ta%ce- about what co%"t(tute" the eth(cal "ta%dard 33 whether co%duc(7e%e"" to happ(%e""- or appro:(mat(o% to per*ect(o% o* be(%! 33 mu"t be relat(7ely *ut(le- u%t(l there (" "ome method o* determ(%(%! by re*ere%ce to the lo!(cal %ece""(ty o* the ca"e what anything mu"t be a%d mea% (% order to be a "ta%dard at all. ;e lack a de*(%(t(o% o* "ta%dard (% term" o* the e""e%t(al co%d(t(o%" o* the eth(cal

jud!me%t a%d "(tuat(o%. +uch a de*(%(t(o% o* "ta%dard would mot (%deed !(7e u" a% o**3 ha%d 7(ew o* the make3up o* moral 7alue "uch a" m(!ht be ut(l(6ed *or *orm(%! moral precept"- but (t w(ll "et be*ore u" certa(% co%d(t(o%" wh(ch a%y ca%d(date *or the o**(ce o* moral "ta%dard mu"t be capable o* *ul*(ll(%!> a%d w(ll [thereby "er7e a" a% (%"trume%t (% cr(t(c("(%! the 7ar(ou" cla(ma%t" *or the po"(t(o% o* "ta%dard- whether the"e o**er them"el7e" (% !e%er(c theory or (% the a**a(r" o* co%crete co%duct. +(m(larly- theor("t" ha7e bee% attempt(%! to tell what the (deal o* ma% ("- what (" summum bonum- what (" ma%H" duty- what are h(" re"po%"(b(l(t(e"- to pro7e that he (" po""e""ed or %ot po""e""ed o* *reedom- w(thout a%y re!ulated way o* de*(%(%! the co%te%t o* the term" &(deal-& &!ood-& &duty-& etc. 8* the"e term" ha7e a%y 7er(*(able proper mea%(%! o* the(r ow%- (t (" a" l(m(t(%! tra(t" o* that type o* jud!me%t wh(ch (%"t(tute" the rec(procal (de%t(*(cat(o% o* p"ych(cal att(tude (% jud!(%! a%d "ubject3matter jud!ed. <% a%aly"(" o* the make3up o* jud!me%t o* th(" type mu"t re7eal all the d("t(%ct(o%" wh(ch ha7e cla(m to the t(tle o* *u%dame%tal eth(cal cate!or(e". ;hate7er eleme%t o* mea%(%! re7eal" (t"el* a" a co%"t(tue%t part o* "uch a jud!me%t ha" all the cla(m to 7al(d(ty wh(ch moral e:per(e%ce (t"el* po""e""e"> a term wh(ch (" %ot e:h(b(ted w(th(% "uch a% a%aly"(" ha" %o t(tle to 7al(d(ty. ,he d(**ere%t(al mea%(%! o* a%y o%e o* the term" (" depe%de%t upo% the part(cular part (t play" (% the de7elopme%t a%d term(%at(o% o* jud!me%t" o* th(" "ort.

/ & 0 ,! %sychological Analysis as a Condition of Controlling .thical Judgements

8* (t be true that a moral jud!me%t (" o%e (% wh(ch the co%te%t *(%ally a**(rmed (" a**ected at e7ery po(%t by the d("po"(t(o% o* the jud!er 0"(%ce he (%terpret" the "(tuat(o% that co%*ro%t" h(m (% term" o* h(" ow% att(tude1- (t *ollow" at o%ce that o%e port(o% o* the !e%er(c theory %ece""ary *or ade=uate co%trol o* (%d(7(dual moral jud!me%t" w(ll co%"("t (% a% object(7e a%aly"(" o* d("po"(t(o% a" a**ect(%! act(o% throu!h the med(um o* jud!me%t. 57eryo%e k%ow"- a" "(mple matter o* *act- that a lar!e part o* e:("t(%! treat("e" o% moral" are *(lled w(th d("cu""(o%" co%cer%(%! de"(rable a%d u%de"(rable tra(t" o* character ) 7(rtue" a%d 7(ce"> w(th co%"c(e%ce a" a *u%ct(o% o* character> w(th d("cu""(o%" o* (%te%t(o%- mot(7e- cho(ce- a" e:pre""(o%" o*- a%d a" way" o* *orm(%!character. Moreo7er- a co%crete d("cu""(o% o* *reedom- re"po%"(b(l(ty- etc.- (" carr(ed o% a" a problem o* the relat(o%"h(p o* character to the med(a o* act(o%. ,he rec(procal determ(%at(o%- already "et *orth- o* character a%d the co%te%t jud!ed "how" that "uch d("cu""(o%" are %ot mere pract(cal de"(derata- %or yet a mere clear(%! up o* (%c(de%tal po(%t"- but (%te!ral port(o%" o* a%y ade=uate eth(cal theory. 8* character or d("po"(t(o% re*lect" (t"el* at e7ery po(%t (% the co%"t(tut(o% o* the co%te%t *(%ally "et *orth (% jud!me%t- (t (" clear that co%trol o* "uch jud!me%t depe%d" upo% ab(l(ty to "tate- (% u%(7er"al(6ed *orm- the related eleme%t" co%"t(tut(%! character a% object(7e *act" 9ur part(cular jud!me%t" re!ard(%! phy"(cal th(%!" are co%trolled o%ly (% "o *ar a" we ha7e- (%depe%de%t o* a%d pr(or to a%y part(cular emer!e%cy (% e:per(e%ce a k%owled!e o* certa(% co%d(t(o%" to be ob"er7ed (% jud!(%! e7ery phy"(cal object a" phy"(cal. 8t (" throu!h re*ere%ce to "uch law"- or "tateme%t" o* co%%ected co%d(t(o%"that we !et the (mpart(al(ty or object(7(ty wh(ch e%able" u" to jud!e (% a part(cular cr("(" u%"wer7ed by purely (mmed(ate co%"(derat(o%". ;e !et away *rom the coerc(7e (mmed(acy o* the e:per(e%ce- a%d (%to a po"(t(o% to look at (t clearly a%d thorou!hly. +(%ce character (" a *eet e%ter(%! (%to a%y moral jud!me%t pa""ed- ab(l(ty o* co%trol depe%d" upo% our power to "tate character (% term" o* !e%er(c relat(o% o* co%d(t(o%"-

wh(ch co%d(t(o%" are detachable *rom the pre""ure o* c(rcum"ta%ce (% the part(cular ca"e. P"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" (" the (%"trume%t by wh(ch character (" tra%"*ormed *rom (t" ab"orpt(o% (% the 7alue" o* (mmed(ate e:per(e%ce (%to a% object(7e- "c(e%t(*(c- *act. 8t (" (%deed- a "tateme%t o* e:per(e%ce (% term" o* (t" mode" o* co%trol o* (t" ow% e7ol7(%!. 57e% popular co%"c(ou"%e"" (" aware o* ma%y way" (% wh(ch p"ych(cal d("po"(t(o%" mod(*y jud!me%t (% a moral "e%"e> a%d (" accu"tomed to take ad7a%ta!e o* (t" k%owled!e to re!ulate moral jud!me%t (% a moral "e%"e> a%d (" accu"tomed to take ad7a%ta!e o* (t" k%owled!e to re!ulate moral jud!me%t". < "core o* pro7erb" could be collected e:pre""(%! way" (% wh(ch p"ycholo!(cal att(tude" a**ect moral 7aluat(o%. ,he (dea" (%

013 1 "uch "tateme%t" a" the *ollow(%!- are commo%place" to the pla(% ma%: 4ab(two%t- a%d u"e lull the power o* ob"er7at(o%> pa""(o% bl(%d" a%d co%*u"e" the power o* re*lect(o%> "el*3(%tere"t make" the jud!er alert to certa(% a"pect" o* the "(tuat(o% jud!ed> (mpul"e hurr(e" the m(%d o% u%cr(t(cally to a co%clu"(o%> e%d"- (deal"- arou"e- whe% co%templated- emot(o%" that te%d to *(ll co%"c(ou"%e""- a%d wh(ch- a" they "well- *(r"t re"tr(ct a%d the% el(m(%ate power o* jud!me%t. +uch "tateme%t"- wh(ch m(!ht be (%de*(%(tely (%crea"ed- are %ot o%ly popularly k%ow%- but are commo%ly u"ed (% *ormat(o% o* a k(%d o* hy!(e%e o* moral act(o%. P"ycholo!y proper d(**er" *rom the a!!re!ate o* "uch "tateme%t" throu!h "ett(%! *orth how 7ar(ou" d("po"(t(o%" operate (% br(%!(%! about the e**ect" attr(buted to them. $u"t what are the 7ar(ou" d("t(%!u("hable p"ych(cal att(tude" a%d te%de%c(e"D 4ow do they ha%! to!etherD 4ow doe" o%e call *orth or preclude a%otherD ;e %eed a% (%7e%tory o* the d(**ere%t character("t(c d("po"(t(o%"> a%d a% accou%t o* how each (" co%%ected- both (% the way o* "t(mulat(o% a%d (%h(b(t(o%- w(th e7ery other. P"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" a%"wer" th(" %eed. ;h(le (t ca% a%"wer th(" %eed o%ly throu!h de7elopme%t o* "c(e%t(*(c co%"truct" wh(ch pre"e%t them"el7e" (% e:per(e%ce o%ly a" re"ult" o* the p"ycholo!(cal e:am(%at(o%- yet (t (" true that the typ(cal att(tude" a%d d("po"(t(o%" are *am(l(ar a" *u%ct(o%" o* e7ery3day e:per(e%ce. 8t (" e=ually true that e7e% the mo"t atom(c p"ycholo!y employ" !e%eral(6ed "tateme%t" about the way" (% wh(ch certa(% & "tate" o* co%"c(ou"%e"" & or eleme%t" 0the co%"truct" re*erred to1 re!ularly (%troduce certa(% other & "tate".& ,he theory o* a""oc(at(o% ("- (%deed- ju"t a !e%eral(6at(o% co%cer%(%! a% object(7e "e=ue%ce o* eleme%t" wh(ch re*lect" to the p"ycholo!("t the "e=ue%ce o* att(tude" or d("po"(t(o%" wh(ch are *ou%d (% the (mmed(ate cour"e o* e:per(e%ce. 8% part(cular the "e%"at(o%al("t" %ot o%ly adm(t but cla(m that the a""oc(at(o% o* other "tate" o* co%"c(ou"%e"" w(th "tate" o* plea"ure a%d pa(% ha7e u%(*orm te%de%c(e" wh(ch may be reduced to u%(7er"al propo"(t(o%"> a%d wh(ch may be employed to *ormulate pr(%c(ple" e:h(b(ted (% all co%duct. 8* "uch (" the ca"e w(th p"ycholo!(cal atom("me7ery "tep toward reco!%(t(o% o* a more or!a%(6ed- or (%here%tly comple:- me%tal "tructure mult(pl(e" the %umber a%d ra%!e o* po""(ble propo"(t(o%" relat(%! to co%%ect(o% o* co%d(t(o%" amo%! p"ych(c "tate" 33 "tateme%t" wh(ch- (* true at all- ha7e e:actly the "ame lo!(cal 7al(d(ty that (" po""e""ed by a%y &phy"(cal law.& <%d (% "o *ar a" the"e & "tate" & are "ymbol" o* the att(tude" a%d hab(t" wh(ch operate (% our (mmed(ate e:per(e%ce- e7ery "uch propo"(t(o% (" at o%ce tra%"latable (%to o%e re!ard(%! the way (% wh(ch character (" co%"t(tuted 33 ju"t the type o* !e%er(c "tateme%t re=u(red by a "c(e%t(*(c eth(c".

P"ycholo!y o* cour"e doe" %ot a(m at re(%"tat(%! the (mmed(ate e:per(e%ce o* the (%d(7(dual> %or doe" (t a(m at de"cr(b(%! that e:per(e%ce (% (t" (mmed(ate 7alue"whether ae"thet(c- "oc(al- or eth(cal. 8t reduce" the (mmed(ate e:per(e%ce to a "er(e" o* d("po"(t(o%"- att(tude"- or "tate" wh(ch are take% a" e(ther co%d(t(o%" or "(!%ature" o* l(*e3e:per(e%ce. 8t (" %ot the *ull e:per(e%ce3o*3"ee(%!3a3tree (t (" co%cer%ed w(th- but the e:per(e%ce reduced by ab"tract(o% to a% att(tude or "tate o* percept(o%> (t (" %ot the co%crete !ett(%! a%!ry- w(th all (t" per"o%al a%d "oc(al (mpl(cat(o%"- but a%!er

01331 a" o%e "pec(e" o* a !e%er(c p"ych(c d("po"(t(o% k%ow% a" emot(o%. 8t (" %ot co%cer%ed w(th a co%crete jud!me%t a" "uch 33 to "ay %oth(%! o* moral jud!me%t. But p"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" *(%d" (% e:per(e%ce the typ(cal att(tude" (t deal" w(th- a%d o%ly ab"tract" them "o that they may be object(7ely "tated. 57ery "tateme%t o* moral theory wh(ch purport" to relate to our moral co%"c(ou"%e"" "ee" *orth relat(o%" who"e truth mu"t ult(mately be te"ted throu!h p"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" 33 ju"t a" e7ery jud!me%t re!ard(%! a "pec(*(c phy"(cal phe%ome%o% mu"t *(%ally "at("*y certa(% !e%er(c co%d(t(o%" o* phy"(cal real(ty "et *orth (% phy"(cal a%aly"(". P"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" doe" %ot- *or e:ample- "et be*ore u" a% e%d or (deal actually e:per(e%ced- whether moral or otherw("e. 8t doe" %ot purport to tell u" what the e%d or (deal (". But p"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" "how" u" ju"t what *orm(%! a%d e%terta(%(%! a% e%d mea%". P"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" ab"tract" *rom the co%crete make3up o* a% e%d- a" that (" *ou%d a" matter o* d(rect e:per(e%ce- a%d becau"e o* 0%ot (% "p(te o*1 that ab"tract(o% "et" be*ore u" ha7(%!3a%3e%d (% term" o* (t" co%d(t(o%" a%d (t" e**ect"- that ("- (% term" o* tak(%! other character("t(c att(tude" wh(ch are pre"e%t (% other e:per(e%ce". 4e%ce purely p"ycholo!(c propo"(t(o%" are (%d("pe%"able to a%y co%crete moral theory. ,he lo!(cal a%aly"(" o* the proce"" o* moral jud!me%t- "ett(%! *orth (t" (%here%t or!a%(6at(o% or "tructure w(th re*ere%ce to the pecul(ar lo!(cal *u%ct(o% (t ha" to accompl("h- *ur%("he" the cate!or(e" or l(m(t(%! term" o* eth(cal "c(e%ce- a%d "uppl(e" the(r *ormal mea%(%!- the(r de*(%(t(o%. But the lo!(cal cate!ory- "ay- o* e%d or (deal become" co%crete o%ly a" "ome (%d(7(dual ha" actually e:per(e%ce o* a%d w(th e%d" 33 a%d th(" (%7ol7e" the act or att(tude o* *orm(%! a%d e%terta(%(%! them. +o the cate!ory o* "ta%dard become" more tha% a po""(ble (%tellectual tool o%ly a" "ome (%d(7(dual actually e%!a!e" (% a% e:per(e%ce co%cer%ed w(th r(!ht a%d wro%!- a%d wh(ch- whe% 7(ewed object(7ely- (" re!arded a" a jud!me%t. ,he e%terta(%(%! o* e%d"- the adjud!(%! o* 7alue" 33 "uch act" are character3phe%ome%a. )o%"(dered (% ab"tract(o% *rom the(r (mmed(ate matter (% e:per(e%ce- 7(6.- ju"t a" act"- "tate"- or d("po"(t(o%"- they are character3 phe%ome%a a" the"e pre"e%t them"el7e" to p"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(". 57e% to co%"(der a%y e:per(e%ce- or a%y pha"e o* a% e:per(e%ce- a% (deal (" to re*lect upo% that e:per(e%ce> (t (" to ab"tract a%d to cla""(*y. 8t (%7ol7e" pa""(%! jud!me%t upon a% e:per(e%ce> "ometh(%! beyo%d the co%crete e:per(e%c(%!. 8t ("- a" *ar a" (t !oe"- p"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" 33 that ("- (t (" a proce"" o* e:actly the "ame order a%d (mply(%! ju"t the "ame d("t(%ct(o%" a%d term" a" are *ou%d (% p"ycholo!(cal "c(e%ce. But the latter- (% mak(%! ab"tract(o% a%d cla""(*(cat(o% co%"c(ou" proce""e"- e%able" u" to co%trol them- (%"tead o* merely (%dul!(%! (% them. 4e%ce (t (" *ut(le to (%"("t that p"ycholo!y ca%%ot & !(7e& the moral (deal- a%d that co%"e=ue%tly there mu"t be recour"e to tra%"ce%de%tal co%"(derat(o%" 33 to metaphy"(c".

Metaphy"(c"- (% the "e%"e o* a lo!(cal a%aly"(" o* that type o* jud!me%t wh(ch determ(%e" the a!e%t a%d the co%te%t o* jud!me%t (% complete rec(proc(ty to each othermay

013J1 & !(7e& the (deal 33 that ("- (t may "how how the *orm or cate!ory o* (deal (" a co%"t(tut(7e eleme%t (% th(" type o* jud!me%t- a%d he%ce ha" whate7er o* 7al(d(ty attache" to th(" mode o* jud!(%!. But "uch a lo!(cal a%aly"(" (" *ar *rom tra%"ce%de%tal metaphy"(c"> a%d (% a%y ca"e we thu" obta(% o%ly the cate!ory o* (deal a" a "ta%dpo(%t or term(%u" o* a possible moral jud!me%t. ,here (" %o =ue"t(o% here o* (deal a" (mmed(ately e:per(e%ced. 9%ly l(7(%!- %ot metaphy"(c" a%y more tha% p"ycholo!y- ca% &!(7e& a% (deal (% th(" "e%"e. But whe% eth(cal theory make" "tateme%t" re!ard(%! the (mporta%ce o* (deal" *or character a%d co%duct- whe% (t lay" "tre"" upo% the "(!%(*(ca%ce o* th("- rather tha% that- k(%d o* (deal- (t (" e%!a!ed (% "ett(%! *orth u%(7er"al relat(o%" o* co%d(t(o%"> a%d there (" ab"olutely %o way o* te"t(%! the 7al(d(ty o* "uch "tateme%t" w(th re"pect to the(r cla(m o* !e%eral(ty or object(7(ty "a7e by a% a%aly"(" o* p"ych(c d("po"(t(o%" wh(ch "how" what (" mea%t by ha7(%!3a%3(deal (% term" o* (t" a%tecede%t" a%d co%"e=ue%ce". 8* a%y !e%eral "tateme%t what"oe7er ca% be made about (deal"- (t (" becau"e the p"ych(c att(tude corre"po%d(%! to co%ce(7(%! a% (deal ca% be ab"tracted- a%d placed (% a certa(% co%%ect(o% w(th att(tude" wh(ch repre"e%t ab"tract" o* other e:per(e%ce". ,o ha7e a% (deal- to *orm a%d e%terta(% o%e- mu"t be a *act- or el"e (deal" are ab"olute %o%3e:("te%ce a%d %o%3"e%"e. ,o d("cu"" what (t (" to ha7e a% (deal (" to e%!a!e (% p"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(". 8* the ha7(%!3a%3(deal ca% be "tated (% term" o* "e=ue%ce w(th other "(m(lar att(tude"- the% we ha7e a p"ycholo!(cal !e%er(c "tateme%t 0or law1 wh(ch ca% be employed a" a tool o* a%aly"(" (% re*lect(%! upo% co%crete moral e:per(e%ce"- ju"t a" the &law& o* *all(%! bod(e" (" o* u"e (% co%troll(%! our jud!me%t o* p(le3dr(7er"- the trajectory o* "hell"- etc. ,he po""(b(l(ty o* generali ed propositions re!ard(%! a%y character3phe%ome%o% "ta%d" a%d *all" w(th the po""(b(l(ty o* p"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" re7eal(%! re!ular a""oc(at(o% or co3ord(%at(o% o* certa(% te%de%c(e"- hab(t"- or d("po"(t(o%" w(th o%e a%other. 4e%ce the co%t(%ued re(terat(o% that p"ycholo!y a" a %atural "c(e%ce deal" o%ly w(th *act"- wh(le eth(c" (" co%cer%ed w(th 7alue"- %orm"- (deal" wh(ch ought to be whether they e:("t or %o- (" e(ther a"(de *rom the po(%t- or el"e pro7e" the (mpo""(b(l(ty o* mak(%! a%y !e%eral "tateme%t"- metaphy"(cal a" well a" pract(cal a%d "c(e%t(*(c- about "uch matter".

-! Sociological Analysis As a Condition of Controlling .thical Judgments

;e re7ert o%ce more to our *u%dame%tal co%"(derat(o%: the rec(procal determ(%at(o% (% moral jud!me%t o* the act o* jud!(%! a%d the co%te%t jud!ed. <" we ha7e ju"t "ee%ade=uate co%trol o* a% act a" determ(%(%! a co%te%t (%7ol7e" the po""(b(l(ty o* mak(%! character a% object o* "c(e%t(*(c a%aly"(" 33 o* "tat(%! (t a" a "y"tem o* related co%d(t(o%" or a% object complete (% (t"el* 33 a u%(7er"al. ;e ha7e %ow to reco!%(6e the co%7er"e7(6.- that we ca% co%trol the jud!me%t o* the act- he%ce o* character a" e:pre""ed (% acto%ly a" we ha7e a method o* a%aly6(%! the content (% (t"el*33 that (". (% ab"tract(o% *rom (t" bear(%!" upo% act(o%.

01321 ,he eth(cal problem %eed" to be approached *rom the po(%t o* 7(ew o* the act a" mod(*y(%! the co%te%t- a%d o* the co%te%t a" mod(*y(%! the act> "o that- o% o%e ha%d- we

re=u(re- pr(or to a part(cular moral cr("("- a "tateme%t (% u%(7er"al term" o* the mecha%("m o* the att(tude" a%d d("po"(t(o%" wh(ch determ(%e jud!me%t about act(o%> wh(le- o% the other ha%d- we %eed a "(m(lar pr(or a%aly"(" a%d cla""(*(cat(o% o* the "(tuat(o%" wh(ch call *orth "uch jud!me%t. ;h(ch port(o% o* the "c(e%t(*(c apparatu" we br(%! mo"t prom(%e%tly (%to play (% a%y !(7e% ca"e depe%d" upo% the c(rcum"ta%ce" o* that ca"te a" (%*lue%c(%! the probable "ource o* error. 8* the "(tuat(o% or "ce%e o* act(o% 0by wh(ch we mea% the co%d(t(o%" wh(ch pro7oke or "t(mulate the act o* moral jud!(%!1 (" *a(rly *am(l(ar- we may a""ume that the "ource o* error (% jud!me%t l(e" (% the d("po"(t(o% wh(ch (" back o* the e:per(e%ce 33 that (* we ca% o%ly "ecure the r(!ht mot(7e o% the part o* the jud!er- the jud!me%t (t"el* w(ll be correct. 8% other ca"e" c(rcum"ta%ce" are re7er"ed. ;e ca% *a(rly pre"uppo"e or take *or !ra%ted a r(!ht att(tude o% the part o* the jud!er> the problemat(c *actor ha" to do w(th the (%terpretat(o% o* the "(tuat(o%. 8% th(" ca"e what (" %eeded *or r(!ht jud!me%t (" a "at("*actory k%owled!e o* the &*act" o* the ca"e.& F(7e% that- the e:("t(%! mot(7e w(ll take care o* the re"t. 8t (" th(" latter a"pect o* the matter that we %ow ha7e to d("cu"". ,he o%ly way (% wh(ch the a!e%t ca% jud!e h(m"el* a" a% a!e%t- a%d thereby co%trol h(" act 33 that ("- co%ce(7e o* h(m"el* a" the o%e who (" to do a certa(% th(%!33 (" by *(%d(%! out the "(tuat(o% wh(ch put" upo% h(m the %ece""(ty o* jud!(%! (t (% order that he may dec(de upo% a certa(% cour"e o* act(o%. <" "oo% a" a co%clu"(o% (" reached a" to the %ature o* the "ce%e o* act(o%- a co%clu"(o% (" al"o reached a" to what the a!e%t (" to doa%d th(" dec(de" (% tur% what "ort o* a% a!e%t he (" to be. ,he merely (%tellectual jud!me%t may be marked o** a" o%e (% wh(ch a co%te%t or object (" *(:ed (% term" o* "ome other object or co%te%t- homo!e%eou" (% worth- a%d where accord(%!ly (t (" a %ece""ary part o* the procedure to "uppre"" part(c(pat(o% (% jud!(%! o* tra(t" wh(ch proceed *rom- or re*er to- the d("po"(t(o% o* the jud!er. But jud!me%t" wh(ch are eth(cal 0%ot merely (%tellectual1 make %o "uch ab"tract(o%. ,hey e:pre""ly a%d po"(t(7ely (%clude the part(c(pat(o% o* the jud!er (% the co%te%t jud!ed- a%d o* the object jud!ed (% the determ(%at(o% o* the jud!er. 8% other word"- the object jud!ed or "(tuat(o% co%"tructed (% moral jud!me%t (" %ot a% e:ter%al object- cold- remote- a%d (%d(**ere%tbut (" mo"t u%(=uely- (%t(mately- a%d completely the a!e%tH" ow% object- or (" the a!e%t a" ob!ect. +uch be(%! the ca"e- what (" re=u(red (% order to *orm "uch a jud!me%t o* the "ce%e or co%d(t(o%" o* act(o% a" w(ll *ac(l(tate the mo"t ade=uate po""(ble co%"tru(%! o* the a!e%tD 8 reply: < "oc(al "c(e%ce wh(ch w(ll a%aly6e a co%te%t a" a comb(%at(o% o* eleme%t" (% the "ame way that p"ycholo!(cal a%aly"(" determ(%e" a% act a" a "et o* att(tude". 8t (" a""umed that the "(tuat(o% wh(ch call" *orth d("t(%ct(7ely moral jud!me%t (" a "oc(al "(tuat(o%- wh(ch accord(%!ly ca% be ade=uately de"cr(bed o%ly throu!h method" o* "oc(olo!(cal a%aly"(". 8 am aware that 0e7e% adm(tt(%! the %ece"3

013?13"(ty o* "ome "ort o* "c(e%t(*(c (%terpretat(o% o* the "ce%e o* act(o%1 (t (" "ometh(%! o* a jump to "ay that "uch "c(e%ce mu"t be "oc(olo!(cal (% character. ,he lo!(cal !ap could be co7ered o%ly by carry(%! the d("cu""(o% o* the cate!or(e" o* moral jud!me%t to the po(%t where the(r "oc(al 7alue would e:pl(c(tly "how (t"el*. +uch a%aly"(" (" apart *rom my pre"e%t purpo"e. 4ere 8 %eed o%ly recur to the propo"(t(o% o* the rec(procal determ(%at(o%- (% the eth(cal jud!me%t- o* the jud!er a%d the co%te%t jud!ed- a%d "u!!e"t that th(" (dea re=u(re" (% (t" lo!(cal de7elopme%t the co%clu"(o% "halt- "(%ce the jud!er (" per"o%al- the co%te%t jud!ed mu"t ult(mately be per"o%al too 33 "o that the moral

jud!me%t really (%"t(tute" a relat(o%"h(p betwee% per"o%"- relat(o%"h(p betwee% per"o%" be(%! what we mea% by & "oc(al.& But (% a%y ca"e- "ome way o* !ett(%! a% object(7e "tateme%t o* the "(tuat(o%- a "tateme%t (% term" o* co%%ect(o% o* co%d(t(o%"- (" %ece""ary. )erta(% de"cr(pt(7e "c(e%ce" are %ece""ary a%d (% ma%y ca"e" %o o%e would de%y that eleme%t" o* a""oc(ated l(*e e%ter (%to the *act" to be de"cr(bed. But e7e% (* (t be adm(tted that the "ce%e (" "oc(al- th(" character(6at(o% doe" %ot e:hau"t the de"cr(pt(o%. <%y "ce%e o* act(o% wh(ch (" "oc(al (" also co"m(c or phy"(cal. 8t (" al"o b(olo!(cal. 4e%ce the ab"olute (mpo""(b(l(ty o* rul(%! out the phy"(cal a%d b(olo!(cal "c(e%ce" *rom bear(%! upo% eth(cal "c(e%ce. 8* eth(cal theory re=u(re- a" o%e o* (t" %ece""ary co%d(t(o%"- ab(l(ty to de"cr(be (% term" o* (t"el* the "(tuat(o% wh(ch dema%d" moral jud!me%t- a%y propo"(t(o%- whether o* mecha%(c"chem("try- !eo!raphy- phy"(olo!y- or h("tory- wh(ch *ac(l(tate" a%d !uara%tee" the ade=uacy a%d truth o* the de"cr(pt(o%- become" (% 7(rtue o* that *act a% (mporta%t au:(l(ary o* eth(cal "c(e%ce. 8% other word"- the po"tulate o* moral "c(e%ce (" the co%t(%u(ty o* "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t. ,h(" propo"(t(o% (" de%(ed by both the mater(al("t(c a%d tra%"ce%de%tal "chool" o* metaphy"(c". ,he tra%"ce%de%tal "chool draw" "uch a *(:ed l(%e betwee% the re!(o% o* 3moral a%d o* co"m(c 7alue" that by %o po""(b(l(ty ca% propo"(t(o%" wh(ch re*er to the latter become au:(l(ary or (%"trume%tal w(th re"pect to the *ormer. ,he *act that ad7a%ce o* phy"(cal a%d b(olo!(cal "c(e%ce "o pro*ou%dly mod(*(e" moral problem"- a%d he%ce moral jud!me%t"- a%d he%ce o%ce more moral 7alue"- may "er7e a" a% ar!ume%t a!a(%"t tra%"ce%de%tal eth(c" 33 "(%ce- accord(%! to the latter- "uch ob7(ou" *act" would be (mpo""(b(l(t(e". Mater(al("m de%(e" e=ually the pr(%c(ple o* co%t(%u(ty o* jud!me%t> 8t co%*u"e" co%t(%u(ty o* method- the po""(b(l(ty o* u"(%! a !e%eral "tateme%t re!ard(%! o%e object a" a tool (% the determ(%at(o% o* "ome other- w(th (mmed(ate (de%t(ty o* "ubject3matter. 8%"tead o* reco!%(6(%! the continuity o* eth(cal w(th other *orm" o* e:per(e%ce- (t w(pe" out eth(cal e:per(e%ce by a""(m(lat(%! (t %ot "(mply w(th re*ere%ce to lo!(cal method- but (% (t" ow% o%tolo!(cal "tructure- to a%other *orm o* object" de*(%ed (% jud!me%t 33 that ("- the phy"(cal *orm. 8* (t (" o%ce reco!%(6ed that all "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t"- phy"(cal a" well a" eth(cal- are ult(mately co%cer%ed w(th !ett(%! e:per(e%ce "tated (% object(7e 0that ("- u%(7er"al1 term" *or the "ake o* the d(rect(o% o* *urther e:per(e%ce- there w(ll- o% the o%e ha%d- be %o he"(tat(o% (% u"(%! a%y "ort o* "tateme%t that ca% be o* u"e (% the *ormat(o% o* other jud!3

013B13me%t"- whate7er be the(r top(c or re*ere%ce> a%d- o% the other ha%d- there w(ll be %o thou!ht o* try(%! to e:pla(% away the distinctive tra(t" o* a%y type o* e:per(e%ce. +(%ce co%"c(ou" l(*e (" co%t(%uou"- the po""(b(l(ty o* u"(%! a%y o%e mode o* e:per(e%ce to a""("t (% the *ormat(o% o* a%y other (" the ult(mate po"tulate o* all "c(e%ce 33 %o%eth(cal a%d eth(cal al(ke. <%d th(" po""(b(l(ty o* u"e- o* appl(cat(o%- o* (%"trume%tal "er7(ce" make" (t po""(ble a%d %ece""ary to employ mater(al("t(c "c(e%ce (% the co%"truct(o% o* eth(cal theory- a%d al"o protect" (% th(" appl(cat(o% eth(cal 7alue" *rom deter(orat(o% a%d d(""olut(o%. 8% co%clu"(o%- (t may a7o(d m("apprehe%"(o% (* 8 "ay that the co%"(derat(o%" "et *orth (% th(" paper do %ot (%7ol7e a%y peda%t(c a""umpt(o% re!ard(%! the %ece""(ty o* u"(%! "c(e%ce- or lo!(cal co%trol- (% a%y part(cular (%"ta%ce o* moral e:per(e%ce. ,he lar!er part- (%*(%(tely the lar!er part- o* our co%crete co%tact w(th phy"(cal %ature take" place

w(thout co%"c(ou" re*ere%ce to the method"- or e7e% the re"ult"- o* phy"(cal "c(e%ce. Aet %o o%e =ue"t(o%" the *u%dame%tal (mporta%ce o* phy"(cal "c(e%ce. ,h(" (mporta%ce d("co7er" (t"el* (% two way": .(r"t- whe% we come to pecul(arly d(**(cult problem" 0whether o* (%terpretat(o% or o* (%7e%t(7e co%"truct(o%1- phy"(cal "c(e%ce put" u" (% po""e""(o% o* tool" o* co%"c(ou" a%aly"(" a%d o* "y%the"(". 8t e%able" u" to eco%om(6e our t(me a%d e**ort- a%d to proceed w(th the ma:(mum probab(l(ty o* "ucce"" to "olut(o% o* the problem wh(ch co%*ro%t" u". ,h(" u"e (" co%"c(ou" a%d del(berate. 8t (%7ol7e" the cr(t(cal appl(cat(o% o* the tech%(=ue a%d already e"tabl("hed co%clu"(o%" o* "c(e%ce to ca"e" o* "uch comple:(ty a%d perple:(ty that they would rema(% u%"ol7ed a%d u%dealt w(th- were (t %ot *or "c(e%t(*(c re"ource". 8% the "eco%d place- phy"(cal "c(e%ce ha" a w(de "phere o* appl(cat(o% wh(ch (%7ol7e" %o co%"c(ou" re*ere%ce what"oe7er. Pre7(ou" "c(e%t(*(c method" a%d (%7e"t(!at(o%" ha7e take% e**ect (% our ow% me%tal hab(t" a%d (% the mater(al dealt w(th. 9ur u%co%"c(ou" way" o* apprehe%d(%!- o* (%terpret(%!- o* del(berat(%!- are "aturated w(th product" o* pr(or co%"c(ou" cr(t(cal "c(e%ce. ;e thu" !et the be%e*(t- (% our (%tellectual commerce w(th part(cular "(tuat(o%"- o* "c(e%t(*(c operat(o%" wh(ch we ha7e *or!otte%- a%d e7e% o* tho"e wh(ch we (%d(7(dually ha7e %e7er per*ormed. +c(e%ce ha" become (%car%ate (% our (mmed(ate att(tude toward the world about u"- a%d (" embod(ed (% that world (t"el*. 57ery t(me that we "ol7e a d(**(culty by "e%d(%! a tele!ram- cro""(%! a br(d!e- l(!ht(%! the !a"- board(%! a ra(lroad tra(%- co%"ult(%! a thermometer- we are co%troll(%! the *ormat(o% o* a jud!me%t by u"e o* "o much prec(p(tated a%d co%de%"ed "c(e%ce. +c(e%ce ha" pre3*ormed- (% ma%y o* (t" *eature"- the "(tuat(o% w(th re*ere%ce to wh(ch we ha7e to jud!e> a%d (t (" th(" object(7e del(m(tat(o% a%d "tructural re(%*orceme%t wh(cha%"wer(%! at e7ery po(%t to the co%*ormat(o% o* hab(t- mo"t a""("t" (%tell(!e%ce (% the deta(l" o* (t" beha7(or. ,here (" e7ery rea"o% to "uppo"e that the a%alo!y hold" w(th re*ere%ce to a "c(e%ce o* co%duct. +uch a "c(e%ce ca% be bu(lt up o%ly throu!h re*ere%ce to ca"e" wh(ch at the out"et %eed co%"c(ou" cr(t(cal d(rect(o% (% jud!me%t. ;e %eed to k%ow the

013C1 "oc(al "(tuat(o% (" (% wh(ch we *(%d our"el7e" re=u(red to act- "o that we may k%ow what (t (" r(!ht to do. ;e %eed to k%ow what (" the e**ect o* "ome p"ych(cal d("po"(t(o% upo% our way o* look(%! at l(*e a%d thereby upo% our co%duct. ,hrou!h clear(%! up the "oc(al "(tuat(o%- throu!h mak(%! object(7e to our"el7e" our ow% mot(7e"3a%d the(r co%"e=ue%ce"- we bu(ld up !e%er(c propo"(t(o%": "tateme%t" o* e:per(e%ce a" a co%%ect(o% o* co%d(t(o%"- that ("- (% the *orm o* object". +uch "tateme%t" are u"ed a%d appl(ed (% deal(%! w(th *urther problem". Fradually the(r u"e become" more a%d more hab(tual. ,he &theory& become" a part o* our p"ych(cal apparatu". ,he "oc(al "(tuat(o% take" o% a certa(% *orm or or!a%(6at(o%. 8t (" pre3cla""(*(ed a" o* a certa(% "ort- a" o* a certa(% !e%u" a%d e7e% "pec(e" o* th(" "ort> the o%ly =ue"t(o% wh(ch rema(%" (" d("cr(m(%at(o% o* the part(cular 7ar(ety. <!a(%- we !et (%to the hab(t o* tak(%! (%to accou%t certa(% "ource" o* error (% our ow% d("po"(t(o% a" the"e a**ect our jud!me%t" o* beha7(or- a%d thereby br(%! them "u**(c(e%tly u%der co%trol "o that the %eed o* co%"c(ou" re*ere%ce to the(r (%tellectual *ormulat(o% d(m(%("he". <" phy"(cal "c(e%ce ha" brou!ht about a% or!a%(6at(o% o* the phy"(cal world alo%! w(th a% or!a%(6at(o% o* pract(cal hab(t" o* deal(%! w(th that world- "o eth(cal "c(e%ce w(ll e**ect a% or!a%(6at(o%

o* the "oc(al world a%d a corre"po%d(%! or!a%(6at(o% o* the p"ych(cal hab(t" throu!h wh(ch the (%d(7(dual relate" h(m"el* to (t. ;(th th(" clear(%! up o* the *(eld a%d or!a%" o* moral act(o%- co%"c(ou" recour"e to theory w(ll- a" (% phy"(cal ca"e"- l(m(t (t"el* to problem" o* u%u"ual perple:(ty a%d to co%"truct(o%" o* a lar!e de!ree o* %o7elty.

Summary
1. By &"c(e%t(*(c&- (" mea%t method" o* co%trol o* *ormat(o% o* jud!me%t". . +uch co%trol (" obta(%ed o%ly by ab(l(ty to ab"tract certa(% eleme%t" (% the e:per(e%ce jud!ed- a%d to "tate them a" co%%ect(o%" o* co%d(t(o%"- i. e.- a" &object"-& or u%(7er"al". 3. +uch "tateme%t" co%"t(tute the bulk o* the reco!%(6ed "c(e%ce". ,hey are !e%er(c propo"(t(o%"- or law"- put- a" a rule- (% the hypothet(c *orm (* " the% #. But "uch !e%er(c propo"(t(o%" are the (%"trume%t" o* "c(e%ce- %ot "c(e%ce (t"el*. +c(e%ce ha" (t" l(*e (% jud!me%t" o* (de%t(*(cat(o%- a%d (t (" *or the(r "ake that !e%er(c propo"(t(o%" 0or u%(7er"al"- or law"1 are co%"tructed a%d te"ted or 7er(*(ed. J. +uch jud!me%t" o* co%crete (de%t(*(cat(o% are (%d(7(dual(6ed- a%d are al"o act". ,he pre"e%ce o* act(o% a" a lo!(cal eleme%t appear" (%d(rectly (% 0a1 the "elect(o% o* the "ubject- 081 the determ(%at(o% o* the pred(cate- a%d 0c1 mo"t d(rectly (% the copula 33 the e%t(re proce"" o* the rec(procal *orm(%! a%d te"t(%! o* te%tat(7e "ubject" a%d pred(cate". 2. $ud!me%t" are &(%tellectual& (% lo!(cal type "o *ar a" th(" re*ere%ce to act(7(ty may be pre"uppo"ed- a%d thereby %ot re=u(re to be co%"c(ou"ly "et *orth or e:po"ed. ,h(" happe%" whe%e7er the act(o% (%7ol7ed (" (mpart(al (% (t" (%*lue%ce upo% the =ual(ty o* the co%te%t jud!ed. $ud!me%t" are &moral& (% lo!(cal type "o *ar a" the pre"e%ce o* act(7(ty (% a**ect(%! the co%te%t o* jud!me%t (" "ee% co%"c(ou"ly to a**ect

01391 (t"el* 33 or whe%e7er the rec(procal determ(%at(o% o* act(7(ty a%d co%te%t become" (t"el* a% object o* jud!me%t who"e determ(%at(o% (" a prere=u("(te *or *urther "ucce""*ul jud!me%t". ?. )o%trol o* moral jud!me%t re=u(re" ab(l(ty to co%"t(tute the rec(procal determ(%at(o% o* act(7(ty a%d co%te%t (%to a% object. ,h(" ha" three pha"e": .(r"t- a "tateme%t o* the l(m(t(%! *orm" o* that type o* jud!me%t wh(ch (" co%cer%ed w(th co%"tru(%! a% act(7(ty a%d a co%te%t (% term" o* each other. ,he l(m(t(%! term" o* "uch a type o* jud!me%t co%"t(tute the character("t(c *eature"- or cate!or(e"- o* the object o* eth(cal "c(e%ce- ju"t a" the l(m(t(%! term" o* the jud!me%t wh(ch co%"true" o%e object (% term" o* a%other object co%"t(tute the cate!or(e" o* phy"(cal "c(e%ce- d("cu""(o% o* moral jud!me%t *rom th(" po(%t o* 7(ew may be termed &,he 'o!(c o* )o%duct.& +eco%d- a% ab"tract(o% o* the act(7(ty- wh(ch 7(ew" (t a" a "y"tem o* att(tude" or d("po"(t(o%" (%7ol7ed (% ha7(%! e:per(e%ce"- a%d "tate" (t 0"(%ce a "y"tem1 a" a% object co%"t(tuted by de*(%(te co%%ect(o%" o* d(7er"e att(tude" w(th the att(tude o* jud!(%! 33 7(6.- the "c(e%ce o* p"ycholo!y. ,h(rd- a "(m(lar ab"tract(o% o* the &co%te%t-& wh(ch 7(ew" (t a" a "y"tem o* "oc(al eleme%t" wh(ch *orm the "ce%e or "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch act(o% (" to occur a%d w(th re*ere%ce to wh(ch- there*ore- the actor (" to be *ormed 33 7(6.- "oc(olo!(cal "c(e%ce.

B. ,he whole d("cu""(o% (mpl(e" that the determ(%at(o% o* object" a" object"- e7e% whe% (%7ol7(%! %o co%"c(ou" re*ere%ce whate7er to co%duct- ("- a*ter all- *or the "ake o* the de7elopme%t o* *urther e:per(e%ce. ,h(" *urther de7elopme%t (" cha%!e- tra%"*ormat(o% o* e:("t(%! e:per(e%ce- a%d thu" (" act(7e. +o *ar a" th(" de7elopme%t (" (%te%t(o%ally d(rected throu!h the co%"truct(o% o* object" a" object"- there (" %ot o%ly act(7e e:per(e%ce- but regulated activity- (. e.- co%duct- beha7(or- pract(ce. ,here*ore- all determ(%at(o% o* object" a" object" 0(%clud(%! the "c(e%ce" wh(ch co%"truct phy"(cal object"1 ha" re*ere%ce to cha%!e o* e:per(e%ce- or e:per(e%ce a" act(7(ty> a%d- whe% th(" re*ere%ce pa""e" *rom ab"tract(o% to appl(cat(o% 0*rom %e!at(7e to po"(t(7e1- ha" re*ere%ce to co%"c(ou" co%trol o* the %ature o* the cha%!e 0(. e.- co%"c(ou" cha%!e1- a%d thereby !et" eth(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce. ,h(" pr(%c(ple may be termed the postulate of continuity of e$perience. ,h(" pr(%c(ple o% the o%e ha%d protect" the (%te!r(ty o* the moral jud!me%t- re7eal(%! (t" "upremacy a%d the corre"po%d(%! (%"trume%tal or au:(l(ary character o* the (%tellectual jud!me%t 0whether phy"(cal- p"ycholo!(cal- or "oc(al1> a%d- upo% the other- protect" the moral jud!me%t *rom ("olat(o% 0i. e.- *rom tra%"ce%de%tal("m1- br(%!(%! (t (%to work(%! relat(o%" o* rec(procal a""("ta%ce w(th all jud!me%t" about the "ubject3matter o* e:per(e%ce- e7e% tho"e o* the mo"t markedly mecha%(cal a%d phy"(olo!(cal "ort.

'otes
1. 8* (t were %ece""ary *or the purpo"e o* th(" ar!ume%t- (t could o* cour"e be "how% that re*ere%ce to (%d(7(dual ca"e" (" (%7ol7ed (% all mathemat(c". ;(th(% mathemat(cal "c(e%ce- "ymbol" 0a%d d(a!ram" are "ymbol"1 are (%d(7(dual object" o* ju"t the "ame lo!(cal %ature a" are metal" a%d ac(d" (% chem("try a%d a" are rock" a%d *o""(l" (% !eolo!y. . ,he po(%t o* 7(ew wh(ch (" here pre"e%ted ("- o* cour"e- d("t(%ctly pra!mat(c. 8 am %ot =u(te "ure- howe7er- o* the (mpl(cat(o%" o* certa(% *orm" o* pra!mat("m. ,hey "ome. t(me" "eem to (mply that a rat(o%al or lo!(cal "tateme%t (" all r(!ht up to a certa(% po(%t- but ha" *(:ed e:ter%al l(m(t"- "o that at cr(t(cal po(%t" recour"e mu"t be had to co%"(derat(o%" wh(ch are d("t(%ctly o* a% (rrat(o%al or e:tra3lo!(cal order- a%d th(" recour"e (" (de%t(*(ed w(th cho(ce a%d & act(7(ty.& ,he pract(cal a%d the lo!(cal are thu" oppo"ed to each other. 8t (" ju"t the oppo"(te wh(ch 8 am e%dea7or(%! to "u"ta(% 7(6. that the lo!(cal (" a% (%here%t or or!a%(c e:pre""(o% o* the pract(cal a%d he%ce (" *ul*(ll(%! (t" ow% lo!(cal ba"(" a%d a(m whe% (t *u%ct(o%" pract(cally. 8 ha7e %o de"(re to "how that what we term H"c(e%ce & (" arb(trar(ly l(m(ted by outside eth(cal co%"(derat(o%"> a%d that co%"e=ue%tly "c(e%ce ca%%ot (%trude (t"el* (%to the eth(cal "phere> but prec("ely the co%trary- 7(6.- that ju"t becau"e "c(e%ce (" a mode o* co%troll(%! our act(7e relat(o%" w(th the world o* e:per(e%ced th(%!"- eth(cal e:per(e%ce (" "upremely (% %eed o* "uch re!ulat(o%. <%d by &pract(cal & 8 mea% o%ly re!ulated cha%!e (% e:per(e%ced 7alue". 3. ,h(" d("t(%ct(o% (% rece%t lo!(c ha" bee% brou!ht out w(th !reat *orce a%d clear%e"" by Bradley- Principles of %ogic 0'o%do%- 1CC31- pp. ?33B. J. 8t (" hardly %ece""ary to po(%t out that the art(cle &the& (" a weake%ed demo%"trat(7e- a%d that the pro%ou%". (%clud(%! &(t-& all ha7e demo%"trat(7e re*ere%ce 2. 4e%ce (% accept(%! BradleyH" d("t(%ct(o% betwee% &,h(".& a%d& ,h("%e""& we ca%%ot accept the pecul(ar (%terpretat(o% wh(ch he !(7e" (t. <ccord(%! to h(" way o* look(%! at (t- %o "tr(ctly lo!(cal co%%ect(o% (" po""(ble betwee% &,h("& a%d

&,h("%e"".& &,h("%e""& alo%e ha" lo!(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce> the & ,h(" & (" determ(%ed by co%"(derat(o%" e%t(rely beyo%d (%tellectual co%trol> (%deed- (t mark" the *act that a real(ty ly(%! out"(de o* the act o* jud!(%! ha" broke% (% upo%- or *orced (t"el* (%to. a re!(o% o* lo!(cal (dea" or mea%(%!"- th(" pecul(ar a%d coerc(7e (rrupt(o% be(%! a% e""e%t(al atte%da%t o* the finite e:tremely l(m(ted character o* our e:per(e%ce. ?. 8t m(!ht check the pre7ale%t te%de%cy to draw "harp l(%e" betwee% ph(lo"ophy a" merely %ormat(7e a%d the "c(e%ce" a" merely de"cr(pt(7e to real(6e that all !e%er(c "c(e%t(*(c propo"(t(o%"- all "tateme%t" o* law"- all e=uat(o%" a%d *ormulae- are "tr(ctly %ormat(7e (% character- ha7(%! a" the(r "ole e:cu"e *or be(%!- a%d the(r "ole te"t o* worth- the(r capac(ty to re!ulate de"cr(pt(o%" o* (%d(7(dual ca"e". <%d the 7(ew that they are "hortha%d re!("ter"- or ab"tract de"cr(pt(o%"- co%*(rm" (%"tead o* re*ut(%! th(" 7(ew. ;hy make a "hortha%d a%d u%real "tateme%t (* (t doe" %ot operate (%"trume%tally (% *(r"t ha%d deal(%!" w(th real(tyD B. +o *ar a" 8 k%ow MI. )harle" +. Pe(rce wa" the *(r"t to call atte%t(o% to th(" pr(%c(ple. a%d to (%"("t upo% (t" *u%dame%tal lo!(cal (mport 0"ee "onist- /ol. 88pp. 23J3?- 2J9321>1. Mr. Pe(rce "tate" (t a" the pr(%c(ple o* co%t(%u(ty: < pa"t (dea ca% operate o%ly "o *ar a" (t (" p"ych(cally co%t(%uou" w(th that upo% wh(ch (t operate". < !e%eral (dea (" "(mply a l(7(%! a%d e:pa%d(%! *eel(%!- a%d hab(t (" a "tateme%t o* the "pec(*(c mode o* operat(o% o* a !(7e% p"ych(cal co%t(%uum. 8 ha7e reached the abo7e co%clu"(o% alo%! "uch d(7er"e l(%e" that- w(thout (% a%y way m(%(m(6(%! the pr(or(ty o* Mr. Pe(rceH" "tateme%t- or (t" more !e%eral(6ed lo!(cal character- 8 *eel that my ow% "tateme%t ha" "ometh(%! o* the 7alue o* a% (%depe%de%t co%*(rmat(o%. C. 9* cour"e- the term" &object & a%d &object(7e & are u"ed (% lo!(cal "e%"e- %ot a" e=u(7ale%t to &phy"(cal-& wh(ch de%ote" "(mply o%e *orm wh(ch the lo!(cal object may take. Dr. +tuartH" art(cle o% & /aluat(o% a" a 'o!(cal Proce"" & (% &tudies in %ogical 'heory 0,he @%(7er"(ty o* )h(ca!o Pre""- 19031 may be re*erred to *or a d("cu""(o% o* the "tudy o* the lo!(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce o* the term &object& a%d (t" bear(%! upo% the object(7(ty o* eco%om(c a%d eth(cal jud!me%t". 333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Dewey/Dewey_190 a.html [Bajado el 3 de a!o"to de 011#

Originally published as:

$oh% Dewey. &,he 57olut(o%ary Method <" <ppl(ed to Moral(ty: 1. 8t" +c(e%t(*(c Eece""(ty&- Philosophical (eview 11- 0190 1: 10B31 J

The .1olutionary Method As Applied To Morality: 2! 2ts Scientific 'ecessity

8 PI9P9+5 (% the *ollow(%! paper" to deal w(th the problem o* the appl(cat(o% o* h("tor(cal method- the !roup o* (dea" ce%ter(%! (% the term 57olut(o%- to the problem o* Moral(ty. < d(rect "tudy o* the de7elopme%t o* moral cu"tom" or moral theor(e" (" %ot (%te%ded. ,here are =ue"t(o%" o* method wh(ch 0(% the pre"e%t. "tate o* d("cu""(o%1 "eem to be (%e7(table a%tecede%t" to the ult(mately more (%tere"t(%! a%d more (mporta%t treatme%t o* the actual a%d co%crete moral *act". D(**(cult a" (t (" to draw a%y l(%e (% the d("cu""(o% o* "uch a comprehe%"(7e matter a" e7olut(o%- 8 "hall e%dea7or to "teer clear o* purely metaphy"(cal problem"- howe7er "(!%(*(ca%t they may be (% them"el7e"- a%d co%*(%e my"el* to tho"e a"pect" o* e7olut(o%ary theory wh(ch ha7e a d(rect bear(%! upo% the problem o* method. ;h(le 8 "hall be compelled to be!(% w(th certa(% 7ery !e%eral *eature" o* the (dea o* e7olut(o%- 8 "hall attempt to ob"er7e the l(m(t ju"t la(d dow%: %ot carry(%! the a%aly"(" a%y *urther tha% (" %eed*ul to !et "urety a%d clear%e"" (% deal(%! w(th the methodH o* (%terpret(%! moral(ty. ,he more !e%eral d("cu""(o% (" re%dered (%d("pe%"able becau"e 3we are met at the out"et w(th a ca7eat ;e are war%ed o** be*ore we be!(%. ;e are told that the %ature o* moral *act" a%d o* e7olut(o% (" "uch a" to make (t (mpo""(ble to !et help *rom th(" "ource ,he ar!ume%t ru%" a" *ollow": .act" o* moral(ty are o* a "p(r(tual %ature. ,he phe%ome%a o* co%"c(e%ce are data o*

010C1 7alue- %ot o* h("tory. ,o them appl(e" the d("t(%ct(o% o* de!ree- h(!her a%d lower%ot o* t(me- earl(er a%d later. ;hat they are a%d mea% (% them"el7e"- %ot the(r temporal "ett(%!- (" the problem. ,o co%*ou%d "uch d("t(%ct(o%" (" %ot o%ly to !et %o help (% u%der"ta%d(%! moral(ty- but to !o po"(t(7ely a"tray > (t (" to ob"cure that d(**ere%ce o* 7alue wh(ch (" the u%(=ue *actor (% the ca"e > a%d to e:pla(% away- %ot to e:pla(%- the e""e%t(al real(ty. ,hat a% h("tor(cal "tateme%t o* a%y "p(r(tual- 7alue (" a hy"tero% protero%> that a%aly"(" o* =ual(ty or (%tr(%"(c character- a%d trac(%! o* !e%e"(" are d("t(%ct proce""e"- ha7e become *(:ed art(cle" (% the creed o* the co%temporary (deal("t. <%d %o opportu%(ty (" lo"t to rehear"e the creed. Ma%y wr(ter" would ha7e (t that to d("cu"" m(%d or moral(ty (% term" o* the h("tor(cal "er(e"- (" to e7(de%ce "uch (!%ora%ce o* rud(me%tary ph(lo"oph(cal d("t(%ct(o%" a" to ar!ue total u%*(t%e"" *or the ta"k u%dertake%. 8t (" th(" whole"ale de%(al o* the po""(b(l(ty o* u"(%! a !(7e% method w(th a%y *ru(t*ul a%d po"(t(7e re"ult- that make" (t %ece""ary to a"k: ;hat do we (%te%d (% "c(e%ce by (%=u(ry (%to or(!(%" D a%d what do we "ecure *or "c(e%ce by "tat(%! a%y matter (% !e%et(c term" D 8" a%y purpo"e *ul*(lled by th(" mode o* attack wh(ch (" %ot w(th(% the compete%t jur("d(ct(o% o* other method"D Po""(bly the method (" abu"ed (% pract(ce by (t" oppo%e%t" becau"e (t (" abu"ed (% theory by (t" upholder". ,he latter may- th(%k that throu!h the u"e o* the e7olut(o%ary method "ometh(%! (" do%e wh(ch (" %ot do%e- a%d wh(ch ca%%ot be do%e> a%d *a(l to br(%! out the deep a%d lar!e "er7(ce that a" matter o* *act (" re%dered. <%yway- be*ore we e(ther abu"e or recomme%d !e%et(c method we ou!ht to ha7e "ome a%"wer" to the"e =ue"t(o%" : $u"t what (" (t D $u"t what (" to come o* (t a%d how D <% appare%tly c(rcu(tou" mode o* approach to the"e =ue"t(o%" may be *ou%d mo"t d(rect (% the e%d. 8 "ee %o way to !et a% ade=uate a%"wer w(thout tak(%! up the %ature o*

e:per(me%tal method (% "c(e%ce- a%d po(%t(%! out (% what "e%"e al"o (" a !e%et(c method. ,he e""e%ce o* the e:per(me%tal method 8 take to co%trol o* the a%aly"(" or (%terpretat(o% o* a%y phe%ome%o% by br(%!(%! to l(!ht the e:act co%d(t(o%"- a%d the o%ly co%d(t(o%"- wh(ch are

01091 (%7ol7ed (% (t" com(%! (%to be(%!. +uppo"e the problem to be the %ature o* water. By H%atureH we mea% %o (%%er metaphy"(cal e""e%ce> (t" H%atureH (" *ou%d o%ly by e:per(e%c(%! (t. By %ature- (% "c(e%ce- we mea% a k%owled!e *or purpo"e" o* (%tellectual a%d pract(cal co%trol. Eow- 3water "(mply a" a !(7e% *act re"("t" (%de*(%(tely a%d ob"t(%ately a%y d(rect mode o* approach. Eo amou%t o* "crut(%y- %o amou%t o* ob"er7at(o% o* (t a" !(7e%- y(eld" a%alyt(c comprehe%"(o%. 9b"er7at(o% but compl(cate" the problem by re7eal(%! u%"u"pected =ual(t(e" that re=u(re add(t(o%al e:pla%at(o%. ;hat e:per(me%tat(o% doe" (" to let u" "ee (%to water (% the proce"" o* mak(%!. ,hrou!h !e%erat(%! water we "(%!le out the prec("e a%d "ole co%d(t(o%" wh(ch ha7e to be *ul*(lled that water may pre"e%t (t"el* a" a% e:per(e%ced *act. 8* th(" ca"e be typ(cal- the% the e:per(me%tal method (" e%t(tled to ra%k a" !e%et(c method> (t (" co%cer%ed w(th the ma%%er or proce"" by wh(ch a%yth(%! come" (%to e:per(e%ced e:("te%ce. 57e% tho"e w(ll(%! to adm(t th("- would probably re*u"e to !o *urther- a%d hold that the e:per(me%tal method (" (% a true "e%"e a% h("tor(cal or e7olut(o%ary method. < co%"(derat(o% o* the rea"o%" *or re*u"(%! to take th(" "tep w(ll throw l(!ht upo% the problem. < "tr(ctly h("tor(cal "er(e" (" u%(=ue- %ot o%ly (% a%y o%e o* (t" co%"t(tue%t member"- but (% the part(cular place (t occup(e" (% the "er(e". 8t" ow% co%te:t (" (%d("pe%"able to (t" h("tor(c character. Eow- (% the phy"(cal world- w(th wh(ch the e:per(me%tal "c(e%ce" deal- "et" or pa(r" o* term" are %ot thu" l(m(ted to a%y part(cular temporal part o* the "er(e". ,hey occur a%d recur> a%d "u**er %o cha%!e o* =ual(ty by rea"o% o* d("locat(o% *rom a !(7e% co%te:t. ;ater (" made o7er a%d o7er a!a(%- a%d- "o to "peak- at a%y date (% the co"m(c "er(e". ,h(" depr(7e" a%y accou%t o* (t o* !e%u(%ely h("tor(c =ual(ty. <%other co%"(derat(o% wh(ch !(7e" u" pau"e (" that the ma(% (%tere"t (% phy"(cal "c(e%ce doe" %ot co%cer% the (%d(7(dual ca"e- but certa(% *urther a%d more !e%eral re"ult" wh(ch at o%ce emer!e a%d ab"orb atte%t(o%. ;e ha7e the commo% "ay(%! that the phy"(cal "c(e%ce" are %ot (%tere"ted (% (%d(7(dual ca"e" a" "uch- but o%ly (% !e%eral law". ,he part(cular ca"e (" take% "(mply a"

01101 a "ample- or "pec(me% or (%"ta%ce. 8t ha" %o worth (% (t"el*- but o%ly a" a "ample. 8t (" o%ly- a more or le"" (mper*ect (llu"trat(o% o* the !e%eral relat(o% wh(ch (" the true object o* re!ard. <% e:am(%at(o% o* the"e rea"o%" w(ll- howe7er- lead u" to the co%clu"(o% that wh(le (% the e%d we "hall "t(ll ha7e !rou%d to co%"(der the 7alue o* e:per(me%t a" appl(ed to the phy"(cal world to be !e%et(c rather tha% "tr(ctly h("tor(cal- yet th(" (" due to a% ab"tract(o% wh(ch we ha7e (%troduced *or our ow% purpo"e 33 that o* more ade=uate co%trol. ,he "er(al order- take% (% (t"el* or a" real(ty- (" "tr(ctly h("tor(cal- a%d (t (" o%ly

by a% (%tellectual ab"tract(o% 0ju"t(*(ed *rom the e%d (t "ub"er7e"1- that we !et pa(r" o* *act" wh(ch may "how up at a%y po(%t (% the "er(e" > a%d thu" !et !rou%d *or attr(but(%! to them !e%eral(6ed or %o%3h("tor(c mea%(%!. ,he(r e:("te%ce- thou!h %ot the(r work(%! 7alue- rema(%" h("tor(c. ,he problem o* or(!(%" ("- e7e% (% the ca"e o* the phy"(cal world- a "tr(ctly "pec(*(c or (%d(7(dual(6ed matter. ;e ha7e %o way o* !ett(%! at the or(!(% o* water (% !e%eral. 5:per(me%t ha" to do w(th the co%d(t(o%" o* product(o% o* a "pec(*(c amou%t o* water- at a "pec(*(c t(me a%d place- u%der "pec(*(c c(rcum"ta%ce" : (% a word- (t mu"t deal w(th ju"t this water. ,he co%d(t(o%" wh(ch de*(%e (t" or(!(% mu"t be "tated w(th e=ual de*(%(te%e"" a%d c(rcum"ta%t(al(ty. ;e ha7e a "pec(*(c "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch at a !(7e% po(%t (% t(me a part(cular *act doe" %ot pre"e%t (t"el*- a%d the% a%other po(%t at wh(ch (t (" *ou%d. ,he problem (" ju"t the d("co7ery o* the (%d(7(dual co%d(t(o%" wh(ch ha7e made the d(**ere%ce at the two h("tor(cal per(od". 8t (" the"e co%d(t(o%" wh(ch de*(%e to u" the emer!(%! or ma%(*e"tat(o% o* the %ew *act- a%d wh(ch co%"t(tute (t" H or(!(%.H ,he =ue"t(o% (" a per*ectly determ(%ate- that ("- (%d(7(dual(6ed- o%e. ;hat *act" mu"t be pre"e%t (% order that a%other *act may "how (t"el*D <%y "c(e%t("t ca% ea"(ly "ay to3day that by cau"at(o% he mea%" "(mply a relat(o% o* de*(%(te a%tecede%ce a%d co%"e=ue%ce. Eot e7ery "c(e%t("t- howe7er- "eem" to ha7e lear%ed the *ull mea%(%! o* the propo"(t(o%> 7(6.- that the 7alue o* the co%cept(o% (" h("tor(cal- a =ue"t(o% o* de*(%(%! the co%d(t(o%" u%der wh(ch a !(7e% phe%ome%o% de7elop".

01111 Moreo7er- the part(cular water w(th wh(ch the e:per(me%ter actually deal" %e7er- a" matter o* *act- "how" (t"el* tw(ce > (t %e7er recur". 8t ha" ju"t a" much e:clu"(7e u%(=ue%e"" a" (" po""e""ed by the career o* $ul(u" )ae"ar or <braham '(%col%. ,hat part(cular port(o% o* water could %e7er ha7e pre"e%ted (t"el* at a%y other port(o% o* the worldH" h("tory- a%y more tha% the l(*e o* o%e o* the (%d(7(dual" %amed could ha7e bee% l(7ed (% e:actly the "ame way at a%y other epoch. ,o de%y th(" (" "(mply to *all (%to the error o* the med(ae7al real("t whom the a7era!e "c(e%t("t (" "o *o%d o* r(d(cul(%!. 8t (" to adm(t the e:("te%ce o* "ome !e%er(c water wh(ch (" %o water (% part(cular- a%d yet all water" (% !e%eral. Aet- you "ay- there (" a d(**ere%ce. )erta(%ly > but (t (" a d(**ere%ce o* (%tere"t- or purpo"e- %ot o* e:("te%ce- phy"(cal or metaphy"(cal. $ul(u" )ae"ar "er7ed a purpo"e wh(ch %o other (%d(7(dual- at a%y other t(me- could ha7e "er7ed. ,here (" a pecul(ar *la7or o* huma% mea%(%! a%d accompl("hme%t about h(m wh(ch ha" %o "ub"t(tute or e=u(7ale%t. Eot "o w(th water. ;h(le each port(o% (" ab"olutely u%(=ue (% (t" occurre%ceyet o%e lot w(ll "er7e our (%tellectual or pract(cal %eed" ju"t a" well a" a%y other. ;e ca% ha7e "ub"t(tut(o% w(thout lo"". ;ater *rom the %eare"t *aucet may "lake th(r"t a" well a" that *rom the P(er(a% "pr(%!. <%d what (" o* more (mporta%ce to our (mmed(ate problema%y o%e ca"e "er7e" ju"t a" well a" a%y other to demo%"trate that wh(ch (" o* "c(e%t(*(c (%tere"t: the proce"" by wh(ch water (" made- a%d by wh(ch a !reat body o* other a%d =u(te d(""(m(lar "ub"ta%ce" are called (%to be(%!.. ;e do %ot care "c(e%t(*(cally *or the h("tor(cal !e%e"(" o* th(" port(o% o* water : wh(le we care !reatly *or the (%"(!ht "ecured throu!h the part(cular ca"e (%to the proce"" o* mak(%! a%y a%d e7ery port(o% o* water. 8t (" th(" k%owled!e o* proce"" o* !e%erat(o% that co%"t(tute" the co%trolled (%terpretat(o% wh(ch (" the a(m o* "c(e%ce.

4e%ce our *(%al "c(e%t(*(c "tateme%t a""ume" the !e%eral(6ed *orm we are *am(l(ar w(th (% phy"(cal "c(e%ce- (%"tead o* the (%d(7(dual(6ed *orm we dema%d o* h("tor(cal "c(e%ce. 4e%ce al"o the appare%t d("rupt(o% a%d d("locat(o% *rom co%te:t (% the "tream o* "er(al real(ty. ,he moder% lo!(c(a% ha" correctly apprehe%ded

011 1 the ab"tract character o* th(" d("jo(%ted re"ult whe% he "ay" that all u%(7er"al "tateme%t" are hypothet(cal : a%%ou%c(%! that whe% or (* certa(% co%d(t(o%" are !(7e%the% certa(% co%"e=ue%ce" re"ult- but %ot cate!or(cally a""ert(%! the actual e:("te%ce o* the *act a" to e(ther a%tecede%t or co%"e=ue%t. ;he% the lo!(c(a% reco!%(6e" the *ull "(!%(*(ca%ce o* th(" "tateme%t- a%d o* (t" cou%terpart that e7ery cate!or(cal propo"(t(o% (" e%u%c(ated o* a% (%d(7(dual- he w(ll be ready to adm(t that "tateme%t" arr(7ed at by e:per(me%tal "c(e%ce are o* a% h("tor(cal order. ,hey take the(r r("e (%- a%d they *(%d the(r appl(cat(o% to- a world o* u%(=ue a%d cha%!(%! th(%!" : a% e7olut(o%ary u%(7er"e. ,h(" ab"tract or hypothet(cal character "hould %ot d("!u("e *rom u"- howe7er- the "upreme 7alue o* the !e%et(c "tateme%t arr(7ed at by e:per(me%tal "c(e%ce. 8t re7eal" to u" a proce"" wh(ch (" operat(%! co%t(%uou"ly. ,hrou!h k%owled!e o* th(" proce""- we are e%abled to !et both (%tellectual a%d pract(cal- co%trol o* !reat bod(e" o* *act wh(ch otherw("e would be opa=ue a%d recalc(tra%t. L%ow(%! the proce""- we ca% a%aly6e- we ca% u%der"ta%d- the phe%ome%a o* water whe%e7er a%d howe7er they pre"e%t them"el7e". ,he co%trol- moreo7er- e:te%d" beyo%d ju"t the water (t"el*. L%owled!e o* proce"" o* !e%e"(" become" a% (%"trume%t o* (%7e"t(!at(o% (%to- a%d co%trol o7er(mpure water" "o that we ca% mea"ure the amou%t a%d %ature o* de7(at(o% *rom the "ta%dard. 8t become" a% act(7e *actor- a u"e*ul tool (% (%7e"t(!at(%! *lu(d" wh(ch are %ot water- a%d chem(cal compou%d" wh(ch are %ot e7e% *lu(d. ,here (" %o putt(%! a l(m(t to the ram(*(cat(o%" a%d appl(cat(o%" o* the theoret(cal a%d tech%olo!(cal co%trol a**orded u" by lay(%! hold o* a% operat(7e proce"". 8t appl(e" %ot o%ly to what the emp(r(cal lo!(c(a% (" *o%d o* call(%! Hcommo%H eleme%t" a%d Hre"embl(%!H ca"e"> but a(d" u" e=ually (% deal(%! w(th appare%t d(7er!e%ce" a%d d("crepa%c(e". 4old(%! the proce"" (% (t" more !e%er(c *eature"- we ca% *ollow (t H(%to (t" re*(%eme%t" a%d mod(*(cat(o%". By the cumulat(7e method- by br(%!(%! to!ether our k%owled!e o* 7ary(%! proce""e"- a%d o* the part(cular "e=ue%ce or cour"e o* e7e%t" (% each- e%t(re re!(o%" otherw("e utterly u%e:plorable are (%terpreted- a%d made ame%able.

01131 'e"t the reader be!(% to "u"pect that we ha7e le*t the matter o* the 7alue o* e7olut(o%ary (dea" comprehe%d(%! moral(ty- let u" tur% abruptly to that *(eld. 8 "hall e%dea7or to po(%t out that there (" more tha% a%alo!y- there (" a% e:act (de%t(ty- betwee% what the e:per(me%tal method doe" *or our phy"(cal k%owled!e- a%d what the h("tor(cal method (% a %arrower "e%"e may do *or the "p(r(tual re!(o% : the re!(o% o* co%"c(ou" 7alue". My a(m (" to "how that the h("tor(cal method re7eal" to u" a proce"" o* becom(%!- a%d thereby br(%!" u%der (%tellectual a%d pract(cal co%trol *act" wh(ch utterly re"("t !e%eral "peculat(o% or mere (%tro"pect(7e ob"er7at(o%. 4("tory- a" 7(ewed *rom the e7olut(o%ary "ta%dpo(%t- (" %ot a mere collect(o% o* (%c(de%t" or e:ter%al cha%!e"- wh(ch "ometh(%! *(:ed 0whether "p(r(tual or phy"(cal1 ha" pa""ed throu!h- but (" a proce"" that re7eal" to u" the co%d(t(o%" u%der wh(ch moral

pract(ce" a%d (dea" ha7e or(!(%ated. ,h(" e%able" u" to place- to relate them. 8% "ee(%! where they came *rom- (% what "(tuat(o%" they aro"e- we "ee the(r "(!%(*(ca%ce. Moreo7er- by trac(%! the h("tor(cal "e=ue%ce we are e%abled to "ub"t(tute a 7(ew o* the whole (% (t" co%crete real(ty *or a "ketchy 7(ew o* ("olated *ra!me%t". 4("tory (" *or the (%d(7(dual a%d *or the u%e%d(%! proce""(o% o* the u%(7er"e- what e:per(me%t (" to the detached *(eld o* phy"(c". ;e ca%%ot apply art(*(c(al ("olat(o% a%d art(*(c(al recomb(%at(o% to tho"e *act" w(th wh(ch eth(cal "c(e%ce (" co%cer%ed. ;e ca%%ot take a pre"e%t ca"e o* pare%tal care- or o* a ch(ldH" u%truth*ul%e""- a%d cut (t (%to "ect(o%"- or tear (t (%to phy"(cal p(ece"- or "ubject (t to chem(cal a%aly"(". 9%ly throu!h h("torythrou!h a co%"(derat(o% o* how (t came to be what (t ("- ca% we u%ra7el (t a%d trace the (%terwea7(%! o* (t" co%"t(tue%t part". 4("tory o**er" to u" the o%ly a7a(lable "ub"t(tute *or the ("olat(o% a%d *or the cumulat(7e recomb(%at(o% o* e:per(me%t. ,he early per(od" pre"e%t u" (% the(r relat(7e crude%e"" a%d "(mpl(c(ty w(th a "ub"t(tute *or the art(*(c(al operat(o% o* a% e:per(me%t: *ollow(%! the phe%ome%o% (%to the more compl(cated a%d re*(%ed *orm wh(ch (t a""ume" later- (" a "ub"t(tute *or the "y%the"(" o* the e:per(me%t. ,he 7alue o* the earl(er "ta!e" o* a%y h("tor(c e7olut(o% ("-

011J1 8 repeat- l(ke that o* the art(*(c(al ("olat(o% o* a phy"(cal *act *rom (t" u"ual co%te:t. ,he tra%"*ormat(o% o* th(" lo!(cal ad7a%ta!e (%to a matter o* "uper(or e:celle%ce (% the order o* e:("te%ce- (" the root o* the mater(al("t(c *allacy. 8t (" th(" u%ju"t(*(able tra%"*ere%ce wh(ch call" out tho"e prote"t" re*erred to early (% th(" paper> wh(ch ha7e led the (deal("t" to prote"t a!a(%"t the (%du"try o* e:pla(%(%! co%"c(ou" *act" (% e7olut(o%ary term". 8t (" a""umed that the earl(er *act "omehow "et" the "ta%dard o* real(ty a%d o* worth *or the e%t(re "er(e". 8% pract(ce- thou!h %ot (% e:pre"" *ormulat(o%- (t (" a""umed that the earl(er "ta!e"- be(%! Hcau"al-H "omehow are a% e:hau"t(7e a%d ade=uate (%de: o* real(ty- a%d that co%"e=ue%tly all later term" ca% be u%der"tood o%ly whe% reduced to e=u(7ale%t term". 8t (" th(" "uppo"ed reduct(o% o* the later (%to the earl(er- that the (deal("t r(!htly hold" (" %ot to e:pla(% but to e:pla(% away> %ot to a%aly6e but to (!%ore a%d de%y. ,he procedure (" the cou%terpart o* the Freek a%d med(ae7al theor(e" o* the u%(7er"e- (% a""(!%(%! d(**ere%ce" o* 7alue to d(**ere%t part" o* "pace. ;e ha7e cea"ed re!ard(%! the cele"t(al u%(7er"e a" o* h(!her ra%k (% the h(erarchy o* be(%! tha% the terre"tr(al. 4omo!e%e(ty o* e:("te%ce (% "pace ha" become "uch a% (%te!ral part o* the work(%! apparatu" o* the moder% "c(e%t("t that he ca% hardly put h(m"el* (%to the older att(tude. Ee7erthele""- l(e (" =u(te l(kely to *all (%to e:actly the "ame "ort o* *allacy- whe% (t come" to t(me (%"tead o* "pace. ,he earl(er (" re!arded a" "omehow more HrealH tha% the later- or a" *ur%("h(%! the =ual(ty (% term" o* wh(ch the real(ty o* all the later mu"t be "tated. ,here ("- (%deed- a po(%t o* 7(ew *rom wh(ch the earl(er (% t(me (" o* !reater 7alue > but (t (" that o* method- %ot o* e:("te%ce. ,hat wh(ch (" pre"e%ted to u" (% the later term" o* the "er(e" (% too compl(cated a%d co%*u"ed a *orm to be u%ra7elled- "how" (t"el* (% a relat(7ely "(mple a%d tra%"pare%t mode (% the earl(er member". ,he(r relat(7e *ew%e"" a%d "uper*(c(al(ty make" (t much ea"(er to "ecure the me%tal ("olat(o% %eed*ul. ,he *allacy o* the "ta%dard character o* the earl(er (" "o (%tre%ched a%d w(de"pread that (t ca% hardly be d("m(""ed w(th

01121 br(e* me%t(o%. ,he "(mple *act o* the ca"e (" that the !e%et(c method- whether u"ed (% e:per(me%tal or h("tor(cal "c(e%ce- doe" %ot Hder(7e H or Hdeduce H a co%"e=ue%t *rom a% a%tecede%t- (% the "e%"e o* re"ol7(%! (t or d(""ol7(%! (t- (%to what ha" !o%e be*ore. ,he later *act (% (t" e:per(e%ced =ual(ty (" u%(=ue- (rre"ol7able- a%d u%der(7ed. ;ater (" water w(th all (t" pecul(ar character("t(c"- a*ter the pre"e%ce o* o:y!e% a%d hydro!e% !a" ha" bee% "how% to be a %ece""ary co%d(t(o% o* (t" !e%erat(o% a" much a" be*ore. < "tateme%t o* the co%d(t(o%" u%der wh(ch a !(7e% th(%! "how" (t"el* (% e:("te%ce- doe" %ot detract o%e (ota *rom the (%d(7(dual propert(e" o* that th(%! > (t doe" %ot alter them. ,h(" (" a" true o* water or a%y phy"(cal product a" (t (" o* the "e%"e o* obl(!at(o% or o* a%y "p(r(tual product. 8t (" %ot the =ual(ty- but the com(%! (%to e:("te%ce w(th wh(ch "c(e%ce deal" d(rectly. ;hat (" der(7edH (" ju"t the appeara%ce o* the =ual(ty- (t" emer!(%! (%to e:per(e%ce. ,he 7alue o* apprehe%d(%! (t (% term" o* (t" a%tecede%t co%d(t(o%" ("- a" repeatedly "tated- that o* co%trol : (%tellectual co%trol3the ab(l(ty to (%terpret both ob7(ou"ly all(ed *act" a%d d(7er!e%t *act"- "how(%! the "ame modu" operat(%! u%der d(**ere%t co%d(t(o%" > a%d pract(cal co%trol- ab(l(ty to !et or to a7o(d a% e:per(e%ce o* a !(7e% "ort whe% we de"(re. ,he *allacy a""ume" that the earl(er datum ha" "ome "ort o* *(:(ty a%d *(%al(ty o* (t" ow%. 57e% tho"e who a""ert mo"t po"(t(7ely that cau"at(o% (" a "(mple matter o* a%tecede%t a%d co%"e=ue%t- are "t(ll !(7e% to "peak(%! 3a" (* the a%tecede%t "uppl(ed the "ole "tamp o* mea%(%! a%d real(ty to the co%"e=ue%t. 8*- *or e:ample- the earl(er "ta!e "how" o%ly "oc(al (%"t(%ct" o% the part o* the a%(mal- the%- "omehow or other- the later ma%(*e"tat(o%" o* huma% co%"c(e%ce are o%ly a%(mal (%"t(%ct" d("!u("ed a%d o7erla(d. ,o attr(bute a%y add(t(o%al mea%(%! to them- (" a% (llu"(o% to be ba%("hed by a proper "c(e%t(*(c 7(ew. Eow- the earl(er *act (" %o more a *(%("hed th(%!- or completely !(7e% real(ty- tha% (" the later. 8%deed- the e%t(re "(!%(*(ca%ce o* the e:per(me%tal method (" that atte%t(o% ce%ter" upo% e(ther a%tecede%t or co%"e=ue%t "(mply becau"e o* (%tere"t (% a proce"". ,he a%tecede%t (" o* worth becau"e (t de*(%e" o%e term o* the proce"" o* becom(%!> the co%"e=ue%t becau"e (t de*(%e" the other term. Both are

011?1 "tr(ctly "ubord(%ated to the proce"" to wh(ch they !a7e term"- l(m(t". ,he a%alo!y w(th the term" o* a% al!ebra(c "er(e" (" more tha% a metaphor. ,he earl(er term" do %ot de7elop the later o%e". ,he earl(er term (" ju"t a" (%comprehe%"(ble (% (t"el* a" (" the later o%e. ,ake% to!ether- they co%"t(tute eleme%t" (% problem wh(ch (" "ol7ed by d("co7er(%! a co%t(%uou" proce"" or cour"e wh(ch- (%d(7(dual(6ed by the l(m(t(%! term"- "how" (t"el* *(r"t (% o%e *orm a%d the% (% the other. ,he (%tere"t (% the !e%erat(o% o* water doe" %ot term(%ate w(th the d("co7ery o* 4 a%d 9. ;e ha7e al"o !a(%ed "(!%(*(ca%t *act" w(th re*ere%ce to the 4 a%d the 9 (% k%ow(%! that whe% they come to!ether they !(7e water. ,o k%ow that about them (" to )now them throu!h a%d (% a proce""- e:actly a" a%aly6(%! water (%to them e:pla(%" water (% !e%et(c term". 5:cept(%! a" 4 a%d 9 are k%ow% (% th(" He**ectH 0a%d- o* cour"e- (% other "(m(lar o%e"1- they are ab"olutely u%k%ow%- 33 they are a% al!ebra(c M a%d A. ,he rea"o% th(" matter (" %ot clear to the popular co%"c(ou"%e""- a" well a" to the e:pert wr(ter- (" becau"e a% older- purely metaphy"(cal co%cept(o% o* cau"at(o% "ur7(7e"accord(%! to wh(ch the cau"e (" "omehow "uper(or (% ra%k a%d e:celle%ce to the e**ect. ,he e**ect" are re!arded a" "omehow all (%"(de the womb o* cau"e- o%ly awa(t(%! the(r

proper t(me to be del(7ered. ,hey are co%"(dered a" der(7ed a%d "eco%dary- %ot "(mply (% the order o* t(me- but (% the order o* e:("te%ce. Mater(al("m ar("e" ju"t out o* th(" *et(chl(ke wor"h(p o* the a%tecede%t. ;r(ter" who ou!ht to k%ow better tell u" that (* we o%ly had a% ade=uate k%owled!e o* the Hpr(m(t(7eH t(me o* the world- (* we o%ly had "ome !e%eral *ormula by wh(ch to c(rcum"cr(be (t- we could deduce dow% to (t" la"t deta(l the e%t(re e:("t(%! co%"t(tut(o% o* the world- l(*e- a%d "oc(ety. 8t (" pretty clearhowe7er- that (% order to ha7e th(" ade=uate k%owled!e o* pr(m(t(7e phe%ome%a a" Hcau"e-H we "hould ha7e to k%ow e7eryth(%! that ha" come a*ter a" - He**ect.H ;e do %ot k%ow what (t (" a" Hcau"eH 0that (" we do %ot k%ow (t at all1- e:cept(%! a" we k%ow (t throu!h (t" He**ect". ,he e%t(re %o7el o* a pe%%y3a3l(%er may po""(bly be deduced *rom (t" *(r"t chapter-

011B1 but hardly that o* a% art("t. 9ur ade=uate k%owled!e o* the earl(er co%"t(tut(o% o* the "tellar u%(7er"e depe%d" upo% the de!ree (% wh(ch we are *am(l(ar w(th what a" a matter o* *act ha" come "(%ce. +o the comprehe%"(7e world3*ormula about the operat(o% o* certa(% *orce" depe%d" ab"olutely upo% the emp(r(cal k%owled!e that a" matter o* *act certa(% re"ult" take place whe% certa(% co%d(t(o%" are pre"e%t. ,he *ormula (" a mere "ummary or "hortha%d record o* the e%t(re h("tor(cal "er(e"3"o much *or (t" ma!(c power (% deduct(o% a%d der(7at(o%. ,he mode o* rea"o%(%! (" tautolo!(cal. +(%ce we k%ow the %ature o* the a%tecede%t o%ly throu!h the "pec(*(c co%"e=ue%ce- ade=uate k%owled!e o* pr(m(t(7e co%d(t(o%" ca% mea% %oth(%! el"e but a complete k%owled!e o* the whole th(%! *rom be!(%%(%! to e%d. 8t (" "urpr("(%! how a priori the a7era!e emp(r(c("t become" the mome%t he take" h(m"el* to the adorat(o% o* cau"e". 4e "urre%der" h(" bel(e* (% a real(ty apprehe%ded throu!h- e:per(e%ce- (% behal* o* a %ot(o% o* the "uper(or metaphy"(cal e:celle%ce o* what he me%tally co%"truct" a" a by!o%e e:("te%ceH. 4e re!ard" the later term" o* e:per(e%ce %ot a" real (% the(r e:per(e%ced character- but a" "ometh(%! to be deduced or der(7ed *rom a real(ty ade=uately !(7e% (% what he (" plea"ed to de%om(%ate cau"e. +o much t(me ha" bee% "pe%t upo% the *allacy (%7ol7ed (% "uppo"(%! that the early *orm" o* a% h("tor(cal "er(e" are "uper(or to the later- that be*ore pa""(%! o% 8 mu"t recurto the propo"(t(o% o% (t" po"(t(7e "(de. 8t "t(ll rema(%" true that the "tateme%t o* a%y e7e%t or h("tor(cal "er(e"- (% term" o* (t" earl(er member"- ha" a% ad7a%ta!e *or "c(e%ce : (t" lo!(cal "uper(or(ty co%"("t" (% pre"e%t(%! the matter (% "o "(mpl(*(ed a *orm that we ca% detach a%d !ra"p "eparately eleme%t" wh(ch are wholly lo"t (% the co%*u"ed comple:(ty o* the mature pha"e". ;e ca% "(%!le out a part(cular *act *rom (t" compa%y o* a""oc(ate"a%d !(7e (t more e:act a%d more e:clu"(7e atte%t(o%. ,h(" (" what (" mea%t by "ay(%! that h("tory doe" *or moral matter"- *or matter" o* co%"c(ou" 7alue- what e:per(me%tat(o% doe" *or phy"(cal th(%!": (t !(7e" co%trol by *ur%("h(%! relat(7e ("olat(o%. ,h(" al"o e"tabl("he" the "(!%(*(ca%ce o* the later member" o* the "er(e". +tart(%! w(th the earl(er o%e" a" our clue- we ca%

011C1 trace each "ucce""(7e de!ree o* compl(cat(o% a" (t (%troduce" (t"el*. 4a7(%! *ou%d co%d(t(o%" operat(%!- h("tor(cally by them"el7e"- we ca% "ee what happe%" whe% the"e co%d(t(o%" come to!ether. ;e ca% re*er the more compl(cated *act to the comb(%at(o%. o* co%d(t(o%". 4ere we ha7e the cou%terpart o* the "y%thet(c recomb(%at(o%- or

cumulat(7e method o* e:per(me%t. ;e put to!ether the "eparate thread" com(%! *rom d(**ere%t "ource"- a%d "ee how they are wo7e% (%to a patter% "o e:te%"(7e a%d m(%ute a" to de*y the a%aly"(" o* d(rect (%"pect(o%. ;e "hould be prepared- *rom our *ore!o(%! d("cu""(o% to "ee how th(" "uper(or(ty a%d lo!(cal 7alue (" al"o !(7e% o%tolo!(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce ju"t a" the mater(al("t ("olate" a%d de(*(e"- the earl(er term a" a% e:po%e%t o* real(ty- "o the (deal("t deal" w(th the later term. ,o h(m (t (" the real(ty o* wh(ch the *(r"t *orm (" "(mply the appeara%ce. 4e co%tra"t" the 7ar(ou" member" o* the "er(e" a" po""e""(%! d(**ere%t de!ree" o* real(ty- the more pr(m(t(7e be(%! %eare"t 6ero. ,o h(m the real(ty (" "omehow Hlate%tH or Hpote%t(al H (% the earl(er *orm"- a%d- !radually work(%! *rom w(th(%- tra%"*orm" them u%t(l (t *(%d" *or (t"el* a *a(rly ade=uate e:pre""(o%. 8t (" a% a:(om w(th h(m that what (" e7ol7ed (% the late"t *orm (" (%7ol7ed (% the earl(e"t. ,he later real(ty ("- there*ore- to h(m the per"("te%t real(ty (% co%tra"t w(th wh(ch the *(r"t *orm" are- (* %ot (llu"(o%"- at lea"t poor e:cu"e" *or be(%!. ;e are all *am(l(ar w(th the"e appl(cat(o%" o* the <r("totel(a% metaphy"(c" to the e7olut(o%ary proce"". ;e are %ot co%cer%ed here w(th the metaphy"(cal problem" (%7ol7ed- thou!h they are "er(ou" e%ou!h : a" the %ot(o% that the real "omehow choo"e" a% (mper*ect mode or 7eh(cle o* e:pre""(o% *or (t"el*- a%d o%ly a*ter a lo%! "er(e" o* more or le"" abort(7e attempt" "ucceed" (% "how(%! (t"el* a" the real(ty. 8t (" e%ou!h *or pre"e%t purpo"e" to %ote that we ha7e here "(mply a part(cular ca"e o* the !e%eral *allacy ju"t d("cu""ed3the empha"(" o* a part(cular term o* the "er(e" at the e:pe%"e o* the proce"" operat(7e (% re*ere%ce to all term". Both the earl(er a%d the later are "(mply l(m(t" wh(ch de*(%e the proce"" (% =ue"t(o%. ,hey are the *ramework wh(ch !(7e" (t outl(%e > they are the term" wh(ch character(6e the problem to be

01191 attacked. ,he (%troduct(o% o* more deta(led (%termed(ate term"- to!ether w(th a "tateme%t o* the(r e:act temporal a%d =ua%t(tat(7e relat(o%" to each other- *(ll out the outl(%e. ,hey !(7e u" *(%ally a complete whole- co%"t(tuted by member" "ta%d(%! (% orderly a%d co%"ecut(7e relat(o%" to each other. $u"t a" e:per(me%t tra%"*orm" a brute phy"(cal *act (%to a relat(7ely lum(%ou" "er(e" o* cha%!e"- "o e7olut(o%ary method appl(ed to a moral *act doe" %ot lea7e u" e(ther w(th a mere a%(mal (%"t(%ct o% o%e "(de- or w(th the "p(r(tual cate!or(c (mperat(7e o% the other. 8t re7eal" to u" a "(%!le co%t(%u(%! proce"" (% wh(ch both a%(mal (%"t(%ct a%d the "e%"e o* duty ha7e the(r place. 8t put" u" (% po""e""(o% o* a co%crete whole. ,he a%alo!y w(th moder% b(olo!(cal (%tere"t" (" "(!%(*(ca%t. ,here wa" a t(me whe% u%(t" o* *(:ed "tructure "eemed alo%e to ha7e (mporta%ce. ,hey- by "(mple phy"(cal ju:tapo"(t(o% a%d comb(%at(o%- were "uppo"ed to accou%t *or all more comple: *orm" a%d *u%ct(o%". .or lo!(cal purpo"e" (t make" %o d(**ere%ce whether the"e u%(t" are H cell" H w(th relat(o% to the or!a%("m a" a whole- or bra(% Hce%ter" H w(th re*ere%ce to certa(% %eural *u%ct(o%". +ome pecul(ar property wa" "uppo"ed to be re"(de%t (% the"e u%(t"wh(ch "omehow co%trolled or e:pla(%ed other act(7(t(e" a%d "tructure". Eowmorpholo!y (" cea"(%!- to lord (t o7er phy"(olo!y > a%d phy"(olo!y (" cea"(%! to be a mere matter o* certa(% *u%ct(o%". 8t (" a chem(co3phy"(cal proce"" operat(%! where7er we ha7e or!a%(6ed "tructure a%d the per*orma%ce o* *u%ct(o% that (" the "ubject o* "c(e%t(*(c atte%t(o%. ,he problem (" to d("co7er a%d a%aly6e th(" proce""- a%d the% trace

(t" d(**ere%t mode" o* operat(o% a" (t pre"e%t" (t"el* u%der a 7ar(ety o* co%d(t(o%" > the"e co%d(t(o%" be(%! "tated de*(%(tely throu!h e:per(me%tal co%trol. ju"t a" the b(olo!("t (" "urre%der(%! the attempt to locate h(" real(ty (% o%e "pot rather tha% a%other- (% the cell a" "uch- or the bra(% ce%ter a" "uch- "o the moral("t mu"t cea"e try(%! to *(%d the key to h(" problem (% the a%(mal (%"t(%ct a" "uch > a%d a" the b(olo!("t ha" cea"ed tak(%! a *u%ct(o% a" ult(mate a%d "el*3e:pla%atory- "o the moral("t mu"t cea"e d("cu""(%! the re*(%ed moral co%"c(ou"%e"" o* c(7(l(6at(o% a" *(%al. 4e mu"t tur% to the moral(6(%! proce"" wh(ch operate" co%3

01 013t(%uou"ly- a%d e%dea7or to accou%t *or (t" d(**ere%t ma%(*e"tat(o%" u%der d(**ere%t(al" o* co%d(t(o% h("tor(cally pre"e%ted. ,h(" whole matter may (%deed be "ummed up (% term" o* the co%cept(o% o* cau"at(o%. 8* we a""ume the mea%(%! o* h(" %ot(o% to be a relat(o% o* a%tecede%t a%d co%"e=ue%t- we ca%%ot play *a"t a%d loo"e w(th (t. ,he cau"e (" %ot merely a%tecede%t > (t (" what (t (" a" a%tecede%t- a%d ca%%ot be re!arded a" real whe% "e7ered *rom that wh(ch "ucceed" (t. ,he "ame hold" o* the co%"e=ue%t 33(t (" what (t (" o%ly a" a term (% the "er(e". But we do more tha% place the a%tecede%t a%d co%"e=ue%t. ;e !et the co%t(%uou" real(ty. <%d the% the e%t(re "er(e"- the de*(%ed a%d h("tor(c e7e%t- (" (t"el* employed to (%terpret a%d co%"truct a lar!er realm o* e:per(e%ce. ,hrou!h the "er(e" we better apprehe%d the u%(7er"e. 8t (" that wh(ch (" character(6ed by a%d throu!h "uch a h("tory. ,he h("tor(c co%"e=ue%ce (" a pred(cate o* a %ew "ubject. ;e !et a more thorou!h a%d ade=uate e:per(e%ce the a%tecede%t"- 4 a%d 9- a%d o* the co%"e=ue%t- water- (% *(%d(%! out how water (" !e%erated. But we do %ot "top at th(" po(%t. ,he e%t(re "e=ue%ce to wh(ch both a%tecede%ce a%d co%"e=ue%ce belo%!become" a% (mporta%t *actor (% real(6(%! the %ature o* the world (% wh(ch "uch a% e7e%t take" place. 9ur drama become" (% tur% a "(!%(*(ca%t ep("ode (% a lar!er drama. +o (% moral matter" we comprehe%d both the a%(mal (%"t(%ct a%d the huma% cate!or(cal (mperat(7e whe% we place them a" l(m(t(%! term" o* a "(%!le co%t(%uou" h("tory. But o7er a%d abo7e th("- we u%der"ta%d better the u%(7er"e- k%ow(%! that (t (" o* a k(%d to be marked by "uch a h("tory. 8t (" (% the l(!ht o* "uch a more ult(mate jud!me%t- made po""(ble by the e7olut(o%ary method- that we "ee how l(m(ted (" the 7(ew that tell" u" that h("tory ca% o%ly "peak o* certa(% e:ter%al th(%!" that ha7e happe%ed to moral(ty> ca% trace (t" outward *ortu%e"- but re7eal %oth(%! o* (t" %ature. 8t "how" u" moral(ty (% the po"(t(o% wh(ch (t occup(e" (% the u%(7er"e > (% the "(tuat(o%" that dema%d (t. 4a7(%! *ou%d (% the apprehe%"(o% o* proce""- the real(ty wh(ch elude" u" whe% we look *or (t e(ther (% earl(er or later term" we ha7e to be care*ul to a7o(d a *urther error- 7(6 : the confusion of

*+,+- continuity of process with identity of content. ,he *ollow(%! =uotat(o% (llu"trate" the error to wh(ch 8 re*er: & ;e may ra("e the "(%!le (%duct(7e (%=u(ry- ;hat act" ha7e me% e7erywhere a%d at all t(me" co%"(dered r(!ht or wro%! re"pect(7ely- a%d what act" ha7e "ome co%"(dered r(!ht or (%d(**ere%t a%d other" wro%! D ,able" o* a!reeme%t a%d d(**ere%ce ca% be draw% up to "how what ma%k(%d at lea"t ha" re!arded a" the e""e%t(al co%te%t o* the moral law. . . . .or the r(ch har7e"t wh(ch th(" treatme%t o* the moral *(eld (" "ure to y(eld- we "hall ha7e to wa(t u%t(l the "p(r(t o* "c(e%ce ha" e:orc("ed the "p(r(t

o* "peculat(o% *rom our co%te%d(%! "chool" o* eth(c" 0+churma%- 'he .thical /mport of Darwinism, pp. 02- 0?1. &,he "c(e%ce o* h("tor(cal eth(c" (" "t(ll too you%! to ha7e e"tabl("hed what moral pr(%c(ple" are ult(mate a%d *u%dame%tal 33 that ("- what pr(%c(ple" ma% e7erywhere a%d at all t(me" ha" co%"(dered b(%d(%!& 0/bid.- P. 221. ,he (mpl(cat(o% o* the =uotat(o%" (" that the "c(e%t(*(c method (" co%cer%ed w(th the ab"tract(o% o* a certa(% commo% a%d u%cha%!(%! co%te%t3that (t (" o% the lookout *or "ome duty or dut(e" that ha7e bee% re!arded at all t(me" a%d (% all place" a" e=ually b(%d(%!. 8 "e(6e upo% th(" co%cept(o% becau"e (t (" "u**(c(e%tly %ear the propo"(t(o% ju"t pre"e%ted to make (t worth wh(le to (%d(cate the d(**ere%ce betwee% them. 8 ha7e (%"("ted that the "c(e%t(*(c method (" co%cer%ed w(th the d("co7ery o* a commo% a%d co%t(%uou" proce""- a%d that th(" ca% be determ(%ed o%ly h("tor(cally. ,he %ot(o% %ow propou%ded (" that "c(e%ce (" co%cer%ed w(th a commo% co%te%t or "tructure o* bel(e*"a%d th(" ca% be apprehe%ded h("tor(cally. 8 do %ot *(%d- howe7er- that (t (" (de%t(ty o* co%te%t wh(ch (" (mporta%t- e(ther theoret(cally or pract(cally. 9% the co%trary- the method o* compar("o% a%d ab"tract(o% wh(ch lea7e" u" w(th "(mply a *(:ed commo% eleme%t apart *rom all d(7er"(ty a%d 7ar(ety- !(7e" a mere caput mortuum r(!(dly "tat(carb(trary- a re"(duum w(thout e:pla%at(o%. Pract(cally- (t !(7e" u" %o le7era!e *or what (" the mo"t (mporta%t th(%! 333 co%trol. Doubtle"" (t (" true that other h("tor(cal "c(e%ce" ha7e pa""ed throu!h a & comparat(7eH per(od (% wh(ch the d("co7ery o* a commo% eleme%t o* "tructure wa" take% to be the object o* "earch>

01 1 but the other "c(e%ce" ha7e le*t that po(%t o* 7(ew *ar beh(%d. ,he comparat(7e a%atom("t k%ow" 7ery well that e:ter%al "(m(lar(ty (" %o !uara%tee o* (de%t(ty o* *u%ct(o%- or o* homolo!ou" or!a%" > a%d that l(ke *u%ct(o%" may be e:erc("ed throu!h mode" o* "tructure wh(ch e:ter%ally are character(6ed by the mo"t pro*ou%d a%d e:te%"(7e d(**ere%ce". ,he "ame (" true o* the comparat(7e ph(lolo!("t. 8t (" o%ly (% the re!(o% o* co%"c(ou"%e""- (% d("cu""(%! myth"- r(te"- (%"t(tut(o%"- a%d moral pract(ce"that the (dea per"("t" that the (mporta%t th(%! (" to h(t upo% "ome "tructure wh(ch (" e7erywhere al(ke. ,he ad7a%ce- wh(ch ha" take% place (% the b(olo!(cal a%d =ua"( 3b(olo!(cal "c(e%ce" (" "ure to take place (% the "oc(al "c(e%ce" a" well. ;hat the b(olo!("t (%"t(%ct(7ely "earche" *or 0!(7e% a" data a 7ar(ety o* d(**ere%t *orm" or "pec(e"w(th the problem o* trac(%! the(r relat(o%"h(p1 (" *(r"t a commo% a%ce"tor. ,h(" *ur%("he" a po(%t o* departure a%d "uppl(e" o%e l(m(t(%! term o* the "er(e" u%der co%"(derat(o%. ,he pre"e%t d(**ere%t(ated *orm" *ur%("h the other l(m(t(%! term. ,he problem (" to d("co7er the "(%!le proce"" wh(ch- operat(%! u%der de*(%(tely d(**ere%t co%d(t(o%"- ha" ma%(*e"ted (t"el* (% the"e "pec(*(cally d(**ere%t outward *orm". L%owled!e o* d(**ere%ce" (" ju"t a" (mporta%t a" that o* the !e%er(c (de%t(ty o* the proce"". ,he *u%ct(o% o* locomot(o% (" a mere ab"tract(o%- e:cept(%!- a" we ca% trace a%d de*(%e (t" per*orma%ce throu!h e%7(ro%me%tal co%d(t(o%" that !(7e r("e e=ually to the le!le"" "%ake- the *(%" o* the *("h- the w(%!" o* the b(rd- a%d the le!" o* the =uadruped. 8t (" o%ly throu!h (%"(!ht (%to d(7er"(*(cat(o% that the hold upo% the proce"" become" 7(tal. a%d co%crete. +(m(larly (% moral". +uppo"(%! 0wh(ch doe" %ot "eem to be the ca"e1 that a% (de%t(cal bel(e* re!ard(%! the duty o* pare%tal care- or o* co%ju!al *(del(ty- could be d("co7er (% huma% "oc(et(e" at all t(me" a%d place". ,h(" would throw %o l(!ht what"oe7er upo% the "c(e%t(*(c "(!%(*(ca%ce o* that phe%ome%o%. 9% the other ha%d- a% ade=uate k%owled!e o* h("tor(cal *act" m(!ht throw !reat l(!ht upo% the eth(c" o* *am(ly

relat(o%"- e:h(b(ted (% complete %e!lect o* ch(ldre% a" well a" (% "el*3"acr(*(c(%! de7ot(o% to the(r wel*are- a%d (% all "ta!e" o* re!ard a%d d("re!ard o* per"o%al *a(th*ul%e"" a" betwee% hu"ba%d a%d w(*e.

01 31 ,he 7ery d(**ere%ce" o* bel(e* become "(!%(*(ca%t whe% they ca% be re*erred to 7ary(%! co%d(t(o%" wh(ch ha7e brou!ht them about. $u"t o%e word o% the pract(cal "(de. ,he commo% a%d r(!(dly *(:ed co%te%t !(7e" %o help re!ard(%! the *uture. 8t !(7e" %o (%d(cat(o% o* the method o* pro!re"" (% a%y de"(red d(rect(o%. ,here (" %o way o* tur%(%! (t o7er (%to a mode o* co%trol o* *uture e:per(e%cee(ther (% corporate act(o% or (%d(7(dual educat(o%. 8t (" ju"t a bare ("olated *(%al *act. 8* a%y u"e at all could be made o* (t- the te%de%cy would be to lower the work(%! "ta%dard o* moral act(o% (% all more ad7a%ced "oc(et(e". By hypothe"("- (t *ur%("he" o%ly the duty wh(ch (" commo% to the lowe"t w(th the h(!he"t. ,he e""e%ce o* moral "tru!!le a%d o* moral pro!re"" l(e"- howe7er- prec("ely (% that re!(o% where "ect(o%" o* "oc(ety- or !roup" o* (%d(7(dual"- are becom(%! co%"c(ou" o* the %ece""(ty o* (deal" o* a h(!her a%d more !e%eral(6ed order tha% tho"e reco!%(6ed (% the pa"t. ,o *(: upo% that wh(ch ha" bee% bel(e7ed e7erywhere- a%d at all t(me" & a" the e""e%t(al co%te%t o* the moral law-& would !(7e pract(cal moral(ty a treme%dou" "et3back. ,he pre7(ou" d("cu""(o% may be "ummar(6ed a" *ollow" : ,he object o* "c(e%ce (" pr(mar(ly to !(7e (%tellectual co%trol 33 that ("- ab(l(ty to (%terpret phe%ome%a33 a%d "eco%dar(ly- pract(cal co%trol 33 that ("- ab(l(ty to "ecure de"(rable a%d a7o(d u%de"(rable *uture e:per(e%ce". +eco%d- e:per(me%t accompl("he" th(" (% phy"(cal "c(e%ce". 8t take" a% u%a%aly6ed total *act wh(ch (% (t" total(ty mu"t "(mply be accepted at (t" *ace 7aluea%d "how" the e:act a%d e:clu"(7e co%d(t(o%" o* (t" or(!(%. By th(" mea%" (t take" (t out o* (t" opa=ue ("olat(o% a%d !(7e" (t mea%(%! by pre"e%t(%! (t a" a d("t(%ct a%d yet related part o* a lar!er h("tor(c co%t(%uum. ,h(rd- the d("co7ery o* the proce"" become" at o%ce a% (%"trume%t *or the (%terpretat(o% o* other *act" wh(ch are e:pla(%able by re*ere%ce to the proce"" operat(%! u%der "omewhat d(**ere%t co%d(t(o%". .ourth- the "(!%(*(ca%ce o* co%"c(ou" or "p(r(tual 7alue" ca%%ot be made out by d(rect (%"pect(o%- %or yet by d(rect phy"(cal d(""ect(o% a%d recompo"(t(o%. ,hey are- there*ore- out"(de the "cope o* "c(e%ce e:cept "o *ar a" ame%able to h("tor(c method. .(*th- h("tory !(7e" u" the"e *act" (% proce"" o* becom(%! or

01 J1 !e%erat(o% > the earl(er term" o* the "er(e" pro7(de u" w(th a "(mpl(*(cat(o% wh(ch (" the cou%terpart o* ("olat(o% (% phy"(cal e:per(me%t> each "ucce""(7e later term a%"wer" the purpo"e o* "y%thet(c recomb(%at(o% u%der (%crea"(%!ly comple: co%d(t(o%". +(:th- a complete h("tor(cal accou%t o* the de7elopme%t o* a%y eth(cal (dea or pract(ce would %ot o%ly e%able u" to (%terpret both (t" cruder a%d more mature *orm"- but 33what (" e7e% more (mporta%t33 would !(7e u" (%"(!ht (%to the operat(o% a%d co%d(t(o%" wh(ch make *or moral(ty- a%d thu" a**ord u" (%tellectual tool" *or attack(%! other moral *act". +e7e%th- (% a%alo!y3 w(th the re"ult" *low(%! (% phy"(cal "c(e%ce" *rom (%tellectual co%trol- we ha7e e7ery rea"o% to "uppo"e that the "ucce""*ul e:ecut(o% o* th(" mode o* approach would y(eld al"o *ru(t (% pract(cal co%trol that ("- k%owled!e o* mea%" by wh(ch (%d(7(dual -

a%d corporate co%duct m(!ht be mod(*(ed (% de"(rable d(rect(o%". 8* we !et k%owled!e o* a proce"" o* !e%erat(o%- we !et k%owled!e o* how to proceed (% !ett(%! a de"(red re"ult. 8 ha7e e%dea7ored (% th(" paper "(mply to "how that e(ther moral(ty mu"t rema(% out"(de the "phere o* "c(e%ce- or be approached a%d attacked by the h("tor(cal method. ,h(" (" what 8 mea% by the H%ece""(tyH o* th(" method. 8t t(ll rema(%" ope% to a% objector to take the *(r"t o* the alter%at(7e"- a%d hold that moral(ty (" %ot ope% to a%y "ort o* "c(e%t(*(c treatme%t- a%d that (t (" e""e%t(al to (t" e:("te%ce a" moral(ty that (t "hould %ot be "o treated. 8% other word"- 8 ha7e %ot a" yet d("cu""ed d(rectly the =ue"t(o% o* what the bear(%! o* the appl(cat(o% o* the h("tor(cal method- a" "c(e%t(*(c mode o* approach- (" upo% the 7alue or 7al(d(ty o* d("t(%ct(7ely moral phe%ome%o%. ,o that problemaccord(%!ly- my %e:t art(cle w(ll be de7oted. ;hat doe" th(" method do *or moral(ty a" moral(ty- a%d howD 8 "hall e%dea7or to "how that the method %ot o%ly doe" %ot de"troy d("t(%ct(7ely eth(cal 7alue"- but that (t "uppl(e" them - w(th a% added "a%ct(o%. $oh% Dewey ,45 @E8/5I+8,A 9. )48)<F9

3333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Dewey/Dewey_190 b.html [Bajado el 3 de a!o"to de 011#

Originally published as:

$oh% Dewey. &,he 57olut(o%ary Method <" <ppl(ed ,o Moral(ty: 88 8t" +(!%(*(ca%ce *or )o%duct&- Philosophical (eview 11- 0190 1: 32333B1.

The .1olutionary Method As Applied To Morality: 22! 2ts Significance for Conduct
8E a preced(%! paper-( ) 8 attempted to "how that o%ly by the u"e o* e7olut(o%ary (dea"that ("- the h("tor(cal method- ca% moral(ty be brou!ht w(th(% the doma(% o* "c(e%ce. ,hat d("cu""(o%- howe7er- d(d %ot de7elop the (mpl(ed bear(%!" o* the pre"e%ted theory upo% d("t(%ct(7ely moral 7alue" a%d 7al(d(t(e". 8* we "uppo"e *or the mome%t that "c(e%t(*(c treatme%t would *ollow the !e%eral l(%e" (%d(cated- what would be the (%*lue%ce o* "uch a treatme%t upo% moral(ty a" "uchD ;ould (t lea7e moral =ual(ty u%a**ected 33 ju"t where (t wa" D ;ould (t le""e% or de"troy the moral mea%(%! a" "uch D 9r would (t (%te%"(*y a%d e:pa%d eth(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce- !(7(%! a% added mea%(%! a%d a% added "a%ct(o% D

Be*ore d(rectly tak(%! up the"e =ue"t(o%"- (t (" %ece""ary to d("po"e o* a certa(% amb(!u(ty a%d co%*u"(o%. 8 am co%7(%ced that (% much rece%t d("cu""(o% about 7al(d(ty or object(7e 7alue- wr(ter" ha7e take% up (%d("cr(m(%ately two d(**ere%t "ta%dpo(%t"- a%d pa""ed u%w(tt(%!ly *rom o%e problem to a%other a%d =u(te d(**ere%t matter. 9%e =ue"t(o% (" th(" : ;hat (" the 7al(d(ty o* the moral po(%t o* 7(ew a" "uchD 9r- (% the *orm wh(ch co%temporary thou!ht make" mo"t ur!e%t: 4ow (" the 7al(d(ty o* the moral po(%t o* 7(ew- w(th (t" (%"("te%ce upo% "ta%dard"- (deal"- re"po%"(b(l(t(e"- to be reco%c(led w(th the 7al(d(ty o* the "c(e%t(*(c po(%t o* 7(ew a%d (t" (%"("te%ce upo% the pre"e%ted- upo% *act"- upo% the cau"al D < d("t(%ct =ue"t(o% (" the *ollow(%!: 4ow (" the 7al(d(ty o* a !(7e% moral po(%t o* 7(ew or jud!me%t determ(%edD ,h(" jud!me%t about cap(tal pu%("hme%t (" morally 7al(d> that o%e (" eth(cally (%compete%t. ,h(" po(%t o* 7(ew re!ard(%! tempera%ce- e:pa%"(o%- the "(l7er =ue"t(o%- 9r!a%(6ed char(ty- etc.- (" true3 that ("- ha" "uper(or object(7e 7alue33 compared w(th "ome other po(%t o* 7(ew. 9r- the jud!me%t &8

032J1 "hould *ollow my art("t(c be%t- e7e% (* (t (%ter*ere" w(th e:("t(%! *(l(al relat(o%"-& (" correct. Eow- eth(cal "c(e%ce (" pr(mar(ly co%cer%ed w(th problem" o* 7al(d(ty (% the latter "e%"e. 8t belo%!" to lo!(c- to the theory o* po(%t" o* 7(ew- the cate!or(e"- a%d o* the method" that de7elop the"e po(%t" o* 7(ew- to d("cu"" the 7al(d(ty o* moral(ty uberhaupt. ,he "c(e%t("t a" "uch (" %ot d(rectly co%cer%ed w(th matter" o* ult(mate 7al(d(ty> %e(therhowe7er- (" he take% up w(th mere pre"e%ted *act". 4(" *u%dame%tal a%d (%tere"t(%! problem (" that o* way" o* pa""(%! upo% =ue"t(o%" o* "pec(*(c 7al(d(ty> way" o* determ(%(%! the re"pect(7e 7alue" th(" or that part(cular jud!me%t. ,he e:te%t to wh(ch ph(lo"oph(cal wr(ter" adopt a%d repeat the propo"(t(o%" o* emp(r(cal wr(ter"- de7eloped be*ore object(7e "c(e%ce had made much headway- (" "urpr("(%!. 8t (" %ot bare de"cr(pt(o% o* !(7e% *act" that co%"t(tute" the work o* the "c(e%t("t > but d("co7er(%!te"t(%!- a%d elaborat(%! ade=uate mode" o* finding out what is really given0 ade=uate mode" o* de"cr(b(%! a%d de*(%(%! what (" thu" la(d bare. ,h(" ou!ht to be too tr(7(al- too commo%place to me%t(o%- but curre%t ar!ume%t" a!a(%"t the u"e o* h("tor(cal method" (% eth(c" (%d(cate the %eed %ot o%ly o* me%t(o% but o* "tre"". ,he oppo%e%t ar!ue" thu" : 8t (" o* cour"e true that moral(ty ha" a h("tory> that ("- we ca% trace d(**ere%t moral pract(ce"- bel(e*"- cu"tom"- dema%d"- op(%(o%"- (% 7ar(ou" *orm" o* outward ma%(*e"tat(o%. ;e ca% "ay that here "uch a%d "uch moral pract(ce" obta(%ed- a%d the% !a7e way (% th(" po(%t or that. ,h(" (%deed (" a bra%ch o* h("tory- a%d a% (%tere"t(%! o%e. <" h("tory (t (" mere tru("m to "ay that (t w(ll rece(7e "c(e%t(*(c treatme%t ju"t (% the de!ree (% wh(ch all the re"ource" o* h("tor(c method are called (%to act(o%. But whe% th(" (" "a(d a%d do%e the re"ult rema(%" h("tory- %ot eth(c". ;hat eth(c" deal" w(th (" the moral worth o* the"e 7ar(ou" pract(ce"- bel(e*"- etc.> a%d th(" =ue"t(o% o* worth (" a totally d(**ere%t matter *rom e:("te%ce (% a temporal "er(e"- a%d *rom the accurate de"cr(pt(o% o* "er(al order. ,he h("tor(a% o* eth(c" ca% at mo"t "upply o%ly data> the d("t(%ct(7e work o* the eth(cal wr(ter (" "t(ll all to be do%e. <%d we may (ma!(%e the objector !o(%! o% to add the "tock phra"e" . 4("tory

03221 (" de"cr(pt(7e- (t deal" w(th the !(7e%- the actual- the phe%ome%al. 5th(c" (" %ormat(7e- (t wa%t" to k%ow about the "ta%dard- the (deal- that wh(ch ou!ht to bewhether or %o (t (" or e7er ha" bee%.

8% my jud!me%t the objector (" here e%ta%!led (% the loo"e%e"" a%d 7a!ue%e"" o* h(" ow% a%aly"(". 4e ha" %ot d("cr(m(%ated the two mea%(%!" o* 7al(d(ty. 4e (" ar!u(%! that becau"e a !e%et(c or h("tor(c accou%t doe" %ot determ(%e ab initio the moral po(%t o* 7(ew a" "uch- there*ore (t (" %ot %ece""ary to the r(!ht determ(%at(o% o* =ue"t(o%" o* "pec(*(c 7alue 33 a% ob7(ou" mutatio conclusionis.($) Becau"e h("tory doe" %ot create o**3ha%d- "o to "peak- moral 7al(d(ty- (t hardly *ollow" that a% ade=uate k%owled!e o* h("tor(cal de7elopme%t (" %ot =u(te (%d("pe%"able to the "ucce""*ul pur"u(t o* the ta"k o* dec(d(%! upo% 7al(d(ty (% th(" a%d that "pec(al ca"e. <t t(me" (t would "eem a" (* the objector we%t e7e% *urther (% h(" co%*u"(o% > (t would almo"t appear that he co%*ou%d" h("tory a" a% object(7e "ucce""(o% o* e7e%t" Hw(th h("tory a" the rat(o%al accou%t a%d (%terpretat(o% o* the"e e7e%t" > h("tory a" bare *act a%d h("tory a" method. 8t m(!ht be true that object(7e h("tory doe" %ot create moral 7alue".- a" "uch- a%d yet be true that there (" %o way o* "ettl(%! =ue"t(o%" o* 7al(d eth(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce (% deta(l apart *rom h("tor(cal co%"(derat(o%. 8% a%y ca"e- whate7er de"er7e" the %ame o* h("tory (" more tha% a% (%7e%tory o* pract(ce"- bel(e*"- a%d op(%(o%". 8t (" co%cer%ed w(th the or(!(% a%d de7elopme%t o* the"e cu"tom" a%d (dea" > a%d w(th the =ue"t(o% o* the(r mode o* operat(o% a*ter they ha7e ar("e%. ,he de"cr(bed *act"3ye" > but amo%! the *act" de"cr(bed (" prec("ely certa(% co%d(t(o%" u%der wh(ch 7ar(ou" %orm"(deal"- a%d rule" o* act(o% ha7e or(!(%ated a%d *u%ct(o%ed. < co%t(%ual p(!eo%3

032?1 3hol(%! o* "uch co%"(derat(o% a" mere Hde"cr(pt(o%H become" l(e" (rr(tat(%! whe% (t a""ume" that the de"cr(pt(o% ca%%ot !o beyo%d the pr(ma *ac(e a%d ob7(ou" appeara%ce o* the mater(al dealt w(th> that (t ju"t !oe" heap(%! up more a%d more "uch u%e:pla(%ed '%d u%(%terpreted data. ,h(" %o more "uppl(e" the !e%eral co%te%t o* h("tor(c "c(e%ce tha% the *(r"t appeara%ce o* the world to our "e%"e" (" the "(!%(*(ca%t co%te%t o* phy"(cal "c(e%ce. th(" (" o%ly mater(al to be de"cr(bed > %ot the de"cr(bed mater(al. 8t" worth (" to *ur%("h data a%d pre"e%t problem"- "u!!e"t work(%! hypothe"e"- a%d "upply the mater(al throu!h wh(ch the: may be te"ted. ,he h("tor(c method (" a method- *(r"t- *or determ(%(%! how "pec(*(c moral 7alue" 0whether (% the way o* cu"tom"- e:pectat(o%"- co%ce(7ed e%d"- or rule"1 came to be > a%d "eco%d- *or determ(%(%! the(r "(!%(*(ca%ce a" (%d(cated (% the(r career. 8t" a""umpt(o%" are that %orm" a%d (deal"- a" well a" u%re*lect(7e cu"tom"- aro"e out o* certa(% "(tuat(o%"- (% re"po%"e to the dema%d" o* tho"e "(tuat(o%" > a%d that o%ce (% e:("te%ce they operated w(th a le"" or !reater %eed o* "ucce"" 0to be determ(%ed by "tudy o* the co%crete ca"e1. ;e are "t(ll e%!a!ed (% *orm(%! %orm"- (% "ett(%! up e%d"- (% co%ce(7(%! obl(!at(o%". 8* moral "c(e%ce ha" a%y co%"truct(7e 7alue- (t mu"t pro7(de "ta%dpo(%t" a%d work(%! (%"trume%tal(t(e" *or the more ade=uate per*orma%ce the"e ta"k". <re we to "ay that the ur!e%t problem o* the pre"e%t r(!ht determ(%at(o% o* "ta%dard" a%d a(m" ca% be "ol7ed whe% we cut loo"e *rom a co%"(derat(o% o* the pa"tD +hall we "ay that a de*(%ed a%d cr(t(cal k%owled!e o* the or(!(%- h("tory- a%d de"t(%y o* "uch matter" (% the pa"t l(*e o* huma%(ty (" a"(de *rom the mark (% our pre"e%t "(tuat(o% D ,o adopt "uch a "ta%dpo(%t- e7e% by (mpl(cat(o%- (" to comm(t our"el7e" to two a""umpt(o%" : *(r"t- that wh(le there may ha7e bee% rat(o%al(ty (% pa"t moral bel(e*" a%d pract(ce"- there (" %o "uch rat(o%al(ty a" to the pre"e%t a%d the *uture. 8% other word"- (t (" a""umed that wh(le moral att(tude" ma%k(%! ha7e h(therto ar("e% (% relat(o% to a

de*(%(te "(tuat(o%- the pre"e%t (" =u(te (% the a(r- a%d he%ce jud!me%t o* (t ca%%ot be d(rected. +eco%dly- (t (" a""umed that a k%owled!e o* how %orm" a%d

032B1 moral e%dea7or" ha7e bee% brou!ht about (% the pa"t throw" %o l(!ht upo% the (%tr(%"(c proce"" o* moral(6at(o%. .or my part- 8 am %ot pre"umptuou" e%ou!h to 7e%ture upo% "uch %ot(o%" > 8 would ha7e tho"e who de%y moral "(!%(*(ca%ce to the h("tor(cal method "how how we may !u(de a%d co%trol the *ormat(o% o* our *urther moral jud!me%t" (* we *ore!o (%=u(ry (%to the proce"" o* the(r *ormat(o% a" h("tor(cally "et be*ore u". 8% the"e (%troductory word"- 8 do %ot "uppo"e my"el* to ha7e "how% that the h("tor(c method ha" a "ettled moral "(!%(*(ca%ce that at o%ce *ac(l(tate" co%duct a%d !(7e" (t a% added "a%ct(o% by (%troduc(%! more rat(o%al(ty> but 8 hope at lea"t to ha7e cleared up "omewhat the real po(%t at (""ue- a%d to ha7e "how% the (rrele7a%cy o* "ome o* the curre%t- rather peremptory- mode" o* d("po"(%! o* the !e%et(c "ta%dpo(%t (% moral". ,he problem o* the be"t method o* arr(7(%! at correct jud!me%t" o% po(%t" o* moral worth- %ece""ar(ly tra7er"e" !rou%d co7ered by the t(me3ho%ored a%d t(me3wor% theor(e" o* (%tu(t(o%al("m- a%d emp(r(c("m. 57e% at the r("k o* thre"h(%! old "traw- (t w(ll be ad7("able to compare the e7olut(o%ary method w(th the"e other po(%t" o* 7(ew- 8% "uch a compar("o%- howe7er- (t (" to be bor%e (% m(%d that the "ole po(%t u%der re7(ew (" that o* the lo!(cal relat(o%"h(p o* the theory e:am(%ed to the mea%(%! a%d "a%ct(o% o* our moral jud!me%t". ,he =ue"t(o% (" %ot whether or %o there are (%tu(t(o%" > whether or %o they ca% be ut(l(6ed (% "pec(al ca"e"- or whether or %o all "uppo"ed (%tu(t(o%" ca% be accou%ted *or a" product" o* a""oc(at(7e memory. ,he problem (" %ot o%e o* *act but o* 7alue. 8t (" a lo!(cal problem. 8* we "uppo"e "uch %ece""ary a%d u%(7er"al bel(e*" a" !o by the %ame o* H(%tu(t(o%H to e:("t- doe" "uch e:("te%ce "ettle a%yth(%! re!ard(%! the 7al(d(ty o* what (" bel(e7ed- e(ther (% !e%eral or (% part D 8t (" a =ue"t(o% o* the relat(o% o* the (%tu(t(o% to *act 33 to the moral order (% real(ty. @%der what co%d(t(o%" alo%e- a%d (% what mea"ure or de!ree- are we ju"t(*(ed (% ar!u(%! *rom the e:("te%ce o* mora1 (%tu(t(o%" a" me%tal "tate" a%d act" to *act" take% to corre"po%d to them D ,he reply already h(%ted at (" that the mere e:("te%ce o* a bel(e*- e7e% adm(tt(%! that a" a bel(e* (t ca%%ot (% a%y way be

032C1 !ot r(d o*- determ(%e" ab"olutely %oth(%! re!ard(%! the object(7(ty o* (t" ow% co%te%t. ,he worth o* the (%tu(t(o% depe%d" upo% !e%et(c co%"(derat(o%". 8% "o *ar a" we ca% "tate the (%tu(t(o% (% term" o* the co%d(t(o%" o* (t" or(!(%- de7elopme%t- a%d later career- (% "o *ar we ha7e "ome cr(ter(o% *or pa""(%! jud!me%t upo% (t" prete%t(o%" to 7al(d(ty. 8* we ca% *(%d that (e (%tu(t(o% (" a le!(t(mate re"po%"e to e%dur(%! a%d deep3 "eated co%d(t(o%"- we ha7e "ome rea"o% to attr(bute worth to (t. 8* we *(%d that h("tor(cally the bel(e* ha" played a part (% ma(%ta(%(%! the (%te!r(ty o* "oc(al l(*e- a%d (% br(%!(%! %ew 7alue" (%to our bel(e* (% (t" worth (" add(t(o%ally !uara%teed. But (* we ca%%ot *(%d "uch h("tor(c or(!(% a%d *u%ct(o%(%!- the (%tu(t(o% rema(%" a mere "tate o* co%"c(ou"%e""- a halluc(%at(o%- a% (llu"(o%- wh(ch (" %ot made more worthy by "(mply mult(ply(%! the %umber o* people who ha7e part(c(pated (% (t.

Put rou!hly we may "ay that (%tu(t(o%al("m- a" ord(%ar(ly co%ce(7ed- make" the eth(cal bel(e* a brute *act- becau"e u%related. 8t" 7ery lack o* !e%et(c relat(o%"h(p to the "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch (t appear" co%dem%" (t to ("olat(o%. ,h(" ("olat(o% lo!(cally make" (t (mpo""(ble to cred(t (t w(th object(7e 7al(d(ty. ,he (%tu(t(o%al("t- (% procla(m(%! the %ece""(ty o* h(" co%te%t- procla(m" 3(" thereby (t" object(7e re*ere%ce > but (% a""ert(%! (t" %o%3- !e%et(c character he de%(e" a%y re*ere%ce what"oe7er. ,he !e%e t(c theory hold" that the co%te%t embod(ed (% a%y "o3called (%t u(t(o% (" a re"po%"e to a !(7e% act(7e "(tuat(o% : that (t ar("e"- de7elop"- a%d operate" "omehow (% re*ere%ce to th(" "(tuat(o%. ,he *u%ct(o%al re*ere%ce e"tabl("he" (% ad7a%ce "ome k(%d o* relat(o%"h(p to object(7e co%d(t(o%"- a%d he%ce "ome pre"umpt(o% o* 7al(d(ty. 8* the H(%tu(t(o%H per"("t"- (t (" w(th(% certa(% l(m(t" becau"e the "(tuat(o% per"("t". 8* the part(cular moral bel(e* (" really (%e:pu!%able- (t (" ju"t becau"e the co%d(t(o%" wh(ch re=u(re (t are "o e%dur(%! a" to per"("te%tly call out a% att(tude wh(ch (" rele7a%t to them. ,he probab(l(ty (" that (t co%t(%ue" (% e:("t-33 (ce "(mply becau"e (t co%t(%ue" to be %ece""ary (% *u%ct(o%. ,he pre"umpt(o% or probab(l(ty- howe7er- mu"t %ot be pu"hed too *ar. 8t (" a well3k%ow% *act that hab(t" e%dure a%d project them"el7e" a*ter the co%d(t(o%" wh(ch or(!(%ally !e%erated them

03291 pa"" o7er- a%d that u%der "uch c(rcum"ta%ce" the hab(t" become "ource" o* error a%d e7e% o* halluc(%at(o%. 8%deed the mo"t !e%er(c p"ycholo!(cal "tateme%t that we ha7e o* (llu"(o%" (" that a p"ych o 3phy"(cal d("po"(t(o% (% co%*orm(ty w(th the "tate o* the ca"e (% the !reat major(ty o* (%"ta%ce" a""ert" (t"el* by the pr(%c(ple o* hab(t- whe% "ome o* the co%d(t(o%" are rad(cally d(**ere%t- a%d thu" produce" a jud!me%t who"e co%te%t doe" 7(ole%ce to the *act" o* the part(cular ca"e. ,he po(%t o* the !e%et(c method (" the% that (t "how" relat(o%"h(p"- a%d thereby at o%ce !uara%tee" a%d de*(%e" mea%(%!. ;e mu"t take the h("tory o* a%y (%tu(t(o% or att(tude o* moral co%"c(ou"%e"" (% both d(rect(o%": both e$ parte ante a%d e$ parte post. ;e mu"t co%"(der (t w(th re*ere%ce to the a%tecede%t" wh(ch e7oked (t- a%d w(th re*ere%ce to (t" later career a%d *ate. 8t ar("e" (% a certa(% co%te:t- a%d a" a react(o% to certa(% c(rcum"ta%ce" > (t ha" a "ub"e=ue%t h("tory wh(ch ca% be traced. 8t ma(%ta(%" a%d re(%*orce" certa(% co%d(t(o%"- a%d mod(*(e" other". 8t become" a "t(mulu" wh(ch pro7oke" %ew mode" o* act(o%. Eow whe% we "ee how a%d why the bel(e* came abouta%d al"o k%ow what el"e came about becau"e o* (t- we ha7e a hold upo% the worth o* the bel(e* wh(ch (" e%t(rely wa%t(%! whe% we "et (t up a" a% ("olated (%tu(t(o%. Pure (%tu(t(o%al("m. (" o*te% (%deed u%d("t(%!u("hable *rom the cra""e"t emp(r(c("m. ,he H (%tu(t(o%H (" declared to be a co%te%t o* Hrea"o%-H but rea"o% (" a mere label. ,he ord(%ary relat(o% a%d cr(ter(a o* rat(o%al(ty are e:pre""ly el(m(%ated. Nu(te l(kely we ha7e de(*(ed the re"ult" o* a merely acc(de%tal h("tory or "er(e" o* c(rcum"ta%ce". ,he o%ly way to (%troduce rea"o%able%e"" (" to a%aly6e (% deta(l the cour"e o* e7e%t" *rom wh(ch the (%tu(t(o% re"ult"- a%d to trace (% *urther deta(l the (%*lue%ce" that rad(ate *rom (t. ,here (" much !rou%d *or $oh% +tuart M(llH" ba"(" o* oppo"(t(o% to (%tu(t(o%al("m 33 (t te%d" to perpetuate prejud(ce a%d "a%ct(*y co%"er7at("m by call(%! them eter%al truth" o* rea"o%a%d thu" to erect barr(er" (% the way o* moral pro!re"". < !(7e% bel(e* or (%tu(t(o% repre"e%t"- a" re!ard" (t" co%te%t- a cro""3"ect(o% o* a% h("tor(c proce"". Eo wo%der (t become" mea%(%!le"" a%d ob"truct(7e whe% the "tat(c "ect(o% (" take% a" (* (t were a complete a%d (%d(7(dual(6ed real(ty. <%y morpho3

03?01 3lo!(cal "ect(o% become" "(!%(*(ca%t (% (t"el*- a%d heur("t(c w(th re*ere%ce to *urther "c(e%t(*(c act(7(ty- ju"t (% the de!ree (% wh(ch (t (" employed alo%! w(th other cro""3"ect(o%"- be*ore a%d- a*ter- (% co%"truct(%! a co%t(%uou" proce"" or l(*e h("tory. 57ery (%tu(t(o%al("t adm(t" that a" matter o* *act the "uppo"ed co%te%t o* the (%tu(t(o%" ha" (% "ome ca"e" at lea"t 7ar(ed *rom t(me to t(me. ,h(" po(%t (" *am(l(ar a" a% object(o% o* *act a!a(%"t (%tu(t(o%al("m. 8t" lo!(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce (" howe7er e7e% more (mporta%t. ,h(" adm(""(o% co%dem%"- a" a %u!atory prete%"e- the cla(m to object(7e 7al(d(ty o% the part o* e7ery (%tu(t(o%. 8* we are m("take% (% o%e ca"e- we may be (% other"- "(%ce by de*(%(t(o% a%y "ta%dard out"(de the (%tu(t(o% a" "uch (" e:cluded. 5(ther e7eryth(%! that appear" to the (%d(7(dual a" *(%al a%d author(tat(7e (" "uch- or el"e "uch appeara%ce lack" compete%cy (% a%y ca"e. 8%tu(t(o%al("m (" Prota!orea% (% (t" bel(e* that ma%H" (dea" are the mea"ure o* moral real(t(e". 8* the (%tu(t(o%al("t *all" back upo% the %ot(o% o* the (%e:pu!%able- he *all" back "(mply upo% a =ue"t(o% o* bare *act. 4ow much t(me (" to be allowed D )erta(%ly the l(*e o* the (%d(7(dual occup(e" but a br(e* "pa% (% the co%t(%u(ty o* co%"c(ou" "oc(al l(*e (% wh(ch (t (" (mbedded. Bel(e*" that are (%e:pu!%able *or a !(7e% (%d(7(dual- or *or a "er(e" o* !e%erat(o%"- or e7e% *or a% e%t(re %at(o%al(ty- *(%ally *ade away. <ccord(%! to the te"t o* (%e:pu!%able%e"" th(" would "how that they were %e7er (%tu(t(o%"- a%d he%ce %e7er object(7ely 7al(d33 e$ hypothesi. /(ewed (% th(" waythe co%te%t" o* our pre"e%t moral bel(e*" become o* "u"p(c(o%. 8%tu(t(o%al("m- at o%e "troke tra%"*orm" (t"el* (%to "cept(c("m. ;hat !uara%tee ha7e we that our pre"e%t H(%tu(t(o%"H ha7e more 7al(d(ty tha% hu%dred" o* pa"t (dea" that ha7e "how% them"el7e" by pa""(%! away to be empty op(%(o% or (%durated prejud(ceD 8% de%y(%! !e%e"(" a%d h("tory to ha7e object(7e worth- we make the whole h("tory o* moral bel(e* a% (llu"(o% 3a 7a(% "hew. ,he "ame lo!(c that make" %ece""ary the reject(o% o* *ormer moral (dea" a" %ot really (%tu(t(o%"- a%d he%ce o* %o moral worth at all- cut" the !rou%d out *rom u%der a%y a%d e7ery moral bel(e*.

03?11 9% the other ha%d- the !e%et(c theory a"cr(be" a certa(% po"(t(7e moral 7al(d(ty to a%y bel(e*- that ha" ar("e% a" a per"("te%t re"po%"e to a "(tuat(o%- wh(le at the "ame t(me (t e%able" u" to mea"ure- throu!h trac(%! (t" later career a%d de"t(%y- the ra%!e o* worth attach(%! to (t. ,he !e%et(c method !rade" worth- (%"tead o* compell(%! u" e(ther to co%"ecrate or dam% (t in toto. ,ake a" a "pec(al a%d te"t ca"e the matter o* the 7alue o* huma% l(*e. +a7a!e tr(be" almo"t u%(7er"ally pract(ce (%*a%t(c(de. ,hey do "o %ot o%ly w(thout a thou!ht o* (t" (mmoral(ty- but (% ma%y ca"e"- a%d up to a certa(% e:te%t- (% reco!%(t(o% o* a "uppo"ed obl(!at(o%. ,he(r moral H(%tu(t(o%"H (%*orm them that the wel*are o* the older a%d 7(!orou" member" o* a !roup (" to be pre*erred to that o* the decrep(t a%d *eeble3that the latter are a burde% to the well3be(%! o* the commu%(ty- a%d he%ce to be el(m(%ated. Eow the theory wh(ch de%(e" a certa(% po"(t(7e 7alue !e%et(cally mea"ured to th(" bel(e*- by (t" ow% d(alect(c al"o depr(7e" u" o* a%y rea"o% *or attr(but(%! po"(t(7e eth(cal "(!%(*(ca%ce to the moral a"p(rat(o%" o* to3day. < theory wh(ch re!ard" (%*a%t(c(de (% the l(!ht o* a react(o% to (t" ow% "et o* h("tor(c co%d(t(o%" may- by (%7e"t(!at(%! the"e co%d(t(o%"- !(7e a relat(7e ju"t(*(cat(o% to the (dea. 8t may al"o- by trac(%! (t" later a%d co%t(%u(%! e**ect"- *(%ally co%dem% (t. 8t may "ee how (t" per"("te%ce le*t a !roup "tra%ded o% a lower le7el - a%d how (t" pa""(%! away co(%c(ded

w(th a%d co%d(t(o%ed a more comple: a%d r(cher "oc(al order. ,he (%7e"t(!at(o% may(%deed (t "hould- re7eal pr(%c(ple" o* the moral(6(%! proce"" wh(ch !(7e better co%trol o* the moral bel(e*" a%d pract(ce" o* to3day. 8%*a%t(c(de ar("e" (% %omad(c people" > the tr(be" are %omad(c ju"t becau"e the %ece""(ty o* !ett(%! *ood keep" them o% the mo7e *rom place to place. ,h(" 7ery %ece""(ty make" (mpo""(ble the "ettled abode w(th the t(e" a%d attachme%t" wh(ch "pr(%! up about (t. 8t keep" all the (%"t(tut(o%al relat(o%" o* l(*e loo"e a%d "uper*(c(al. Moreo7er- to a %omad(c people e7eryth(%! that ha" to be carr(ed about (" a burde% 57ery (%*a%t (" %ot o%ly "uch a burde%- but (" a% add(t(o%al dra(% upo% the "ca%ty *ood re"ource" o* h(" commu%(ty. Moreo7er- the burde% o* tra%"portat(o% *all" upo% the woma%- a%d the woma% (" already lade% w(th all the

03? 1 camp e=u(pme%t a%d ute%"(l". ,he *ood "upply (" "o precar(ou" that the older bab(e"- (% order to make "ure o* l(*e- are lo%! "uckled at the brea"t- *re=ue%tly *or *our or *(7e year". ,o try a%d *eed the %ew baby (" po""(bly to "tar7e the old. Moreo7er- (% the e%campme%t the woma% ha" ma%y dut(e" put upo% her (% order that the ma% may be *ree to hu%t. ,he"e dut(e" ca% hardly be ade=uately per*ormed (* ma%y l(ttle ch(ldre% are dema%d(%! atte%t(o%. Eeedle"" to "ay- the =ue"t(o% (" %ot o%e o* ju"t(*y(%! (%*a%t(c(de. ,he !e%et(c or h("tor(c co%"(derat(o% re7eal"- howe7er- that (% the rou!h the "ame "ort o* moral proce"" (" at work (% the "a7a!e "oc(ety a" (% the c(7(l(6ed. ,he *u%dame%tal =ue"t(o% (% a%y ca"e (" the paramou%t co%d(t(o%" o* "oc(al e:("te%ce. 'et the "oc(al "(tuat(o% be "uch that more 7alue come" to l(*e *rom pre"er7(%! a%d car(%! *or the te%der- helple""- a%d *eeble tha% *rom (!%or(%! them- a%d the(r %urture w(ll be a moral duty. 'et th(" pre"er7at(o% become a ta:- a%d e7e% a threat a!a(%"t the (%te!r(ty o* the commu%(ty l(*e- a%d a% oppo"(te bel(e* a%d pract(ce are "et up. ,he "ame method wh(ch !(7e" a relat(7e ju"t(*(cat(o% to the (%tu(t(o%- al"o *orb(d" (t" co%t(%ua%ce. +uch ju"t(*(cat(o%- a" (t !et" (" (% (t" relat(7(ty to a !(7e% type o* "oc(al l(*e. ,hat type- howe7er- (" "o crude a%d u%de7eloped a" compared w(th other *orm" we are *am(l(ar w(th- that (t ca%%ot be tolerated. ,he dema%d *or do(%! away w(th (%*a%t(c(de (" ju"t the "ame a" (t" ju"t(*(cat(o% : that (t (" co%"("te%t w(th a certa(% type o* l(*e. 8t %ot o%ly ar("e" w(th(% (t- but te%d" to perpetuate (t. Eow (* we tur% our !a6e to the pre"e%t "oc(al l(*e we *(%d prec("ely the "ame "(tuat(o%. 9ur moral code doe" %ot perm(t u" (%te%t(o%ally to e:po"e- %or w(l*ully to de"troy- the (%*a%t a%d the a!ed. 8t doe" perm(t u"- howe7er- to co%dem% hu%dred" a%d thou"a%d" o* l(ttle ch(ldre%- a" well a" !row% people- to "(ckly- "tu%ted- a%d de*ect(7e l(7e"- phy"(cal a" well a" me%tal. ,o be "ure th(" "tate o* th(%!" (" attac)ed as (mmoral by ma%y "oc(al re*ormer"- but the !e%eral att(tude (" o%e o* comparat(7e (%d(**ere%ce- "omet(me" (%deed o* (rr(tat(o% w(th the 7("(o%ar(e" who e%dea7or to "t(r up d(""at("*act(o%- or e7e% o* (%d(!%at(o% w(th them

03?31 a" (mper(l(%! the *ou%dat(o%" o* "oc(ety. Eot that the co%dem%at(o% o* ch(ldre% to a part(al l(*e (" (% a%d o* (t"el* a %ece""ary p(llar o* "oc(ety- but that (t (" a %ece""ary (%c(de%t o* a whole (%du"tr(al order wh(ch ca%%ot be attacked w(thout "hak(%! "oc(ety.

8% other word"- there (" at bottom a bel(e* "(mply (% the %ece""(ty o* the"e th(%!" to the co%"er7at(o% a%d ma(%te%a%ce o* the e"tabl("hed "oc(al type. <%d th(" (" prec("ely the rea"o% the "a7a!e would appeal to (% de*e%"e o* h(" (%*a%t(c(de (* he were capable o* re*lect(7e thou!ht. /ery much the "ame th(%! ca% be "a(d about our pract(ce o* war- a%d the %ece""(ty that war (mpl(e" the o**er(%! up a "acr(*(ce o* "o ma%y thou"a%d" o* huma% l(7e" e7ery year. +uch th(%!" are "(mply H%ece""aryH> a%d he%ce our (mpat(e%ce w(th or co%tempt- *or tho"e who procla(m the(r rad(cal (mmoral(ty. 4e%ce our 6eal (% (deal(6(%!a%d (% (mput(%! moral =ual(t(e" o* patr(ot("m- bra7ery- etc. ,he po(%t here- a" (% the ca"e o* (%*a%t(c(de- (" %e(ther merely to !lor(*y %or co%dem% the th(%! (% a%d o* (t"el*- but rather to !et back to the !e%eral mo7eme%t o* "oc(ety wh(ch produce" the"e part(cular eth(cal "ymptom"> a%d (% tur% to trace (% more deta(l the(r h("tor(c co%"e=ue%ce"- real(6(%! (% deta(l to what e:te%t they te%d to perpetuate u%de7eloped a%d (%ade=uate "oc(al *orm". ,he (llu"trat(o% "u!!e"t" that the (mport o* the ar!ume%t (" w(der tha% ju"t the =ue"t(o% o* (%tu(t(o%al("m. ,he problem (" the cr(ter(o% *or the 7al(d(ty o* a%y moral (dea pre7ale%t (% "oc(ety at a !(7e% t(me. ,he co%clu"(o% (" that a !e%et(c treatme%t place" a%y "uch bel(e* (% relat(o% both to the c(rcum"ta%ce" wh(ch !e%erate (t- a%d the e**ect" wh(ch (t produce"- a%d thereby !et" u" out o* the re!(o% o* mere op(%(o%- "e%t(me%tal(tya%d prejud(ce. ,h(" po""(b(l(ty o* object(7e jud!me%t (" the "c(e%t(*(c pha"e o* the matter. But the *act- that th(" co%trol o* jud!me%t o* the worth or lack o* worth (% curre%t moral bel(e*" at o%ce mod(*(e" the bel(e*" a%d determ(%e" the de7elopme%t o* %ew o%e"- "how" that the "c(e%t(*(c method ha" o* (t"el* a moral 7alue (t determ(%e" a%d e%*orce" *u%dame%tal moral mot(7e" a%d "a%ct(o%". (t (" a% (%tr(%"(c *actor (% co%troll(%! the *ormat(o% o* moral jud!me%t"- a%d th(" (" a part o* the e7olut(o% o* moral (deal" a%d "ta%dard".

03?J1 ,he relat(o% o* the !e%et(c method to emp(r(c("m- "o *ar a" the matter o* moral 7al(d(ty (" co%cer%ed- re=u(re" atte%t(o%. .ortu%ately- the %ot(o% that (%tu(t(o%al("m a%d emp(r(c("m e:hau"t the alter%at(7e" %o lo%!er u%(7er"ally obta(%". ;e are !ett(%! aware that (t (" =u(te po""(ble- to co%ce(7e (dea" a%d 7alue" a" ar("(%! (% a%d w(th re*ere%ce to e:per(e%ce > a%d yet hold that emp(r(c("m- be(%! ju"t o%e mode o* lo!(cal (%terpretat(o%!(7e" a *aulty a%d d("torted accou%t o* them. .ortu%ately moero7er- 0*or our ar!ume%t (" already !ett(%! too lo%!1 (t (" %o %ece""ary to e:am(%e the whole "cope o* emp(r(cal method. 9%ly two po(%t" co%cer% u" here o%e- the relat(o% o* the emp(r(cal method to the !e%et(c method the "eco%d- a compar("o% o* bear(%!" upo% the =ue"t(o% o* determ(%(%! worth (% our eth(cal jud!me%t". 5mp(r(c("m (" %o more h("tor(c (% character tha% (%tu(t(o%al("m. 5mp(r(c("m (" co%cer%ed w(th the moral (dea or bel(e* a" a !roup(%! or a""oc(at(o% o* 7ar(ou" eleme%tary *eel(%!". 8t re!ard" the (dea "(mply a" a comple: "tate wh(ch (" to be e:pla(%ed by re"ol7(%! (t (%to (t" eleme%tary co%"t(tue%t". By (t" both the comple: a%d the eleme%t" are ("olated *rom a% h("tor(c co%te:t. ,he !e%et(c method determ(%e" the worth or "(!%(*(ca%ce o* the bel(e* by co%"(der(%! the place that (t occup(ed (% a de7elop(%! "er(e"> the emp(r(cal method by re*err(%! (t to (t" compo%e%t". 5leme%tary *eel(%!" or "e%"at(o%"- a" the emp(r(c("t deal" w(th them- ha7e %o (%here%t or (%tr(%"(c

t(me re*ere%ce at all. +uch re*ere%ce (" a purely e:ter%al matter that attache" to the acc(de%tal way (% wh(ch o%e o* the"e eleme%t" happe%" to *all (% w(th other" > acc(de%tal becau"e (t" po"(t(o% o* a%tecede%ce or co%"e=ue%ce (" "ometh(%! ly(%! wholly out"(de o* the eleme%t (t"el*. ;h(le the !e%et(c method *(%d" =ual(ty or mea%(%! to be e""e%t(ally a *u%ct(o% o* po"(t(o% (% the h("tor(c "er(e"- the emp(r(cal method hold" that real(ty a%d he%ce 7al(d(ty ca% be !ot at o%ly by d(""ol7(%! the bo%d" o* temporal co%%ect(o%- a%d -*ct3t(%! to a re"(dual e:per(e%ce wh(ch (" "el* e:("te%t a%d "el*3"u**(c(%!. ,he emp(r(cal a%d the !e%et(c method" thu" (mply a 7ery d(**ere%t relat(o%"h(p betwee% the moral "tate- (dea- or bel(e*- a%d object(7e real(ty. .rom the !e%et(c "ta%dpo(%t- the moral (dea (" e""e%3

03?213t(ally a% att(tude that ar("e" (% the (%d(7(dual (% re"po%"e to the pract(cal "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch he (" (%7ol7ed. 8t (" the e"t(mate the (%d(7(dual put" upo% that "(tuat(o%. 8t (" a certa(% way o* co%ce(7(%! (t or (%terpret(%! (t w(th re*ere%ce to the e:(!e%c(e" o* act(o%. <ccord(%!ly- (t operate" a" a method o* reco%"truct(%! the "(tuat(o% throu!h the act (%d(cated. 8t ar("e" a" a re"po%"e to a "t(mulu"- a%d (t" worth (" *ou%d (% (t" "ucce""- a" re"po%"e- (% do(%! the part(cular work dema%ded o* (t- %ot (% the e:te%t to wh(ch (t parallel" or reproduce" the prec("e co%d(t(o%" wh(ch e7oke (t. ,he (dea o* w(thdraw(%! the ha%d may be a% ade=uate re"po%"e to the percept(o% o* a *lame. ,he (dea- howe7er(" %ot a% (mpre""(o% o* the object. 8% l(ke ma%%er the %ot(o% o* !(7(%! a% accu"ed ma% a cha%ce to ju"t(*y h(m"el* may be a% ade=uate re"po%"e to the "t(mulu" o* capture a%d pre"umed !u(lt. <%d yet (t (% %o way depe%d" *or (t" real(ty upo% be(%! a mere (mpre"" o* the e:("t(%! "tate o* a**a(r". ,he te"t o* (t" worth (" (t" capac(ty to re!ulate the 7ar(ou" *actor" e%ter(%! (%to the "(tuat(o%. ,he emp(r(cal theory hold" that the (dea ar("e" a" a re*le: o* "ome e:("t(%! object or *act. 4e%ce the te"t o* (t" object(7(ty (" the *a(th*ul%e"" w(th wh(ch (t reproduce" that object a" copy. ,he !e%et(c theory hold" that the (dea ar("e" a" a re"po%"e- a%d that the te"t o* (t" 7al(d(ty (" *ou%d (% (t" later career a" ma%(*e"ted w(th re*ere%ce to the %eed" o* the "(tuat(o% that e7oked (t. ,he d(**ere%ce a!a(% maybe "tated a" *ollow": ,he emp(r(cal method hold" that the bel(e* or (dea (" !e%erated by a proce"" o* repet(t(o% or cumulat(o%> the !e%et(c method by a proce"" o* adju"tme%t. ;e %eed o%ly re*er to +pe%cerH" accou%t o* the way (% wh(ch 7ar(ou" (mpre""(o%" co%"ol(date them"el7e" (%to moral bel(e*" or (%tu(t(o%" to "ee how completely the proce"" (" co%ce(7ed a" o%e o* "heer accumulat(o%. ,h("- moreo7erl(e" %ot (% +pe%cerH" per"o%al w("h to co%ce(7e (t that way- but rather (% the lo!(c o* emp(r(c("m (t"el*. 5ach e:per(e%ce be(%! "eparate a%d ("olated- due to a% (mpre""(o% rece(7ed *rom a% e:("te%t th(%!- all that rema(%"- (" *or the 7ar(ou" (ma!e"- o* the"e e:per(e%ce" to p(le up o% each other (% "uch a way that the l(ke eleme%t" co%t(%ually re(%*orce o%e a%other- wh(le the u%l(ke o%e" *ade- blur- a%d are *(%ally e**aced. 5mp(r(c("m ca% co%ce(7e a !(7e%

03??1 e:per(e%ce o%ly a" a "ummat(o% o* eleme%t". 4ere (" where (t" weak%e"" l(e"- a" (t" (%tu(t(o%al oppo%e%t" ha7e alway" *elt pract(cally- thou!h they ha7e %ot alway" "e(6ed the lo!(cal po(%t. 8* a moral bel(e* (" "(mply a% accumulat(o% throu!h repeated a""oc(at(o%" o* pre7(ou"ly !(7e% eleme%t" o* e:per(e%ce w(thout a%y e""e%t(al mod(*(cat(o% or reco%"truct(o% o* them- the% o%e o* two th(%!" (" certa(% : e(ther the or(!(%al "tate wa" (%here%tly eth(cal (% =ual(ty 33 a%d thu" the co%te%t(o% o* the

(%tu(t(o%al("t (" 7(rtually adm(tted 33 or el"e the emp(r(c("t (" try(%! to !e%erate the eth(cal by tele"cop(%! (%to o%e a%other purely %o%3eth(cal eleme%t". 4ere (" the 7ul%erable po(%t (% emp(r(c("m 33 by (t" lo!(c cha%!e o* =ual(ty (% pa""a!e *rom !e%erat(%! eleme%t" to *(%al product mu"t be e:pla(%ed away. 8t (" (llu"(o%. But the e""e%ce o* a% h("tor(c proce"" (" prec("ely =ual(tat(7e cha%!e (% proce""- that- a" proce""(" co%t(%uou". ,he emp(r(c("t (" compelled to re!ard a% (dea a" "(mply a% accumulat(o% o* part(cular e:per(e%ce"- becau"e he re!ard" the or(!(%al e:per(e%ce a" a% (mpre""(o% who"e worth l(e" (% (t" p(ctor(al accuracy. 8* we re!ard the H*(r"tH term a" react(o% or re"po%"e- wh(le (t (" thorou!hly a%d !e%u(%ely emp(r(cal (% character 0(% the "e%"e o* ar("(%! wholly w(th(% a%d becau"e o* e:per(e%ce a%d %ot *rom a%y e:tra%eou" a pr(or( "ource1- yet (t" bu"(%e"" a" re"po%"e (" to tra%"ce%d- %ot barely to repeat- the =ual(ty o* e:per(e%ce a" pre7(ou"ly !(7e% or co%"t(tuted. 8t" *urther de7elopme%t co%"("t" (% "uch elaborat(%! a%d tra%"*orm(%! o* the re"po%"e a" make" (t more ade=uate. 8%"tead o* bare co%"ol(dat(o% o* ready3made eleme%t"- there (" a "er(e" o* te%tat(7e adju"tme%t" wh(ch !radually per*ect a% adaptat(o%. ,he lo!(c o* the moral (dea (" l(ke the lo!(c o* a% (%7e%t(o%- "ay a telepho%e. )erta(% po"(t(7e eleme%t" or =ual(t(e" are pre"e%t > but there are al"o certa(% e%d" wh(ch- %ot be(%! ade=uately "er7ed by the =ual(t(e" e:("te%t- are *elt a" %eed". .act" a" !(7e% a%d %eed" a" dema%d" are 7(ewed (% relat(o% to each other becau"e o* the(r commo% relat(o%"h(p to "ome proce"" o* e:per(e%ce. ,e%tat(7e react(o%" are tr(ed. ,he old H*actH or =ual(ty (" 7(ewed (% a %ew l(!ht3the l(!ht o* a %eed3he%ce (" treated (% a %ew way a%d thereby tra%"*ormed. ,he operat(7e *actor (" the

03?B1 react(o% that- wh(le called out (% a%d by e:per(e%ce- tra%"ce%d" by mod(*y(%! what (" already !(7e%- (%"tead o* "(mply repeat(%! (t a%d accumulat(%! more =ual(t(e" o* the "ame "ort. ,h(" lo!(cal object(o% ca% be brou!ht (%to clo"er co%%ect(o% w(th *act" by co%"(der(%! the relat(o% o* a moral bel(e* to a b(olo!(cal (%"t(%ct- or a well3*ormed "oc(al cu"tomwh(ch ha" %ot yet bee% brou!ht (%to the eth(cal "phere > the emp(r(c("t who tur%" e7olut(o%("t w(thout apprec(at(o% o* the (%here%t d("par(ty o* h(" lo!(c a%d the real(t(e" o* a h("tor(c proce""- hold" that co%"c(ou" cu"tom" are !e%erated by the per"("te%ce o* b(olo!(cal hab(t"- a%d that moral pract(ce" *orm the cumulat(7e e**ect o* the cu"tom". But more (%"t(%ct(7e act" "(mply make (%"t(%ct more (%"t(%ct(7e> more act" o* hab(t ju"t harde% a% or(!(%al cu"tom. 8t (" o%ly throu!h *a(lure (% the ade=uate work(%! o* the (%"t(%ct or hab(t 33 *a(lure *rom the "ta%dpo(%t o* adju"tme%t33 that h("tory- cha%!e (% =ual(ty or 7alue"- (" made. +(mple repet(t(o% o* act" o* car(%! *or the you%!- howe7er lo%! co%t(%ued- would %ot awake% a co%"c(ou"%e"" o* obl(!at(o%- or o* 7(rtue- or o* a%y moral 7alue- a" lo%! a" the act" were hab(tually per*ormed3ju"t becau"e there would be %o %eed *or a tra%"*ormat(o%. 8% "o *ar a" de*(%(te act" are repeated a%d co%"ol(dated- the or(!(%al hab(t or (%"t(%ct o* do(%! certa(% th(%!" (% a certa(% way (" ju"t "tre%!the%ed. ;e do %ot th(%k we Hou!htH to breathe- thou!h the hab(t o**er" a typ(cal (%"t(%ct o* a% accumulat(7ely co%"ol(dated act. Eot by repet(t(o%- but by the *a(lure o* the purely b(olo!(cal method" o* car(%! *or the you%!- d(d a%y %ew or d(**ere%t att(tude %eed to ar("e. +ome *a(lure o* (%"t(%ct created the dema%d *or a co%"c(ou" atte%t(o% to the %urture o* the you%!. 9%ly throu!h th(" co%"c(ou" att(tude a%d (t" tension against "ome

(%"t(%ct could a% eth(cal adaptat(o% ar("e out o* a phy"(olo!(cal adaptat(o%. 5:per(e%ce a" (t ha" bee%- e:per(e%ce (% (t" !(7e% or co%"t(tuted *orm- a" "uch- (" ab"olutely (%"u**(c(e%t- (% !e%erat(%! a%y moral bel(e*. 5(ther (t (" "o cohere%t that the moral att(tude (" u%%ece""ary- or (t (" "o (%cohere%t a" to re=u(re the moral att(tude a" "ometh(%! d(**ere%t- a%d because d(**ere%t *rom (t"el*. 8t (" prec("ely the breakdow% wh(ch "er7e" a" "t(mulu" *or =ual(tat(7ely u%l(ke mode" o* re"po%"e- wh(ch- (% "o *ar a" (t (" ma(%ta(%ed (% the med(um o*

03?C1 co%"c(ou" atte%t(o%- may be called eth(cal. ,he *u%dame%tal *allacy o* emp(r(c("m (" *ou%d (% (t" *a(lure to reco!%(6e %e!at(7e eleme%t" (% e:per(e%ce a" a "t(mulu" to bu(ld(%! up a %ew e:per(e%ce wh(ch tra%"ce%d" the old- becau"e (%7ol7(%! (t" re7("(o% (% "uch a way a" to make !ood (t" %eed" a%d lack". But (t (" ju"t "uch cha%!e that the h("tor(c or !e%et(c method (" co%cer%ed w(th. .rom th(" po(%t o* 7(ew- 4u:leyH" co%te%t(o% o* the e""e%t(al d(**ere%ce a%d e7e% oppo"(t(o% betwee% the moral a%d %atural !et" a% (%tell(!(ble mea%(%!. <" 8 ha7e e%dea7oured to "how el"ewhere-(&) h(" cla(m (" %ot true (% the "e%"e that the moral proce"" (" to be oppo"ed to the %atural proce"" a" "uch. 8t (" 7al(d (% that the mere pre"e%tat(o%- repet(t(o%- or accumulat(o%. o* the %atural ju"t a" (t (" or ha" bee% 0a" a !(7e% "tate- the o%ly way (% wh(ch the emp(r(c("t reco!%(6e" (t1 ca%%ot !e%erate a%yth(%! appro:(mat(%! a moral att(tude. 8t (" the lack o* ade=uate *u%ct(o%(%! (% the !(7e% adju"tme%t" that "uppl(e" the co%d(t(o%" wh(ch call out a d(**ere%t mode o* act(o% > a%d (t (" (% "o *ar a" th(" (" %ew a%d d(**ere%t that (t !et" (t" "ta%d(%! by tra%"*orm(%! or reco%"truct(%! the pre7(ou"ly e:("t(%! eleme%t". 8t (" th(" %eed a%d e**ort o* reco%"truct(o% wh(ch create" the *eel(%! o* a%ta!o%("m or oppo"(t(o% betwee% the oldthe %atural order- a%d the %ew or eth(cal order 33 the order wh(ch dema%d" that a way o* co%ce(7(%! or (%terpret(%! the "(tuat(o% cea"e to be mere (dea- a%d become a pract(cal co%"truct(o%. ,he rele7a%cy o* th(" rad(cal (%capac(ty o* the emp(r(cal method to deal w(th h("tor(c cha%!e- to the =ue"t(o% o* our !rou%d" *or accept(%! or cr(t(c("(%! moral jud!me%t" ob7(ou" 33 to emp(r(c("m the !(7e% (" the real- a%d the !(7e% (" that wh(ch re"("t" *urther a%aly"(". @%doubtedly eth(cal emp(r(c("m ha" bee% o* !reat 7alue (% the actual de7elopme%t o* moral(ty (% the la"t ce%tury. 8t ha" re"ol7ed (%to Heleme%t"H ma%y hab(t" a%d bel(e*" arou%d wh(ch wa" !athered a% emot(o%al "a%ct(*(cat(o% in such a way as greatly to facilitate their practical brea)ing1up. 8t ha" "how% mere cu"tom- prejud(ce*act(t(ou" a""oc(at(o%- cla""3(%tere"t to be operat(7e (% (%"t(tut(o%"- law"- way" o* act(%!-

03?91 that cla(med moral worth- a%d ha" thu" bee% a pote%t- perhap" the mo"t pote%t *orce- (% relea"(%! certa(% t(ed3up (mpul"e" a%d re%der(%! them a7a(lable *or *uture or!a%(6at(o%. But e7e% th(" "er7(ce ha" had three marked re"tr(ct(o%". 5mp(r(c("m ha" had %o part(cular d(rect(o% to !(7e (% *urther(%! the po"(t(7e or!a%(6at(o%. 8t ha" "et *ree certa(% te%de%c(e"- but the co%"e=ue%t mo7eme%t o* the"e te%de%c(e" ha" bee% le*t a!a(% to c(rcum"ta%ce a%d dom(%a%t (%tere"t. Pote%t (% cr(t(c("m- emp(r(c("m (" helple"" (% co%"truct(o%. 8% the "eco%d place- (t ha" %o way o* d("cr(m(%at(%! (% (t" reduct(o% o* complete "tate"- pract(ce" a%d (dea" (%to Heleme%t".H <ll (dea" a%d (deal" al(ke !(7e way

to (t" d(""ol7(%! touch. 8t (" %o acc(de%t that $oh% +tuart M(ll- who"e m(%d wa" (%here%tly or!a%(c a%d co%"truct(7e- *elt h(" hab(t o* &(%7eterate a%aly"(" & a" a "kept(cal a%d de"truct(7e (%*lue%ce- a%d "ou!ht to cou%teract (t" ba%e*ul (%*lue%ce by *(%d(%! &(%d(""oluble a""oc(at(o%"-& by *all(%! back upo% certa(% H%aturalH "oc(al *eel(%!" o* a% or!a%(6(%! "ort- a%d by %our("h(%! h(" (deal" upo% the h("tor(c (%terpretat(o%" o* )omte a%d the HFerma% +chool.H 8t wa" alway" ope% to a%y wr(ter o* le"" po"(t(7e a%d "er(ou" moral co%"c(ou"%e""- to "ubject the be"t work(%! (dea" o* huma%(ty to the "ame treatme%t that- (% the ha%d" o* $ame" M(ll a%d $eremy Be%tham- wa" "o e**ect(7e a!a(%"t e%!ra(%ed moral prejud(ce a%d cla"" (%tere"t" ma"=uerad(%! a" %atural moral(ty a%d eter%al (%tu(t(o%". <%d th(rdly- thereby- emp(r(c("m alway" a%d (%e7(tably !e%erate" (%tu(t(o%al("m. +omeo%e mu"t come to the re"cue o* the threate%ed (deal" > a%d "o they are 7eheme%tly rea""erted a" (%here%tly a%d u%relatedly 7al(d. ;he% do!mat("m (" %ece""ary (% order to protect *rom d(""olut(o% (dea" that appear re=u("(te to the better l(*e o* huma%(ty- do!mat("m may be accou%ted due> a%d (t arr(7e" w(th a% (mpetu" der(7ed *rom "hock w(th the theory (t oppo"e". ,hu" arb(trary react(o%" a%d o"c(llat(o%" are "ub"t(tuted *or a !radual a%d co%trolled de7elopme%t o* moral op(%(o% a%d pract(ce. 5mp(r(c("m (" thu" a" ab"olut("t(c (% (t" lo!(c a" (" (%tu(t(o%al("m. )omple: (dea"bel(e*"- pract(ce"- are (%deed relat(7e- made throu!h a""oc(at(o%" o* eleme%t". But the eleme%t" are ju"t given, they are *(:ed- ab"olute> they are object(7e determ(%at(o%"-

03B01 %ot cr(t(cal po(%t" o* a proce"". <%d the a""oc(at(o%" wh(ch yoke them are all e:ter%ally determ(%ed al"o > they are %ot co%t(%u(t(e" o* a% h("tor(c !rowth. ,he co%tra"t come" out "tro%! whe% we compare the typ(cal emp(r(c("tH" mode o* deal(%! w(th "ome appare%tly ab"urd cu"tom o* a remote people- e%*orced by that people a" "acred obl(!at(o%- w(th the h("tor(a%H" treatme%t o* (t. ,he emp(r(c("t make" o* (t a *reak- a% e:cre"ce%ce *rom e:ter%al cha%ce comb(%at(o%" > the h("tor(a% "ee" (t embedded (% the l(*e o* the people- h("tor(cally k%(t to!ether w(th (t" whole body o* memor(e" a%d trad(t(o%" > carry(%!- a" well a" carr(ed by cu"tom" wh(ch are (%7ol7ed (% the whole "cheme o* "oc(al l(*e. 8t (" %ot a% acc(de%t- but a lo!(cal %ece""(ty- that the h("tor(c method aro"e partly at lea"t (% react(o% *rom the arb(trary ab"olut("m o* emp(r(c("m wh(ch made a tabula rasa o* (%"t(tut(o%"- cu"tom"- or!a%(6ed bel(e*"- a%d le*t (% the(r place u%t(med- u%related eleme%t"- ope% to a%y po""(ble co%ju%ct(o% but dema%d(%! %o%e. ,he h("tor(c method (" a" cr(t(cal a" emp(r(c("m > (t de"troy" by e:pla(%(%!- by lay(%! bare- by "ett(%! the *act dealt w(th (% (t" whole co%te:t> a%d mayhap co%dem%(%! (t by "how(%! how ob"olete (" that "(tuat(o%. But- at the "ame t(me- (t ju"t(*(e" 33 relat(7ely. ,he "(tuat(o% wa" a real(ty- (t e:("ted (% (t" ow% t(me a%d lace- a%d the *act (% =ue"t(o% wa" a% (%te!ral part o* (t. ,h(" the% (" the ca"e *or the moral "(!%(*(ca%ce o* the !e%et(c method : (t u%(te" the pre"e%t "(tuat(o% w(th (t" accepted cu"tom"- bel(e*"- moral (deal"- hope"- a%d a"p(rat(o%"w(th the pa"t. 8t "ee" the moral proce"" a" a whole- a%d yet (% pre"ect(7e. ;hate7er the% ca% be lear%ed *rom a "tudy o* the pa"t- (" at o%ce a7a(lable (% the a%aly"(" o* the pre"e%t. 8t be come" a% (%"trume%t o* (%=u(ry- o* (%terpretat(o%- o* cr(t(c("m a" re!ard" our pre"e%t a""umpt(o%" a%d a"p(rat(o%". ,hereby (t br(%!" the(r co%"t(tut(o% a%d *ormat(o% out (%to the l(!ht a" *ar a" may be. 8t el(m(%ate" "urd"- mere "ur7(7al"emot(o%al react(o%"- a%d rat(o%al(6e"- so far as that is possible at any given time, the att(tude" we take- the (deal" we *orm. Both emp(r(c("m a%d (%tu(t(o%al("m- thou!h (% 7ery d(**ere%t way"- de%y the co%t(%u(ty o* the moral(6(%! proce"". ,hey "et up t(mele""-

a%d he%ce ab"olute a%d d("co%%ected- ult(mate" > thereby they "e7er the problem" a%d mo7e3

03B11 3me%t" o* the pre"e%t *rom the pa"t- rob the pa"t- the "ole object o* calm(mpart(al- a%d !e%u(%ely object(7e "tudy- o* all (%"truct(%! power- a%d lea7e our e:per(e%ce to *orm u%d(rected- at the mercy o* c(rcum"ta%ce a%d arb(trar(%e""- whether that o* do!mat("m or "cept(c("m. ,o help u" "ee the pre"e%t "(tuat(o% comprehe%"(7elya%alyt(cally- to put (% our ha%d" a !ra"p o* the *actor" that ha7e cou%ted- th(" way or that- (% the moral(6(%! o* ma%- that (" what the h("tor(c method doe" *or u". 8* our moral jud!me%t" were ju"t jud!me%t" about moral(ty- th(" m(!ht be o* "c(e%t(*(c worth- but would lack moral "(!%(*(ca%ce- moral help*ul%e"". But moral jud!me%t" are jud!me%t" o* way" to act- o* deed" to do- o* hab(t" to *orm- o* e%d" to cult(7ate. ;hate7er mod(*(e" the jud!me%t- the co%7(ct(o%- the (%terpretat(o%- the cr(ter(o%- mod(*(e" co%duct. ,o co%trol our jud!me%t" o* co%duct- our e"t(mate" o* hab(t- deed- a%d purpo"e- (" (% "o *ar *orth to d(rect co%duct (t"el*. ,hu" the co%te%t(o% o* the pre7(ou" paper a" to the "c(e%t(*(c %ece""(ty o* the !e%et(c or e7olut(o%ary method- a%d o* the pre"e%t paper a" to (t" pract(cal moral "(!%(*(ca%ce tur% out to be o%e. ;hate7er !(7e" "c(e%t(*(c co%trol !(7e" o* %ece""(ty al"o pract(cal a""("ta%ce> ju"t becau"e the "ta%dpo(%t (" o%e o* co%t(%u(ty o* proce"" that k%ow" %o "eparat(o% o* pa"t *rom pre"e%t. $94E D5;5A. ,45 @E8/5I+8,A 9. )48)<F9.

'otes
1. P48'9+9P48)<' I5/85;- March- 190 . . ,here (" o* cour"e a more *u%dame%tal problem: whether the 7al(d(ty o* the moral cate!or(e" a" "uch ca% be ade=uately treated apart *rom that o* "pec(*(c 7al(d(t(e". ,here (" at lea"t a work(%! pre"umpt(o% that the lo!(c wh(ch deal" w(th the =ue"t(o% o* 7al(d(ty a%d truth (% !e%eral mu"t !et (t" mater(al by co%"(der(%! the "pec(*(c cr(ter(a a%d mode" o* 7er(*(cat(o% u"ed (% "ettl(%! matter" o* truth (% part(cular (%"ta%ce". 8t (" d(**(cult to "ee- *or e:ample- ju"t how the lo!(c o* the theoret(c "c(e%ce" ca% d("cu"" the po""(b(l(ty o* the (%tellect reach(%! truth at lar!e- "e7ered *rom the problem o* the method" wh(ch the "pec(al "c(e%ce" u"e (% d("cr(m(%at(%! truth *rom error (% the(r ow% "pec(al pro7(%ce". 3. "onist, /ol. /888- P. 3 1- H57olut(o% a%d 5th(cH 3333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Dewey/Dewey_1913.html [Bajado el 3 de a!o"to de 011#

Originally published as:

$oh% Dewey. &,he Problem" o* /alue.& 2ournal of Philosophy, Psychology and &cientific "ethods 10 019131: ?C3 ?9.

.ditors3 notes
,h(" br(e* letter to the ed(tor (" (%cluded a" part o* the h("tory o* att(tude "cal(%!. ,he paper (" DeweyH" re"po%"e to the publ(cat(o% o* the =ue"t(o%" cho"e% to *ocu" d("cu""(o%" at the December 1913 meet(%! o* the <mer(ca% Ph(lo"oph(cal <""oc(at(o%. ,ho"e d("cu""(o%" would co%tr(bute to the ba"(c %ot(o%" u%derly(%! the method" o* att(tude mea"ureme%t.

The %roblem of 4alues

<'' member" o* the Ph(lo"oph(cal <""oc(at(o% owe a debt o* !rat(tude to the e:ecut(7e comm(ttee *or *ormulat(%! the =ue"t(o% to be d("cu""ed at the %e:t meet(%!. 8 am aware o* %o better way o* e:pre""(%! my ow% !rat(tude tha% to comply promptly w(th the re=ue"t o* the comm(ttee *or "ubm(""(o% o* add(t(o%al *ormulat(o%" o* the =ue"t(o%. 8 "hall *(r"t make a *ew remark" upo% the *ormulat(o% by *our member" o* the comm(ttee.($) 8 a""ume that (% the =ue"t(o%- &8" 7alue "ometh(%! wh(ch (" ult(mate a%d wh(ch attache" (t"el* to Hth(%!"H (%depe%de%tly o* co%"c(ou"%e""- or o* a% or!a%(c be(%! w(th de"(re" a%d a7er"(o%"D & the &or& (" to be u%der"tood a" mark(%! a !e%u(%e alter%at(7e betwee% &co%"c(ou"%e""& a%d a% &or!a%(c be(%! w(th de"(re" a%d a7er"(o%"-& %ot a" (%d(cat(%! that the latter clau"e (" (% appo"(t(o% w(th co%"c(ou"%e"" or e:pla%atory o* (t. ,he alter%at(7e (" !e%u(%e a%d (mporta%t : *or "ome may be (%cl(%ed to co%%ect the e:("te%ce o* 7alue" w(th or!a%(c beha7(or a%d yet %ot be w(ll(%! to e=uate de"(re" a%d a7er"(o%" w(th &co%"c(ou"%e""& O (% *act- they may !o "o *ar a" to hold that &co%"c(ou"%e""& 0(% whate7er "e%"e the term (" here u"ed1 (" (t"el* depe%de%t upo% matter" co%%ected w(th the de"(re" a%d a7er"(o%" o* a% or!a%(c be(%!. +(%ce- howe7eru%co%"c(ou" de"(re" a%d a7er"(o%" may appear to "ome to (%7ol7e a co%trad(ct(o% (% la%!ua!e- (t would "eem better to "ub"t(tute a more object(7e term- "uch a" "elect(o%" a%d reject(o%"> or better yet- to !e%eral(6e the matter a%d make the alter%at(7e (% =ue"t(o% to be "(mply that o* co%%ect(o% w(th the behavior o* or!a%(c be(%!". ;he% the =ue"t(o% (" thu" u%der"tood- "ome doubt ar("e" a" to the *orce o* the term &ult(mate& (% the *(r"t alter%at(7e. <re 7alue" (* re!arded a" 7ar(able" o* or!a%(c beha7(or le"" ult(mate tha% (* re!arded a" th(%!" (rre"pect(7e o* co%%ect(o% w(th or!a%(c beha7(orD <%d (* the a%"wer "hould be (% the a**(rmat(7e- what (" the !rou%d upo% wh(ch th(" a%"wer re"t"D 8 ha7e %o doubt a "ucce""*ul d("cu""(o% may be had o% the ba"(" o* the *ormulat(o% already pre"e%ted. 8% "ome re"pect"- howe7er- the *ormulat(o% "eem" u%%ece""ar(ly t(ed up w(th the (deal("t(c3real("t(c co%tro7er"y. 8 reco!%(6e that th(" compl(cat(o% ha" the ad7a%ta!e o* pre"er7(%! co%t(%u(ty (% the d("cu""(o%" *rom year to

0 ?91 year> yet (t (" po""(ble that the =ue"t(o%" at (""ue m(!ht- (% the pre"e%t ju%cture- be dealt w(th (% the e%d more e**ect(7ely (* approached by a *la%k mo7eme%t. <t all e7e%t"8 7e%ture to "ubm(t the *ollow(%! l("t o* =ue"t(o%" :

1. )a% the =ue"t(o% o* the "tatu" o* 7alue" (% ph(lo"oph(c d("cu""(o% be approached apart *rom the =ue"t(o% o* the "tatu" o* =ual(t(e"D . )a% 7alue" be "eparated *rom tra(t" o* or!a%(c beha7(orD 8* or!a%(c beha7(or ha" (t" ow% d("t(%!u("h(%! tra(t"- doe" the a**(rmat(o% that 7alue" are tra(t" o* or!a%(c beha7(or (mply the(r &"ubject(7(ty& D 8* "o- (% what "e%"eD Doe" co%%ect(o% w(th or!a%(c beha7(or (mply the(r depe%de%ce upo% aware%e""D 3. Do 7alue" a%tecede- or do they depe%d upo% 7aluat(o%3u%der"ta%d(%! by 7aluat(o% a proce"" o* re*lect(7e e"t(mat(o% or jud!me%tD J. 8* they a%tecede- doe" 7aluat(o% merely br(%! them to l(!ht w(thout cha%!e- or doe" (t mod(*y a%tecede%t 7alue"D Doe" (t produce %ew 7alue"D 8* the latter occur- are the mod(*(cat(o% a%d product(o% merely (%c(de%tal or are they e""e%t(alD 2. )a% the place o* (%tell(!e%ce (% beha7(or (% !e%eral 0a%d (% moral co%duct (% part(cular1 be u%der"tood w(thout (mply(%! that re*lect(o% reor!a%(6e" a%tecede%t %atural 7alue"D ?. ;hat (" the mea%(%! o* apprec(at(o%D 8" (t a part(cular mode o* apprehe%d(%! 0k%ow(%!1 7alue"- or (" (t a %ame *or the d(rect pre"e%ce o* 7alue" (% e:per(e%ceD 4ow (" (t related to 7aluat(o% a%d cr(t(c("mD B. Doe" the pre"e%ce o* 7alue" (% e:per(e%ce (% !e%eral 0or "ay rel(!(ou" 7alue" (% part(cular1 ha7e a% e7(de%t(al (mportD ,hat (" to "ay- doe" the e:("te%ce o* rel(!(ou" 7alue"- *or e:ample- pro7e the e:("te%ce o* a%y cla"" o* object" beyo%d the 7alue" them"el7e"D 9r- a!a(%- doe" the pre"e%ce (% e:per(e%ce o* a%y type o* 7alue" purport to make the m(%d aware o* "ometh(%! (% the e%7(ro%me%t- tak(%! that word (% (t" w(de"t po""(ble "e%"eD [,h(" =ue"t(o% may pro*(tably be co%"(dered (% co%%ect(o% w(th the *(r"t =ue"t(o%- re!ard(%! =ual(t(e".# C. 8* the a%"wer" to the"e =ue"t(o%" "hould be (% the %e!at(7e- (" the "(!%(*(ca%ce o* "uch 7alue" *or e:per(e%ce a%d *or ph(lo"ophy thereby determ(%ed to be %ull or (llu"ory D )a% a% a**(rmat(7e a%"wer to th(" =ue"t(o% be ma(%ta(%ed e:cept o% the a""umpt(o% that all e:per(e%ce ("- ipso facto, (%te%ded to be a% aware%e"" o* object"D $94E D5;5A. )9'@MB8< @E8/5I+8,A.

'otes
1. ,h(" paper (" pre"e%ted (% re"po%"e to the re=ue"t o* the comm(ttee that *urther *ormulat(o%" o* th(" problem be "ubm(tted *or publ(cat(o%. . ,h(" $our%al- /ol. M.- pa!e 1?2.

3333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Dewey/Dewey_1C9Cd.html

[Bajado el 3 de a!o"to de 011#

Originally published as:

$oh% Dewey. &57olut(o% a%d 5th(c"& Pa!e" 3J32J (% 'he .arly 3or)s of 2ohn Dewey 1CC 3 1C9C- /ol. 2 01C9231C9C1 ed(ted by $o <%% Boyd"to%. )arbo%dale K 5dward"7(lle: +outher% 8ll(%o(" @%(7er"(ty Pre"" 019B 1. 9r(!(%ally publ("hed (% 'he "onist /888- 01C9C1: 3 133J1.

.ditors3 notes
Becau"e we ha7e bee% u%able to acce"" cop(e" o* 'he "onist, we ha7e bee% u%able to *ollow our pre*erred pract(ce o* pre"e%t(%! th(" docume%t w(th (t" or(!(%al pa!(%at(o%. ;e ha7e rel(ed o% the e:traord(%ary work o* the Dewey 5d(t(o% project at +outher% 8ll(%o(" @%(7er"(ty: )arbo%dale *or the te:t a%d pa!(%at(o% pre"e%ted here.

.1olution and .thics

,o a "tr(ctly lo!(cal m(%d the method o* the de7elopme%t o* thou!ht mu"t be a perple:(%!- e7e% (rr(tat(%! matter. 8t" cour"e (" %ot "o much l(ke the "(mple cur7e de"cr(bed by a bullet a" (t "peed" (t" way to a mark- a" (t (" l(ke the de7(ou" tack(%! o* a "a(l boat upo% a hea7y "ea w(th cha%!eable w(%d". 8t would be d(**(cult to *(%d a "(%!le problem dur(%! the whole record o* re*lect(7e thou!ht wh(ch ha" bee% pur"ued co%"("te%tly u%t(l "ome de*(%(te re"ult wa" reached. 8t !e%erally happe%" that ju"t a" the problem become" de*(%ed- a%d the order o* battle (" draw%- w(th co%te"ta%t" determ(%ed o% each "(de- the whole "ce%e cha%!e"> (%tere"t (" tra%"*erred to a%other pha"e o* the =ue"t(o%- a%d the old problem (" le*t appare%tly "u"pe%ded (% m(d3a(r. 8t (" le*t- %ot becau"e a%y "at("*actory "olut(o% ha" bee% reached> but (%tere"t (" e:hau"ted. <%other =ue"t(o% wh(ch "eem" more (mporta%t ha" cla(med atte%t(o%. 8* o%e- a*ter a !e%erat(o% or a ce%tury- re7(ew" the co%tro7er"y a%d *(%d" that "ome co%"e%"u" o* jud!me%t ha" *(%ally bee% reached- he d("co7er" that th(" ha" come about- %ot "o much throu!h e:hau"t(7e lo!(cal d("cu""(o%- a" throu!h a cha%!e (% me%H" po(%t" o* 7(ew. ,he "olut(o% (" p"ycholo!(cally- rather tha% lo!(cally- ju"t(*(ed. ,h(" !e%eral re*lect(o% (" called to m(%d a" 8 u%dertake the d("cu""(o% o* the =ue"t(o% o* the relat(o% o* e7olut(o% a%d eth(c". < !e%erat(o% a!o the e%t(re (%tere"t wa" (% the e:act relat(o% betwee% ma% a%d the lower a%(mal". ;e had o%e

0 321 "chool co%cer%ed w(th reduc(%! th(" d(**ere%ce to the lowe"t po""(ble l(m(t" a%d ur!(%! that the co%"c(ou"%e"" o* ma%- (%tellectual a%d moral- a" well a" h(" phy"(cal %ature- m(!ht be co%"(dered a d(rect (%her(ta%ce throu!h ea"y !radat(o%" *rom "ome *orm o* the a%thropo(d ape. ;e had a%other "chool e=ually co%cer%ed w(th ma!%(*y(%! the d(**ere%ce- mak(%! (t- (* po""(ble- a% u%br(d!eable cha"m. 8t would be a bold ma% who would "ay that th(" co%tro7er"y ha" bee% "ettled by the actual we(!ht o* co%crete deta(led e7(de%ce- or e7e% that (t ha" bee% 7ery *ar ad7a%ced. ,he wr(t(%!" wh(ch really

throw l(!ht o% the =ue"t(o%- (% e(ther d(rect(o% 0"o *ar a" the *act" are co%cer%ed a%d %ot merely !e%eral co%"(derat(o%"1- ca% probably be ea"(ly %umbered o% the *(%!er" o* the two ha%d". Aet "udde%ly we *(%d that d("cu""(o% o* th(" =ue"t(o% ha" pract(cally cea"eda%d that what e%!a!e" co%tro7er"y (" the relat(o% o* what 8 may call the e7olut(o%ary co%cept" (% !e%eral to the eth(cal co%cept". Po(%t" o* a!reeme%t a%d d("a!reeme%t betwee% the (dea" (%7ol7ed (% the %ot(o% o* e7olut(o% a%d tho"e (%7ol7ed (% the %ot(o% o* moral co%duct are "earched *or. 8t (" the "tate o* the (ma!(%at(o% a%d the d(rect(o% o* (%tere"t wh(ch ha7e cha%!ed. 8t (" the latter =ue"t(o% wh(ch 8 purpo"e to d("cu"" to3day. ,h(" part(cular pha"e o* the problem wa" prec(p(tated- (* %ot (%(t(ated- by the late Pro*e""or 4u:ley (% h(" Ioma%e" 'ecture *or 1C93 o% &57olut(o% a%d 5th(c".& 8t (" "ome po(%t" (% that addre"" wh(ch 8 "hall take a" my te:t-O%ot *or the "ake o* d(rectly co%tro7ert(%! them- but a" co%7e%(e%t po(%t" o* departure *or ra("(%! the =ue"t(o%" wh(ch "eem to me *u%dame%tal. 8% that lecture- a" you w(ll all remember- Mr. 4u:ley po(%t" out (% h(" (%c("(7e a%d "weep(%! la%!ua!e certa(% d(**ere%ce" betwee% what he term" the co"m(c a%d the eth(cal proce""e". ,ho"e who recall the d("cu""(o% *ollow(%! the lecture w(ll remember that ma%y *elt a" (* they had rece(7ed a blow k%ock(%! the breath out o* the(r bod(e". ,o "ome (t appeared that Mr. 4u:ley had e:ecuted a "udde% volte1face a%d had !(7e% up h(" bel(e* (% the u%(ty o* the e7olut(o%ary proce""- accept(%! the 7ery dual("t(c (dea o* the "eparat(o% betwee% the a%(mal a%d the huma%- a!a(%"t wh(ch l(e had pre7(ou"ly d(rected "o ma%y hard blow". ,o "ome co%"er7at(7e th(%ker" (t appeared that +aul had *(%ally "how%

0 3?1 h(m"el* amo%! the prophet". ,he lecture wa" deplored or welcomed accord(%! to the way o%e (%terpreted (t w(th re*ere%ce to h(" ow% prepo""e""(o%". ,he po"(t(o% take% by 4u:ley- "o *ar a" (t co%cer%" u" here- may be "ummed up a" *ollow": ,he rule o* the co"m(c proce"" (" "tru!!le a%d "tr(*e. ,he rule o* the eth(cal proce"" (" "ympathy a%d co3operat(o%. ,he end o* the co"m(c proce"" (" the "ur7(7al o* the *(tte"t> that o* the eth(cal- the *(tt(%! o* a" ma%y a" po""(ble to "ur7(7e. Be*ore the eth(cal tr(bu%al the co"m(c proce"" "ta%d" co%dem%ed. ,he two proce""e" are %ot o%ly (%compat(ble but e7e% oppo"ed to each other. &+oc(al pro!re"" mea%" the check(%! o* the co"m(c proce"" at e7ery "tep a%d the "ub"t(tut(o% *or (t o* a%other- wh(ch may be called the eth(cal proce""> the e%d o* wh(ch (" %ot the "ur7(7al o* tho"e who happe% to be the *(tte"t (% re"pect o* the whole o* the co%d(t(o%" wh(ch e:("t- but o* tho"e who are eth(cally the be"t. ,he pract(ce o* that wh(ch (" eth(cally be"t Owh(ch we call !ood%e"" or 7(rtueO(%7ol7e" a cour"e o* co%duct wh(ch (% all re"pect" (" oppo"ed to that wh(ch lead" to "ucce"" (% the co"m(c "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce. . . . ,he co"m(c proce"" ha" %o "ort o* relat(o% to moral e%d". ,he (m(tat(o% by ma% (" (%co%"("te%t w(th the *(r"t pr(%c(ple" o* eth(c". 'et u" u%der"ta%d o%ce *or all that the eth(cal pro!re"" o* "oc(ety depe%d"- %ot o% (m(tat(%! the co"m(c proce""- "t(ll le"" (% ru%%(%! away *rom (t- but (% combat(%! (t& *.thics and .volution, pp. C13C3- et passim- . 57e% (% the lecture- howe7er- Mr. 4u:ley u"ed certa(% e:pre""(o%" wh(ch "how that he d(d %ot hold to th(" oppo"(t(o% (% a "e%"e wh(ch mea%t the "urre%der o* h(" pre7(ou" e7olut(o%ary co%7(ct(o%". ,hu" he "ay" that the eth(cal proce""- &"tr(ctly "peak(%!- (" part o* the !e%eral co"m(c proce""- ju"t a" the !o7er%or (% a "team e%!(%e (" part o* the mecha%("m o* the e%!(%e& 0%ote 0- p. 1121. 8% a later e""ay 0publ("hed a"

&Prole!ome%a&1- arou"ed "omewhat by the clamour wh(ch the lecture had called *orthhe make" h(" po"(t(o% e7e% clearer. 4ere he (llu"trate" h(" mea%(%! by re*err(%! to the two ha%d" a" u"ed (% "tretch(%! or pull(%!. 5ach (" oppo"ed to the other- a%d yet both are ma%(*e"tat(o%" o* the "ame or(!(%al *orce 0p. +4-. 8t (" %ot that the eth(cal proce"" (" oppo"ed to the e%t(re co"m(c proce""- but

0 3B1 that part o* the co"m(c proce"" wh(ch (" ma(%ta(%ed (% the co%duct o* me% (% "oc(ety- (" rad(cally oppo"ed both (% (t" method" a%d (t" a(m" to that part o* the co"m(c proce"" wh(ch (" e:h(b(ted (% the "ta!e" o* e7olut(o% pr(or to the appeara%ce o* "oc(al(6ed ma% upo% the "ce%e. 4e make" th(" po(%t clearer by re*ere%ce to the a%alo!y o* a !arde% 0pp. 93111. ,hrou!h the co"m(c proce""- (%depe%de%t o* ma%- certa(% pla%t" ha7e take% po""e""(o% o* a p(ece o* "o(l becau"e they are adapted to that part(cular e%7(ro%me%t. Ma% e%ter" a%d root" out the"e pla%t" a" %o:(ou" weed"- or at lea"t a" u"ele"" *or h(" purpo"e". 4e (%troduce" other pla%t" a!reeable to h(" ow% wa%t" a%d a(m"- a%d proceed" at o%ce to mod(*y the e%7(ro%me%t> (* %ece""ary- cha%!(%! the "o(l by *ert(l(6at(o%- bu(ld(%! wall"- alter(%! co%d(t(o%" o* "u%l(!ht a%d mo("ture "o a" to ma(%ta(% h(" !arde% a" a work o* artOa% art(*(ce. ,h(" art(*(c(al "tructure- the o%e med(ated by ma%H" a(m" a%d e**ort"- (" "o oppo"ed to the %atural "tate o* th(%!" that (* ma% let" up (% the ardor- the co%t(%u(ty- o* h(" labor"- the %atural *orce" a%d co%d(t(o%" rea""ert them"el7e"- the wall crumble"- the "o(l deter(orate"- a%d the !arde% (" *(%ally o%ce more o7er3!row% w(th weed". Mr. 4u:ley (" a tre%cha%t wr(ter- a%d h(" (llu"trat(o%" hold the m(%d capt(7e. But po""(bly *urther co%"(derat(o% o* th(" 7ery (llu"trat(o% w(ll po(%t to a d(**ere%t co%clu"(o%. 8llu"trat(o%" are two3ed!ed "word". ,here (" %o doubt (% my m(%d o* the ju"t%e"" o* the a%alo!y. ,he eth(cal proce""- l(ke the act(7(ty o* the !arde%er- (" o%e o* co%"ta%t "tru!!le. ;e a% %e7er allow th(%!" "(mply to !o o% o* them"el7e". 8* we do- the re"ult (" retro!re""(o%. 97er3"(!ht- 7(!(la%ce- co%"ta%t (%ter*ere%ce w(th co%d(t(o%" a" they are- are %ece""ary to ma(%ta(% the eth(cal order- a" they are to keep up the !arde%. ,he problem- howe7er- (" to locate th(" oppo"(t(o% a%d (%ter*ere%ce-Oto (%terpret (t- to "ay what (t mea%" (% the l(!ht o* la(r (dea o* the e7olut(o%ary proce"" a" a whole. ,hu" co%"(der(%! the (llu"trat(o%- the thou!ht "u!!e"t" (t"el* that we do %ot ha7e here (% real(ty a co%*l(ct o* ma% a" ma% w(th h(" e%t(re %atural e%7(ro%me%t. ;e ha7e rather the mod(*(cat(o% by ma% o* o%e part o* the e%7(ro%me%t w(th re*ere%ce to a%other part. Ma% doe" %ot "et h(m"el* a!a(%"t

0 3C1 the "tate o* %ature. 4e ut(l(6e" o%e part o* th(" "tate (% order to co%trol a%other part. 8t "t(ll hold" that &%ature (" made better by %o mea%- but %ature make" that mea%& ,he pla%t" wh(ch the !arde%er (%troduce"- the 7e!etable" a%d *ru(t" he w("he" to cult(7atemay (%deed be *ore(!% to th(" part(cular e%7(ro%me%t> but they are %ot al(e% to ma%H" e%7(ro%me%t a" a whole. 4e (%troduce" a%d ma(%ta(%" by art co%d(t(o%" o* "u%l(!ht a%d mo("ture to wh(ch th(" part(cular plot o* !rou%d (" u%accu"tomed> but the"e co%d(t(o%" *all w(th(% the wo%t a%d u"e o* %ature a" a whole. ,he"e may appear a" too ob7(ou" co%"(derat(o%" to be worth me%t(o%(%!. +urely they could %ot ha7e e"caped Mr. 4u:ley *or a mome%t. Aet (t (" po""(ble that the(r bear(%!

e"caped h(m> *or- (* 8 m("take %ot- whe% we allow our m(%d to dwell upo% "uch co%"(derat(o%" a" the"e- the e%t(re (mport o* the (llu"trat(o% cha%!e". ;e are led to co%ce(7e- %ot o* the co%*l(ct betwee% the !arde% a%d the !arde%er> betwee% the %atural proce"" a%d the proce"" o* art depe%de%t upo% huma% co%"c(ou"%e"" a%d e**ort. 9ur atte%t(o% (" d(rected to the po""(b(l(ty o* (%terpret(%! a %arrow a%d l(m(ted e%7(ro%me%t (% the l(!ht o* a w(der a%d more complete o%e-Oo* read(%! the po""(b(l(t(e" o* a part throu!h (t" place (% the whole. 4uma% (%tell(!e%ce a%d e**ort (%ter7e%e- %ot a" oppo"(%! *orce" but a" mak(%! th(" co%%ect(o%. ;he% 4u:ley "ay" that &the macroco"m (" p(tted a!a(%"t the m(croco"m> that ma% (" "ubdu(%! %ature to h(" h(!her e%d"> that the h("tory o* c(7(l(6at(o% deta(l" the "tep" by wh(ch we ha7e "ucceeded (% bu(ld(%! up a% art(*(c(al world w(th(% the co"mo"> that there l(e" w(th(% ma% a *u%d o* e%er!y operat(%! (%tell(!e%tly a%d "o *ar ak(% to that wh(ch per7ade" the u%(7er"e that (t (" compete%t to (%*lue%ce a%d mod(*y the co"m(c proce""-&Ohe "ay" to my m(%d that ma% (" a% or!a% o* the co"m(c proce"" (% e**ect(%! (t" own pro!re"". ,h(" pro!re"" co%"("t" e""e%t(ally (% mak(%! o7er a part o* the e%7(ro%me%t by relat(%! (t more (%t(mately to the e%7(ro%me%t a" a whole> %ot- o%ce more- (% ma% "ett(%! h(m"el* a!a(%"t that e%7(ro%me%t. 4u:ley h(m"el* de*(%e" the (""ue (% word" already =uoted (% wh(ch he co%tra"t" the "ur7(7al o* tho"e who &may happe% to be the *(tte"t in respect of the whole of the condi1

0 391 tions which e$ist, to the "ur7(7al o* tho"e who are eth(cally the be"t.& ,he clau"e (tal(c(6ed "um" up the whole problem. 8t (" !ra%ted w(thout ar!ume%t that the *(tte"t w(th re"pect to a l(m(ted part o* the e%7(ro%me%t are %ot (de%t(cal w(th the eth(cally be"t. )a% we make th(" co%ce""(o%- howe7er- whe% we ha7e (% m(%d the whole o* the e:("t(%! co%d(t(o%"D 8" %ot the e:te%t to wh(ch Mr. 4u:ley pu"he" h(" dual("t(c oppo"(t(o%- are %ot ma%y o* the popular co%tra"t" betwee% the %atural a%d the eth(cal- re"ult" o* tak(%! a l(m(ted 7(ew o* the co%d(t(o%" w(th re"pect to wh(ch the term &*(t& (" u"edD 8 % co"m(c %ature- a" Mr. 4u:ley "ay"- what (" *(tte"t depe%d" upo% the co%d(t(o%". 8* our hem("phere were to cool a!a(%- the &"ur7(7al o* the *(tte"t m(!ht lea7e u" w(th %oth(%! but l(che%"- d(atome"- a%d "uch m(cro"cop(c or!a%("m" a" that wh(ch !(7e" red "%ow (t" color.& ;e ca%%ot work th(" (dea o%e way w(thout be(%! w(ll(%! to work (t (% the other. ,he co%d(t(o%" w(th re"pect to wh(ch the term &*(t& mu"t now be u"ed (%clude the e:("t(%! "oc(al "tructure w(th all the hab(t"- dema%d"- a%d (deal" wh(ch are *ou%d (% (t. 8* "o- we ha7e rea"o% to co%clude that the &*(tte"t w(th re"pect to the whole o* the co%d(t(o%"& (" the be"t> that- (%deed- the o%ly "ta%dard we ha7e o* the be"t (" the d("co7ery o* that wh(ch ma(%ta(%" the"e co%d(t(o%" (% the(r (%te!r(ty. ,he u%*(t (" pract(cally the a%t(3"oc(al. 'oo"e popular ar!ume%tOMr. 4u:ley h(m"el* hardly [:(ll" (%to the p(tO(" accu"tomed to "uppo"e that (* the pr(%c(ple o* the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce a%d "ur7(7al o* the *(tte"t were r(!orou"ly carr(ed out- (t would re"ult (% the de"truct(o% o* the weak- the "(ckly- the de*ect(7e- a%d the (%"a%e. <% e:am(%at(o% o* th(" popular a""umpt(o% may "er7e to (llum(%ate the po(%t ju"t made. ;e are all *am(l(ar w(th .("keH" !e%eral(6at(o% that c(7(l(6at(o% (" a product o* the prolo%!at(o% o* the per(od o* (%*a%cy> that the %ece""(ty o* car(%! *or o**"pr(%! %ot able to take care o* them"el7e"- ,(r(%! a co%t(%ually le%!the%(%! per(od- "t(mulated the a**ect(o% a%d care- the moral !erm" o* "oc(al l(*e- a%d re=u(red the *ore"(!ht a%d pro7(de%ce that were the !erm" o* the (%du"tr(al art" upo% wh(ch "oc(ety depe%d". Mr. .("keH" co%te%t(o%- whether true or *al"e- (" worth putt(%! o7er a!a(%"t the popular a""umpt(o%. 4ow *ar are we to !o (% the de"truc3

0J01 3t(o% o* the helple"" a%d depe%de%t (% order that the &*(t& may "ur7(7eD )learly (% th(" ca"e the (%*a%t wa" o%e who wa" &*(t-& %ot o%ly (% eth(cal term" but (% term" o* *urther(%! the e7olut(o%ary proce"". 8" there a%y rea"o% to "uppo"e that the depe%de%t cla""e" are %ot e=ually &*(t& at pre"e%t- whe% mea"ured by the whole o* the co%d(t(o%" a" a "ta%dardD ;e may (ma!(%e a leader (% a% early "oc(al !roup- whe% the =ue"t(o% had ar("e% o* putt(%! to death the *eeble- the "(ckly- a%d the a!ed- (% order to !(7e that !roup a% ad7a%ta!e (% the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce w(th other !roup">Owe may (ma!(%e h(m- 8 "ay"peak(%! a" *ollow": &Eo. 8% order that we may "ecure th(" ad7a%ta!e- let u" pre"er7e the"e cla""e". 8t (" true *or the mome%t that they make a% add(t(o%al dra(% upo% our re"ource"- a%d a% add(t(o%al ta: upo% the e%er!(e" wh(ch m(!ht otherw("e be e%!a!ed (% *(!ht(%! our *oe". But (% look(%! a*ter the"e helple"" we "hall de7elop hab(t" o* *ore"(!ht a%d *orethou!ht- power" o* look(%! be*ore a%d a*ter- te%de%c(e" to hu"ba%d our mea%"wh(ch "hall ult(mately make u" the mo"t "k(lled (% war*are. ;e "hall *o"ter hab(t" o* !roup loyalty- *eel(%!" o* "ol(dar(ty- wh(ch "hall b(%d u" to!ether by "uch clo"e t(e" that %o "oc(al !roup wh(ch ha" %ot cult(7ated l(ke *eel(%!" throu!h car(%! *or all (t" member"- w(ll be able to w(th"ta%d u".& 8% a word- "uch co%duct would pay (% the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce a" well a" be morally comme%dable. 8* the !roup to wh(ch he "poke "aw a%y way to t(de o7er the (mmed(ate emer!e%cy- %o o%e ca% !a(%"ay the lo!(c o* th(" "peech. Eot o%ly the prolo%!at(o% o* the per(od o* depe%de%ce- but the mult(pl(cat(o% o* (t" *orm"- ha" mea%t h("tor(cally (%crea"e o* (%tell(!e%t *ore"(!ht a%d pla%%(%!- a%d (%crea"e o* the bo%d" o* "oc(al u%(ty. ;ho "hall "ay that "uch =ual(t(e" are %ot po"(t(7e (%"trume%t" (% the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce- a%d that tho"e who "t(mulate a%d call out "uch power" are %ot amo%! tho"e &*(t to "ur7(7e&D 8* the deer had %e7er de7eloped h(" t(m(d(ty a%d h(" "k(ll (% ru%%(%! away- the t(!er a%d the wol* had %e7er "how% the(r *ull re"ource" (% the way o* coura!e a%d power o* attack. <!a(%- pre7e%t(o% (" better tha% cure- but (t ha" bee% throu!h try(%! to cure the "(ck that we ha7e lear%ed how to protect the well. 8 ha7e d("cu""ed th(" part(cular ca"e (% the hope o* e%3

0J11 3lar!(%! "omewhat our co%cept(o% o* what (" mea%t by the term &*(t&> to "u!!e"t that we are (% the hab(t o* (%terpret(%! (t w(th re*ere%ce to a% e%7(ro%me%t wh(ch lo%! a!o cea"ed to be. ,hat wh(ch wa" *(t amo%! the a%(mal" (" %ot *(t amo%! huma% be(%!"%ot merely becau"e the a%(mal" were %o%3moral a%d ma% (" moral> but becau"e the co%d(t(o%" o* l(*e ha7e cha%!ed- a%d becau"e there (" %o way to de*(%e the term &*(t& e:cept(%! throu!h the"e co%d(t(o%". ,he e%7(ro%me%t (" %ow d("t(%ctly a "oc(al o%e- a%d the co%te%t o* the term &*(t& ha" to be made w(th re*ere%ce to "oc(al adaptat(o%. Moreo7er- the e%7(ro%me%t (% wh(ch we %ow l(7e (" a cha%!(%! a%d pro!re""(7e o%e. 57ery o%e mu"t ha7e h(" *(t%e"" jud!ed by the whole- (%clud(%! the a%t(c(pated cha%!e> %ot merely by re*ere%ce to the co%d(t(o%" o* today- becau"e the"e may be !o%e tomorrow. 8* o%e (" *(tted "(mply to the pre"e%t- he (" %ot *(tted to "ur7(7e. 4e (" "ure to !o u%der. < part o* h(" *(t%e"" w(ll co%"("t (% that 7ery *le:(b(l(ty wh(ch e%able" h(m to adju"t h(m"el* w(thout too much lo"" to "udde% a%d u%e:pected cha%!e" (% h(" "urrou%d(%!". ;e ha7e the% %o rea"o% here to oppo"e the eth(cal proce"" to the %atural

proce"". ,he dema%d (" *or tho"e who are *(t *or the co%d(t(o%" o* e:("te%ce (% o%e ca"e a" well a" (% the other. 8t (" the co%d(t(o%" wh(ch ha7e cha%!ed.($) 'et u" tur% our atte%t(o% *rom the (dea o* &*(t%e""& to that o* the proce"" or methodOthe &"tru!!le *or e:("te%ce.& 8" (t true that (% the moral "phere the "tru!!le mu"t cea"e- or 8 hat we mu"t tur% our"el7e" re"olutely upo% (t- bra%d(%! (t a" (mmoralD 9r- a" (% the ca"e o* the (dea o* *(t%e""- (" th(" "tru!!le a" %ece""ary to the eth(cal a" (t (" to the b(olo!(calD 8% real(ty- the (dea o* "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce (" co%trolled by the e%7(ro%me%t (% wh(ch that "tru!!le (" put *orth. ,hat wh(ch (" "tru!!le *or l(*e- a%d "ucce""*ul "tru!!le- at o%e t(me- would be (%ert "up(%e%e"" or "u(c(dal ma%(a at a%other. ,h(" (" a" true o* 7ary(%! per(od" (% a%(mal de7elopme%t a"

0 J 1 (t (" o* the huma% co%tra"ted w(th the a%(mal. ,he %ature o* the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce (" co%"ta%tly mod(*y(%! (t"el*- %ot becau"e "ometh(%! el"e (" "ub"t(tuted *or (tmuch le"" oppo"ed to (t> but becau"e a" the co%d(t(o%" o* l(*e cha%!e- the mode" o* l(7(%! mu"t cha%!e al"o. ,hat wh(ch would cou%t (% the )arbo%(*erou" per(od w(ll %ot cou%t (% the Eeo6o(c. H;hy "hould we e:pect that wh(ch cou%t" amo%! the car%(7ora to cou%t w(th ma%-Oa "oc(al a%(malD 8* we do %ot *(%d the "ame =ual(t(e" e**ect(7e 0a%d he%ce to be ma(%ta(%ed1 (% both ca"e"> or (* we *(%d that oppo"ed =ual(t(e" are called *orwhat r(!ht ha7e we to a""ume that what wa" o%ce e**ected by the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce ha" %ow to be accompl("hed by a%other a%d oppo"ed *orceD ,he term &"tru!!le *or e:("te%ce& "eem" to be u"ed (% two =u(te d(**ere%t "e%"e" by Mr. 4u:ley. 8% o%e ca"e (t mea%" pract(cally "(mply "el*3a""ert(o%. 8 do %ot "ee that the struggle *or e:("te%ce (" a%yth(%! more tha% l(7(%! e:("te%ce (t"el*. '(*e te%d" to ma(%ta(% (t"el* becau"e (t (" l(*e. ,he part(cular act" wh(ch are put *orth are the outcome o* the l(*e that (" there> they are (t" e:pre""(o%- (t" ma%(*e"tat(o%. +el*3a""ert(o% (% th(" "e%"e carr(e" w(th (t %o (mmoral co%%otat(o%- u%le"" l(*e by (t" 7ery %ature (" (mmoral. But 4u:ley al"o u"e" &"tru!!le *or e:("te%ce& w(th a d("t(%ctly "el*("h mea%(%!. 4e "peak" o* the &ape a%d t(!er prompt(%!"& a" bra%ded w(th the %ame o* "(%" 0p. 2 1 . 4e (de%t(*(e" "el*3a""ert(o% w(th &the u%"crupulou" "e(6(%! upo% all that ca% be !ra"ped> the te%ac(ou" hold(%! o* all that ca% be kept 0p. 211 . 8t (" &ruthle"".& 8t &thru"t" a"(de or tread" dow% all compet(tor".& 8t &(%7ol7e" the !lad(ator(al theory o* e:("te%ce& 0p. C 1. 4e%ce (t (" a &power*ul a%d te%ac(ou" e%emy to the eth(cal& 0p. C21. +urely- all th(" (" rhetor(c rather tha% ph(lo"ophy o* "c(e%ce. ;e (%her(t our (mpul"e" a%d our te%de%c(e" *rom- our a%ce"tor". ,he"e (mpul"e" a%d te%de%c(e" %eed to be mod(*(ed. ,hey %eed to be curbed a%d re"tra(%ed. +o much !oe" w(thout "ay(%!. ,he =ue"t(o% (" re!ard(%! the %ature o* the mod(*(cat(o%> the %ature o* the re"tra(%t- a%d (t" relat(o% to the or(!(%al (mpul"e" o* "el*3a""ert(o%. +urely- w do %ot wa%t to "uppre"" our a%(mal (%her(ta%ce> %or do w w("h to re"tra(% (t ab"olutely-Othat ("- *or the mere "ake o*

0 J31 re"tra(%t. 8t (" %ot a% e%emy to the moral l(*e- "(mply becau"e w(thout (t %o l(*e (" po""(ble. H;hate7er (" %ece""ary to l(*e we may *a(rly a""ume to ha7e "ome rele7a%cy to moral l(7(%!. More tha% th(" (" true. ,hat "el*3a""ert(o% wh(ch we may call l(*e (" %ot o%ly %e!at(7ely- but po"(t(7ely a *actor (% the eth(cal proce"". ;hat are coura!eper"("te%ce- pat(e%ce- e%terpr("e- (%(t(at(7e- but *orm" o* the "el*3a""ert(o% o* tho"e

(mpul"e" wh(ch make up the l(*e proce""D +o much- 8 "uppo"e- all would !ra%t> but are tempera%ce- cha"t(ty- be%e7ole%ce- "el*3"acr(*(ce (t"el*- a%y le"" *orm" o* "el*3a""ert(o%D 8" %ot more- rather tha% le"" "tre%!th- (%7ol7ed (% the(r e:erc("eD Doe" the ma% who de*(%(tely a%d re"olutely "et" about obta(%(%! "ome %eeded re*orm a%d w(th re*ere%ce to that %eed "acr(*(ce" all the commo% com*ort" a%d lu:ur(e" o* l(*e- e7e% *or the t(me be(%! "oc(al appro7al a%d reputat(o%- *a(l (% the e:erc("e o* "el*3a""ert(o%D ,he "(mple *act o* the ca"e (" o* cour"e that the"e prompt(%!"- e7e% the prompt(%!" o* the &t(!er a%d the ape-& are- "(mply a" prompt(%!"- %e(ther moral %or (mmoral> %o more "(%" tha% they are "a(%tly attr(bute". ,hey are the ba"(" a%d mater(al o* all act" what"oe7er- !ood a%d bad. ,hey become !ood whe% tra(%ed (% a certa(% way- ju"t a" they become bad whe% tra(%ed (% a%other way. ,he ma% who re!ard" h(" a%(mal (%her(ta%ce a" e7(l (% a%d o* (t"el* apart *rom (t" relat(o% to a(m" propo"ed by h(" (%tell(!e%ce- ha" lo!(cally but o%e recour"e-Oto "eek E(r7a%a.(&) ;(th h(m the pr(%c(ple o* "el*3%e!at(o% become" ab"olute. But w(th all other"- the me% a%d wome% whom Mr. 4u:ley (" pre"umably addre""(%!- "el*3re"tra(%t (" "(mply a *actor w(th(% "el*3a""ert(o%. 8t relate" to the part(cular way" (% wh(ch "el*3a""ert(o% (" made. 8 may appear here to ha7e (!%ored 4u:leyH" d("t(%ct(o% betwee% the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce a%d the "tru!!le *or happ(%e"" 0p. J01. ,he *ormer (t w(ll be "a(d- he u"e" (% a de*(%(te tech%(cal "e%"e a" mea%(%! "(mply the "tru!!le *or the perpetuat(o% o* l(*e- apart *rom the k(%d o* l(*e led- a%d

0 JJ1 a" e:h(b(t(%! (t"el* (% d(rect co%*l(ct w(th other"- lead(%! to the el(m(%at(o% o* "ome. ,hat "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce (t may be "urely "a(d- (" %ot to be co%t(%ued w(th(% the eth(cal proce"". ,he "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce relate"- he "ay"- "(mply to the &mea%" o* l(7(%!.& Be"(de" that we ha7e the "tru!!le *or happ(%e""- ha7(%! to do w(th the u"e" to wh(ch the"e mea%" are put- Othe 7alue" wh(ch are !ot out o* them- the e%d". 8 reply (% the *(r"t place- that Mr. 4u:ley co%trad(ct" h(m"el* o% th(" po(%t (% "uch a way that o%e would be =u(te ju"t(*(ed (% (!%or(%! the d("t(%ct(o%> a%d (% the "eco%d place- that 8 am %ot able to "ee the 7al(d(ty o* the d("t(%ct(o%. <" to Mr. 4u:leyH" "el*3co%trad(ct(o%- he a""ert" (% a %umber o* place" that the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce a" "uch 0a" d("t(%ct *rom the "tru!!le *or happ(%e""1 ha" %ow come to a% e%d. 8t held o%ly (% the lower "oc(al *orm" whe% l(7(%! wa" "o precar(ou" that people actually k(lled each other- (* %ot *or *ood- at lea"t to "ecure the "ca%ty "tore o* *ood a7a(lable. 8* (t hold" %ow at all (t (" "(mply amo%! the "mall cr(m(%al cla"" (% "oc(ety 0p. J11. Eow Mr. 4u:ley %ot o%ly take" th(" po"(t(o%- but *rom a certa(% po(%t o* 7(ew (" bou%d to take (t. 8* the "tru!!le (" "t(ll !o(%! o%- "elect(o% (" "t(ll occurr(%!- a%d there (" e7ery rea"o% to "uppo"e that a" hereto*ore- (t (" a d("t(%ct a!e%t (% "oc(al pro!re""> a%d Mr. 4u:ley (" bou%d to hold that %atural "elect(o% %o lo%!er operate" (% "oc(al pro!re"" a%d that there*ore we mu"t ha7e recour"e to other mea%". But (* the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce ha" thu" cea"ed o* (t"el* w(th(% a%y !(7e% huma% "oc(ety- what "e%"e (" there (% "ay(%! that (t (" %ow &a te%ac(ou" a%d power*ul e%emy w(th wh(ch eth(cal %ature ha" to recko%&D 8* (t ha" d(ed out becau"e o* the cha%!e o* co%d(t(o%"- why "hould the eth(cal proce"" ha7e to "pe%d all (t" e%er!y (% combat(%! (tD &'et the dead bury the(r dead.&H

8% other word"- Mr. 4u:ley h(m"el* (" pract(cally u%able to l(m(t the mea%(%! o* the phra"e &"tru!!le *or e:("te%ce& to th(" %arrow (mport. 4e ha" h(m"el* to w(de% (t "o a" to (%clude %ot o%ly the "tru!!le *or mere co%t(%ua%ce o*

0 J21 phy"(cal e:("te%ce- but al"o whate7er make" that l(*e what (t (". ,he d("t(%ct(o% betwee% the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce a%d the "tru!!le *or happ(%e"" break" dow%. 8t break" dow%- 8 take (t- %o%e the le"" (% a%(mal l(*e (t"el* tha% (t doe" (% "oc(al l(*e. 8* the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce o% the part o* the wol* mea%t "(mply the "tru!!le o% h(" part to keep *rom dy(%!- 8 do %ot doubt that the "heep would !ladly ha7e comprom("ed at a%y t(me upo% the ba"(" o* *ur%("h(%! h(m w(th the %ece""ary *oodO(%clud(%! e7e% a% occa"(o%al bowl o* mutto% broth. ,he *act (" the wol* a""erted h(m"el* a" a wol*. 8t wa" %ot mere l(*e he w("hed- but the l(*e o* the wol*. Eo a!e%t ca% draw th(" d("t(%ct(o% betwee% de"(re *or mere l(*e a%d de"(re *or happy l(*e *or h(m"el*> a%d %o more ca% the "pectator (%tell(!e%tly draw (t *or a%other. ;hat the% (" the co%*l(ct- the te%"(o%- wh(ch (" a %ece""ary *actor (% the moral l(*eO*or be (t remembered there (" %o d(**ere%ce o* op(%(o% w(th Mr. 4u:ley upo% th(" po(%tD ,he "ole =ue"t(o% (" whether the combat (" betwee% the eth(cal proce"" a" "uch- a%d the co"m(c- %atural- proce"" a" "uch. ,he outcome o* our pre7(ou" d("cu""(o% (" that (t ca%%ot be the latter becau"e the %atural proce""- the "o3called (%her(ted a%(mal (%"t(%ct" a%d prompt(%!"- are %ot o%ly the "t(mul(- but al"o the mater(al"- o* moral co%duct. ,o weake% them ab"olutely- a" d("t(%ct *rom !(7(%! them a de*(%(te tur% or d(rect(o%- (" to le""e% the e**(c(e%cy o* moral co%duct. ;here the% doe" the "tru!!le come (%D 57(de%tly (% the part(cular tur% or d(rect(o% wh(ch (" !(7e% to the power" o* the a%(mal %ature mak(%! up the (mmed(ate co%te%t o* "el*3a""ert(o%. But o%ce more- what doe" th(" tur% or d(rect(o% mea%D +(mply- 8 take (t- that a% act wh(ch wa" o%ce adapted to !(7e% co%d(t(o%" mu"t %ow be adapted to other co%d(t(o%". ,he e**ort- the "tru!!le- (" a %ame *or the %ece""(ty o* th(" re3adaptat(o%.(+) ,he co%d(t(o%" wh(ch or(!(%ally called the power *orth- wh(ch led to (t" &"elect(o%-& u%der wh(ch (t !ot (t" or(!(%- a%d *ormat(o%ha7e cea"ed to e:("t- %ot (%deed- wholly- but (% "uch part that the power (" %ow more or le"" (rrele7a%t. 8%deed- (t (" %ot %ow a &power& (% the "e%"e o*

0J?1 be(%! a *u%ct(o% wh(ch ca% w(thout tra%"*ormat(o% operate "ucce""*ully w(th re*ere%ce to the whole "et o* e:("t(%! co%d(t(o%". Mr. 4u:ley "tate" the whole ca"e whe% he "ay" that &(% e:treme ca"e" ma% doe" h(" be"t to put a% e%d to the "ur7(7al o* the *(tte"t o* *ormer day" by the a:e a%d rope.& ,he phra"e- &the *(tte"t o* former day"& co%ta(%" the matter (% a %ut3"hell. $u"t becau"e the act" o* wh(ch the prompt(%!" a%d (mpul"e" are the "ur7(7al- were the *(tte"t *or by3!o%e day" they are %ot the *(tte"t %ow. ,he "tru!!le come"- %ot (% "uppre""(%! them %or (% "ub"t(tut(%! "ometh(%! el"e *or them> but (% reco%"t(tut(%! them- (% adapt(%! them- "o that they w(ll *u%ct(o% w(th re*ere%ce to the e:("t(%! "(tuat(o%. ,h("- 8 take (t- (" the truth- a%d the whole truth- co%ta(%ed (% Mr. 4u:leyH" oppo"(t(o% o* the moral a%d the %atural order. ,he te%"(o% (" betwee% a% or!a% adju"ted to a pa"t "tate a%d the *u%ct(o%(%! re=u(red by pre"e%t co%d(t(o%". <%d th(" te%"(o% dema%d" reco%"truct(o%. ,h(" oppo"(t(o% o* the "tructure o* the pa"t a%d the deed" o* the pre"e%t (" prec("ely that "u!!e"ted (% the d("cu""(o% o* the (llu"trat(7e !arde%. ,he pa"t e%7(ro%me%t (" related to the pre"e%t a" a part to a whole. ;he% a%(mal l(*e be!a% o%

la%d- water became o%ly o%e *actor (% the co%d(t(o%" o* l(*e- a%d the a%(mal att(tude toward" (t wa" cha%!ed. 8t certa(%ly could %ot %ow !et alo%! w(thout a water3 e%7(ro%me%t- much le"" could (t tur% a!a(%"t (t> but (t" relat(o%" to mo("ture a" a co%d(t(o% o* l(*e were pro*ou%dly mod(*(ed. <% embryo%(c 4u:ley m(!ht the% ha7e ar!ued that the *uture "ucce"" o* a%(mal l(*e depe%ded upo% combat(%! the %atural proce"" wh(ch had pre7(ou"ly ma(%ta(%ed a%d *urthered (t. 8% real(ty the dema%d wa"that wh(ch wa" o%ly a part "hould be treated a" "uch- a%d thu" "ubord(%ated to the whole "et o* co%d(t(o%". ,hu" whe% Mr. 4u:ley "ay" 0p. 1 1 that &%ature (" alway" te%d(%! to recla(m that wh(ch her ch(ld- ma%- ha" borrowed *rom her a%d ha" arra%!ed (% comb(%at(o%" wh(ch are %ot tho"e *a7ored by the !e%eral co"m(c proce""-& th(" o%ly mea%" that the e%7(ro%me%t minus ma% (" %ot the "ame e%7(ro%me%t a" the o%e that (%clude" ma%. 8% a%y other "e%"e the"e &comb(%at(o%"& are *a7ored by the !e%eral co"m(c proce""-O(% w(t%e"" whereo* ma% throu!h whom that proce"" work" ha" "et h(" "(!% a%d "eal. ,hat if you took ma% out

0 JB1 o* th(" proce"" th(%!" would cha%!e- (" much l(ke "ay(%! that (* they were d(**ere%t they would %ot be the "ame> or- that a part (" %ot (t" ow% whole. ,here are ma%y "(!%" that Mr. 4u:ley had Mr. +pe%cer (% m(%d (% ma%y o* h(" co%te%t(o%"> that what he (" really a(m(%! at (" the "uppo"(t(o% o% the part o* Mr. +pe%cer that the !oal o* e7olut(o% (" a complete "tate o* *(%al adaptat(o% (% wh(ch all (" peace a%d bl("" a%d (% wh(ch the pa(%" o* e**ort a%d o* reco%"truct(o% are k%ow% %o more. <" a!a(%"t th(" (%"(p(d m(lle%%(um- Mr. 4u:ley (" certa(%ly r(!ht (% call(%! atte%t(o% to the *act that the eth(cal proce"" (mpl(e" co%t(%ual "tru!!le- co%=ue"t- a%d the de*eat" that !o w(th co%=ue"t. But whe% Mr. 4u:ley a""ert" that the "tru!!le (" betwee% the %atural proce"" a%d the eth(cal- we mu"t part compa%y w(th h(m. 4e "eem" to a""ert that (% "ome *ar ce%tury (t may be po""(ble *or the ape a%d the t(!er to be "o thorou!hly "ubju!ated by ma% that the &(%7eterate e%emy o* the moral proce""& "hall *(%ally be put u%der *oot. ,he% the "tru!!le w(ll occur a!a(%"t the e%7(ro%me%t becau"e o* a "horta!e o* *ood. But we mu"t (%"("t that Mr. 4u:ley (" here *all(%! (%to the 7ery char!e" wh(ch he ha" brou!ht a!a(%"t Mr. +pe%cerH" "chool. ,he 7ery h(!he"t hab(t" a%d (deal" wh(ch are or!a%(6(%! today w(th re*ere%ce to e:("t(%! co%d(t(o%" w(ll be ju"t a" much- a%d ju"t a" l(ttle- a% ob"tacle to the moral co%duct o* ma% m(ll(o%" o* year" *rom %ow- a" tho"e o* the ape a%d the t(!er are to u". +o *ar a" they repre"e%t the "ur7(7al o* outwor% co%d(t(o%"- they w(ll dema%d re3co%"t(tut(o% a%d re3adaptat(o%- a%d that mod(*(cat(o% w(ll be accompa%(ed by pa(%. Frowth alway" co"t" "ometh(%!. 8t co"t" the mak(%! o7er o* the old (% order to meet the dema%d" o* the %ew. ,h(" "tru!!le- the%- (" %ot more character("t(c o* the eth(cal proce"" tha% (t (" o* the b(olo!(cal. 'o%! be*ore ma% came upo% the earth- lo%! be*ore a%y talk wa" heard o* r(!ht a%d wro%!- (t happe%ed that tho"e who clu%! per"("te%tly to mode" o* act(o% wh(ch were adapted to a% e%7(ro%me%t that had pa""ed away- were at a d("ad7a%ta!e (% the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce- a%d te%ded to d(e out. ,he *actor" o* the co%*l(ct upo% wh(ch Mr. 4u:ley lay" "o much "tre"" ha7e bee% pre"e%t e7er "(%ce the be!(%%(%! o* l(*e a%d w(ll

0 JC1 co%t(%ue to be pre"e%t a" lo%! a" we l(7e (% a mo7(%!- a%d %ot a "tat(c world. ;hat he (%"("t" upo% (" reco%"truct(o% a%d readaptat(o%-Omod(*(cat(o% o* the pre"e%t w(th re*ere%ce to the co%d(t(o%" o* the *uture. ;(th the a%(mal (t wa" "(mply the happy !ue""-Othe cha%ce. 8% "oc(ety there (" a%t(c(pat(o%> w(th ma% (t (" the (%tell(!e%t a%d co%trolled *ore"(!ht- the %ece""(ty o* ma(%ta(%(%! the (%"t(tut(o%" wh(ch ha7e come dow% to u"- wh(le we make o7er the"e (%"t(tut(o%" "o that they "er7e u%der cha%!(%! co%d(t(o%". ,o !(7e up the (%"t(tut(o%" (" chao" a%d a%archy> to ma(%ta(% the (%"t(tut(o%" u%cha%!ed (" death a%d *o""(l(6at(o%. ,he problem (" the reco%c(l(at(o% o* u%br(dled rad(cal("m a%d (%ert co%"er7at("m- (% a mo7eme%t o* rea"o%able re*orm. P"ycholo!(cally the te%"(o% ma%(*e"t" (t"el* a" the co%*l(ct betwee% hab(t" a%d a(m": a co%*l(ct %ece""ary- "o *ar a" we ca% "ee- to the ma(%te%a%ce o* co%"c(ou" l(*e. ;(thout hab(t" we ca% do %oth(%!. Aet (* hab(t" become "o *(:ed that they ca%%ot be adapted to the e%d" "u!!e"ted by %ew "(tuat(o%"- they are barr(er" to co%duct a%d e%em(e" to l(*e. 8t (" co%*l(ct w(th the e%d or (deal wh(ch keep" the hab(t work(%!- a *le:(ble a%d e**(c(e%t (%"trume%t o* act(o%. ;(thout th(" co%*l(ct w(th hab(t"- the e%d become" 7a!ue- empty- a%d "e%t(me%tal. De*(%(%! (t "o that the hab(t" may be ut(l(6ed (% real(6(%! (t make" (t o* pract(cal 7alue. ,h(" de*(%(t(o% would %e7er occur were (t %ot that hab(t" re"("t (t. $u"t a" hab(t" a%d a(m" are co3operat(%! *actor" (% the ma(%te%a%ce o* co%"c(ou" e:per(e%ce- ju"t a" (%"t(tut(o%" a%d pla%" o* re*orm are co3worker" (% our "oc(al l(*e- ju"t a" the relat(7e a%ta!o%("m betwee% the two (" %ece""ary to the(r 7aluable *(%al co3 adaptat(o%> "o (mpul"e- call (t a%(mal (* we w(ll- a%d (deal- call (t holy thou!h we mayare mutually %ece""ary (% them"el7e" a%d (% the(r mutual oppo"(t(o% *or the eth(cal proce"". 8t (" well *or the (deal that (t meet the oppo"(t(o% o* the (mpul"e- a" (t (" *or the a%(mal prompt(%! to be held to the *u%ct(o% "u!!e"ted by the (deal. 8% locat(%! a%d (%terpret(%! th(" te%"(o%- th(" oppo"(t(o% betwee% the %atural a%d the moral- 8 ha7e do%e what 8 "et out to do. ,here (" o%e other po(%t wh(ch (t "eem" worth wh(le to touch upo% be*ore lea7(%! the matter. ,hree term" are alway" *ou%d to!ether (% all d("cu""(o%" o* e7olut(o%-O%atural "elect(o%- "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce- a%d the *(t. ,he

0 J91 latter two o* the"e (dea" we ha7e d("cu""ed (% the(r bear(%!" upo% moral l(*e. 8t rema(%" to "ay a word or two upo% %atural "elect(o%. Mr. 4u:leyH" po"(t(o% o% th(" po(%t (" %ot =u(te clear. <" ha" bee% already "u!!e"ted- (t "eem" to be 7ary(%!- (* %ot actually "el*3co%trad(ctory. <t t(me" he "eem" to hold that "(%ce the "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce ha" cea"ed (% the "oc(al "phere- "elect(o% ha" cea"ed al"o to act- a%d there*ore the work *ormerly do%e by (t 0(* we may *or the mome%t per"o%(*y (t a" a% a!e%t1 %ow ha" to be do%e (% other way" 0"ee the pa""a!e" re*erred to o% pp. J33JJ1. <t other t(me" he "eem" to hold that (t (" "t(ll !o(%! o% but that (t" te%de%cy upo% the whole (" bad- jud!ed *rom the eth(cal "ta%dpo(%t- a%d there*ore re=u(re" to be co%"c(ou"ly cou%teracted. )erta(%ly the =ue"t(o% o* the "cope o* "elect(o% (% the "phere o* "oc(al l(*e (" co%*u"ed. Doe" (t "t(ll co%t(%ue or doe" (t %otD 8* (t doe" operate what are (t" mode" o* work(%!D Ma%y "eem to "uppo"e that we do %ot ha7e (t e:cept(%! where we (%te%t(o%ally ("olate tho"e whom we co%"(der u%*(t- a%d pre7e%t them *rom reproduc(%! o**"pr(%!> or that (t (" *ou%d o%ly (* we art(*(c(ally re!ulate marr(a!e (% "uch a way a" to attempt to "elect "oc(al a%d a%(mal type" co%"(dered h(!her at the e:pe%"e o* the lower. Mr. 4u:ley

%aturally co%"(der" "elect(o% (% th(" "e%"e- %ot o%ly pract(cally (mpo""(ble- but (%tr(%"(cally u%de"(rable. But (" th(" the o%ly or the ch(e* mea%(%! o* %atural "elect(o%D Doe" (t *ollow that "oc(al "elect(o%- to u"e a term employed by late wr(ter"- (" "ometh(%! rad(cally d(**ere%t *rom %atural "elect(o%D ,he bel(e* that %atural "elect(o% ha" cea"ed to operate re"t" upo% the a""umpt(o% that there (" o%ly o%e *orm o* "uch "elect(o%: that where (mpro7eme%t (" (%d(rectly e**ected by the *a(lure o* "pec(e" o* a certa(% type to co%t(%ue to reproduce> carry(%! w(th (t a" (t" correlat(7e that certa(% 7ar(at(o%" co%t(%ue to mult(ply- a%d *(%ally come to po""e"" the la%d. ,h(" ordeal by death (" a% e:tremely (mporta%t pha"e o* %atural "elect(o%- "o3 called. ,hat (t ha" bee% the ch(e* *orm (% pre3huma% l(*e w(ll be here adm(tted w(thout d("cu""(o%> thou!h doubtle"" tho"e ha7(%! compete%t k%owled!e o* deta(l" ha7e !ood rea"o% *or =ual(*y(%! th(" adm(""(o%. 4owe7er- to (de%t(*y th(" procedure ab"olutely w(th "elect(o%- "eem" to me to (%d(cate a "omewhat !ro"" a%d %arrow 7("(o%. Eot o%ly (" o%e *orm o* l(*e a" a whole "e3

0 201 3lected at the e:pe%"e o* other *orm"- but o%e mode o* act(o% (% the "ame (%d(7(dual (" co%"ta%tly "elected at the e:pe%"e o* other". ,here (" %ot o%ly the tr(al by death- but there (" the tr(al by the "ucce"" or *a(lure o* "pec(al act"Othe cou%terpart- 8 "uppo"e- o* phy"(olo!(cal "elect(o% "o3called. ;e do %ot %eed to !o here (%to the 7e:ed =ue"t(o% o* the (%her(ta%ce o* ac=u(red character". ;e k%ow that throu!h what we call publ(c op(%(o% a%d educat(o% certa(% *orm" o* act(o% are co%"ta%tly "t(mulated a%d e%coura!ed- wh(le other type" are a" co%"ta%tly objected to- repre""ed- a%d pu%("hed. ;hat d(**ere%ce (% pr(%c(ple e:("t" betwee% th(" med(at(o% o* the act" o* the (%d(7(dual by "oc(ety a%d what (" ord(%ar(ly called %atural "elect(o%- 8 am u%able to "ee. 8% each ca"e there (" the react(o% o* the co%d(t(o%" o* l(*e back (%to the a!e%t" (% "uch a way a" to mod(*y the *u%ct(o% o* l(7(%!. ,hat (% o%e ca"e th(" mod(*(cat(o% take" place throu!h cha%!e" (% the "tructure o* the or!a%- "ay the eye- re=u(r(%! ma%y !e%erat(o%" to become act(7e> wh(le (% the other ca"e (t operate" w(th(% the l(*e o* o%e a%d the "ame (%d(7(duala%d a**ect" the u"e" to wh(ch the eye (" put rather tha% 0"o *ar a" we ca% tell1 the "tructure o* the eye (t"el*- (" %ot a rea"o% *or re3*u"(%! to u"e the term &%atural "elect(o%.& 9r (* we ha7e l(m(ted that term to a %arrower tech%(cal mea%(%!- (t (" certa(%ly %o rea"o% *or re*u"(%! to "ay that the "ame k(%d o* *orce" are at work br(%!(%! about the "ame "ort o* re"ult". 8* we per"o%(*y Eature- we may "ay that the (%*lue%ce" o* educat(o% a%d "oc(al appro7al a%d d("appro7al (% mod(*y(%! the beha7(or o* the a!e%tmark "(mply the d("co7ery o% the part o* Eature o* a "horter a%d more eco%om(cal *orm o* "elect(o% tha% "he had pre7(ou"ly k%ow%. ,he mod(*(cat(o% o* "tructure (" certa(%ly %ot a% e%d (% (t"el*. 8t (" "(mply o%e de7(ce *or cha%!(%! *u%ct(o%. 8* other mea%" ca% be de7("ed wh(ch do the work more e**(c(e%tly- the% "o much the better. )erta(%ly (t mark" a d("t(%ct !a(% to accompl("h th(" mod(*(cat(o% (% o%e a%d the "ame !e%erat(o% rather tha% to ha7e to tru"t to the dy(%! out o* the "er(e" o* *orm" throu!h a "e=ue%ce o* !e%erat(o%". 8t (" certa(%ly (mpl(ed (% the (dea o* %atural "elect(o% that the mo"t e**ect(7e mode" o* 7ar(at(o% "hould them"el7e" be *(%ally "elected. But Mr. 4u:ley (%"("t" upo% a%other d("t(%ct(o%. +tated

0 211 (% term" o* the !arde% (llu"trat(o%- (t (" that: &,he te%de%cy o* the co"m(c proce"" (" to br(%! about the adju"tme%t o* the *orm" o* pla%t l(*e to the curre%t co%d(t(o%"> the

te%de%cy o* the hort(cultural proce"" (" the adju"tme%t o* the %eed" o* the *orm" o* pla%t l(*e wh(ch the !arde%er de"(re" to ra("e.& ,h(" (" a 7ery commo% a%t(the"(". But (" (t a" ab"olute a%d "weep(%! a" we !e%erally a**ect to bel(e7eD 57ery l(7(%! *orm (" dy%am(cally- %ot "(mply "tat(cally- adapted to (t" e%7(ro%me%t. 8 mea% by th(" (t "ubject" co%d(t(o%" about (t to (t" ow% %eed". ,h(" (" the 7ery mea%(%! o* &adju"tme%t&> (t doe" %ot mea% that the l(*e3*orm pa""(7ely accept" or "ubm(t" to the co%d(t(o%" ju"t a" they are- but that (t *u%ct(o%ally "ubord(%ate" the"e %atural c(rcum"ta%ce" to (t" ow% *ood %eed". But th(" pr(%c(ple (" o* e"pec(al (mporta%ce w(th re*ere%ce to the *orm" (% wh(ch are *ou%d the l(%e" o* pro!re""(7e 7ar(at(o%. 8t ("- relat(7ely "peak(%!- true o* the weed" a%d !or"e o* the patch o* "o(l *rom wh(ch Mr. 4u:ley draw" h(" (llu"trat(o%- that they are adju"ted to curre%t co%d(t(o%". But that (" "(mply becau"e they mark the re"ult- the relat(7ely *(%("hed outcome o* a !(7e% proce"" o* "elect(o%. ,hey are arre"ted *orm". $u"t becau"e the patch ha" !ot (%to e=u(l(br(um w(th "urrou%d(%! co%d(t(o%" pro!re""(7e 7ar(at(o% alo%! that l(%e ha" cea"ed. 8* th(" were all the l(*e (% e:("te%ce- there would be %o more e7olut(o%. +ometh(%!- (% other word"- d(d not adapt (t"el* to &curre%t co%d(t(o%"-& a%d "o de7elopme%t co%t(%ued. 8t would be u%!rate*ul (% a%y d("cu""(o% o* th(" "ubject %ot to re*er to Malthu"H" cla""(c (llu"trat(o% o* the *ea"t "pread by EatureO%ot b(! e%ou!h *or the (%7(ted !ue"t". 8t (" "uppo"ed- (% (t" appl(cat(o% to "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce a%d "elect(o%- that th(" mea%" that the l(*e3*orm" pre"e%t "tru!!le ju"t to !et a "hare o* the *ood that (" already there. +uch a "tru!!le *or a =uota o* *ood already (% e:("te%ce- m(!ht re"ult- throu!h "elect(o%- (% per*ect(%! a "pec(e" already (% e:("te%ce- a%d thu" (% *(:(%! (t. 8t could %ot !(7e r("e to a %ew "pec(e". ,he "elect(o% wh(ch mark" pro!re"" (" that o* a 7ar(at(o% wh(ch creates a %ew *ood "upply or ampl(*(e" a% old o%e. ,he ad7a%ta!e wh(ch the 7ar(at(o% !(7e"- (* (t te%d" toward" a %ew "pec(e"- (" a% or!a% wh(ch ope%" up a w(der

0 2 1 *ood e%7(ro%me%t- detect" %ew "uppl(e" w(th(% the old- or wh(ch make" (t po""(ble to ut(l(6e a" *ood "ometh(%! h(therto (%d(**ere%t or al(e%. ,he !reater the %umber o* 7ar(et(e" o% a !(7e% p(ece o* "o(l- the more (%d(7(dual" that ca% ma(%ta(% a 7(!orou" l(*e. 'he new species means a new environment to which it ad!usts itself without interfering with others. +o *ar a" the pro!re""(7e 7ar(et(e" are co%cer%ed- (t (" %ot (% the lea"t true that they "(mply adapt them"el7e" to curre%t co%d(t(o%"> e7olut(o% (" a co%t(%ued de7elopme%t o* %ew co%d(t(o%" wh(ch are better "u(ted to the %eed" o* or!a%("m" tha% the old. ,he u%wr(tte% chapter (% %atural "elect(o% (" that o* the e7olut(o% o* e%7(ro%me%t". Eow- (% ma% we ha7e th(" power o* 7ar(at(o% a%d co%"e=ue%t d("co7ery a%d co%"t(tut(o% o* %ew e%7(ro%me%t" "et *ree. <ll b(olo!(cal proce"" ha" bee% e**ected throu!h th("- a%d "o e7ery te%de%cy wh(ch *orm" th(" power (" "elected> (% ma% (t reache" (t" cl(ma:. +o *ar a" the (%d(7(dual (" co%cer%ed- the e%7(ro%me%t 0the "pec(*(c co%d(t(o%" wh(ch relate to h(" l(*e1 (" h(!hly 7ar(able at pre"e%t. ,he !rowth o* "c(e%ce- (t" appl(cat(o% (% (%7e%t(o% to (%du"tr(al l(*e- the mult(pl(cat(o% a%d accelerat(o% o* mea%" o* tra%"portat(o% a%d (%tercommu%(cat(o%- ha7e created a pecul(arly u%"table e%7(ro%me%t. 8t "h(*t" co%"ta%tly w(th(% (t"el*- or =ual(tat(7ely- a%d a" to (t" ra%!e- or =ua%t(tat(7ely. +(mply a" a% a**a(r o* Eature- %ot o* art 0u"(%! the"e term" (% Mr. 4u:leyH" "e%"e1 (t (" a pro*(table- a% ad7a%ta!eou" th(%! that "tructural cha%!e"- (* a%y occur- "hould %ot !et

too "et. ,hey would l(m(t u%duly the po""(b(l(ty o* cha%!e (% adaptat(o%. 8% the pre"e%t e%7(ro%me%t- *le:(b(l(ty o* *u%ct(o%- the e%lar!eme%t o* the ra%!e o* u"e" to wh(ch o%e a%d the "ame or!a%- !ro""ly co%"(dered- may be put- (" a !reat- almo"t the "upremeco%d(t(o% o* "ucce"". <" "uch- a%y cha%!e (% that d(rect(o% (" a *a7orable 7ar(at(o% wh(ch mu"t be "elected. 8% a word- the d(**ere%ce betwee% ma% a%d a%(mal (" %ot that "elect(o% ha" cea"ed- but that "elect(o% alo%! the l(%e o* 7ar(at(o%" wh(ch e%lar!e a%d (%te%"(*y the e%7(ro%me%t (" act(7e a" %e7er be*ore. ;e reach prec("ely the "ame co%clu"(o% w(th re"pect to &"elect(o%& that we ha7e reached w(th re*ere%ce to the co!%ate (dea"O&*(t& a%d &"tru!!le *or e:("te%ce.& 8t (" *ou%d (%

0 231 the eth(cal proce"" a" (t (" (% the co"m(c- a%d (t operate" (% the "ame way. +o *ar a" co%d(t(o%" ha7e cha%!ed- "o *ar a" the e%7(ro%me%t (" (%de*(%(tely more comple:- w(dera%d more 7ar(able- "o *ar o* %ece""(ty a%d a" a b(olo!(cal a%d co"m(c matter- %ot merely a% eth(cal o%e- the *u%ct(o%" "elected d(**er. ,here are %o doubt "u**(c(e%tly pro*ou%d d("t(%ct(o%" betwee% the eth(cal proce"" a%d the co"m(c proce"" a" (t e:("ted pr(or to ma% a%d to the *ormat(o% o* huma% "oc(ety. +o *ar a" 8 k%ow- howe7er- all o* the"e d(**ere%ce" are "ummed up (% the *act that the proce"" a%d the *orce" bou%d up w(th the co"m(c ha7e come to co%"c(ou"%e"" (% ma%. ,hat wh(ch wa" (%"t(%ct (% the a%(mal (" co%"c(ou" (mpul"e (% ma%. ,hat wh(ch wa" &te%de%cy to 7ary& (% the a%(mal (" co%"c(ou" *ore"(!ht (% ma%. ,hat wh(ch wa" u%co%"c(ou" adaptat(o% a%d "ur7(7al (% the a%(mal- tak(%! place by the &cut a%d try& method u%t(l (t worked (t"el* out- (" w(th ma% co%"c(ou" del(berat(o% a%d e:per(me%tat(o%. ,hat th(" tra%"*er *rom u%co%"c(ou"%e"" to co%"c(ou"%e"" ha" (mme%"e (mporta%ce- %eed hardly be ar!ued. 8t (" e%ou!h to "ay that (t mea%" the whole d("t(%ct(o% o* the moral *rom the u%moral. ;e ha7e- howe7er- %o rea"o% to "uppo"e that the co"m(c proce"" ha" become arre"ted or that "ome %ew *orce ha" "uper7e%ed to "tru!!le a!a(%"t the co"m(c. +ome theolo!(a%" a%d moral("t"- to be "ure- welcomed 4u:leyH" appare%t retur% to the (dea o* a dual("m betwee% the co"m(c a%d the eth(cal a" l(kely to (%ure *a7orably to the "p(r(tual l(*e. But 8 =ue"t(o% whether the "p(r(tual l(*e doe" %ot !et (t" "ure"t a%d mo"t ample !uara%tee" whe% (t (" lear%ed that the law" a%d co%d(t(o%" o* r(!hteou"%e"" are (mpl(cated (% the work(%! proce""e" o* the u%(7er"e> whe% (t (" *ou%d that ma% (% h(" co%"c(ou" "tru!!le"- (% h(" doubt"- temptat(o%"- a%d de*eat"- (% h(" a"p(rat(o%" a%d "ucce""e"- (" mo7ed o% a%d buoyed up by the *orce" wh(ch ha7e de7eloped %ature> a%d that (% th(" moral "tru!!le he act" %ot a" a mere (%d(7(dual but a" a% or!a% (% ma(%ta(%(%! a%d carry(%! *orward the u%(7er"al proce"".

'otes
1. ,h(" paper wa" del(7ered a" a publ(c lecture dur(%! the +ummer NuarterH" work o* the @%(7er"(ty o* )h(ca!o. ,h(" w(ll accou%t *or the lack o* re*ere%ce to other art(cle" bear(%! o% the "ubject. 8 would call "pec(al atte%t(o%- howe7er- to Mr. 'e"l(e +tephe% o% Eatural +elect(o% a%d 5th(c"- (% the Contemporary (eview, a%d the art(cle by Dr. )aru" (% 'he "onist, /ol. 8/, Eo. 3- o% &5th(c" a%d the )o"m(c 9rder.& . Prec("ely (t may be "a(d- a%d that (" ju"t the rea"o% that Mr. 4u:ley (%"("t" upo% the oppo"(t(o% o* the %atural a%d the eth(cal. 8 ca%%ot a7o(d bel(e7(%! that th(" ("

what Mr. 4u:ley really had (% m(%d at the bottom o* h(" co%"c(ou"%e"". But what he "ay" (" %ot that the *orm a%d co%te%t o* *(t%e""- o* "tru!!le *or e:("te%cea%d o* "elect(o%- cha%!e w(th the cha%!e o* co%d(t(o%"- but that the"e co%cept" lo"e all appl(cab(l(ty. <%d th(" (" ju"t the po(%t u%der d("cu""(o%. 3. 8t (" pa""(%! "tra%!e that Mr. 4u:ley "hould %ot ha7e "ee% that the lo!(cal co%clu"(o% *rom h(" prem("e" o* th(" e:treme oppo"(t(o% are ju"t tho"e wh(ch he ha" h(m"el* "et *orth w(th "uch l(terary power earl(er (% h(" e""ay 0pp. ?33?C1. ,hat he d(d %ot "how"- to my m(%d- how much he take" the oppo"(t(o% (% a rhetor(cal- %ot a pract(cal- "e%"e. J. 4ere (" h(" *lat co%trad(ct(o%: &Me% (% "oc(ety are u%doubtedly "ubject to the co"m(c proce"". ,he "tru!!le *or e:("te%ce te%d" to el(m(%ate tho"e le"" *(tted to adapt them"el7e" to the c(rcum"ta%ce" o* the(r- e:("te%ce& 0p. C11.)ompare th(" w(th pp. 12- 3?- 3C- a%d the other pa""a!e" re*erred to abo7e. 2. 8 ha7e de7eloped th(" co%cept(o% p"ycholo!(cally (% the Philosophical (eview *or $a%. 1C9B- (% a% art(cle upo% &,he P"ycholo!y o* 5**ort& 5'he .arly 3or)s of 2ohn Dewey, v, 1213?3#. 3333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Dewey/Dewey_1910b/Dewey_1910_03.html [Bajado el 3 de a!o"to de 011#

A John Dewey source page

Originally published as:
$oh% Dewey. &8%tell(!e%ce o* Moral"&- )hapter 3 (% 'he /nfluence of Darwin on Philosophy and 6ther .ssays. Eew Aork: 4e%ry 4olt a%d )ompa%y 019101 : J? 3 B?.

The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy and Other Essays

Chapter &: 2ntelligence and Morals( )
Table of Contents 5 'e6t 5 %re1ious

&5M)5P, the bl(%d *orce" o* %ature-& "a(d +(r 4e%ry Ma(%e- & %oth(%! mo7e" (% th(" world wh(ch (" %ot Freek (% (t" or(!(%.& <%d (* we a"k why th(" (" "o- the re"po%"e come" that the Freek d("co7ered the bu"(%e"" o* ma% to be pur"u(t o* !ood- a%d (%tell(!e%ce to be ce%tral (% th(" =ue"t. ,he utmo"t to be "a(d (% pra("e o* Plato a%d <r("totle (" %ot that they (%7e%ted e:celle%t moral theor(e"- but that they ro"e to the opportu%(ty wh(ch the "pectacle o* Freek l(*e a**orded. .or <the%" pre"e%ted a% all but complete m(croco"m *or the "tudy o* the (%teract(o% o* "oc(al or!a%(6at(o% a%d (%d(7(dual character. < publ(c l(*e o* r(ch d(7er"(ty (% co%ce%trated a%d (%te%"e "ple%dor tra(%ed the c(7(c "e%"e. +tr(*e o* *act(o% a%d the rap(d o"c(llat(o%" o* type" o* pol(ty pro7(ded the occa"(o% *or (%tellectual (%=u(ry a%d a%aly"(". ,he career" o* dramat(c

per"o%al(t(e"- hab(t" o* d("cu""(o%- ea"e o* le!("lat(7e cha%!e- *ac(l(t(e" *or per"o%al amb(3

0JB1 3t(o%"- d("tract(o% by per"o%al r(7alr(e"- *(:ed atte%t(o% upo% the eleme%t" o* character- a%d upo% co%"(derat(o% o* the e**ect o* (%d(7(dual character o% "oc(al 7(tal(ty a%d "tab(l(ty. 4appy e:empt(o% *rom eccle"(a"t(c preoccupat(o%"- "u"cept(b(l(ty to %atural harmo%y- a%d %atural p(ety co%"p(red w(th *ra%k a%d ope% ob"er7at(o% to ack%owled!me%t o* the role played by %atural co%d(t(o%". +oc(al (%"tab(l(ty a%d "hock made e=ually pert(%e%t a%d ob7(ou" the remark that o%ly (%tell(!e%ce ca% co%*(rm the 7alue" that %atural co%d(t(o%" !e%erate- a%d that (%tell(!e%ce (" (t"el* %urtured a%d matured o%ly (% a *ree a%d "table "oc(ety. 8% Plato the re"ulta%t a%aly"(" o* the mutual (mpl(cat(o%" o* the (%d(7(dual- the "oc(al a%d the %atural- co%7er!ed (% the (dea" that moral" a%d ph(lo"ophy are o%e: %amely- a lo7e o* that w("dom wh(ch (" the "ource o* "ecure a%d "oc(al !ood> that mathemat(c" a%d the %atural "c(e%ce" *ocu"ed upo% the problem o* the percept(o% o* the !ood *ur%("h the mater(al" o* moral "c(e%ce> that lo!(c (" the method o* the pre!%a%t or!a%(6at(o% o* "oc(al co%d(t(o%" w(th re"pect to !ood> that pol(t(c" a%d p"ycholo!y are "c(e%ce" o* o%e a%d the "ame huma% %ature- take% *(r"t (% the lar!e a%d the% (% the l(ttle. +o *ar that lar!e a%d e:pa%"(7e 7("(o% o* Plato. But project(o% o* a better l(*e mu"t be ba"ed upo% re*lect(o% o* the l(*e already l(7ed. ,he (%

0 JC1 e7(table l(m(tat(o%" o* the Freek c(ty3"tate were (%e7(tably wrou!ht (%to the te:ture o* moral theory. ,he bu"(%e"" o* thou!ht wa" to *ur%("h a "ub"t(tute *or cu"tom" wh(ch were the% rela:(%! *rom the pre""ure o* co%tact a%d (%tercour"e w(thout a%d the *r(ct(o% o* "tr(*e w(th(%. Iea"o% wa" to take the place o* cu"tom a" a !u(de o* l(*e> but (t wa" to *ur%("h rule" a" *(%al- a" u%alterable a" tho"e o* cu"tom. 8% "hort- the th(%ker" were *a"c(%ated by the a*ter!low o* cu"tom. ,hey took *or the(r ow% (deal the d("t(llat(o% *rom cu"tom o* (t" e""e%ce 3e%d" a%d law" wh(ch "hould be r(!(d a%d (%7ar(able. ,hu" Moral" wa" "et upo% the track wh(ch (t dared %ot lea7e *or %(!h twe%ty3*(7e hu%dred year": "earch *or the *(%al !ood- a%d *or the "(%!le moral *orce. <r("totleH" a""ert(o%" that the "tate e:("t" by %ature- a%d that (% the "tate alo%e doe" the (%d(7(dual ach(e7e (%depe%de%ce a%d complete%e"" o* l(*e- are (%deed pre!%a%t "ay(%!". But a" uttered by <r("totle they mea%t that- (% a% ("olated "tate- the Freek c(ty3"tate- "et a !arla%ded ("la%d (% the wa"te "ea o* barbaroi, a commu%(ty (%d(**ere%t whe% %ot ho"t(le to all other "oc(al !roup(%!"- (%d(7(dual" atta(% the(r *ull e%d. 8% a "oc(al u%(ty wh(ch "(!%(*(ed "oc(al co%tract(o%- co%tempt- a%d a%ta!o%("m- (% a "oc(al order wh(ch de"p("ed (%tercour"e a%d !lor(*(ed war- (" real(6ed the l(*e o* e:celle%ceG

0J91 ,here (" l(kew("e a pro*ou%d "ay(%! o* <r("totleH" that the (%d(7(dual who otherw("e tha% by acc(de%t (" %ot a member o* a "tate (" e(ther a brute or a !od. But (t (" !e%erally *or!otte% that el"ewhere <r("totle (de%t(*(ed the h(!he"t e:celle%ce- the ch(e* 7(rtue- w(th

pure thou!ht- a%d (de%t(*y(%! th(" w(th the d(7(%e- ("olated (t (% lo%ely !ra%deur *rom the l(*e o* "oc(ety. ,hat ma%- "o *ar a" (% h(m lay- "hould be !odl(ke- mea%t that he "hould be %o%"oc(al- becau"e "upra3c(7(c. Plato the (deal("t had "hared the bel(e* that rea"o% (" the d(7(%e> but he wa" al"o a re*ormer a%d a rad(cal a%d he would ha7e tho"e who atta(%ed rat(o%al (%"(!ht de"ce%d a!a(% (%to the c(7(c ca7e- a%d (% (t" ob"cur(ty labor pat(e%tly *or the e%l(!hte%me%t o* (t" blear3eyed (%hab(ta%t". <r("totle- the co%"er7at(7e a%d the de*(%er o* what ("- !lor(ed (% the e:altat(o% o* (%tell(!e%ce (% ma% abo7e c(7(c e:celle%ce a%d "oc(al %eed> a%d thereby ("olated the l(*e o* true"t k%owled!e *rom co%tact w(th "oc(al e:per(e%ce a%d *rom re"po%"(b(l(ty *or d("cr(m(%at(o% o* 7alue" (% the cour"e o* l(*e. Moral theory- howe7er- accepted *rom "oc(al cu"tom more tha% (t" catalept(c r(!(d(ty- (t" e:clu"(7e area o* commo% !ood- a%d (t" u%*ruct(*(ed a%d (rre"po%"(ble rea"o%. ,he c(ty3 "tate wa" a "uper*(c(al layer o* cultured c(t(6e%"- cultured throu!h a part(c(pat(o% (% a**a(r" made po""(ble by rel(e* *rom eco%om(c pur"u(t"- "uper(mpo"ed upo% the de%"e

0 201 ma"" o* "er*"- art("a%"- a%d laborer". .or th(" d(7("(o%- moral ph(lo"ophy made (t"el* "p(r(tual "po%"or- a%d thu" took (t up (%to (t" ow% be(%!. Plato wre"tled 7al(a%tly w(th the cla"" problem> but h(" outcome wa" the %ece""(ty o* dec("(7e demarcat(o%- a*ter educat(o%- o* the ma""e" (% whom rea"o% wa" a"leep a%d appet(te much awake- *rom the *ew who were *(t to rule becau"e alertly w("e. ,he mo"t !e%erou"ly (ma!(%at(7e "oul o* all ph(lo"ophy could %ot *ar outru% the (%"t(tut(o%al pract(ce" o* h(" people a%d h(" t(me". ,h(" m(!ht ha7e war%ed h(" "ucce""or" o* the da%!er o* de"ert(%! the "ober path o* a cr(t(cal d("cer%me%t o* the better a%d the wor"e w(th(% co%temporary l(*e *or the more e:c(t(%! ad7e%ture o* a *(%al determ(%at(o% o* ab"olute !ood a%d e7(l. 8t m(!ht ha7e tau!ht the probab(l(ty that "ome brute re"(duum or u%rat(o%al(6ed "oc(al hab(t would be erected (%to a% apotheo"(" o* pure rea"o%. But the le""o% wa" %ot lear%ed. <r("totle promptly y(elded to the be"ett(%! "(% o* all ph(lo"opher"- the (deal(6at(o% o* the e:("te%t: he declared that the cla"" d("t(%ct(o%" o* "uper(or(ty a%d (%*er(or(ty a" betwee% ma% a%d woma%- ma"ter a%d "la7e- l(beral3m(%ded a%d ba"e mecha%(c- e:("t a%d are ju"t(*(ed by %ature3a %ature wh(ch a(m" at embod(ed rea"o%. ;hat- *(%ally- (" th(" Eature to wh(ch the ph(lo"ophy o* "oc(ety a%d the (%d(7(dual "o bou%d (t"el*D 8t (" the %ature wh(ch *(!ure" (% Freek cu"tom"

0211 a%d myth> the %ature re"ple%de%t a%d ador%ed wh(ch co%*ro%t" u" (% Freek poetry a%d art: the a%(m("m o* "a7a!e ma% pur!ed o* !ro""%e"" a%d !e%eral(6ed by u%err(%! e"thet(c ta"te (%to beauty a%d "y"tem. ,he myth" had told o* the lo7e" a%d hate"- the capr(ce" a%d de"ert(o%" o* the !od"- a%d beh(%d them all- (%e7(table .ate. Ph(lo"ophy tra%"lated the"e tale" (%to *ormulae o* the brute *luctuat(o% o* rapac(ou" cha%!e held (% bou%d" by the *(%al a%d "upreme e%d: the rat(o%al !ood. ,he a%(m("m o* the popular m(%d d(ed to reappear a" co"molo!y. Iepeatedly (% th(" cour"e we ha7e heard o* "c(e%ce" wh(ch be!a% a" part" o* ph(lo"ophy a%d wh(ch !radually wo% the(r (%depe%de%ce. <%other "tateme%t o* the "ame h("tory (" that both "c(e%ce a%d ph(lo"ophy be!a% (% "ubject(o% to mytholo!(cal a%(m("m. Both be!a% w(th accepta%ce o* a %ature who"e (rre!ular(t(e" d("played the mea%(%!le"" 7ar(ab(l(ty o* *ool("h wa%t" held w(th(% the l(m(t" o* order a%d u%(*orm(ty by a%

u%derly(%! mo7eme%t toward a *(%al a%d "table purpo"e. <%d whe% the "c(e%ce" !radually a""umed the ta"k o* reduc(%! (rre!ular capr(ce to re!ular co%ju%ct(o%ph(lo"ophy bra7ely took upo% (t"el* the ta"k o* "ub"ta%t(at(%!- u%der the capt(o% o* a "p(r(tual 7(ew o* the u%(7er"e- the a%(m("t(c "ur7(7al. Doubtle"" +ocrate" brou!ht ph(lo"ophy to earth> but h(" (%ju%ct(o% to ma% to k%ow h(m"el* wa" (%cred(bly

02 1 comprom("ed (% (t" e:ecut(o% by the *act that later ph(lo"opher" "ubmer!ed ma% (% the world to wh(ch ph(lo"ophy wa" brou!ht: a world wh(ch wa" the hea7y a%d "u%ke% ce%ter o* h(erarch(c hea7e%" located (% the(r pur(ty a%d re*(%eme%t a" remotely a" po""(ble *rom the !ro"" a%d muddy 7e"ture o* earth. ,he 7ar(ou" l(m(tat(o%" o* Freek cu"tom- (t" ho"t(le (%d(**ere%ce to all out"(de the %arrow c(ty3"tate- (t" a""umpt(o% o* *(:ed d(7("(o%" o* w("e a%d bl(%d amo%! me%- (t" (%ab(l(ty "oc(ally to ut(l(6e "c(e%ce- (t" "ubord(%at(o% o* huma% (%te%t(o% to co"m(c a(m3 all o* the"e th(%!" were worked (%to moral theory. Ph(lo"ophy had %o act(7e ha%d (% produc(%! the co%d(t(o% o* barbar("m (% 5urope *rom the *(*th to the *(*tee%th ce%tur(e". By a% u%w(tt(%! (ro%y wh(ch would ha7e "hocked %o%e "o much a" the luc(d moral("t" o* <the%"- the(r ph(lo"oph(c (deal(6at(o%- u%der capt(o%" o* Eature a%d Iea"o%- o* the (%here%t l(m(tat(o%" o* <the%(a% "oc(ety a%d Freek "c(e%ce- *ur%("hed the (%tellectual tool" *or de*(%(%!- "ta%dard(6(%!- a%d ju"t(*y(%! all the *u%dame%tal cle*t" a%d a%ta!o%("m" o* *eudal("m. ;he% pract(cal co%d(t(o%" are %ot *ro6e% (% me%H" (ma!(%at(o% (%to cry"tall(%e truth"- they are %aturally *lu(d. ,hey come a%d !o. But whe% (%tell(!e%ce *(:e" *luctuat(%! c(rcum"ta%ce" (%to *(%al (deal"- petr(*act(o% (" l(kely to occur> a%d ph(lo"ophy !ratu(tou"ly took upo% (t"el* the re3

0 231 3"po%"(b(l(ty *or ju"t(*y(%! the wor"t de*ect" o* barbar(a% 5urope by "how(%! the(r %ece""ary co%%ect(o% w(th d(7(%e rea"o%. ,he d(7("(o% o* ma%k(%d (%to the two camp" o* the redeemed a%d the co%dem%ed had %ot %eeded ph(lo"ophy to produce (t. But the Freek clea7a!e o* me% (%to "eparate k(%d" o% the ba"(" o* the(r po"(t(o% w(th(% or w(thout the c(ty3"tate wa" u"ed to rat(o%al(6e th(" har"h (%tolera%ce. ,he h(erarch(c or!a%(6at(o% o* *eudal("m- w(th(% church a%d "tate- o* tho"e po""e""ed o* "acred rule a%d tho"e who"e "ole e:celle%ce wa" obed(e%ce- d(d %ot re=u(re moral theory to !e%erate or e:pla(% (t. But (t took ph(lo"ophy to *ur%("h the (%tellectual tool" by wh(ch "uch cha%ce ep("ode" were embla6o%ed upo% the co"m(c hea7e%" a" a !ra%d(o"e "p(r(tual ach(e7eme%t. Eo> (t (" all too ea"y to e:pla(% b(tter (%tolera%ce a%d de"(re *or dom(%at(o%. +tubbor% a" they are- (t wa" o%ly whe% Freek moral theory had put u%der%eath them the d("t(%ct(o% betwee% the (rrat(o%al a%d the rat(o%al- betwee% d(7(%e truth a%d !ood a%d corrupt a%d weak huma% appet(te- that (%tolera%ce o% "y"tem a%d earthly dom(%at(o% *or the "ake o* eter%al e:celle%ce were ph(lo"oph(cally "a%ct(o%ed. ,he health a%d wel*are o* the body a%d the "ecur(%! *or all o* a "ure a%d a pro"perou" l(7el(hood were %ot matter" *or wh(ch med(e7al co%d(t(o%" *o"tered care (% a%y ca"e. But moral ph(lo"ophy

0 2J1 wa" pre7a(led upo% to dam% the body o% pr(%c(ple- a%d to rele!ate to (%"(!%(*(ca%ce a" merely mu%da%e a%d temporal the problem o* a ju"t (%du"tr(al order. )(rcum"ta%ce" o* the t(me" bore w(th "u**(c(e%t hard%e"" upo% "ucce""*ul "c(e%t(*(c

(%7e"t(!at(o%> but ph(lo"ophy added the co%7(ct(o% that (% a%y ca"e truth (" "o "uper%al that (t mu"t be "uper%aturally re7ealed- a%d "o (mporta%t that (t mu"t be author(tat(7ely (mparted a%d e%*orced. 8%tell(!e%ce wa" d(7erted *rom the cr(t(cal co%"(derat(o% o* the %atural "ource" a%d "oc(al co%"e=ue%ce" o* better a%d wor"e (%to the cha%%el o* metaphy"(cal "ubtlet(e" a%d "y"tem"- accepta%ce o* wh(ch wa" made e""e%t(al to part(c(pat(o% (% the "oc(al order a%d (% rat(o%al e:celle%ce. Ph(lo"ophy bou%d the o%ce erect *orm o* huma% e%dea7or a%d pro!re"" to the char(ot wheel" o* co"molo!y a%d theolo!y. +(%ce the Ie%a(""a%ce- moral ph(lo"ophy ha" repeatedly re7erted to the Freek (deal o* %atural e:celle%ce real(6ed (% "oc(al l(*e- u%der the *o"ter(%! care o* (%tell(!e%ce (% act(o%. ,he retur%- howe7er- ha" take% place u%der the (%*lue%ce o* democrat(c pol(tycommerc(al e:pa%"(o%- a%d "c(e%t(*(c reor!a%(6at(o%. 8t ha" bee% a l(berat(o% more tha% a re7er"(o%. ,h(" comb(%ed retur% a%d ema%c(pat(o%- ha7(%! tra%"*ormed our pract(ce o* l(*e (% the la"t *our ce%tur(e"- w(ll %ot be co%te%t t(ll (t ha" wr(tte% (t"el* clear (% our theory o* that pract(ce.

0221 ;hether the co%"e=ue%t re7olut(o% (% moral ph(lo"ophy be termed pra!mat("m or be !(7e% the happ(er t(tle o* the appl(ed a%d e:per(me%tal hab(t o* m(%d (" o* l(ttle accou%t. ;hat (" o* mome%t (" that (%tell(!e%ce ha" de"ce%ded *rom (t" lo%ely ("olat(o% at the remote ed!e o* th(%!"- whe%ce (t operated a" u%mo7ed mo7er a%d ult(mate !oodto take (t" "eat (% the mo7(%! a**a(r" o* me%. ,heory may there*ore become re"po%"(ble to the pract(ce" that ha7e !e%erated (t> the !ood be co%%ected w(th %ature- but w(th %ature %aturally- %ot metaphy"(cally- co%ce(7ed- a%d "oc(al l(*e be cher("hed (% behal* o* (t" ow% (mmed(ate po""(b(l(t(e"- %ot o% the !rou%d o* (t" remote co%%ect(o%" w(th a co"m(c rea"o% a%d a% ab"olute e%d. ,here (" a %ot(o%- more *am(l(ar tha% correct- that Freek thou!ht "acr(*(ced the (%d(7(dual to the "tate. Eo%e ha" e7er k%ow% better tha% the Freek that the (%d(7(dual come" to h(m"el* a%d to h(" ow% o%ly (% a""oc(at(o% w(th other". But Freek thou!ht "ubjected- a" we ha7e "ee%- both "tate a%d (%d(7(dual to a% e:ter%al co"m(c order> a%d thereby (t (%e7(tably re"tr(cted the *ree u"e (% doubt- (%=u(ry- a%d e:per(me%tat(o%- o* the huma% (%tell(!e%ce. ,he anima libera, the *ree m(%d o* the "(:tee%th ce%tury- o* Fal(leo a%d h(" "ucce""or"- wa" the cou%terpart o* the d("(%te!rat(o% o* co"molo!y a%d (t" a%(m("t(c teleolo!y. ,he lecturer o% pol(t(cal eco%omy rem(%ded u" that h(" "ubject

02?1 be!a%- (% the M(ddle <!e"- a" a bra%ch o* eth(c"- thou!h- a" he ha"te%ed to "how- (t "oo% !ot (%to better a""oc(at(o%. ;ell- the "ame compa%y wa" o%ce kept by all the "c(e%ce"- mathemat(cal a%d phy"(cal a" well a" "oc(al. <ccord(%! to all accou%t" (t wa" the (%te!r(ty o* the %umber o%e a%d the rect(tude o* the "=uare that attracted the atte%t(o% o* Pytha!ora" to ar(thmet(c a%d !eometry a" prom("(%! *(eld" o* "tudy. <"tro%omy wa" the projected p(cture book o* a co"m(c object le""o% (% moral"- Da%teH" tra%"cr(pt o* wh(ch (" %o%e the le"" l(teral becau"e poet(c. 8* phy"(c" alo%e rema(%ed out"(de the moral *old- wh(le %oble e""e%ce" redeemed chem("try- occult *orce" ble""ed phy"(olo!ya%d the (mmater(al "oul e:alted p"ycholo!y- phy"(c" (" the e:cept(o% that pro7e" the rule: matter wa" "o (%here%tly (mmoral that %o h(!h3m(%ded "c(e%ce would demea% (t"el* by co%tact w(th (t.

8* we do %ot jo(% w(th ma%y (% lame%t(%! the "tr(pp(%! *rom %ature o* tho"e (deal("t(c propert(e" (% wh(ch a%(m("m "ur7(7ed- (* we do %ot mour% the "ece""(o% o* the "c(e%ce" *rom eth(c"- (t (" becau"e the aba%do%me%t by (%tell(!e%ce o* a *(:ed a%d "tat(c moral e%d wa" the %ece""ary preco%d(t(o% o* a *ree a%d pro!re""(7e "c(e%ce o* both th(%!" a%d moral"> becau"e the ema%c(pat(o% o* the "c(e%ce" *rom ready made- remote- a%d ab"tract 7alue" wa" %ece""ary to make the "c(e%ce" a7a(lable *or creat(%! a%d ma(%ta(%(%! more a%d "pec(*(c 7alue" here

0 2B1 a%d %ow. ,he d(7(%e comedy o* moder% med(c(%e a%d hy!(e%e (" o%e o* the huma% ep(c" yet to be wr(tte%> but whe% compo"ed (t may pro7e %o u%worthy compa%(o% o* the med(e7al ep(c o* other worldly beat(*(c 7("(o%". ,he !reat (dea" o* the e(!htee%th ce%tury- that e:pa%"(7e epoch o* moral percept(o% wh(ch ra%k" (% (llum(%at(o% a%d *er7or alo%! w(th cla""(c Freek thou!ht- the !reat (dea" o* the (%de*(%(tely co%t(%uou" pro!re"" o* huma%(ty a%d o* the power a%d "(!%(*(ca%ce o* *reed (%tell(!e%ce- were bor%e by a "(%!le mother3e:per(me%tal (%=u(ry. ,he !rowth o* (%du"try a%d commerce (" at o%ce cau"e a%d e**ect o* the !rowth (% "c(e%ce. Democr(tu" a%d other a%c(e%t" co%ce(7ed the mecha%(cal theory o* the u%(7er"e. ,he %ot(o% wa" %ot o%ly bla%k a%d repelle%t- becau"e (t (!%ored the r(ch "oc(al mater(al wh(ch Plato a%d <r("totle had or!a%(6ed (%to the(r r(7al (deal("t(c 7(ew"> but (t wa" "c(e%t(*(cally "ter(le- a p(ece o* d(alect(c". )o%tempt *or mach(%e" a" the accouterme%t" o* de"p("ed mecha%(c" kept the mecha%(cal co%cept(o% aloo* *rom the"e "pec(*(c a%d co%trollable e:per(e%ce" wh(ch alo%e could *ruct(*y (t. ,h(" co%cept(o%the%- l(ke the (deal("t(c- wa" tra%"lated (%to a "peculat(7e co"molo!y a%d throw% l(ke a 7a"t %et arou%d the u%(7er"e at lar!e- a" (* to keep (t *rom com(%! to p(ece". 8t (" *rom re"pect *or the le7er- the pulley- a%d the "crew that moder% e:per(me%tal

02C1 a%d mathemat(cal mecha%(c" der(7e" (t"el*. Mot(o%- traced throu!h the work(%!" o* a mach(%e- wa" *ollowed out (%to %atural e7e%t" a%d "tud(ed ju"t a" mot(o%- %ot a" a poor yet %ece""ary de7(ce *or real(6(%! *(%al cau"e". +o "tud(ed- (t wa" *ou%d to be a7a(lable *or %ew mach(%e" a%d %ew appl(cat(o%"- wh(ch (% creat(%! %ew e%d" al"o promoted %ew wa%t"- a%d thereby "t(mulated %ew act(7(t(e"- %ew d("co7er(e"- a%d %ew (%7e%t(o%". ,he reco!%(t(o% that %atural e%er!y ca% be "y"temat(cally appl(ed- throu!h e:per(me%tal ob"er7at(o%- to the "at("*act(o% a%d mult(pl(cat(o% o* co%crete wa%t" (" doubtle"" the !reate"t "(%!le d("co7ery e7er (mported (%to the l(*e o* ma%3"a7e perhap" the d("co7ery o* la%!ua!e. +c(e%ce- borrow(%! *rom (%du"try- repa(d the debt w(th (%tere"t- a%d ha" made the co%trol o* %atural *orce" *or the a(m" o* l(*e "o (%e7(table that *or the *(r"t t(me ma% (" rel(e7ed *rom o7erha%!(%! *ear- w(th (t" wol*l(ke "cramble to po""e"" a%d accumulate- a%d (" *reed to co%"(der the more !rac(ou" =ue"t(o% o* "ecur(%! to all a% ample a%d l(beral l(*e. ,he (%du"tr(al l(*e had bee% co%dem%ed by Freek e:altat(o% o* ab"tract thou!ht a%d by Freek co%tempt *or labor- a" repre"e%t(%! the brute "tru!!le o* car%al appet(te *or (t" ow% "at(ety. ,he (%du"tr(al mo7eme%t- o**"pr(%! o* "c(e%ce- re"tored (t to (t" ce%tral po"(t(o% (% moral". ;he% <dam +m(th made eco%om(c act(7(ty the mo7(%! "pr(%! o* ma%H" u%rem(tt(%! e**ort- *rom

0291 the cradle to the !ra7e- to better h(" ow% lot- he recorded th(" cha%!e. <%d whe% he made "ympathy the ce%tral "pr(%! (% ma%H" co%"c(ou" moral e%dea7or- he reported the

e**ect wh(ch the (%crea"(%! (%tercour"e o* me%- due pr(mar(ly to commerce- had (% break(%! dow% "u"p(c(o% a%d jealou"y a%d (% l(berat(%! ma%H" k(%dl(er (mpul"e". Democracy- the cruc(al e:pre""(o% o* moder% l(*e- (" %ot "o much a% add(t(o% to the "c(e%t(*(c a%d (%du"tr(al te%de%c(e" a" (t (" the percept(o% o* the(r "oc(al or "p(r(tual mea%(%!. Democracy (" a% ab"urd(ty where *a(th (% the (%d(7(dual a" (%d(7(dual (" (mpo""(ble> a%d th(" *a(th (" (mpo""(ble whe% (%tell(!e%ce (" re!arded a" a co"m(c power%ot a% adju"tme%t a%d appl(cat(o% o* (%d(7(dual te%de%c(e". 8t (" al"o (mpo""(ble whe% appet(te" a%d de"(re" are co%ce(7ed to be the dom(%a%t *actor (% the co%"t(tut(o% o* mo"t me%H" character"- a%d whe% appet(te a%d de"(re are co%ce(7ed to be ma%(*e"tat(o%" o* the d("orderly a%d u%ruly pr(%c(ple o* %ature. ,o put the (%tellectual ce%ter o* !ra7(ty (% the object(7e co"mo"- out"(de o* me%H" ow% e:per(me%t" a%d te"t"- a%d the% to (%7(te the appl(cat(o% o* (%d(7(dual (%tell(!e%ce to the determ(%at(o% o* "oc(ety- (" to (%7(te chao". ,o hold that wa%t (" mere %e!at(7e *lu: a%d he%ce re=u(re" e:ter%al *(:at(o% by rea"o%a%d the% to (%7(te the wa%t" to !(7e *ree play to them"el7e" (% "oc(al co%"truct(o% a%d (%tercour"e- (" to call dow% a%archy. Democ

0 ?01 3racy (" e"t(mable o%ly throu!h the cha%!ed co%cept(o% o* (%tell(!e%ce- that *orm" moder% "c(e%ce- a%d o* wa%t- that *orm" moder% (%du"try. 8t (" e""e%t(ally a cha%!ed p"ycholo!y. ,he "ub"t(tut(o%- *or a pr(or( truth a%d deduct(o%- o* *lue%t doubt a%d (%=u(ry mea%t tru"t (% huma% %ature (% the co%crete> (% (%d(7(dual ho%e"ty- cur(o"(ty- a%d "ympathy. ,he "ub"t(tut(o% o* mo7(%! commerce *or *(:ed cu"tom mea%t a 7(ew o* wa%t" a" the dy%am(c" o* "oc(al pro!re""- %ot a" the patholo!y o* pr(7ate !reed. ,he %(%etee%th ce%tury (%deed tur%ed "our o% that "omewhat complace%t opt(m("m (% wh(ch the e(!htee%th ce%tury re"ted: the (dea" that the (%tell(!e%t "el*3lo7e o* (%d(7(dual" would co%duce to "oc(al cohe"(o%- a%d compet(t(o% amo%! (%d(7(dual" u"her (% the k(%!dom o* "oc(al wel*are. But the co%cept(o% o* a "oc(al harmo%y o* (%tere"t" (% wh(ch the ach(e7eme%t by each (%d(7(dual o* h(" ow% *reedom "hould co%tr(bute to a l(ke per*ect(%! o* the power" o* all- throu!h a *rater%ally or!a%(6ed "oc(ety- (" the perma%e%t co%tr(but(o% o* the (%du"tr(al mo7eme%t to moral" 3e7e% thou!h "o *ar (t be but the co%tr(but(o% o* a problem. 8%tellectually "peak(%!- the ce%tur(e" "(%ce the *ourtee%th are the true m(ddle a!e". ,hey mark the tra%"(t(o%al per(od o* me%tal hab(t- a" the "o3called med(e7al per(od repre"e%t" the petr(*act(o%- u%der cha%!ed outward co%d(t(o%"- o* Freek (dea".

0 ?11 ,he co%"c(ou" art(culat(o% o* !e%u(%ely moder% te%de%c(e" ha" yet to come- a%d t(ll (t come" the eth(c o* our ow% l(*e mu"t rema(% u%de"cr(bed. But the "y"tem o* moral" wh(ch ha" come %eare"t to the re*lect(o% o* the mo7eme%t" o* "c(e%ce- democracy- a%d commerce- (" doubtle"" the ut(l(tar(a%. +c(e%t(*(c- a*ter the moder% mode- (t certa(%ly would be. Eewto%H" (%*lue%ce dye" deep the moral thou!ht o* the e(!htee%th ce%tury. ,he arra%!eme%t" o* the "olar "y"tem had bee% de"cr(bed (% term" o* a homo!e%eou" matter a%d mot(o%- worked by two oppo"ed a%d compe%"at(%! *orce": all becau"e a method o* a%aly"("- o* !e%eral(6at(o% by a%alo!y- a%d o* mathemat(cal deduct(o% back to %ew emp(r(cal deta(l" had bee% *ollowed. ,he (ma!(%at(o% o* the e(!htee%th ce%tury wa" a Eewto%(a% (ma!(%at(o%> a%d th(" %o le"" (% "oc(al tha% (% phy"(cal matter". 4ume procla(m" that moral" (" about to become a% e:per(me%tal "c(e%ce. $u"t a"- almo"t (% our ow% day- M(llH" (%tere"t (% a method *or "oc(al "c(e%ce led h(m to re*ormulate the lo!(c

o* e:per(me%tal (%=u(ry- "o all the !reat me% o* the 5%l(!hte%me%t were (% "earch *or the or!a%o% o* moral" wh(ch "hould repeat the phy"(cal tr(umph" o* Eewto%. Be%tham %ote" that phy"(c" ha" had (t" Baco% a%d Eewto%> that moral" ha" had (t" Baco% (% 4el7t(u"- but "t(ll awa(t" (t" Eewto%> a%d he lea7e" u" (% %o doubt that at the mome%t o* wr(t(%! he wa" ready- mode"tly but

0? 1 *(rmly- to *(ll the wa(t(%! %(che w(th (t" m(""(%! *(!ure. ,he (%du"tr(al mo7eme%t *ur%("hed the co%crete (ma!ery *or th(" eth(cal re%o7at(o%. ,he ut(l(tar(a%" borrowed *rom <dam +m(th the %ot(o% that throu!h (%du"tr(al e:cha%!e (% a *ree "oc(ety the (%d(7(dual pur"u(%! h(" ow% !ood (" led- u%der the !u(da%ce o* the & (%7("(ble ha%d-& to promote the !e%eral !ood more e**ectually tha% (* he had "et out to do (t. ,h(" (dea wa" dre""ed out (% the atom("t(c p"ycholo!y wh(ch 4artley bu(lt out *rom 'ocke3a%d wa" retur%ed at u"ur(ou" rate" to later eco%om("t". .rom the !reat .re%ch wr(ter" who had "ou!ht to ju"t(*y a%d promote democrat(c (%d(7(dual("m- .came the co%cept(o% that- "(%ce (t (" per7erted pol(t(cal (%"t(tut(o%" wh(ch depra7e (%d(7(dual" a%d br(%! them (%to ho"t(l(ty- %at(o% a!a(%"t %at(o%- cla"" a!a(%"t cla""- (%d(7(dual a!a(%"t (%d(7(dual- the !reat pol(t(cal problem (" "uch a re*orm o* law a%d le!("lat(o%- c(7(l a%d cr(m(%al- o* adm(%("trat(o%- a%d o* educat(o% a" w(ll *orce the (%d(7(dual to *(%d h(" ow% (%tere"t" (% pur"u(t" co%duc(%! to the wel*are o* other". ,reme%dou"ly e**ect(7e a" a tool o* cr(t(c("m- operat(7e (% abol(t(o% a%d el(m(%at(o%ut(l(tar(a%("m *a(led to mea"ure up to the co%"truct(7e %eed" o* the t(me. 8t" theoret(cal e=ual(6at(o% o* the !ood o* each w(th that o* e7ery other wa" pract(cally

0 ?31 per7erted by (t" e:ce""(7e (%tere"t (% the m(ddle a%d ma%u*actur(%! cla""e". 8t" "peculat(7e de*ect o* a% atom("t(c p"ycholo!y comb(%ed w(th th(" %arrow%e"" o* 7("(o% to make l(!ht o* the co%"truct(7e work that %eed" to be do%e by the "tate- be*ore all ca% ha7e- otherw("e tha% (% %ame- a% e=ual cha%ce to cou%t (% the commo% !ood. ,hu" the a!e3lo%! "ubord(%at(o% o* eco%om(c" to pol(t(c" wa" re7e%!ed (% the "ubmer!(%! o* both pol(t(c" a%d eth(c" (% a %arrow theory o* eco%om(c pro*(t> a%d ut(l(tar(a%("m- (% (t" orthodo: de"ce%da%t"- pro**ered the d("jo(%ted p(ece" o* a mecha%("m- w(th a mo%oto%ou" re(terat(o% that looked at ar(!ht they *orm a beaut(*ully harmo%(ou" or!a%("m. Pre7("(o%- a%d to "ome e:te%t e:per(e%ce- o* th(" *a(lure- co%jo(%ed w(th d(**er(%! "oc(al trad(t(o%" a%d amb(t(o%"- e7oked Ferma% (deal("m- the tra%"ce%de%tal moral" o* La%t a%d h(" "ucce""or". Ferma% thou!ht "tro7e to pre"er7e the trad(t(o%" wh(ch bou%d culture to the pa"t- wh(le re7("(%! the"e trad(t(o%" to re%der them capable o* meet(%! %o7el co%d(t(o%". 8t *ou%d weapo%" at ha%d (% the co%cept(o%" borrowed by Ioma% law *rom +to(c ph(lo"ophy- a%d (% the co%cept(o%" by wh(ch Prote"ta%t huma%("m had re3 ed(ted "chola"t(c )athol(c("m. Frot(u" had made the (dea o* %atural law- %atural r(!ht a%d obl(!at(o%- the ce%tral (dea o* Ferma% moral"- a" thorou!hly a" 'ocke had made the (%d(7(dual de"(re *or l(berty a%d happ(%e"" the

0 ?J1 *ocu" o* 5%!l("h a%d the% o* .re%ch "peculat(o%. Mater(al(6ed (deal("m (" the happy mo%"tro"(ty (% wh(ch the popular dema%d *or 7(7(d (ma!ery (" mo"t ea"(ly reco%c(led w(th the e=ually "tro%! dema%d *or "upremacy o* moral 7alue"> a%d the complete (deal("t(c mater(al("m o* +to(c("m ha" alway" !(7e% (t" (dea" a pract(cal (%*lue%ce out o* all proport(o% to the(r theoret(cal 7o!ue a" a "y"tem. ,o the Prote"ta%tthat (" the Ferma%- huma%("t- Eatural 'aw- the bo%d o* harmo%(ou" rea"o% (% %aturethe "pr(%! o* "oc(al (%tercour"e amo%! me%- the (%ward l(!ht o* (%d(7(dual co%"c(e%ceu%(ted )(cero- +t. Paul- a%d 'uther (% ble""ed u%(o%> !a7e a rat(o%al- %ot "uperrat(o%al ba"(" *or moral"- a%d pro7(ded room *or "oc(al le!("lat(o% wh(ch at the "ame t(me could ea"(ly be held back *rom too ruthle"" appl(cat(o% to dom(%a%t cla"" (%tere"t". La%t "aw the ma"" o* emp(r(cal a%d he%ce (rrele7a%t deta(l that had *ou%d re*u!e w(th(% th(" l(beral a%d d(**u"(7e rea"o%. 4e "aw that the (dea o* rea"o% could be made "el*3 co%"("te%t o%ly by "tr(pp(%! (t %aked o* the"e emp(r(cal accret(o%". 4e the% pro7(ded- (% h(" cr(t(=ue"- a "omewhat cumbrou" mo7(%! 7a% *or tra%"*err(%! the re"ulta%t pure or %aked rea"o% out o* %ature a%d the object(7e world- a%d *or locat(%! (t (% %ew =uarter"w(th a %ew "tock o* !ood" a%d %ew cu"tomer". ,he %ew =uarter" were part(cular "ubject"- (%d(7(dual">

0?21 the "tock o* !ood" were the *orm" o* percept(o% a%d the *u%ct(o%" o* thou!ht by wh(ch emp(r(cal *lu: (" wo7e% (%to durable *abr(c"> the %ew cu"tomer" were a "oc(ety o* (%d(7(dual" (% wh(ch all are e%d" (% them"el7e". ,here ou!ht to be a% (%ju%ct(o% (""ued that La%tH" "ay(%! about 4ume" awake%(%! o* h(m "hould %ot be =uoted "a7e (% co%%ect(o% w(th h(" other "ay(%! that Iou""eau brou!ht h(m to h(m"el*- (% teach(%! h(m that the ph(lo"opher (" o* le"" accou%t tha% the laborer (% the *(eld" u%le"" he co%tr(bute" to huma% *reedom. But %o%e the le""- the %ew te%a%t- the u%(7er"al rea"o%- a%d the old home"tead- the emp(r(cal tumultuou" (%d(7(dual- could %ot !et o% to!ether. Iea"o% became a mere 7o(ce wh(ch- ha7(%! %oth(%! (% part(cular to "ay- "a(d 'aw- Duty- (% !e%eral- lea7(%! to the e:("t(%! "oc(al order o* the Pru""(a o* .reder(ck the Freat the co%!e%(al ta"k o* declar(%! ju"t what wa" obl(!atory (% the co%crete. ,he marr(a!e o* *reedom a%d author(ty wa" thu" celebrated w(th the u%der"ta%d(%! that "e%t(me%tal pr(macy we%t to the *ormer a%d pract(cal co%trol to the latter. ,he e**ort to *orce a u%(7er"al rea"o% that had bee% u"ed to the broad doma(%" o* the co"mo" (%to the cramped co%*(%e" o* (%d(7(dual(ty co%ce(7ed a" merely & emp(r(cal-& a h(!hly part(cular(6ed creature o* "e%"e- could ha7e but o%e re"ult: a% e:plo"(o%. ,he product" o* that e:plo"(o% co%"t(tute the Po"t3La%t(a% ph(lo"oph(e". 8t wa" the work o*

0??1 4e!el to attempt to *(ll (% the empty rea"o% o* La%t w(th the co%crete co%te%t" o* h("tory. ,he 7o(ce "ou%ded l(ke the 7o(ce o* <r("totle- ,homa" o* <=u(%o- a%d +p(%o6a tra%"lated (%to +wab(a% Ferma%> but the ha%d" were a" the ha%d" o* Mo%te"=u(eu4erder- )o%dorcet- a%d the r("(%! h("tor(cal "chool. ,he outcome wa" the a""ert(o% that h("tory (" rea"o%- a%d rea"o% (" h("tory: the actual (" rat(o%al- the rat(o%al (" the actual. 8t !a7e the plea"a%t appeara%ce 0wh(ch 4e!el d(d %ot "tre%uou"ly d("coura!e1 o* be(%! "pec(*(cally a% (deal(6at(o% o* the Pru""(a% %at(o%- a%d (%c(de%tally a "y"temat(6ed apolo!et(c *or the u%(7er"e at lar!e-. But (% (%tellectual a%d pract(cal e**ect- (t l(*ted the (dea o* proce"" abo7e that o* *(:ed or(!(%" a%d *(:ed e%d"- a%d pre"e%ted the "oc(al a%d

moral order- a" well a" the (%tellectual- a" a "ce%e o* becom(%!- a%d (t located rea"o% "omewhere w(th(% the "tru!!le" o* l(*e. @%"table e=u(l(br(um- rap(d *erme%tat(o%- a%d a "ucce""(o% o* e:plo"(7e report" are thu" the ch(e* %ote" o* moder% eth(c". +cept(c("m a%d trad(t(o%al("m- emp(r(c("m a%d rat(o%al("m- crude %atural("m" a%d all3embrac(%! (deal("m"- *lour("h "(de by "(de all the more *lour("h- o%e "u"pect"- becau"e "(de by "(de. +pe%cer e:ult" becau"e %atural "c(e%ce re7eal" that a rap(d tra%"(t "y"tem o* e7olut(o% (" carry(%! u" automat(cally to the !oal o* per*ect ma% (% per*ect "oc(ety> a%d h(" 5%!l("h (deal("t(c

0 ?B1 co%temporary- Free%- (" "o d("turbed by the remo7al *rom %ature o* (t" moral =ual(t(e"- that he tr(e" to "how that th(" make" %o d(**ere%ce- "(%ce %ature (% a%y ca"e (" co%"t(tuted a%d k%ow% throu!h a "p(r(tual pr(%c(ple wh(ch (" a" perma%e%t a" %ature (" cha%!(%!. <% <m(el !e%teelly lame%t" the decade%ce o* the (%%er l(*e- wh(le h(" %e(!hbor E(et6"che bra%d("he" (% rude ec"ta"y the ba%%er o* brute "ur7(7al a" a happy ome% o* the *(%al 7(ctory o* %ob(l(ty o* m(%d. ,he rea"o%able co%clu"(o% *rom "uch a "ce%e (" that there (" tak(%! place a tra%"*ormat(o% o* att(tude toward" moral theory rather tha% mere propa!at(o% o* 7ar(et(e" amo%! theor(e". ,he cla""(c theor(e" all a!reed (% o%e re!ard. ,hey all al(ke a""umed the e:("te%ce o* the e%d- the "ummum bonum, the *(%al !oal> a%d o* the "eparate moral *orce that mo7e" to that !oal. Moral("t" ha7e d("puted a" to whether the e%d (" a% a!!re!ate o* plea"urable "tate o* co%"c(ou"%e""e%joyme%t o* the d(7(%e e""e%ce- ack%owled!me%t o* the law o* duty- or co%*orm(ty to e%7(ro%me%t. +o they ha7e d("puted a" to the path by wh(ch the *(%al !oal (" to be reached: *ear or be%e7ole%ceD re7ere%ce *or pure law or p(ty *or other"D "el*3lo7e or altru("mD But the"e 7ery co%tro7er"(e" (mpl(ed that there wa" but the o%e e%d a%d the o%e mea%". ,he tra%"*ormat(o% (% att(tude- to wh(ch 8 re*erred- (" the !row(%! bel(e* that the proper bu"(3

0 ?C1 3%e"" o* (%tell(!e%ce (" d("cr(m(%at(o% o* mult(ple a%d pre"e%t !ood" a%d o* the 7ar(ed (mmed(ate mea%" o* the(r real(6at(o%> %ot "earch *or the o%e remote a(m. ,he pro!re"" o* b(olo!y ha" accu"tomed our m(%d" to the %ot(o% that (%tell(!e%ce (" %ot a% out"(de power pre"(d(%! "upremely but "tat(cally o7er the de"(re" a%d e**ort" o* ma%- but (" a method o* adju"tme%t o* capac(t(e" a%d co%d(t(o%" w(th(% "pec(*(c "(tuat(o%". 4("tory- a" the lecturer o% that "ubject told u"- ha" d("co7ered (t"el* (% the (dea o* proce"". ,he !e%et(c "ta%dpo(%t make" u" aware that the "y"tem" o* the pa"t are %e(ther *raudule%t (mpo"ture" %or ab"olute re7elat(o%"> but are the product" o* pol(t(caleco%om(c- a%d "c(e%t(*(c co%d(t(o%" who"e cha%!e carr(e" w(th (t cha%!e o* theoret(cal *ormulat(o%". ,he reco!%(t(o% that (%tell(!e%ce (" properly a% or!a% o* adju"tme%t (% d(**(cult "(tuat(o%" make" u" aware that pa"t theor(e" were o* 7alue "o *ar a" they helped carry to a% (""ue the "oc(al perple:(t(e" *rom wh(ch they emer!ed. But the ch(e* (mpact o* the e7olut(o%ary method (" upo% the pre"e%t. ,heory ha7(%! lear%ed what (t ca%%ot do- (" made re"po%"(ble *or the better per*orma%ce o* what %eed" to be do%e- a%d what o%ly a broadly e=u(pped (%tell(!e%ce ca% u%dertake: "tudy o* the co%d(t(o%" out o* wh(ch come the ob"tacle" a%d the re"ource" o* ade=uate l(*e- a%d de7elop(%! a%d te"t(%! the (dea" that- a" work(%! hypothe"e"- may be u"ed to d(m(%3

0?91 3("h the cau"e" o* e7(l a%d to buttre"" a%d e:pa%d the "ource" o* !ood. ,h(" pro!ram (" (%deed 7a!ue- but o%ly u%*am(l(ar(ty w(th (t could lead o%e to the co%clu"(o% that (t (" le"" 7a!ue tha% the (dea that there (" a "(%!le moral (deal a%d a "(%!le moral mot(7e *orce. .rom th(" po(%t o* 7(ew there (" %o "eparate body o* moral rule"> %o "eparate "y"tem o* mot(7e power"> %o "eparate "ubject3matter o* moral k%owled!e- a%d he%ce %o "uch th(%! a" a% ("olated eth(cal "c(e%ce. 8* the bu"(%e"" o* moral" (" %ot to "peculate upo% ma%H" *(%al e%d a%d upo% a% ult(mate "ta%dard o* r(!ht- (t (" to ut(l(6e phy"(olo!ya%thropolo!y- a%d p"ycholo!y to d("co7er all that ca% be d("co7ered o* ma%- h(" or!a%(c power" a%d prope%"(t(e". 8* (t" bu"(%e"" (" %ot to "earch *or the o%e "eparate moral mot(7e- (t (" to co%7er!e all the (%"trume%tal(t(e" o* the "oc(al art"- o* law- educat(o%eco%om(c"- a%d pol(t(cal "c(e%ce upo% the co%"truct(o% o* (%tell(!e%t method" o* (mpro7(%! the commo% lot. 8* we "t(ll w("h to make our peace w(th the pa"t- a%d to "um up the plural a%d cha%!(%! !ood" o* l(*e (% a "(%!le word- doubtle"" the term happ(%e"" (" the o%e mo"t apt. But we "hould a!a(% e:cha%!e *ree moral" *or "ter(le metaphy"(c"- (* we (ma!(%e that & happ(%e"" & (" a%y le"" u%(=ue tha% the (%d(7(dual" who e:per(e%ce (t> a%y le"" comple: tha% the co%"t(tut(o% o* the(r capac(t(e"- or a%y le""

0 B01 7ar(able tha% the object" upo% wh(ch the(r capac(t(e" are d(rected. ,o ma%y t(m(d- albe(t "(%cere- "oul" o* a% earl(er ce%tury- the H decay o* the doctr(%e that all true a%d worth*ul "c(e%ce (" k%owled!e o* *(%al cau"e" "eemed *rau!ht w(th da%!er to "c(e%ce a%d to moral". ,he r(7al co%cept(o% o* a w(de ope% u%(7er"e- a u%(7er"e w(thout bou%d" (% t(me or "pace- w(thout *(%al l(m(t" o* or(!(% or de"t(%y- a u%(7er"e w(th the l(d o**- wa" a me%ace. ;e %ow *ace (% moral "c(e%ce a "(m(lar cr("(" a%d l(ke opportu%(tya" well a" "hare (% a l(ke dread*ul "u"pe%"e. H,he abol(t(o% o* a *(:ed a%d *(%al !oal a%d cau"al *orce (% %ature d(d %ot- a" matter o* *act- re%der rat(o%al co%7(ct(o% le"" (mporta%t or le"" atta(%able. 8t wa" accompa%(ed by the pro7("(o% o* a tech%(=ue o* per"("te%t a%d deta(led (%=u(ry (% all "pec(al *(eld" o* *act- a tech%(=ue wh(ch led to the detect(o% o* u%"u"pected *orce" a%d the re7elat(o% o* u%dreamed o* u"e". 8% l(ke *a"h(o% we may a%t(c(pate that the abol(t(o% o* the *(%al !oal a%d the "(%!le mot(7e power a%d the "eparate a%d (%*all(ble *aculty (% moral"- w(ll =u(cke% (%=u(ry (%to the d(7er"(ty o* "pec(*(c !ood" o* e:per(e%ce- *(: atte%t(o% upo% the(r co%d(t(o%"- a%d br(%! to l(!ht 7alue" %ow d(m a%d ob"cure. ,he cha%!e may rel(e7e me% *rom re"po%"(b(l(ty *or what they ca%%ot do- but (t w(ll promote thou!ht*ul co%"(derat(o% o* what they may do a%d the de*(%(t(o% o* re"po%"(b(l(ty *or what

0B11 they do am("" becau"e o* *a(lure to th(%k "tra(!ht a%d care*ully. <b"olute !ood" w(ll *all (%to the back!rou%d- but the =ue"t(o% o* mak(%! more "ure a%d e:te%"(7e the "hare o* all me% (% %atural a%d "oc(al !ood" w(ll be ur!e%t- a problem %ot to be e"caped %or e7aded. Moral"- ph(lo"ophy- retur%" to (t" *(r"t lo7e> lo7e o* the w("dom that (" %ur"e- a" %ature (" mother- o* !ood. But (t retur%" to the +ocrat(c pr(%c(ple e=u(pped w(th a mult(tude o* "pec(al method" o* (%=u(ry a%d te"t(%!> w(th a% or!a%(6ed ma"" o* k%owled!e- a%d w(th

co%trol o* the arra%!eme%t" by wh(ch (%du"try- law- a%d educat(o% may co%ce%trate upo% the problem o* the part(c(pat(o% by all me% a%d wome%- up to the(r capac(ty o* ab"orpt(o%- (% all atta(%ed 7alue". Moral" may the% well lea7e to poetry a%d to art- the ta"k 0"o u%art("t(cally per*ormed by ph(lo"ophy "(%ce Plato1 o* !ather(%! to!ether a%d rou%d(%! out- (%to o%e ab(d(%! p(cture- the "eparate a%d "pec(al !ood" o* l(*e. 8t may lea7e th(" ta"k w(th the a""ura%ce that the re"ulta%t "y%the"(" w(ll %ot dep(ct a%y *(%al a%d all3(%clu"(7e !ood- but w(ll add ju"t o%e more "pec(*(c !ood to the e%joyable e:celle%c(e" o* l(*e. 4umorou" (ro%y "h(%e" throu!h mo"t o* the har"h !la%ce" tur%ed toward" the (dea o* a% e:per(me%tal ba"(" a%d career *or moral". +ome "h(7er (% the *ear that moral" w(ll be plu%!ed (%to a%arch(c co%*u"(o%3a 7(ew well e:pre""ed by a

0B 1 rece%t wr(ter (% the "ay(%! that (* the a pr(or( a%d tra%"ce%de%tal ba"(" o* moral" be aba%do%ed & we "hall ha7e merely the "ame certa(%ty that %ow e:("t" (% phy"(c" a%d chem("try &G 5l"ewhere lurk" the apprehe%"(o% that the pro!re"" o* "c(e%t(*(c method w(ll del(7er the purpo"(7e *reedom o* ma% bou%d ha%d a%d *oot to the *atal decree" o* (ro% %ece""(ty- called %atural law. ,he %ot(o% that law" !o7er% a%d *orce" rule (" a% a%(m("t(c "ur7(7al. 8t (" a product o* read(%! %ature (% term" o* pol(t(c" (% order to tur% arou%d a%d the% read pol(t(c" (% the l(!ht o* "uppo"ed "a%ct(o%" o* %ature. ,h(" (dea pa""ed *rom med(e7al theolo!y (%to the "c(e%ce o* Eewto%- to whom the u%(7er"e wa" the dom(%(o% o* a "o7ere(!% who"e law" were the law" o* %ature. .rom Eewto% (t pa""ed (%to the de("m o* the e(!htee%th ce%tury- whe%ce (t m(!rated (%to the ph(lo"ophy o* the 5%l(!hte%me%t- to make (t" la"t "ta%d (%H +pe%cerH" ph(lo"ophy o* the *(:ed e%7(ro%me%t a%d the "tat(c !oal. Eo- %ature (" %ot a% u%cha%!eable order- u%w(%d(%! (t"el* maje"t(cally *rom the reel o* law u%der the co%trol o* de(*(ed *orce". 8t (" a% (%de*(%(te co%!er(e" o* cha%!e". 'aw" are %ot !o7er%me%tal re!ulat(o%" wh(ch l(m(t cha%!e- but are co%7e%(e%t *ormulat(o%" o* "elected port(o%" o* cha%!e *ollowed throu!h a lo%!er or "horter per(od o* t(me- a%d the% re!("tered (% "tat("t(cal *orm" that are ame%able to mathemat(cal ma%(pulat(o%.

0 B31 ,hat th(" de7(ce o* "hortha%d "ymbol(6at(o% pre"a!e" the "ubject(o% o* ma%H" (%tell(!e%t e**ort to *(:(ty o* law a%d e%7(ro%me%t (" (%tere"t(%! a" a culture "ur7(7al- but (" %ot (mporta%t *or moral theory. +a7a!e a%d ch(ld del(!ht (% creat(%! bo!ey" *rom wh(ch- the(r or(!(% a%d "tructure be(%! co%7e%(e%tly co%cealed- (%tere"t(%! thr(ll" a%d "hudder" may be had. )(7(l(6ed ma% (% the %(%etee%th ce%tury outd(d the"e bu!aboo" (% h(" (ma!e o* a *(:ed u%(7er"e hu%! o% a ca"t3(ro% *ramework o* *(:ed- %ece""ary- a%d u%(7er"al law". L%owled!e o* %ature doe" %ot mea% "ubject(o% to prede"t(%at(o%- but (%"(!ht (%to cour"e" o* cha%!e> a% (%"(!ht wh(ch (" *ormulated (% & law"-& that ("method" o* "ub"e=ue%t procedure. L%owled!e o* the proce"" a%d co%d(t(o%" o* phy"(cal a%d "oc(al cha%!e throu!h e:per(me%tal "c(e%ce a%d !e%et(c h("tory ha" o%e re"ult w(th a double %ame: (%crea"e o* co%trol- a%d (%crea"e o* re"po%"(b(l(ty> (%crea"e o* power to d(rect %atural cha%!e- a%d (%crea"e o* re"po%"(b(l(ty *or (t" e=u(table d(rect(o% toward *uller !ood. ,heory located w(th(% pro!re""(7e pract(ce (%"tead o* re(!%(%! "tat(cally "upreme o7er (t- mea%" pract(ce (t"el* made re"po%"(ble to (%tell(!e%ce> to (%tell(!e%ce wh(ch rele%tle""ly "crut(%(6e" the

co%"e=ue%ce" o* e7ery pract(ce- a%d wh(ch e:act" l(ab(l(ty by a% e=ually rele%tle"" publ(c(ty. <" lo%! a" moral" occup(e" (t"el* w(th mere (deal"- *orce" a%d co%d(t(o%" a" they

0 BJ1 are w(ll be !ood e%ou!h *or & pract(cal& me%- "(%ce they are the% le*t *ree to the(r ow% de7(ce" (% tur%(%! the"e to the(r ow% accou%t. <" lo%! a" moral("t" plume them"el7e" upo% po""e""(o% o* the doma(% o* the cate!or(cal (mperat(7e w(th (t" bare precept"- me% o* e:ecut(7e hab(t" w(ll alway" be at the(r elbow" to re!ulate the co%crete "oc(al co%d(t(o%" throu!h wh(ch the *orm o* law !et" (t" actual *(ll(%! o* "pec(*(c (%ju%ct(o%". ;he% *reedom (" co%ce(7ed to be tra%"ce%de%tal- the coerc(7e re"tra(%t o* (mmed(ate %ece""(ty w(ll lay (t" har"h ha%d upo% the ma"" o* me%. 8% the e%d- me% do what they ca% do. ,hey re*ra(% *rom do(%! what they ca%%ot do. they do what the(r ow% "pec(*(c power" (% co%ju%ct(o% w(th the l(m(tat(o%" a%d re"ource" o* the e%7(ro%me%t perm(t. ,he e**ect(7e co%trol o* the(r power" (" %ot throu!h precept"but throu!h the re!ulat(o% o* the(r co%d(t(o%". 8* th(" re!ulat(o% (" to be %ot merely phy"(cal or coerc(7e- but moral- (t mu"t co%"("t o* the (%tell(!e%t "elect(o% a%d determ(%at(o% o* the e%7(ro%me%t" (% wh(ch we act> a%d (% a% (%tell(!e%t e:act(o% o* re"po%"(b(l(ty *or the u"e o* me%H" power". ,heor("t" (%=u(re a*ter the & mot(7e & to moral(ty- to 7(rtue a%d the !ood- u%der "uch c(rcum"ta%ce". ;hat the%- o%e wo%der"- (" the(r co%cept(o% o* the make3up o* huma% %ature a%d o* (t" relat(o% to 7(rtue a%d to !ood%e""D ,he pe""(m("m that d(ctate" "uch a =ue"3

0B21 3t(o%- (* (t be ju"t(*(ed- preclude" a%y co%"(derat(o% o* moral". ,he d(7er"(o% o* (%tell(!e%ce *rom d("cr(m(%at(o% o* plural a%d co%crete !ood"- *rom %ot(%! the(r co%d(t(o%" a%d ob"tacle"- a%d *rom de7("(%! method" *or hold(%! me% re"po%"(ble *or the(r co%crete u"e o* power" a%d co%d(t(o%"- ha" do%e more tha% brute lo7e o* power to e"tabl("h (%e=ual(ty a%d (%ju"t(ce amo%! me%. 8t ha" do%e morebecau"e (t ha" co%*(rmed w(th "oc(al "a%ct(o%" the pr(%c(ple o* *eudal dom(%at(o%. <ll me% re=u(re moral "a%ct(o%" (% the(r co%duct: the co%"e%t o* the(r k(%d Eot !ett(%! (t otherw("e- they !o (%"a%e to *e(!% (t. Eo ma% e7er l(7ed w(th the e:clu"(7e appro7al o* h(" ow% co%"c(e%ce. 4e%ce the 7acuum le*t (% pract(cal matter" by the remote (rrele7a%cy o* tra%"ce%de%tal moral" ha" to be *(lled (% "omehow. 8t (" *(lled (%. 8t (" *(lled (% w(th cla""3code"- cla""3"ta%dard"- cla""3appro7al" 3w(th code" wh(ch recomme%d the pract(ce" a%d hab(t" already curre%t (% a !(7e% c(rcle- "et- call(%!pro*e""(o%- trade- (%du"try- club- or !a%!. ,he"e cla""3code" alway" lea% back upo% a%d "upport them"el7e" by the pro*e""ed (deal code. ,h(" latter meet" them more tha% hal*3 way. Be(%! (% (t" prete%"e a theory *or re!ulat(%! pract(ce- (t mu"t demo%"trate (t" pract(cab(l(ty. 8t (" u%ea"y (% ("olat(o%- a%d tra7el" ha"t(ly to meet w(th comprom("e a%d accommodat(o% the actual "(tuat(o% (% all (t" brute

0B?1 u%rat(o%al(ty. ;here the pre""ure (" !reate"t (% the hab(tual pract(ce o* the pol(t(cal a%d eco%om(c ch(e*ta(%"3there (t accommodate" the mo"t. )la""3code" o* moral" are "a%ct(o%"- u%der the capt(o% o* (deal"- o* u%cr(t(c("ed cu"tom"> they are recomme%dat(o%"- u%der the head o* dut(e"- o* what the member" o* the cla""

are already mo"t !(7e% to do(%!. 8* there are to obta(% more e=uable a%d comprehe%"(7e pr(%c(ple" o* act(o%- e:act(%! a more (mpart(al e:erc("e o* %atural power a%d re"ource (% the (%tere"t" o* a commo% !ood- member" o* a cla"" mu"t %o lo%!er re"t co%te%t (% re"po%"(b(l(ty to a cla"" who"e trad(t(o%" co%"t(tute (t" co%"c(e%ce- but be made re"po%"(ble to a "oc(ety who"e co%"c(e%ce (" (t" *ree a%d e**ect(7ely or!a%(6ed (%tell(!e%ce. 8% "uch a co%"c(e%ce alo%e w(ll the +ocrat(c (%ju%ct(o% to ma% to k%ow h(m"el* be *ul*(lled.

'otes
1. < publ(c lecture del(7ered at )olumb(a @%(7er"(ty (% March- 190C- u%der the t(tle o* &5th(c"-& (% a "er(e" o* lecture" o% & +c(e%ce- Ph(lo"ophy- a%d <rt.& Iepr(%ted *rom a mo%o!raph publ("hed by the )olumb(a @%(7er"(ty Pre"". 333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 http://www.brocku.ca/MeadProject/Dewey/Dewey_191?/Dewey_191?_1J.html [Bajado el 3 de a!o"to de 011#

Originally published as:

$oh% Dewey. &,he 'o!(c o* $ud!me%t" o* Pract(ce& )hapter 1J (% .ssays in .$perimental %ogic. )h(ca!o: @%(7er"(ty o* )h(ca!o 0191?1: 3323JJ .

Essays in Experimental Logic

Chapter *: The Logic of Judgments of %ractice
Table of Contents 5 %re1ious

,458I E<,@I5 8% (%troduc(%! the d("cu""(o%- 8 "hall *(r"t "ay a word to a7o(d po""(ble m("u%der"ta%d(%!". 8t may be objected that "uch a term a" &pract(cal jud!me%t& (" m("lead(%!> that the term &pract(cal jud!me%t& (" a m("%omer- a%d a da%!erou" o%e"(%ce all jud!me%t" by the(r 7ery %ature are (%tellectual or theoret(cal. )o%"e=ue%tlythere (" a da%!er that the term w(ll lead u" to treat a" jud!me%t a%d k%owled!e "ometh(%! wh(ch (" %ot really k%owled!e at all a%d thu" "tart u" o% the road wh(ch e%d" (% my"t(c("m or ob"cura%t("m. <ll th(" (" adm(tted. 8 do %ot mea% by pract(cal jud!me%t a type o* jud!me%t ha7(%! a d(**ere%t or!a% a%d "ource *rom other jud!me%t". 8 mea% "(mply a k(%d o* jud!me%t ha7(%! a "pec(*(c type o* "ubject3matter. Propo"(t(o%" e:("t relat(%! to agenda Oto th(%!" to do or be do%e- jud!me%t" o* a "(tuat(o% dema%d(%! act(o%. ,here are- *or e:ample- propo"(t(o%" o* the *orm: M. E. "hould do thu" a%d "o> (t

(" better- w("er- more prude%t- r(!ht- ad7("able- opportu%e- e:ped(e%t- etc.- to act thu" a%d "o. <%d th(" (" the type o* jud!me%t 8 de%ote pract(cal. 8t may al"o be objected that th(" type o* "ubject3matter (" %ot d("t(%ct(7e> that there (" %o !rou%d *or

033?1 mark(%! (t o** *rom jud!me%t" o* the *orm &P- or m(n. 8 am w(ll(%!- a!a(%- to adm(t that "uch may tur% out to be the *act. But mea%wh(le the pr(ma *ac(e d(**ere%ce (" worth co%"(der(%!- (* o%ly *or the "ake o* reach(%! a co%clu"(o% a" to whether or %o there (" a k(%d o* "ubject3matter "o d("t(%ct(7e a" to (mply a d("t(%ct(7e lo!(cal *orm. ,o a""ume (% ad7a%ce that the "ubject3matter o* pract(cal jud!me%t" must be reduc(ble to the *orm +P or m(n is a""uredly a" !ratu(tou" a" the co%trary a""umpt(o%. 8t be!" o%e o* the mo"t (mporta%t =ue"t(o%" about the world wh(ch ca% be a"ked: the %ature o* t(me. Moreo7er- curre%t d("cu""(o% e:h(b(t"- (* %ot a complete 7o(d- at lea"t a dec(ded lacu%a a" to propo"(t(o%" o* th(" type. HMr. Iu""ell ha" rece%tly "a(d that o* the two part" o* lo!(c the *(r"t e%umerate" or (%7e%tor(e" the d(**ere%t k(%d" or *orm" o* propo"(t(o%".[1# 8t (" %ot(ceable that he doe" %ot e7e% me%t(o% th(" k(%d a" a po""(ble k(%d. Aet (t (" co%ce(7able that th(" om(""(o% "er(ou"ly comprom("e"3 the d("cu""(o% o* other k(%d". <dd(t(o%al "pec(me%" o* pract(cal jud!me%t" may be !(7e%: 4e had better co%"ult a phy"(c(a%> (t would %ot be ad7("able *or you to (%7e"t (% tho"e bo%d"> the @%(ted +tate" "hould e(ther mod(*y (t" Mo%roe Doctr(%e or el"e make more e**(c(e%t m(l(tary preparat(o%"> th(" (" a !ood t(me to bu(ld a hou"e> (* 8 do that 8 "hall be do(%! wro%!- etc. 8t (" "(lly to dwell upo% the

033B1 pract(cal (mporta%ce o* jud!me%t" o* th(" "ort- but %ot wholly "(lly to "ay that the(r pract(cal (mporta%ce arou"e" "u"p(c(o% a" to the !rou%d" o* the(r %e!lect (% d("cu""(o% o* lo!(cal *orm" (% !e%eral. Ie!ard(%! them- we may "ay: 1. ,he(r "ubject3matter (mpl(e" a% (%complete "(tuat(o%. ,h(" (%complete%e"" (" %ot p"ych(cal. +ometh(%! (" &there-& but what (" there doe" %ot co%"t(tute the e%t(re object(7e "(tuat(o%. <" there- (t re=u(re" "ometh(%! el"e. 9%ly a*ter th(" "ometh(%! el"e ha" bee% "uppl(ed w(ll the !(7e% co(%c(de w(th the *ull "ubject3matter. ,h(" co%"(derat(o% ha" a% (mporta%t bear(%! upo% the co%cept(o% o* the (%determ(%ate a%d co%t(%!e%t. 8t (" "omet(me" a""umed 0both by adhere%t" a%d by oppo%e%t"1 that the 7al(d(ty o* the"e %ot(o%" e%ta(l" that the given is (t"el* (%determ(%ate3wh(ch appear" to be %o%"e%"e. ,he lo!(cal (mpl(cat(o% (" that o* a "ubject3matter a" yet unterminated, u%*(%("hed- or %ot wholly !(7e%. ,he (mpl(cat(o% (" o* *uture th(%!". Moreo7er- the (%complete%e"" (" %ot per"o%al. 8 mea% by th(" that the "(tuat(o% (" %ot co%*(%ed within the o%e mak(%! the jud!me%t> the pract(cal jud!me%t (" %e(ther e:clu"(7ely %or pr(mar(ly about o%eH" "el*. 9% the co%trary- (t (" a jud!me%t about o%eH" "el* o%ly a" (t (" a jud!me%t about the "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch o%e (" (%cluded- a%d (% wh(ch a mult(tude o* other *actor" e:ter%al to "el* are (%cluded. ,he co%trary a""umpt(o% (" "o co%"ta%tly made about moral jud!me%t"

0 33C1 that th(" "tateme%t mu"t appear do!mat(c. But "urely the pr(ma *ac(e ca"e (" that whe% 8 jud!e that 8 "hould %ot !(7e mo%ey to the "treet be!!ar 8 am jud!(%! the %ature o* a% object(7e "(tuat(o%- a%d that the co%clu"(o% about my"el* (" !o7er%ed by the

propo"(t(o% about the "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch 8 happe% to be (%cluded. ,he *ull- comple: propo"(t(o% (%clude" the be!!ar- "oc(al co%d(t(o%" a%d co%"e=ue%ce"- a char(ty or!a%(6at(o% "oc(ety- etc.- o% e:actly the "ame *oot(%! a" (t co%ta(%" my"el*. <"(de *rom the *act that (t "eem" (mpo""(ble to de*e%d the &object(7(ty& o* moral propo"(t(o%" o% a%y other !rou%d- we may at lea"t po(%t to the *act that jud!me%t" o* pol(cy- whether made about our"el7e" or "ome other a!e%t- are certa(%ly jud!me%t" o* a "(tuat(o% wh(ch (" temporar(ly u%*(%("hed. &Eow (" a !ood t(me *or me to buy certa(% ra(lway bo%d"& (" a jud!me%t about my"el* o%ly becau"e (t (" pr(mar(ly a jud!me%t about hu%dred" o* *actor" wholly e:ter%al to my"el*. 8* the !e%u(%e e:("te%ce o* "uch propo"(t(o%" be adm(tted- the o%ly =ue"t(o% about moral jud!me%t" (" whether or %o they are ca"e" o* pract(cal jud!me%t" a" the latter ha7e bee% de*(%ed3a =ue"t(o% o* utmo"t (mporta%ce *or moral theory- but %ot o* cruc(al (mport *or our lo!(cal d("cu""(o%. . ,he(r "ubject3matter (mpl(e" that the propo"(t(o% (" (t"el* a *actor (% the complet(o% o* the "(tuat(o%- carry(%! (t *orward to (t" co%clu"(o%. <ccord(%! a" the jud!me%t (" that th(" or that "hould be do%e- the

03391 "(tuat(o% w(ll- whe% completed- ha7e th(" or that "ubject3matter. ,he propo"(t(o% that (t (" well to do th(" (" a propo"(t(o% to treat the !(7e% (% a certa(% way. +(%ce the way (" e"tabl("hed by the propo"(t(o%- the propo"(t(o% (" a determ(%(%! *actor (% the outcome. <" a propo"(t(o% about the "uppleme%tat(o% o* the !(7e%- (t (" a *actor (% the "uppleme%tat(o% O a%d th(" %ot a" a% e:tra%eou" matter- "ometh(%! "ub"e=ue%t to the propo"(t(o%- but (% (t" ow% lo!(cal *orce. 4ere (" *ou%d- pr(ma *ac(e at lea"t- a marked d("t(%ct(o% o* the pract(cal propo"(t(o% *rom de"cr(pt(7e a%d %arrat(7e propo"(t(o%"- *rom the *am(l(ar &P propo"(t(o%" a%d *rom tho"e o* pure mathemat(c". ,he latter (mply that the propo"(t(o% doe" %ot e%ter (%to the co%"t(tut(o% o* the "ubject3matter o* the propo"(t(o%. ,here al"o (" a d("t(%ct(o% *rom a%other k(%d o* co%t(%!e%t propo"(t(o%%amely- that wh(ch ha" the *orm: &4e ha" "tarted *or your hou"e&> &,he hou"e (" "t(ll bur%(%!&> &8t w(ll probably ra(%.& ,he u%*(%("hed%e"" o* the !(7e% (" (mpl(ed (% the"e propo"(t(o%"- but (t (" %ot (mpl(ed that the propo"(t(o% (" a *actor (% determ(%(%! the(r complet(o%. 3. ,he "ubject3matter (mpl(e" that (t make" a d(**ere%ce how the !(7e% (" term(%ated: that o%e outcome (" better tha% a%other- a%d that the propo"(t(o% (" to be a *actor (% "ecur(%! 0a" *ar a" may be1 the better. 8% other word"- there (" "ometh(%! object(7ely at "take (% the *orm(%! o* the propo"(t(o%. < r(!ht or wro%! de"cr(pt(7e jud!me%t 0a jud!me%t co%*(%ed

03J01 to the !(7e%- whether temporal- "pat(al- or "ub"("te%t1 doe" %ot a**ect (t" "ubject3 matter> (t doe" %ot help or h(%der (t" de7elopme%t- *or by hypothe"(" (t ha" %o de7elopme%t. But a pract(cal propo"(t(o% a**ect" the "ubject3matter *or better or wor"e*or (t (" a jud!me%t a" to the co%d(t(o% 0the th(%! to be do%e1 o* the e:("te%ce o* the complete "ubject3matter.($) J. < pract(cal propo"(t(o% (" b(%ary. 8t (" a jud!me%t that the !(7e% (" to be treated (% a "pec(*(ed way> (t (" al"o a jud!me%t that the !(7e% adm(t" o* "uch treatme%t- that (t adm(t" o* a "pec(*(ed object(7e term(%at(o%. 8t (" a jud!me%t- at the "ame "troke- o* e%d O the re"ult to be brou!ht about O a%d o* mea%". 5th(cal theor(e" wh(ch d("co%%ect the

d("cu""(o% o* e%d" Oa" "o ma%y o* them doO *rom determ(%at(o% o* mea%"- thereby take d("cu""(o% o* e%d" out o* the re!(o% o* jud!me%t. 8* there be "uch e%d"- they ha7e %o (%tellectual "tatu". ,o jud!e that 8 "hould "ee a phy"(c(a% (mpl(e" that the !(7e% eleme%t" o* the "(tuat(o% "hould be completed (% a "pec(*(c way a%d al"o that they a**ord the co%d(t(o%" wh(ch make the propo"ed complet(o%

03J11 pract(cable. ,he propo"(t(o% co%cer%" both re"ource" a%d ob"tacle" O(%tellectual determ(%at(o% o* eleme%t" ly(%! (% the way o*- "ay- proper 7(!or- a%d o* eleme%t" wh(ch ca% be ut(l(6ed to !et arou%d or "urmou%t the"e ob"tacle". ,he jud!me%t re!ard(%! the %eed o* a phy"(c(a% (mpl(e" the e:("te%ce o* h(%dra%ce" (% the pur"u(t o* the %ormal occupat(o%" o* l(*e- but (t e=ually (mpl(e" the e:("te%ce o* po"(t(7e *actor" wh(ch may be "et (% mot(o% to "urmou%t the h(%dra%ce" a%d re(%"tate %ormal pur"u(t". 8t (" worth wh(le to call atte%t(o% to the rec(procal character o* the pract(cal jud!me%t (% (t" bear(%! upo% the "tateme%t o* mea%". .rom the "(de o* the e%d- the rec(procal %ature locate" a%d co%dem%" utop(a%("m a%d roma%t(c("m: what (" "omet(me" called (deal("m. .rom the "(de o* mea%"- (t locate" a%d co%dem%" mater(al("m a%d predeterm(%("m: what (" "omet(me" called mecha%("m. By mater(al("m 8 mea% the co%cept(o% that the !(7e% co%ta(%" e:hau"t(7ely the e%t(re "ubject3matter o* pract(cal jud!me%t: that the *act" (% the(r !(7e%%e"" are all &there (" to (t.& ,he !(7e% (" u%doubtedly ju"t what (t ("> (t (" determ(%ate throu!hout. But (t (" the !(7e% o* "ometh(%! to be do%e. ,he "ur7ey a%d (%7e%tory o* pre"e%t co%d(t(o%" 0o* *act"1 are %ot "ometh(%! complete (% them"el7e"> they e:("t *or the "ake o* a% (%tell(!e%t determ(%at(o% o* what (" to be do%e- o* what (" re=u(red to complete the !(7e%. ,o co%ce(7e the !(7e% (% a%y "uch way- the%- a" to (mply

03J 1 that (t %e!ate" (% (t" !(7e% character the po""(b(l(ty o* a%y do(%!- o* a%y mod(*(cat(o%- (" "el*3co%trad(ctory. <" a part o* a pract(cal jud!me%t- the d("co7ery that a ma% (" "u**er(%! *rom a% (ll%e"" (" %ot a d("co7ery that he mu"t "u**er- or that the "ub"e=ue%t cour"e o* e7e%t" (" determ(%ed by h(" (ll%e""> (t (" the (%d(cat(o% o* a %eeded a%d a po""(ble cour"e by wh(ch to re"tore health. 57e% the d("co7ery that the (ll%e"" (" hopele"" *all" w(th(% th(" pr(%c(ple. 8t (" a% (%d(cat(o% %ot to wa"te t(me a%d mo%ey o% certa(% *ru(tle"" e%dea7or"- to prepare a**a(r" w(th re"pect to death- etc. 8t (" al"o a% (%d(cat(o% o* "earch *or co%d(t(o%" wh(ch w(ll re%der (% the *uture "(m(lar ca"e" remed(able- %ot hopele"". ,he whole ca"e *or the !e%u(%e%e"" o* pract(cal jud!me%t" "ta%d" or *all" w(th th(" pr(%c(ple. 8t (" ope% to =ue"t(o%. But dec("(o% a" to (t" 7al(d(ty mu"t re"t upo% emp(r(cal e7(de%ce. 8t ca%%ot be ruled out o* court by a d(alect(c de7elopme%t o* the (mpl(cat(o%" o* propo"(t(o%" about what (" already !(7e% or what ha" already happe%ed. ,hat ("- (t" (%7al(d(ty ca%%ot be deduced *rom a% a""ert(o% that the character o* the "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t a" a d("co7ery a%d "tateme%t o* what (" *orb(d" (tmuch le"" *rom a% a%aly"(" o* mathemat(cal propo"(t(o%". .or th(" method o%ly3 be!" the =ue"t(o%. @%le"" the *act" are compl(cated by the "urrept(t(ou" (%troduct(o% o* "ome preco%cept(o%> the pr(ma *ac(e emp(r(cal ca"e (" that the "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t Othe determ(%ate d(a!%o"("O *a7or" (%"tead o*

03J31 *orb(dd(%! the doctr(%e o* a po""(b(l(ty o* cha%!e o* the !(7e%. ,o o7erthrow th(" pre"umpt(o% mea%"- 8 repeat- to d("co7er "pec(*(c e7(de%ce wh(ch make" (t (mpo""(ble. <%d (% 7(ew o* the (mme%"e body o* emp(r(cal e7(de%ce "how(%! that we add to co%trol o* what (" !(7e% 0the "ubject3matter o* "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t1 by mea%" o* "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t- the l(kel(hood o* a%y "uch d("co7ery "eem" "l(!ht. ,he"e co%"(derat(o%" throw l(!ht upo% the proper mea%(%! o* 0pract(cal1 (deal("m a%d o* mecha%("m. 8deal("m (% act(o% doe" %ot "eem to be a%yth(%! e:cept a% e:pl(c(t reco!%(t(o% o* ju"t the (mpl(cat(o%" we ha7e bee% co%"(der(%!. 8t "(!%(*(e" a reco!%(t(o% that the !(7e% (" !(7e% a" ob"tacle" to o%e cour"e o* act(7e de7elopme%t or complet(o% a%d a" re"ource" *or a%other cour"e by wh(ch de7elopme%t o* the "(tuat(o% d(rectly blocked may be (%d(rectly "ecured. 8t (" %ot a bl(%d (%"t(%ct o* hope*ul%e"" or that m("cella%eou" ob"cura%t("t emot(o%al("m o*te% called opt(m("m- a%y more tha% (t (" utop(a%("m. 8t (" reco!%(t(o% o* the (%crea"ed l(berat(o% a%d red(rect(o% o* the cour"e o* e7e%t" ach(e7ed throu!h accurate d("co7ery. 9r- more "pec(*(cally- (t (" th(" reco!%(t(o% operat(%! a" a rul(%! mot(7e (% e:te%d(%! the work o* d("co7ery a%d ut(l(6(%! (t" re"ult". &Mecha%("m& mea%" the rec(procal reco!%(t(o% o% the "(de o* mea%". 8t (" the reco!%(t(o% o* the (mport w(th(% the pract(cal jud!me%t- o* the !(7e%- o* *act- (% (t" determ(%ate character. ,he *act" (%

033J1 the(r ("olat(o%- take% a" complete (% them"el7e"- are %ot mecha%("t(c. <t mo"tthey ju"t are- a%d that (" the e%d o* them. ,hey are mecha%("t(c a" (%d(cat(%! the mecha%("m- the mea%"- o* accompl("h(%! the po""(b(l(t(e" wh(ch they (%d(cate. <part *rom a *orward look 0the a%t(c(pat(o% o* the *uture mo7eme%t o* a**a(r"1 mecha%("m (" a mea%(%!le"" co%cept(o%. ,here (" %o "e%"e (% apply(%! the co%cept(o% to a *(%("hed world- to a%y "ce%e wh(ch (" "(mply a%d o%ly do%e w(th. Propo"(t(o%" re!ard(%! a pa"t world- ju"t a" pa"t 0%ot a" *ur%("h(%! the co%d(t(o%" o* what (" to be do%e1- m(!ht be complete a%d accurate- but they would be o* the %ature o* a comple: catalo!ue. ,o (%troduce- (% add(t(o%- the co%cept(o% o* mecha%("m (" to (%troduce the (mpl(cat(o% o* po""(b(l(t(e" o* *uture accompl("hme%t.(&)

03321 2. ,he jud!me%t o* what (" to be do%e (mpl(e"- a" we ha7e ju"t "ee%- a "tateme%t o* what the !(7e% *act" o* the "(tuat(o% are- take% a" (%d(cat(o%" o* the cour"e to pur"ue a%d o* the mea%" to be employed (% (t" pur"u(t. +uch a "tateme%t dema%d" accuracy. )omplete%e"" (" %ot "o much a% add(t(o%al re=u(reme%t a" (t (" a co%d(t(o% o* accuracy. .or accuracy depe%d" *u%dame%tally upo% rele7a%cy to the determ(%at(o% o* what (" to be do%e. )omplete%e"" doe" %ot mea% e:hau"t(7e%e"" per "e- but ade=uacy a" re"pect" e%d a%d (t" mea%". ,o (%clude too much- or what (" (rrele7a%t- (" a 7(olat(o% o* the dema%d *or accuracy =u(te a" well a" to lea7e out Oto *a(l to d("co7erO what (" (mporta%t. )lear reco!%(t(o% o* th(" *act w(ll e%able o%e to a7o(d certa(% d(alect(c co%*u"(o%". 8t ha" bee% ar!ued that a jud!me%t o* !(7e% e:("te%ce- or *act- ca%%ot be hypothet(cal> that *actual(ty a%d hypothet(cal character are co%trad(ct(o%" (% term". ,hey would be (* the two =ual(*(cat(o%" were u"ed (% the "ame re"pect. But they are %ot. ,he hypothe"(" ("

that the *act" wh(ch co%"t(tute the term" o* the propo"(t(o% o* the !(7e% are rele7a%t a%d ade=uate *or the purpo"e (% ha%d Othe determ(%at(o% o* a po""(b(l(ty to be accompl("hed (% act(o%. ,he data may be a" *actual- a" ab"olute a" you plea"e- a%d yet (% %o way !uara%tee that they are the data o* th(" part(cular jud!me%t. +uppo"e the th(%! to be do%e (" the *ormat(o% o* a pred(ct(o% re!ard(%! the retur% o* a comet. ,he pr(me

03J?1 d(**(culty (" %ot (% mak(%! ob"er7at(o%"- or (% the mathemat(cal calculat(o%" ba"ed upo% them Od(**(cult a" the"e th(%!" may be. 8t (" mak(%! "ure that we ha7e take% a" data the ob"er7at(o%" really (mpl(cated (% the do(%! r(!htly o* th(" part(cular th(%!: that we ha7e %ot le*t out "ometh(%! ;h(ch (" rele7a%t- or (%cluded "ometh(%! wh(ch ha" %oth(%! to do w(th the *urther mo7eme%t o* the comet. Darw(%H" hypothe"(" o* %atural "elect(o% doe" %ot "ta%d or *all w(th the correct%e"" o* h(" propo"(t(o%" re!ard(%! breed(%! o* a%(mal" (% dome"t(cat(o%. ,he *act" o* art(*(c(al "elect(o% may be a" "tated O(% them"el7e" there may be %oth(%! hypothet(cal about them. But the(r bear(%! upo% the or(!(% o* "pec(e" (" a hypothe"(". 'o!(cally- a%y *actual propo"(t(o% (" a hypothet(cal propo"(t(o% whe% (t (" made the ba"(" o* a%y (%*ere%ce. ?. ,he bear(%! o* th(" remark upo% the %ature o* the truth o* pract(cal jud!me%t" 0(%clud(%! the jud!me%t o* what (" !(7e%1 (" ob7(ou". ,he(r truth or *al"(ty (" co%"t(tuted by the (""ue. ,he determ(%at(o% o* e%d3mea%" 0co%"t(tut(%! the term" a%d relat(o%" o* the pract(cal propo"(t(o%1 (" hypothet(cal u%t(l the cour"e o* act(o% (%d(cated ha" bee% tr(ed. ,he e7e%t or (""ue o* "uch act(o% (" the truth or *al"(ty o* the jud!me%t. ,h(" (" a% (mmed(ate co%clu"(o% *rom the *act that o%ly the (""ue !(7e" the complete "ubject3 matter. 8% th(" ca"e- at lea"t- 7er(*(cat(o% a%d truth completely co(%c(de Ou%le"" there (" "ome "er(ou" error (% the pr(or a%aly"(".

03JB1 ,h(" complete" the accou%t- prel(m(%ary to a co%"(derat(o% o* other matter". But the accou%t "u!!e"t" a%other a%d (%depe%de%t =ue"t(o% w(th re"pect to wh(ch 8 "hall make a% e:cur"u". 4ow *ar (" (t po""(ble a%d le!(t(mate to e:te%d or !e%eral(6e the re"ult" reached to apply to all propo"(t(o%" o* *act"D ,hat (" to "ay- (" (t po""(ble a%d le!(t(mate to treat all "c(e%t(*(c or de"cr(pt(7e "tateme%t" o* matter" o* *act a" (mply(%! (%d(rectly (* %ot d(rectly- "ometh(%! to be do%e- *uture po""(b(l(t(e" to be real(6ed (% act(o% D ,he =ue"t(o% a" to le!(t(macy (" too compl(cated to be d("cu""ed (% a% (%c(de%tal way. But (t ca%%ot be de%(ed that there (" a po""(b(l(ty o* "uch appl(cat(o%- %or that the po""(b(l(ty (" worth care*ul e:am(%at(o%. ;e may *rame at lea"t a hypothe"(" that all jud!me%t" o* *act ha7e re*ere%ce to a determ(%at(o% o* cour"e" o* act(o% to be tr(ed a%d to the d("co7ery o* mea%" *or the(r real(6at(o%. 8% the "e%"e already e:pla(%ed all propo"(t(o%" wh(ch "tate d("co7er(e" or a"certa(%me%t"- all cate!or(cal propo"(t(o%"- would be hypothet(cal- a%d the(r truth would co(%c(de w(th the(r te"ted co%"e=ue%ce" e**ected by (%tell(!e%t act(o%. ,h(" theory may be called pra!mat("m. But (t (" a type o* pra!mat("m =u(te *ree *rom depe%de%ce upo% a 7olu%tar("t(c p"ycholo!y. 8t (" %ot compl(cated by re*ere%ce to emot(o%al "at("*act(o%" or the play o* de"(re".

8 am %ot ar!u(%! the po(%t. But po""(bly cr(t(c" o* pra!mat("m would !et a %ew l(!ht upo% (t" mea%(%!

03JC1 were they to "et out w(th a% a%aly"(" o* ord(%ary pract(cal jud!me%t" a%d the% proceed to co%"(der the bear(%! o* (t" re"ult upo% jud!me%t" o* *act" a%d e""e%ce". Mr. Bertra%d Iu""ell ha" remarked(*) that pra!mat("m or(!(%ated a" a theory about the truth o* theor(e"- but (!%ored the &truth" o* *act& upo% wh(ch theor(e" re"t a%d by wh(ch they are te"ted. 8 am %ot co%cer%ed to =ue"t(o% th(" "o *ar a" the or(!(% o* pra!mat("m (" co%cer%ed. Ph(lo"ophy- at lea"t- ha" bee% ma(%ly a matter o* theor(e"> a%d Mr. $ame" wa" co%"c(e%t(ou" e%ou!h to be troubled about the way (% wh(ch the mea%(%! o* "uch theor(e" (" to be "ettled a%d the way (% wh(ch they are to be te"ted. 4(" pra!mat("m wa" (% e**ect 0a" Mr. Iu""ell reco!%(6e"1 a "tateme%t o* the %eed o* apply(%! to ph(lo"oph(c theor(e" the "ame k(%d" o* te"t a" are u"ed (% the theor(e" o* the (%duct(7e "c(e%ce". But th(" doe" %ot preclude the appl(cat(o% o* a l(ke method to deal(%! w(th "o3called &truth" o* *act.& .act" may be *act"- a%d yet %ot be the *act" o* the (%=u(ry (% ha%d. 8% all "c(e%t(*(c (%=u(ry- howe7er- to call them *act" or data or truth" o* *act "(!%(*(e" that they are take% a" the relevant *act" o* the (%*ere%ce to be made. 8* 0a" th(" would "eem to (%d(cate1 they are the% (mpl(cated howe7er (%d(rectly (% a propo"(t(o% about what (" to be do%e- they are them"el7e" theoret(cal (% lo!(cal =ual(ty. <ccuracy o* "tateme%t a%d correct%e"" o* rea"o%(%! would the% be *actor" (% truth- but "o al"o

03J91 would be 7er(*(cat(o%. ,ruth would be a tr(ad(c relat(o%- but o* a d(**ere%t "ort *rom that e:pou%ded by Mr. Iu""ell. .or accuracy a%d correct%e"" would both be *u%ct(o%" o* 7er(*(ab(l(ty. $@DFM5E,+ 9. /<'@5 8t (" my purpo"e to apply the co%clu"(o%" pre7(ou"ly draw% a" to the (mpl(cat(o%" o* pract(cal jud!me%t to the "ubject o* jud!me%t" o* 7alue. .(r"t- 8 "hall try to clear away "ome "ource" o* m("u%der"ta%d(%!. @%*ortu%ately- howe7er- there (" a deep3"eated amb(!u(ty wh(ch make" (t d(**(cult to d("m("" the matter o* 7alue "ummar(ly. ,he e$perience o* a !ood a%d the !udgment that "ometh(%! (" a 7alue o* a certa(% k(%d a%d amou%t ha7e bee% almo"t (%e:tr(cably co%*u"ed. ,he co%*u"(o% ha" a lo%! h("tory. 8t (" *ou%d (% med(ae7al thou!ht> (t (" re7(7ed by De"carte"> rece%t p"ycholo!y ha" !(7e% (t a %ew career. ,he "e%"e" were re!arded a" mode" o* k%owled!e o* !reater or le"" ade=uacy- a%d the *eel(%!" were re!arded a" mode" o* "e%"e- a%d he%ce a" mode" o* co!%(t(7e apprehe%"(o%. De"carte" wa" (%tere"ted (% "how(%!- *or "c(e%t(*(c purpo"e"- that the "e%"e" are %ot or!a%" o* apprehe%d(%! the =ual(t(e" o* bod(e" a" "uch- but o%ly o* apprehe%d(%! the(r relat(o% to the wellbe(%! o* the "e%t(e%t or!a%("m. +e%"at(o%" o* plea"ure a%d pa(%- alo%! w(th tho"e o* hu%!er- th(r"t- etc.- mo"t ea"(ly le%t them"el7e" to th(" treatme%t> color"-

03201 to%e"- etc.- were them a""(m(lated. 9* them all he "ay": &,he"e percept(o%" o* "e%"e ha7e bee% placed w(th(% me by %ature *or the purpo"e o* signifying what th(%!" are be%e*(c(al or harm*ul.&(+) ,hu" (t wa" po""(ble to (de%t(*y the real propert(e" o* bod(e" w(th the(r !eometr(cal o%e"- w(thout e:po"(%! h(m"el* to the co%clu"(o% that Fod

0or %ature1 dece(7e" u" (% the percept(o% o* color- "ou%d- etc. ,he"e percept(o%" are o%ly (%te%ded to teach u" what th(%!" to pur"ue a%d a7o(d- a%d a" "uch apprehe%"(o%" they are ade=uate. 4(" (de%t(*(cat(o% o* a%y a%d e7ery e:per(e%ce o* !ood w(th a jud!me%t or co!%(t(7e apprehe%"(o% (" clear (% the *ollow(%! word: &;he% we are !(7e% %ew" the m(%d *(r"t jud!e" o* (t a%d (* (t (" !ood (t rejo(ce".&(,) ,h(" (" a "ur7(7al o* the "chola"t(c p"ycholo!y o* the 7(" ae"t(mat(7a. 'ot6eH" theory that the emot(o%"- a" (%7ol7(%! plea"ure a%d pa(%- are or!a%" o* 7alue jud!me%t"- or (% more rece%t term(%olo!y- that they are co!%(t(7e apprec(at(o%" o* worth 0corre"po%d(%! to (mmed(ate apprehe%"(o%" o* "e%"ory =ual(t(e"1 pre"e%t" the "ame trad(t(o% (% a %ew term(%olo!y. <" a!a(%"t all th("- the pre"e%t paper take" (t" "ta%d w(th the po"(t(o% "tated by 4ume- (% the *ollow(%! word": &< pa""(o% (" a% or(!(%al e:("te%ce- or- (* you w(ll- mod(*(cat(o% o* e:("te%ce> a%d co%ta(%" %ot a%y repre"e%tat(7e =ual(ty- wh(ch re%der" (t a copy o* a%y

0 3211 other e:("te%ce or mod(*(cat(o%. ;he% 8 am a%!ry 8 am actually po""e"t w(th the pa""(o%- a%d (% that emot(o% ha7e %o more a re*ere%ce to a%y other object- tha% whe% 8 am th(r"ty- or "(ck- or more tha% *(7e *eet h(!h.&(-) 8% "o do(%!- 8 may "eem to "ome to be be!!(%! the =ue"t(o% at (""ue. But "uch (" "urely the pr(ma *ac(e *act o* the matter. 9%ly a pr(or do!ma to the e**ect that e7ery co%"c(ou" e:per(e%ce ("- (p"o *acto- a *orm o* co!%(t(o% lead" to a%y ob"curat(o% o* the *act- a%d the burde% o* proo* (" upo% tho"e who uphold the do!ma.(7) < *urther word upo% &apprec(at(o%& "eem" "pec(ally called *or (% 7(ew o* the curre%cy o* the doctr(%e that &apprec(at(o%& (" a pecul(ar k(%d o* k%owled!e- or co!%(t(7e re7elat(o% o* real(ty: pecul(ar (% ha7(%! a d("t(%ct type o* real(ty *or (t" object a%d (% ha7(%! *or (t" or!a% a pecul(ar me%tal co%d(t(o% d(**er(%! *rom

0 32 1 the (%tell(!e%ce o* e7eryday k%owled!e a%d o* "c(e%ce. <ctually- there do %ot "eem to be a%y !rou%d" *or re!ard(%! apprec(at(o% a" a%yth(%! but a% (%te%t(o%ally e%ha%ced or (%te%"(*(ed e:per(e%ce o* a% object. 8t" oppo"(te (" %ot de"cr(pt(7e or e:pla%atory k%owled!e- but deprec(at(o% Oa de!raded real(6at(o% o* a% object. < ma% may cl(mb a mou%ta(% to !et a better real(6at(o% o* a la%d"cape> he may tra7el to Freece to !et a real(6at(o% o* the Parthe%o% more *ull tha% that wh(ch he ha" had *rom p(cture". 8%tell(!e%ce- k%owled!e- may be (%7ol7ed (% the "tep" take% to !et the e%ha%ced e:per(e%ce- but that doe" %ot make the la%d"cape or the Parthe%o% a" *ully "a7ored a co!%(t(7e object. +o the *ul%e"" o* a mu"(cal e:per(e%ce may depe%d upo% pr(or cr(t(cal a%aly"("- but that doe" %ot %ece""ar(ly make the hear(%! o* mu"(c a k(%d o* %o%3a%alyt(c co!%(t(7e act. 5(ther apprec(at(o% mea%" ju"t a% (%te%"(*(ed e:per(e%ce- or (t mea%" a k(%d o* cr(t(c("m- a%d the% (t *all" w(th(% the "phere o* ord(%ary jud!me%t- d(**er(%! (% be(%! appl(ed to a work o* art (%"tead o* to "ome other "ubject3matter. ,he "ame mode o* a%aly"(" may be appl(ed to the older but co!%ate term &(%tu(t(o%.& ,he term" &ac=ua(%ta%ce& a%d &*am(l(ar(ty& a%d &reco!%(t(o%& 0ack%owled!me%t1 are *ull o* l(ke p(t*all" o* amb(!u(ty.

8% co%temporary d("cu""(o% o* 7alue3jud!me%t"- howe7er- apprec(at(o% (" a pecul(arly treacherou" term. 8t (" *(r"t a""erted 0or a""umed1 that all e:per(e%ce" o* !ood are mode" o* k%ow(%!: that !ood

03231 (" a term o* a propo"(t(o%. ,he% whe% e:per(e%ce *orce" home the (mme%"e d(**ere%ce betwee% e7aluat(o% a" a cr(t(cal proce"" 0a proce"" o* (%=u(ry *or the determ(%at(o% o* a !ood prec("ely "(m(lar to that wh(ch (" u%dertake% (% "c(e%ce (% the determ(%at(o% o* the %ature o* a% e7e%t1 a%d ord(%ary e:per(e%ce o* !ood a%d e7(lappeal (" made to the d(**ere%ce betwee% d(rect apprehe%"(o% a%d (%d(rect or (%*ere%t(al k%owled!e- a%d &apprec(at(o%& (" called (% to play the co%7e%(e%t rle o* a% (mmed(ate co!%(t(7e apprehe%"(o%. ,hu" a "eco%d error (" u"ed to co7er up a%d protect a pr(mary o%e. ,o "a7or a th(%! *ully Oa" <r%old Be%%ettH" hero(%e" are wo%t to doO (" %o more a k%ow(%! tha% (" the cha%ce "a7or(%! wh(ch ar("e" whe% th(%!" "melled are *ou%d !ood- or tha% (" be(%! a%!ry or th(r"ty or more tha% *(7e *eet h(!h. <ll the la%!ua!e wh(ch we ca% employ (" char!ed w(th a *orce ac=u(red throu!h re*lect(o%. 57e% whe% 8 "peak o* a d(rect e:per(e%ce o* a !ood or bad- o%e (" o%ly too l(kely to read (% tra(t" character(6(%! a th(%! wh(ch (" *ou%d (% co%"e=ue%ce o* th(%k(%!- to be !ood> o%e ha" to u"e la%!ua!e "(mply to "t(mulate a recour"e to a d(rect e:per(e%c(%! (% wh(ch la%!ua!e (" %ot depe%ded upo%. 8* o%e (" w(ll(%! to make "uch a% (ma!(%at(7e e:cur"(o% O%o o%e ca% be compelledO he w(ll %ote that finding a th(%! !ood apart *rom re*lect(7e jud!me%t mea%" "(mply treat(%! the th(%! (% a certa(% way- ha%!(%! o% to (t- dwell(%! upo% (t- welcom(%! (t a%d act(%! to perpetuate (t" pre"e%ce- tak(%! del(!ht (% (t.

032J1 8t (" a way o* beha7(%! toward (t- a mode o* or!a%(c react(o%. < p"ycholo!("t may(%deed- br(%! (% the emot(o%"- but (* h(" co%tr(but(o% (" rele7a%t (t w(ll be becau"e the emot(o%" wh(ch *(!ure (% h(" accou%t are ju"t part o* the pr(mary or!a%(c react(o% to the object. 8% co%trary *a"h(o%- to *(%d a th(%! bad 0(% a d(rect e:per(e%ce a" d("t(%ct *rom the re"ult o* a re*lect(7e e:am(%at(o%1 (" to be mo7ed to reject (t- to try to !et away *rom (t- to de"troy or at lea"t to d("place (t. 8t co%%ote" %ot a% act o* apprehe%"(o% but a% act o* repu!%(%!- o* repell(%!. ,o term the th(%! !ood or e7(l (" to "tate the *act 0%oted (% recollect(o%1 that (t wa" actually (%7ol7ed (% a "(tuat(o% o* or!a%(c accepta%ce or reject(o%- w(th whate7er =ual(t(e" "pec(*(cally character(6e the act. <ll th(" (" "a(d becau"e 8 am co%7(%ced that co%temporary d("cu""(o% o* 7alue" a%d 7aluat(o% "u**er" *rom co%*u"(o% o* the two rad(cally d(**ere%t att(tude" Othat o* d(rectact(7e- %o%3co!%(t(7e e:per(e%ce o* !ood" a%d bad" a%d thatO o* 7aluat(o%- the latter be(%! "(mply a mode o* jud!me%t l(ke a%y other *orm o* jud!me%t- d(**er(%! (% that (t" "ubject3matter happe%" to be a !ood or a bad (%"tead o* a hor"e or pla%et or cur7e. But u%*ortu%ately *or d("cu""(o%"- &to 7alue& mea%" two rad(cally d(**ere%t th(%!": to pr(6e a%d appra("e> to e"teem a%d to e"t(mate: to *(%d !ood (% the "e%"e de"cr(bed abo7e- a%d to jud!e (t to be !ood- to k%ow (t a" !ood. 8 call them rad(cally d(**ere%t becau"e to pr(6e %ame" a

03221 pract(cal- %o%3(%tellectual att(tude- a%d to appra("e %ame" a jud!me%t. ,hat me% lo7e a%d hold th(%!" dear- that they cher("h a%d care *or "ome th(%!"- a%d %e!lect a%d

co%tem% other th(%!"- (" a% u%doubted *act. ,o call the"e th(%!" 7alue" (" ju"t to repeat that they are lo7ed a%d cher("hed> (t (" %ot to !(7e a rea"o% *or the(r be(%! lo7ed a%d cher("hed. ,o call them 7alue" a%d the% (mport (%to them the tra(t" o* object" o* 7aluat(o%> or to (mport (%to 7alue"- mea%(%! 7aluated object"- the tra(t" wh(ch th(%!" po""e"" a" held dear- (" to co%*u"e the theory o* jud!me%t" o* 7alue pa"t all remedy. <%d be*ore com(%! to the more tech%(cal d("cu""(o%- the curre%cy o* the co%*u"(o% a%d the bad re"ult co%"e=ue%ce" may ju"t(*y dwell(%! upo% the matter. ,he d("t(%ct(o% may be compared to that betwee% eat(%! "ometh(%! a%d (%7e"t(!at(%! the *ood propert(e" o* the th(%! eate%. < ma% eat" "ometh(%!> (t may be "a(d that h(" 7ery eat(%! (mpl(e" that he took (t to be *ood- that he jud!ed (t- or re!arded (t co!%(t(7ely- a%d that the =ue"t(o% (" ju"t whether he jud!ed truly or made a *al"e propo"(t(o%. Eow (* a%ybody w(ll co%de"ce%d to a co%crete e:per(e%ce he w(ll perce(7e how o*te% a ma% eat" w(thout th(%k(%!> that he put" (%to h(" mouth what (" "et be*ore h(m *rom hab(t- a" a% (%*a%t doe" *rom (%"t(%ct. <% o%looker or a%yo%e who re*lect" (" ju"t(*(ed (% "ay(%! that he act" a" (* he jud!ed the mater(al to be *ood. 4e (" %ot ju"t(*(ed (% "ay(%! that a%y jud!me%t or

0 32?1 (%tellectual determ(%at(o% ha" e%tered (%. 4e ha" acted> he ha" beha7ed toward "ometh(%! a" *ood: that (" o%ly to "ay that he ha" put (t (% h(" mouth a%d "wallowed (t (%"tead o* "pew(%! (t *orth. ,he object may the% be called *ood. But th(" doe" %ot mea% e(ther that (t (" *ood 0%amely- d(!e"t(ble a%d %our("h(%! mater(al1 or that the eater jud!ed (t to be *ood a%d "o *ormed a propo"(t(o% wh(ch (" true or *al"e. ,he propo"(t(o% would ar("e o%ly (% ca"e he (" (% "ome doubt- or (* he re*lect" that (% "p(te o* h(" (mmed(ate att(tude o* a7er"(o% the th(%! (" whole"ome a%d h(" "y"tem %eed" recuperat(o%- etc. 9r later- (* the ma% (" (ll- a phy"(c(a% may (%=u(re what he ate- a%d pro%ou%ce that "ometh(%! %ot *ood at all- but po("o%. 8% the (llu"trat(o% employed- there (" %o da%!er o* a%y harm ar("(%! *rom u"(%! the retroact(7e term &*ood&> there (" %o l(kel(hood o* co%*u"(%! the two "e%"e" &actually eate%& a%d &%our("h(%! art(cle.& But w(th the term" &7alue& a%d &!ood& there (" a "ta%d(%! da%!er o* ju"t "uch a co%*u"(o%. 97erlook(%! the *act that !ood a%d bad a" reasonable term" (%7ol7e a relationship to other things 0e:actly "(m(lar to that (mpl(ed (% call(%! a part(cular art(cle *ood or po("o%1- we "uppo"e that whe% we are re*lect(%! upo% or (%=u(r(%! (%to the !ood or 7alue o* "ome act or object- we are deal(%! w(th "ometh(%! a" "(mple- a" "el*3(%clo"ed- a" the "(mple act o* (mmed(ate pr(6(%! or welcom(%! or cher("h(%! per*ormed w(thout rhyme or rea"o%- *rom (%"t(%ct or hab(t. 8% truth ju"t a"

032B1 determ(%(%! a th(%! to be *ood mea%" co%"(der(%! (t" relat(o%" to d(!e"t(7e or!a%"to (t" d("tr(but(o% a%d ult(mate de"t(%at(o% (% the "y"tem- "o determ(%(%! a th(%! *ou%d !ood 0%amely- treated (% a certa(% way1 to be !ood mea%" prec("ely cea"(%! to look at (t a" a d(rect- "el*3"u**(c(e%t th(%! a%d co%"(der(%! (t (% (t" co%"e=ue%ce"3that ("- (% (t" relat(o%" to a lar!e "et o* other th(%!". 8* the ma% (% eat(%! co%"c(ou"ly (mpl(e" that what he eat" (" *ood- he a%t(c(pate" or pred(ct" certa(% co%"e=ue%ce"- w(th more or le"" ade=uate !rou%d" *or "o do(%!. 4e pa""e" a jud!me%t or apprehe%d" or k%ow"O truly or *al"ely. +o a ma% may %ot o%ly e%joy a th(%!- but he may jud!e the th(%! e%joyed to be !ood- to be a 7alue. But (% "o do(%! he (" !o(%! beyo%d the th(%! (mmed(ately pre"e%t a%d mak(%! a% (%*ere%ce to other th(%!"- wh(ch- he (mpl(e"- are co%%ected w(th (t. ,he

th(%! take% (%to the mouth a%d "tomach has co%"e=ue%ce" whether a ma% th(%k" o* them or %ot. But he doe" %ot )now the th(%! he eat" Ohe doe" %ot make (t a term o* a certa(% characterO u%le"" he th(%k" o* the co%"e=ue%ce" a%d co%%ect" them w(th the th(%! he eat". 8* he ju"t "top" a%d "ay" &9h- how !ood th(" ("-& he (" %ot "ay(%! a%yth(%! about the object e:cept the *act that he e%joy" eat(%! (t. ;e may (* we choo"e re!ard th(" e:clamat(o% a" a re*lect(o% or jud!me%t. But (* (t (" (%tellectual- (t (" a""erted *or the "ake o* e%ha%c(%! the e%joyme%t> (t (" a mea%" to a% e%d. < 7ery hu%!ry ma% w(ll !e%erally "at("*y h(" appet(te to "ome e:te%t

032C1 be*ore he (%dul!e" (% e7e% "uch rud(me%tary propo"(t(o%".(8) 88 But we mu"t retur% to a plac(%! o* our problem (% th(" co%te:t. :*ly theme (" that a jud!me%t o* 7alue (" "(mply a ca"e o* a pract(cal jud!me%t- a jud!me%t about the do(%! o* "ometh(%!. ,h(" co%*l(ct" w(th the a""umpt(o% that (t (" a jud!me%t about a part(cular k(%d o* e:("te%ce (%depe%de%t o* act(o%- co%cer%(%! wh(ch the ma(% problem (" whether (t (" "ubject(7e or object(7e. 8t co%*l(ct" w(th e7ery te%de%cy to make the determ(%at(o% o* the r(!ht or wro%! cour"e o* act(o% 0whether (% moral"- tech%olo!y- or "c(e%t(*(c (%=u(ry1 depe%de%t upo% a% (%depe%de%t determ(%at(o% o* "ome !ho"tly th(%!" called 7alue3object" O whether the(r !ho"tly character (" attr(buted to the(r e:("t(%! (% "ome tra%"ce%de%tal eter%al realm or (% "ome realm called "tate" o* m(%d. 8t a""ert" that 7alue3 object" mea% "(mply object" a" jud!ed to po""e"" a certa(% force w(th(% a "(tuat(o% temporally

03291 de7elop(%! toward a determ(%ate re"ult. ,o find a th(%! !ood ("- 8 repeat- to attr(bute or (mpute %oth(%! to (t. 8t (" ju"t to do "ometh(%! to (t. But to co%"(der whether (t (" !ood a%d how !ood (t ("- (" to a"k how (t- as if acted upon, will operate (% promot(%! a cour"e o* act(o%. 4e%ce the !reat co%tra"t wh(ch may e:("t betwee% a !ood or a% (mmed(ate e:per(e%ce a%d a% e7aluated or jud!ed !ood. ,he ra(% may be mo"t u%com*ortable 0ju"t be it, a" a ma% (" more tha% *(7e *eet tall1 a%d yet be &!ood& *or !row(%! crop"3that ("- *a7or or promote the(r mo7eme%t (% a !(7e% d(rect(o%. ,h(" doe" %ot mea% that two co%tra"t(%! jud!me%t" o* 7alue are pa""ed. 8t mea%" that no jud!me%t ha" yet take% place. 8*howe7er- 8 am mo7ed to pa"" a 7alue3jud!me%t 8 "hould probably "ay that (% "p(te o* the d("a!reeable%e"" o* !ett(%! wet- the "hower (" a !ood th(%!. 8 am %ow jud!(%! (t a" a means (% two co%tra"t(%! "(tuat(o%"- a" a mea%" w(th re"pect to two e%d". 8 compare my d("com*ort a" a consequence o* the ra(% w(th the pro"pect(7e crop" a" a%other co%"e=ue%ce- a%d "ay &let the latter co%"e=ue%ce be.& 8 (de%t(*y my"el* a" a!e%t w(th (trather tha% w(th the (mmed(ate d("com*ort o* the wett(%!. 8t (" =u(te true that (% th(" ca"e 8 ca%%ot do a%yth(%! about (t> my (de%t(*(cat(o% ("- "o to "peak- "e%t(me%tal rather tha% pract(cal "o *ar a" "topp(%! the ra(% or !row(%! the crop" (" co%cer%ed. But (% e**ect (t (" a% a""ert(o% that o%e would %ot o%

0 3?01 accou%t o* the d("com*ort o* the ra(% "top (t> that o%e would- (* o%e coulde%coura!e (t" co%t(%ua%ce. Fo (t- ra(%- o%e "ay".

,he "pec(*(c (%ter7e%t(o% o* act(o% (" ob7(ou" e%ou!h (% ple%ty o* other ca"e". 8t occur" to me that th(" a!reeable &*ood& wh(ch 8 am eat(%! ("%Ht a *ood *or me> (t br(%!" o% (%d(!e"t(o%. 8t *u%ct(o%" %o lo%!er a" a% immediate !ood> a" "ometh(%! to be accepted. 8* 8 co%t(%ue eat(%!- (t w(ll be a*ter 8 ha7e del(berated. 8 ha7e co%"(dered (t a" a mea%" to two co%*l(ct(%! po""(ble co%"e=ue%ce"- the pre"e%t e%joyme%t o* eat(%! a%d the later "tate o* health. 9%e or other (" po""(ble- %ot both Othou!h o* cour"e 8 may &"ol7e& the problem by per"uad(%! my"el* that (% th(" (%"ta%ce they are co%!rue%t. ,he 7alue3object %ow mea%" th(%! jud!ed to be a mea%" o* procur(%! th(" or that e%d. <" pr(6(%!e"teem(%!- hold(%! dear de%ote way" o* act(%!- "o 7alu(%! de%ote" a pa""(%! jud!me%t upo% "uch act" w(th re*ere%ce to the(r co%%ect(o% w(th other act"- or w(th re"pect to the co%t(%uum o* beha7(or (% wh(ch they *all. /aluat(o% mea%" cha%!e o* mode o* beha7(or *rom d(rect accepta%ce a%d welcom(%! to doubt(%! a%d look(%! (%to Oact" wh(ch (%7ol7e po"tpo%eme%t o* d(rect 0or "o3called o7ert1 act(o% a%d wh(ch (mply a *uture act ha7(%! a d(**ere%t meaning *rom that ju"t %ow occurr(%! O *or e7e% (* o%e dec(de" to co%t(%ue (% the pre7(ou" act (t" mea%(%!3co%te%t (" d(**ere%t whe% (t (" cho"e% a*ter re*lect(7e e:am(%at(o%.

0 3?11 < pract(cal jud!me%t ha" bee% de*(%ed a" a jud!me%t o* what to do- or what (" to be do%e: a jud!me%t re"pect(%! the *uture term(%at(o% o* a% (%complete a%d (% "o *ar (%determ(%ate "(tuat(o%. ,o "ay that jud!me%t" o* 7alue *all w(th(% th(" *(eld (" to "ay two th(%!": o%e- that the jud!me%t o* 7alue (" %e7er complete (% (t"el*- but alway" (% behal* o* determ(%(%! what (" to be do%e> the other- that jud!me%t" o* 7alue 0a" d("t(%ct *rom the d(rect e:per(e%ce o* "ometh(%! a" !ood1 (mply that 7alue (" %ot a%yth(%! pre7(ou"ly !(7e%- but (" "ometh(%! to be !(7e% by *uture act(o%- (t"el* co%d(t(o%ed upo% 07ary(%! w(th1 the jud!me%t. ,h(" "tateme%t may appear to co%trad(ct the rece%t a""ert(o% that a 7alue3object *or k%owled!e mea%" o%e (%7e"t(!ated a" a mea%" to compet(%! e%d". .or "uch a mea%" (t already ("> the lob"ter w(ll !(7e me pre"e%t e%joyme%t a%d *uture (%d(!e"t(o% (* 8 eat (t. But a" lo%! a" 8 jud!e- value is (%determ(%ate. ,he =ue"t(o% (" %ot what the th(%! w(ll do O8 may be =u(te clear about that: (t (" whether to per*orm the act wh(ch w(ll actual(6e (t" pote%t(al(ty. ;hat w(ll 8 ha7e the "(tuat(o% become a" betwee% alter%at(7e"D <%d that mea%" what *orce "hall the th(%! a" mea%" be !(7e%D +hall 8 take (t a" mea%" to pre"e%t e%joyme%t- or a" a 0%e!at(7e1 co%d(t(o% o* *uture health D ;he% (t" "tatu" (% the"e re"pect" (" determ(%ed(t" 7alue (" determ(%ed> jud!me%t cea"e"- act(o% !oe" o%. Pract(cal jud!me%t" do %ot there*ore pr(mar(ly co%cer% them"el7e" w(th the 7alue o* object"> but

03? 1 w(th the cour"e o* act(o% dema%ded to carry a% (%complete "(tuat(o% to (t" *ul*(lme%t. ,he ade=uate co%trol o* "uch jud!me%t" may- howe7er- be *ac(l(tated by jud!me%t o* the worth o* object" wh(ch e%ter a" e%d" a%d mea%" (%to the act(o% co%templated. .or e:ample- my pr(mary 0a%d ult(mate1 jud!me%t ha" to do- "ay- w(th buy(%! a "u(t o* clothe": whether to buy a%d- (* "o- what D ,he =ue"t(o% (" o* better a%d wor"e w(th re"pect to alter%at(7e cour"e" o* act(o%- %ot w(th re"pect to 7ar(ou" object". But the jud!me%t w(ll be a jud!me%t 0a%d %ot a cha%ce react(o%1 (% the de!ree (% wh(ch (t take" *or (t" (%ter7e%(%! "ubject3matter the 7alue3"tatu" o* 7ar(ou" object". ;hat are the pr(ce" o* !(7e% "u(t" D ;hat are the(r "tyle" (% re"pect to curre%t *a"h(o% D 4ow do the(r patter%" compare D ;hat about the(r durab(l(ty D 4ow about the(r re"pect(7e

adaptab(l(ty to the ch(e* wear(%! u"e 8 ha7e (% m(%d D Ielat(7e- or comparat(7edurab(l(ty- cheap%e""- "u(tab(l(ty- "tyle- ae"thet(c attract(7e%e"" co%"t(tute 7alue tra(t". ,hey are tra(t" o* object" %ot per se, but as entering into a possible and foreseen completing of the situation. ,he(r 7alue (" the(r *orce (% prec("ely th(" *u%ct(o%. ,he dec("(o% o* better a%d wor"e (" the determ(%at(o% o* the(r re"pect(7e capac(t(e" a%d (%te%"(t(e" in this regard. <part *rom the(r "tatu" (% th(" o**(ce- they ha7e %o tra(t" o* 7alue *or k%owled!e. < determ(%at(o% o* better 7alue a" *ou%d (% "ome o%e "u(t (" e=u(7ale%t to 0h(" the *orce o*1 ( der("(o% a" to what (t (" better

03?31 to do. 8t pro7(ded the lack(%! "t(mulu" "o that act(o% occur"- or pa""e" *rom (t" (%determ(%ate3(%dec("(7e3"tate (%to dec("(o%. Ie*ere%ce to the term" &"ubject(7e& a%d &object(7e& w(ll- perhap"- ra("e a cloud o* amb(!u(t(e". But *or th(" 7ery rea"o% (t may be worth wh(le to po(%t out the amb(!uou" %ature o* the term object(7e a" appl(ed to 7aluat(o%". 9bject(7e may be (de%t(*(ed- =u(te erro%eou"ly- w(th =ual(t(e" e:("t(%! out"(de o* a%d (%depe%de%tly o* the "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch a dec("(o% a" to a *uture cour"e o* act(o% ha" to be reached. 9r- object(7e may de%ote the "tatu" o* =ual(t(e" o* a% object in respect to the "(tuat(o% to be completed throu!h jud!me%t. 8%depe%de%tly o* the "(tuat(o% re=u(r(%! pract(cal jud!me%t- clothe" already ha7e a !(7e% pr(ce- durab(l(ty- patter%- etc. ,he"e tra(t" are %ot a**ected by the jud!me%t. ,hey e:("t> they are !(7e%. But a" !(7e% they are not determ(%ate 7alue". ,hey are %ot ob!ects of 7aluat(o%> they are data for a 7aluat(o%. ;e may ha7e to take pa(%" to d("co7er that the"e !(7e% =ual(t(e" are- but the(r d("co7ery (" (% order that there may be a "ub"e=ue%t jud!me%t o* 7alue. ;ere they already de*(%(te 7alue"- they would %ot be e"t(mated> they would be "t(mul( to d(rect re"po%"e. 8* a ma% had already dec(ded that cheap%e"" co%"t(tuted 7alue- he would "(mply take the cheape"t "u(t o**ered. ;hat he jud!e" (" the 7alue o* cheap%e""- a%d th(" depe%d" upo% (t" we(!ht or (mporta%ce (% the "(tuat(o% re=u(r(%!

0 3?J1 act(o%- a" compared w(th durab(l(ty- "tyle- adaptab(l(ty- etc. D("co7ery o* "hoddy would %ot a**ect the de facto durab(l(ty o* the !ood"- but (t would a**ect the 7alue o* cheap%e"" Othat ("- the weight assigned that trait in influencing !udgment 7 wh(ch (t would %ot do- (* cheap%e"" already had a de*(%(te 7alue. < 7alue- (% "hort- mea%" a consideration, a%d a co%"(derat(o% doe" %ot mea% a% e:("te%ce merely- but a% e:("te%ce ha7(%! a cla(m upo% jud!me%t. /alue jud!ed (" %ot e:("te%t(al =ual(ty %oted- but (" the (%*lue%ce attached by jud!me%t to a !(7e% e:("te%t(al =ual(ty (% determ(%(%! jud!me%t. ,he co%clu"(o% (" %ot that 7alue (" "ubject(7e- but that (t (" pract(cal. ,he "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch jud!me%t o* 7alue (" re=u(red (" %ot me%tal- much le"" *a%c(*ul. 8 ca% but th(%k that much o* the rece%t d("cu""(o% o* the object(7(ty o* 7alue a%d o* 7alue3jud!me%t" re"t" upo% a *al"e p"ycholo!(cal theory. 8t re"t" upo% !(7(%! certa(% term" mea%(%!" that *low *rom a% (%tro"pect(7e p"ycholo!y wh(ch accept" a realm o* purely pr(7ate "tate" o* co%"c(ou"%e""- pr(7ate %ot (% a "oc(al "e%"e 0a "e%"e (mply(%! courte"y or mayhap "ecrecy toward other"1- but e:("te%t(al (%depe%de%ce a%d "eparate%e"". ,o re*er 7alue to cho(ce or de"(re- *or e:ample- (" (% that ca"e to "ay that 7alue (" "ubject(7ely co%d(t(o%ed. Nu(te otherw("e- (* we ha7e "teered clear *rom "uch a p"ycholo!y. )ho(cedec("(o%- mea%" pr(mar(ly a certa(% act- a p(ece o* beha7(or o% the part o* a part(cular th(%!. ,hat

03?21 a hor"e choo"e" to eat hay mea%" o%ly that (t eat" hay> that the ma% choo"e" to "teal mea%" 0at lea"t1 that he tr(e" to "teal. ,h(" tr(al may come- howe7er- after a% (%ter7e%(%! act o* re*lect(o%. 8t the% ha" a certa(% (%tellectual or co!%(t(7e =ual(ty. But (t may mea% "(mply the bare *act o* a% act(o% wh(ch (" retro"pect(7ely called a cho(ce: a" a ma%- (% "p(te o* all temptat(o% to belo%! to a%other %at(o%- choo"e" to be bor% a% 5%!l("hma%- wh(ch- (* (t ha" a%y "e%"e at all- "(!%(*(e" a cho(ce to co%t(%ue (% a l(%e adopted w(thout cho(ce. ,ake% (% th(" latter "e%"e 0(% wh(ch ca"e- term" l(ke cho(ce a%d de"(re re*er to way" o* beha7(or1- the(r u"e (" o%ly a "pec(*(cat(o% o* the !e%eral doctr(%e that all 7aluat(o% ha" to do w(th the determ(%at(o% o* a cour"e o* act(o%. )ho(cepre*ere%ce- (" or(!(%ally o%ly a b(a" (% a !(7e% d(rect(o%- a b(a" wh(ch (" %o more "ubject(7e or p"ych(cal tha% (" the *act that a ball throw% (" "wer7(%! (% a part(cular d(rect(o% rather tha% (% "ome other cur7e. 8t (" ju"t a %ame *or the d(**ere%t(al character o* the act(o%. But let co%t(%ua%ce (% a certa(% l(%e o* act(o% become =ue"t(o%able- letthat (" to "ay- (t be re!arded a" a mea%" to a *uture co%"e=ue%ce- wh(ch co%"e=ue%ce ha" alter%at(7e"- a%d the% cho(ce !et" a lo!(cal or (%tellectual "e%"e> a mental "tatu" (* the term &me%tal& (" re"er7ed *or act" ha7(%! th(" (%tellectual(6ed =ual(ty. )ho(ce "t(ll mea%" the *(:(%! o* a cour"e o* act(o%> (t mea%" at lea"t a set to be relea"ed a" "oo% a" phy"(cally po""(ble. 9therw("e

03??1 ma% ha" %ot cho"e%- but ha" =u(eted h(m"el* (%to a bel(e* that he ha" cho"e% (% order to rel(e7e h(m"el* o* the "tra(% o* "u"pe%"e. 5:actly the "ame a%aly"(" appl(e" to de"(re. D(7er"e a%t(c(pated e%d" may pro7oke d(7(ded a%d compet(%! pre"e%t react(o%"> the or!a%("m may be tor% betwee% d(**ere%t cour"e"- each (%ter*er(%! w(th the complet(o% o* the other. ,h(" (%tra3or!a%(c pull(%! a%d haul(%!- th(" "tr(*e o* act(7e te%de%c(e"- (" a !e%u(%e phe%ome%o%. ,he pull (% a !(7e% d(rect(o% mea"ure" the (mmed(ate hold o* a% a%t(c(pated term(%at(o% or e%d upo% u"- a" compared w(th that o* "ome other. 8* o%e a"ked a*ter the mecha%("m o* the 7alu(%! proce""- 8 ha7e %o doubt that the a%"wer would be (% term" o* de"(re" thu" co%ce(7ed. But u%le"" e7eryth(%! relat(%! to the act(7(ty o* a h(!hly or!a%(6ed be(%! (" to be de%om(%ated "ubject(7e- 8 "ee %o !rou%d *or call(%! (t "ubject(7e. +o *ar a" 8 ca% make out- the empha"(" upo% a p"ycholo!(cal treatme%t o* 7alue a%d 7aluat(o% (% a "ubject(7e "e%"e (" but a h(!hly awkward a%d %e!at(7e way o* ma(%ta(%(%! a po"(t(7e truth: that 7alue a%d 7aluat(o% *all w(th(% the u%(7er"e o* action8 that a" welcom(%!- accept(%!- (" a% act- "o 7aluat(o% (" a pre"e%t act determ(%(%! a% act to be do%e- a pre"e%t act tak(%! place becau"e the *uture act (" u%certa(% a%d (%complete. 8t doe" *ollow *rom th(" *act that 7aluat(o% (" %ot "(mply a recognition o* the *orce or e**(c(e%cy o* a mea%"

03?B1 w(th re"pect to co%t(%u(%! a proce"". .or u%le"" there is question about (t" co%t(%uat(o%- about (t" term(%at(o%- 7aluat(o% w(ll %ot occur. <%d there (" %o =ue"t(o% "a7e where act(7(ty (" he"(ta%t (% d(rect(o% becau"e o* co%*l(ct w(th(% (t. Metaphor(cally we may "ay that ra(% (" !ood to lay the du"t- (de%t(*y(%! *orce or e**(c(e%cy w(th 7alue. 8 do %ot bel(e7e that 7aluat(o%" occur a%d 7alue" are brou!ht (%to be(%! "a7e (% a co%t(%u(%! "(tuat(o% where th(%!" ha7e pote%cy *or carry(%! *orward proce""e". ,here (" a clo"e relat(o%"h(p betwee% pre7a(l(%!- 7al(a%cy- 7ale%cy- a%d 7alue. But the term

&7alue& (" %ot a mere redupl(cat(o% o* the term &e**(c(e%cy&: (t add" "ometh(%!. ;he% we are mo7(%! toward a re"ult a%d at the "ame t(me are "t(mulated to mo7e toward "ometh(%! el"e wh(ch (" (%compat(ble w(th (t 0a" (% the ca"e o* the lob"ter a" a cau"e o* both e%joyme%t a%d (%d(!e"t(o%1- a th(%! ha" a dual pote%cy. Eot u%t(l the e%d ha" bee% e"tabl("hed (" the 7alue o* the lob"ter "ettled- althou!h there %eed be %o doubt about (t" e**(c(e%c(e". <" wa" po(%ted out earl(er- the pract(cal jud!me%t determ(%e" mea%" a%d e%d at the "ame t(me. 4ow the% ca% 7alue be !(7e%- a" e**(c(e%cy (" !(7e%- u%t(l the e%d (" cho"e%D ,he ra(% (" 0metaphor(cally1 7aluable *or lay(%! du"t. ;hether (t (" 7aluable *or u" to ha7e the du"t la(d Oa%d (* "o- how 7aluableO we "hall %e7er k%ow u%t(l "ome act(7(ty o* our ow% wh(ch (" a *actor (% du"t3lay(%! come" (%to co%*l(ct w(th a% (%compat(ble act(7(ty. 8t" 7alue (" (t" *orce-

03?C1 (%deed- but (t (" (t" *orce (% mo7(%! u" to o%e e%d rather tha% to a%other. Eot e7ery pote%cy- (% other word"- but pote%cy w(th the "pec(*(c =ual(*(cat(o% o* *all(%! w(th(% jud!me%t about *uture act(o%> mea%" 7alue or 7aluable th(%!. )o%"e=ue%tly there (" %o 7alue "a7e (% "(tuat(o%" where de"(re" a%d the %eed o* del(berat(o% (% order to choo"e are *ou%d- a%d yet th(" *act !(7e" %o e:cu"e *or re!ard(%! de"(re a%d del(berat(o% a%d dec("(o% a" "ubject(7e phe%ome%a. ,o u"e a% 8r("h bull- a" lo%! a" a ma% )nows what he de"(re" there (" %o de"(re> there (" mo7eme%t or e%dea7or (% a !(7e% d(rect(o%. De"(re (" de"(re"- a%d "(multa%eou" de"(re" are (%compat(ble> they mark- a" we ha7e %oted- compet(%! act(7(t(e"- mo7eme%t" (% d(rect(o%"- wh(ch ca%%ot both be e:te%ded. Ie*lect(o% (" a proce"" o* *(%d(%! out what we wa%t- what- a" we "ay> we really wa%t- a%d th(" mea%" the *ormat(o% o* %ew de"(re- a %ew d(rect(o% o* act(o%. 8% th(" proce""- th(%!" get 7alue" O"ometh(%! they d(d %ot po""e"" be*ore- althou!h they had the(r e**(c(e%c(e". <t whate7er r("k o* "hock- th(" doctr(%e "hould be e:po"ed (% all (t" %aked%e"". ,o jud!e 7alue (" to e%!a!e (% (%"t(tut(%! a determ(%ate 7alue where %o%e (" !(7e%. 8t (" %ot %ece""ary that a%tecede%tly !(7e% 7alue" "hould be the data o* the 7aluat(o%> a%d where they are !(7e% data they are o%ly term" (% the determ(%at(o% o* a %ot yet e:("t(%! 7alue. ;he% a ma% (" (ll a%d a*ter del(berat(o% co%clude" that (t be well to "ee

03?91 a doctor- the doctor doubtle"" e:("t" a%tecede%tly. But (t (" %ot the doctor who (" jud!ed to be the !ood o* the "(tuat(o%- but the seeing o* the doctor: a th(%! wh(ch- by de"cr(pt(o%- e:("t" o%ly becau"e o* a% act depe%de%t upo% a jud!me%t. Eor (" the health the ma% a%tecede%tly po""e""ed 0or wh(ch "omebody ha"1 the th(%! wh(ch he jud!e" to be a 7alue> the th(%! jud!ed to be a 7alue (" the re"tor(%! o* health O"ometh(%! by de"cr(pt(o% %ot yet e:("t(%!. ,he re"ult" *low(%! *rom h(" pa"t health w(ll doubtle"" (%*lue%ce h(m (% reach(%! h(" jud!me%t that (t w(ll be a !ood to ha7e re"tored health- but they do %ot co%"t(tute the !ood wh(ch *orm" h(" "ubject3matter a%d object o* h(" jud!me%t. 4e may jud!e that they were !ood w(thout jud!(%! that they are %ow !ood*or to be jud!ed %ow !ood mea%" to be jud!ed to be the object o* a cour"e o* act(o% "t(ll to be u%dertake%. <%d to !udge that they were !ood 0a" d("t(%ct *rom merely recall(%! certa(% be%e*(t" wh(ch accrued *rom health1 (" to jud!e that (* the "(tuat(o% had re=u(red a re*lect(7e determ(%at(o% o* a cour"e o* act(o% o%e would ha7e jud!ed health a% e:("te%ce to be atta(%ed or pre"er7ed by act(o%. ,here are d(alect(c d(**(cult(e" wh(ch may be ra("ed about jud!me%t" o* th(" "ort. .or they (mply the "eem(%! parado: o* a

jud!me%t who"e proper "ubject3matter (" (t" ow% determ(%ate *ormat(o%. But %oth(%! (" !a(%ed by ob"cur(%! the *act that "uch (" the %ature o* the pract(cal jud!me%t: (t (" a jud!me%t o* what a%d how to jud!e Oo*

03B01 the we(!ht to be a""(!%ed to 7ar(ou" *actor" (% the determ(%at(o% o* jud!me%t. 8t would be (%tere"t(%! to (%=u(re (%to the =ue"t(o% whether th(" pecul(ar(ty may %ot throw l(!ht upo% the %ature o* &co%"c(ou"%e""-& but (%to that *(eld we ca%%ot %ow !o. 888 .rom what ha" bee% "a(d- (t (mmed(ately *ollow"- o* cour"e- that a determ(%ate 7alue (" (%"t(tuted a" a dec("(7e *actor w(th re"pect to what (" to be do%e. ;here7er a determ(%ate !ood e:("t"- there (" a% ade=uate "t(mulu" to act(o%- a%d %o jud!me%t o* what (" to be do%e or o* the 7alue o* a% object (" called *or. 8t (" *re=ue%tly a""umed- howe7er- that 7aluat(o% (" a proce"" o* apply(%! "ome *(:ed or determ(%ate 7alue to the 7ar(ou" compet(%! !ood" o* a "(tuat(o%> that 7aluat(o% (mpl(e" a pr(or "ta%dard o* 7alue a%d co%"("t" (% compar(%! 7ar(ou" !ood" w(th the "ta%dard a" the "upreme 7alue. ,h(" a""umpt(o% re=u(re" e:am(%at(o%. 8* (t (" "ou%d (t depr(7e" 3the po"(t(o% wh(ch ha" bee% take% o* a%y 7al(d(ty. .or (t re%der" the jud!me%t o* what to do a matter o* apply(%! a 7alue e:("t(%! ready3made- (%"tead o* mak(%! Oa" we ha7e do%eO the 7aluat(o% a determ(%at(o% w(th(% the pract(cal jud!me%t. ,he ar!ume%t would ru% th(" way: 57ery pract(cal jud!me%t depe%d" upo% a jud!me%t o* the 7alue o* the e%d to be atta(%ed> th(" e%d may be "uch o%ly pro:(mately- but that (mpl(e" "ometh(%! el"e jud!ed to be !ooda%d "o- lo!(cally-

03B11 t(ll we ha7e arr(7ed at the jud!me%t o* a "upreme !ood- a *(%al e%d or summum bonum. 8* th(" "tateme%t correctly de"cr(be" the "tate o* the ca"e there ca% be %o doubt that a pract(cal jud!me%t depe%d" upo% a pr(or reco!%(t(o% o* 7alue> co%"e=ue%tly the hypothe"(" upo% wh(ch we ha7e bee% proceed(%! re7er"e" the actual *act". ,he *(r"t th(%! by way o* cr(t(cal comme%t (" to po(%t out the amb(!u(ty (% the term &e%d.& 8 "hould l(ke to *all back upo% what wa" "a(d earl(er about the thorou!hly rec(procal character o* mea%" a%d e%d (% the pract(cal jud!me%t. 8* th(" be adm(tted (t (" al"o adm(tted that o%ly by a jud!me%t o* mea%" Oth(%!" ha7(%! 7alue (% the carry(%! o* a% (%determ(%ate "(tuat(o% to a complet(o%O (" the e%d determ(%ately made out (% jud!me%t. But 8 *ear 8 ca%%ot cou%t upo% th(" a" !ra%ted. +o 8 w(ll po(%t out that &e%d& may mea% e(ther the de facto l(m(t to jud!me%t- wh(ch by de*(%(t(o% doe" %ot e%ter (%to jud!me%t at all- or (t may mea% the la"t a%d complet(%! object o* jud!me%t- the co%cept(o% o* that object (% wh(ch a tra%"(t(7e (%completely !(7e% "(tuat(o% would come to re"t. 9* e%d (% the *(r"t "e%"e- (t (" to be "a(d that (t (" %ot a 7alue at all> o* e%d (% the "eco%d "e%"e- that (t (" (de%t(cal w(th a *(%ale o* the k(%d we ha7e ju"t bee% d("cu""(%! or that (t (" determ(%ed (% jud!me%t- %ot a 7alue !(7e% by wh(ch to co%trol the jud!me%t. 8t may be a""erted that (% the (llu"trat(o% u"ed "ome typ(cal "u(t o* clothe" (" the 7alue wh(ch a**ord" the

03B 1 "ta%dard o* 7aluat(o% o* all the "u(t" wh(ch are o**ered to the buyer> that he pa""e" jud!me%t o% the(r 7alue a" compared w(th the "ta%dard "u(t a" a% e%d a%d "upreme

7alue. ,h(" "tateme%t br(%!" out the amb(!u(ty ju"t re*erred to. ,he %eed o* "ometh(%! to wear (" the stimulus to the jud!me%t o* the 7alue o* "u(t" o**ered- a%d po""e""(o% o* a "u(t put" a% e%d to jud!me%t. 8t (" a% e%d of jud!me%t (% the object(7e- %ot (% the po""e""(7e- "e%"e o* the prepo"(t(o% &o* &> (t (" a% e%d %ot (% the "e%"e o* a(m- but (% the "e%"e o* a term(%at(%! l(m(t. ;he% po""e""(o% be!(%"- jud!me%t ha" already cea"ed. <%d (* ar!ume%t ad verucundiam ha" a%y we(!ht 8 may po(%t out that th(" (" the doctr(%e o* <r("totle whe% he "ay" we %e7er del(berate about e%d"- but o%ly about mea%". ,hat (" to "ay- (% all del(berat(o% 0or pract(cal jud!me%t or (%=u(ry1 there (" alway" "ometh(%! out"(de o* jud!me%t wh(ch *(:e" (t" be!(%%(%! a%d e%d or term(%u". <%d 8 would add that- accord(%! to <r("totle- del(berat(o% alway" cea"e" whe% we ha7e come to the &*(r"t l(%k (% the cha(% o* cau"e"- wh(ch (" la"t (% the order o* d("co7ery-& a%d th(" mea%" &whe% we ha7e traced back the cha(% o* cau"e" [mea%"# to our"el7e".& 8% other word"the la"t e%d3(%37(ew (" alway" that wh(ch operate" a" the d(rect or (mmed(ate mea%" o* "ett(%! our ow% power" (% operat(o%. ,he e%d3(%37(ew upo% wh(ch jud!me%t o* act(o% "ettle" dow% (" "(mply the ade=uate or complete mea%" to the do(%! o* "ometh(%!.

03B31 ;e do del(berate- howe7er- about aims, about e%d"3(%37(ew O a *act wh(ch "how" the(r rad(cally d(**ere%t %ature *rom e%d" a" l(m(t" to del(berat(o%. ,he a(m (% the pre"e%t (%"ta%ce (" %ot the "u(t o* clothe"- but the getting of a proper "u(t. ,hat (" what (" prec("ely e"t(mated or 7aluated> a%d 8 th(%k 8 may cla(m to ha7e "how% that the determ(%at(o% o* th(" a(m (" (de%t(cal w(th the determ(%at(o% o* the 7alue o* a "u(t throu!h compar("o% o* the 7alue" o* cheap%e""- durab(l(ty- "tyle- patter% o* d(**ere%t "u(t" o**ered. /alue (" %ot determ(%ed by compar(%! 7ar(ou" "u(t" w(th a% (deal modelbut by compar(%! 7ar(ou" "u(t" w(th re"pect to cheap%e""- durab(l(ty- adaptab(l(ty with one another 7(%7ol7(%!- o* cour"e- re*ere%ce al"o to le%!th o* pur"e- "u(t" already po""e""ed- etc.- a%d other "pec(*(c eleme%t" (% the "(tuat(o% wh(ch dema%d" that "ometh(%! be do%e. ,he purcha"er may- o* cour"e- ha7e "ettled upo% "ometh(%! wh(ch "er7e" a" a model be*ore he !oe" to buy> but that o%ly mea%" that h(" jud!(%! ha" bee% do%e be*oreha%d> the model doe" %ot the% *u%ct(o% (% jud!me%t- but (% h(" act a" "t(mulu" to (mmed(ate act(o%. <%d there (" a co%"(derat(o% here (%7ol7ed o* the utmo"t (mporta%ce a" to pract(cal jud!me%t" o* the moral type: ,he more completely the %ot(o% o* the model (" *ormed out"(de a%d (rre"pect(7e o* the "pec(*(c co%d(t(o%" wh(ch the "(tuat(o% o* act(o% pre"e%t"- the le"" (%tell(!e%t (" the act. Mo"t me% m(!ht ha7e the(r (deal" o* the model cha%!ed "omewhat (% the *ace o* the actual o**er(%!-

03BJ1 e7e% (% the ca"e o* buy(%! clothe". ,he ma% who (" %ot acce""(ble to "uch cha%!e (% the ca"e o* moral "(tuat(o%" ha" cea"ed to be a moral a!e%t a%d become a react(%! mach(%e. 8% "hort- the "ta%dard o* 7aluat(o% (" *ormed (% the proce"" o* pract(cal jud!me%t or 7aluat(o%. 8t (" %ot "ometh(%! take% *rom out"(de a%d appl(ed w(th(% (t O "uch appl(cat(o% mea%" there (" %o jud!me%t.

24
Eoth(%! ha" bee% "a(d thu" *ar about a "ta%dard. Aet the co%cept(o% o* a "ta%dard- or a mea"ure- (" "o clo"ely co%%ected w(th 7aluat(o% that (t" co%"(derat(o% a**ord" a te"t o* the co%clu"(o%" reached. 8t mu"t be adm(tted that the co%cept" o* the %ature o* a

"ta%dard po(%ted to by the cour"e o* the pr(or d("cu""(o% (" %ot (% co%*orm(ty w(th curre%t co%cept(o%". .or the ar!ume%t po(%t" to a "ta%dard wh(ch (" determ(%ed w(th(% the proce"" o* 7aluat(o%- %ot out"(de o* (t- a%d he%ce %ot capable o* be(%! employed ready3made- there*ore- to "ettle the 7alu(%! proce"". ,o ma%y per"o%"- th(" w(ll "eem ab"urd to the po(%t o* "el*3co%trad(ct(o%. ,he pre7a(l(%! co%cept(o%- howe7er- ha" bee% adopted w(thout e:am(%at(o%> (t (" a preco%cept(o%. 8* accepted- (t depr(7e" jud!me%t a%d k%owled!e o* all "(!%(*(ca%t (mport (% co%%ect(o% w(th moral act(o%. 8* the "ta%dard (" already !(7e%- all that rema(%" (" (t" mecha%(cal appl(cat(o% to the ca"e (% ha%d Oa" o%e would apply a yard

03B21 rule to dry3!ood". Fe%u(%e moral u%certa(%ty (" the% (mpo""(ble> where (t "eem" to e:("t- (t (" o%ly a %ame *or a moral u%w(ll(%!%e""- due to (%here%t 7(c(ou"%e""- to reco!%(6e a%d apply the rule" already made a%d pro7(ded- or el"e *or a moral corrupt(o% wh(ch ha" e%*eebled ma%H" power o* moral apprehe%"(o%. ;he% the doctr(%e o* "ta%dard" pr(or to a%d (%depe%de%t o* moral jud!me%t" (" accompa%(ed by the"e other doctr(%e" o* or(!(%al "(% a%d corrupt(o%- o%e mu"t re"pect the thorou!h!o(%! lo!(c o* the doctr(%e. +uch (" %ot- howe7er- the ca"e w(th the moder% theor(e" wh(ch make the "ame a""umpt(o% o* "ta%dard" preced(%! (%"tead o* re"ult(%! *rom moral jud!me%t"- a%d wh(ch (!%ore the =ue"t(o% o* u%certa(%ty a%d error (% the(r apprehe%"(o%. +uch co%"(derat(o%" do %ot- (%deed- dec(de a%yth(%!- but they may "er7e to !et a more u%prejud(ced hear(%! *or a hypothe"(" wh(ch ru%" cou%ter to curre%t theor(e"- "(%ce (t but *ormulate" the tre%d o* curre%t pract(ce" (% the(r (%crea"(%! te%de%cy to make the act o* (%tell(!e%ce the ce%tral *actor (% moral". 'et u"- accord(%!ly- co%"(der the alter%at(7e" to re!ard(%! the "ta%dard o* 7alue a" "ometh(%! e7ol7ed (% the proce"" o* re*lect(7e 7aluat(o%. 4ow ca% "uch a "ta%dard be k%ow% D 5(ther by a% a pr(or( method o* (%tu(t(o%- or by ab"tract(o% *rom pr(or ca"e". ,he latter co%cept(o% throw" u" (%to the arm" o* hedo%("m. .or the hedo%("t(c theory o* the "ta%dard o* 7alue der(7e" (t" lo!(cal e**(c(e%cy

03B?1 *rom the co%"(derat(o% that the %ot(o% o* a pr(or a%d *(:ed "ta%dard 0o%e wh(ch (" %ot determ(%ed w(th(% the "(tuat(o% by re*lect(o%1 *orce" u" back upo% a%tecede%t (rreduc(ble plea"ure" a%d pa(%" wh(ch alo%e are 7alue" de*(%(te a%d certa(% e%ou!h to "upply "ta%dard". ,hey alo%e are "(mple e%ou!h to be (%depe%de%t a%d ult(mate. ,he appare%tly commo%"e%"e alter%at(7e would be to take the &7alue& o* pr(or "(tuat(o%" in toto- "ay- the 7alue o* a% act o* k(%d%e"" to a "u**erer. But a%y "uch !ood (" a *u%ct(o% o* the total u%a%aly6ed "(tuat(o%> (t ha"- co%"e=ue%tly- %o appl(cat(o% to a %ew "(tuat(o% u%le"" the %ew e:actly repeat" the old o%e. 9%ly whe% the &!ood& (" re"ol7ed (%to "(mple a%d u%alterable u%(t"- (% term" o* wh(ch old "(tuat(o%" ca% be e=uated to %ew o%e" o% the ba"(" o* the %umber o* u%(t" co%ta(%ed- ca% a% u%amb(!uou" "ta%dard be *ou%d. ,he lo!(c (" u%(mpeachable- a%d po(%t" to (rreduc(ble plea"ure" a%d pa(%" a" the "ta%dard o* 7aluat(o%. ,he d(**(culty (" %ot (% the lo!(c but (% emp(r(cal *act"- *act" wh(ch 7er(*y our pr(or co%te%t(o%. )o%ced(%!- *or the "ake o* ar!ume%t- that there are de*(%(te e:("te%ce" "uch a" are called plea"ure" a%d pa(%"- they are %ot 7alue3object"- but are o%ly th(%!" to be 7alued. 5:actly the "ame plea"ure or pa(%- a" a% e:("te%ce- ha" d(**ere%t 7alue" at d(**ere%t t(me" accord(%! to the way (% wh(ch (t (" jud!ed. ;hat (" the

7alue o* the plea"ure o* eat(%! the lob"ter a" compared w(th the pa(%" o* (%d(!e"t(o% D ,he r(de tell" (t"- o* cour"e-

0 3BB1 to break up the plea"ure a%d pa(% (%to eleme%tary u%(t" a%d cou%t.( 9) +uch ult(mate "(mple u%(t" "eem- howe7er- to be about a" much w(th(% the reach o* ord(%ary k%owled!e a" atom" or electro%" are w(th(% the !ra"p o* the ma% o* the "treet. ,he(r re"embla%ce to the ult(mate- %eutral u%(t" wh(ch a%alyt(c p"ycholo!("t" ha7e po"tulated a" a methodolo!(cal %ece""(ty (" e7(de%t. +(%ce the 7alue o* e7e% "uch a de*(%(te e%t(ty a" a toothache 7ar(e" accord(%! to the or!a%(6at(o% co%"tructed a%d pre"e%ted (% re*lect(o%- (t (" clear that ord(%ary emp(r(cal plea"ure" a%d pa(%" are h(!hly comple:. ,h(" d(**(culty- howe7er- may be wa(7ed. ;e may e7e% wa(7e the *act that a theory wh(ch "et out to be ultra3emp(r(cal (" %ow e%me"hed (% the %eed *or mak(%! emp(r(cal *act" meet d(alect(cal re=u(reme%t". <%other d(**(culty (" too (%"uperable to be wa(7ed.

0 3BC1 8% a%y ca"e the =ua%t(ty o* eleme%tary e:("te%ce" wh(ch co%"t(tute" the cr(ter(o% o* mea"ureme%t (" depe%de%t upo% the 7ery jud!me%t wh(ch (" a""umed to be re!ulated by (t. ,he "ta%dard o* 7aluat(o% (" the u%(t" wh(ch w(ll result *rom a% act> they are *uture co%"e=ue%ce". Eow the character o* the a!e%t jud!(%! (" o%e o* the co%d(t(o%" o* the product(o% o* the"e co%"e=ue%ce". < callou" per"o% %ot o%ly w(ll %ot *ore"ee certa(% co%"e=ue%ce"- a%d w(ll %ot be able to !(7e them proper we(!ht- but he doe" %ot a**ord the "ame co%d(t(o% o* the(r occurre%ce wh(ch (" co%"t(tuted by a "e%"(t(7e ma%. 8t (" =u(te po""(ble to employ jud!me%t "o a" to produce act" which will (%crea"e th(" or!a%(c callou"%e"". ,he a%alyt(c co%cept(o% o* the moral cr(ter(o% pro7(de" Olo!(callyO *or del(berate blu%t(%! o* "u"cept(b(l(t(e". 8* the matter at (""ue (" "(mply o%e o* %umber o* u%(t" o* plea"ure o7er pa(%- arra%!e matter" "o that certa(% pa(%" w(ll %ot- a" matter o* *act- be *elt. ;h(le th(" re"ult may be ach(e7ed by ma%(pulat(o% o* e:traor!a%(c co%d(t(o%"- (t may al"o be e**ected by re%der(%! the or!a%("m (%"e%"(t(7e. Per"("te%ce (% a cour"e wh(ch (% the "hort ru% y(eld" u%ea"(%e"" a%d "ympathet(c pa%!"- w(ll (% the lo%! ru% el(m(%ate the"e pa(%" a%d lea7e a %et plea"ure bala%ce. ,h(" (" a t(me3ho%ored cr(t(c("m o* hedo%("m. My pre"e%t co%cer% w(th (t (" purely lo!(cal. 8t "how" that the attempt to br(%! o7er *rom pa"t object" the eleme%t" o* a "ta%dard *or 7alu(%! *uture co%"e3

03B91 3=ue%ce" (" a hopele"" o%e. ,he e:pre"" object o* a 7aluat(o%3jud!me%t (" to relea"e *actor" wh(ch be(%! %ew- ca%%ot be mea"ured o% the ba"(" o* the pa"t alo%e. ,h(" d("cu""(o% o* the a%alyt(c lo!(c a" appl(ed (% moral" would- howe7er- probably %ot be worth wh(le d(d (t %ot "er7e to throw (%to rel(e* the "(!%(*(ca%ce o* a%y appeal to *ul*(lme%t o* a "y"tem or or!a%(6at(o% a" the moral !ood Othe "ta%dard. +uch a% appeal(* (t (" wary- (" a% appeal to the pre"e%t "(tuat(o% a" undergoing that reorgani ation that will confer upon it the unification which it lac)s0 to or!a%(6at(o% a" "ometh(%! to be brou!ht about- to be made. <%d (t (" clear that th(" appeal meet" all the "pec(*(cat(o%" o* jud!me%t" o* pract(ce a" they ha7e bee% de"cr(bed. ,he or!a%(6at(o% wh(ch (" to be *ul*(lled throu!h act(o% (" a% or!a%(6at(o% which, at the t(me o* jud!(%!- (" pre"e%t (% co%cept(o%- (% (dea O(%- that ("- re*lect(7e (%=u(ry a" a pha"e o* reor!a%(6(%! act(7(ty. <%d "(%ce (t" pre"e%ce (% co%cept(o% (" both a co%d(t(o% o* the or!a%(6at(o% a(med at

and a *u%ct(o% o* the ade=uacy o* the re*lect(7e (%=u(ry- (t (" e7(de%t that there (" here a co%*(rmat(o% o* our "tateme%t that the pract(cal jud!me%t (" a jud!me%t o* what a%d how to jud!e a" a% (%te!ral part o* the complet(o% o* a% (%complete temporal "(tuat(o%. More "pec(*(cally- (t al"o appear" that the "ta%dard (" a rule *or co%duct(%! (%=u(ry to (t" complet(o%: (t (" a cou%"el to make e:am(%at(o% o* the operat(7e *actor" complete- a war%(%! a!a(%"t "uppre""(%! reco!%(t(o% o* a%y o*

03C01 them. 4owe7er a ma% may (mpo"e upo% h(m"el* or upo% other"- a ma%H" real mea"ure o* 7alue (" e:h(b(ted (% what he does, %ot (% what he co%"c(ou"ly th(%k" or "ay". .or the do(%! (" the actual cho(ce. 8t (" the completed re*lect(o%. 8t (" comparat(7ely ea"y at the pre"e%t t(me (% moral theory to "lam both hedo%("m a%d apr(or("m. 8t (" %ot "o ea"y to "ee the lo!(cal (mpl(cat(o%" o* the alter%at(7e to them. ,he co%cept(o% o* a% or!a%(6at(o% o* (%tere"t" or te%de%c(e" (" o*te% treated a" (* (t were a co%cept(o% wh(ch (" de*(%(te (% "ubject3matter a" well a" clear3cut (% *orm. 8t (" take% %ot a" a rule *or procedure (% (%=u(ry- a d(rect(o% a%d a war%(%! 0wh(ch (t ("1- but a" "ometh(%! all o* who"e co%"t(tue%t" are already !(7e% *or )nowledge, e7e% thou!h %ot !(7e% (% *act. ,he act o* *ul*(ll(%! or real(6(%! mu"t the% be treated a" de7o(d o* (%tellectual (mport. 8t (" a mere do(%!- %ot a lear%(%! a%d a te"t(%!. But how ca% a "(tuat(o% wh(ch (" (%complete (% *act be completely k%ow% u%t(l (t (" complete D +hort o* the *ul*(lme%t o* a co%ce(7ed or!a%(6at(o%- how ca% the co%cept(o% o* the propo"ed or!a%(6at(o% be a%yth(%! more tha% a work(%! hypothe"("- a method o* treat(%! the !(7e% eleme%t" (% order to "ee what happe%" D Doe" %ot e7ery %ot(o% wh(ch (mpl(e" the po""(b(l(ty o* a% apprehe%"(o% o* k%owled!e o* the e%d to be reached( ) al"o (mply e(ther a% a pr(or(

0 3C11 re7elat(o% o* the %ature o* that e%d- or el"e that or!a%(6at(o% (" %oth(%! but a whole compo"ed o* eleme%tary part" already !(7e%3the lo!(c o* hedo%("m D ,he lo!(c o* "ub"umpt(o% (% the phy"(cal "c(e%ce" mea%t that a !(7e% "tate o* th(%!" could be compared w(th a ready3made co%cept a" a model Othe phe%ome%a o* the hea7e%" w(th the (mpl(cat(o%" o*- "ay- the c(rcle. ,he method" o* e:per(me%tal "c(e%ce broke dow% th(" mot(o%> they "ub"t(tuted *or a% alle!ed re!ulat(7e model a *ormula wh(ch wa" the (%te!rated *u%ct(o% o* the part(cular phe%ome%a them"el7e"- a *ormula to be u"ed a" a method o* *urther ob"er7at(o%" a%d e:per(me%t" a%d thereby te"ted a%d de7eloped. ,he u%w(ll(%!%e"" to bel(e7e that- (% a "(m(lar *a"h(o%- moral "ta%dard" or model" ca% be tru"ted to de7elop out o* the "pec(*(c "(tuat(o%" o* act(o% "how" how l(ttle the !e%eral lo!(cal *orce o* the method o* "c(e%ce ha" bee% !ra"ped. Phy"(cal k%owled!e d(d %ot a" matter o* *act ad7a%ce t(ll the do!ma o* model" or *orm" a" "ta%dard" o* k%owled!e had bee% ou"ted. Aet we ha%! te%ac(ou"ly to a l(ke doctr(%e (% moral" *or *ear o* moral chao". 8t o%ce "eemed to be (mpo""(ble that the d("ordered phe%ome%a o* percept(o% could !e%erate a k%owled!e o* law a%d order> (t wa"

0 3C 1 "uppo"ed that (%depe%de%t pr(%c(ple" o* order mu"t be "uppl(ed a%d the phe%ome%a mea"ured by approach to or de7(at(o% *rom the *(:ed model". ,he ord(%ary co%cept(o% o* a "ta%dard (% pract(cal a**a(r" (" a prec("e a%alo!ue. Phy"(cal k%owled!e "tarted o% a "ecure career whe% me% had coura!e to "tart *rom the (rre!ular "ce%e a%d to

treat the "u!!e"t(o%" to wh(ch (t !a7e r("e a" method" *or (%"t(tut(%! %ew ob"er7at(o%" a%d e:per(e%ce". <ct(%! upo% the "u!!e"ted co%cept(o%" a%aly6ed- e:te%ded- a%d ordered phe%ome%a a%d thu" made (mpro7ed co%cept(o%" Omethod" o* (%=u(ryO po""(ble. 8t (" rea"o%able to bel(e7e that what hold" moral k%owled!e back (" abo7e all the co%cept(o% that there are "ta%dard" o* !ood !(7e% to k%owled!e apart *rom the work o* re*lect(o% (% co%"truct(%! method" o* act(o%. <" the br(%!er o* bad %ew" !et" a bad %ame- be(%! made to "hare (% the product(o% o* the e7(l wh(ch he report"- "o ho%e"t ack%owled!me%t o* the u%certa(%ty o* the moral "(tuat(o% a%d o* the hypothet(cal character o* all rule" o* moral me%"urat(o% pr(or to act(%! upo% them- (" treated a" (* (t or(!(%ated the u%certa(%ty a%d created the "kept(c("m. 8t may be co%te%ded- howe7er- that all th(" doe" %ot ju"t(*y the earl(er "tateme%t that the l(m(t(%! "(tuat(o% wh(ch occa"(o%" a%d cut" o** jud!me%t (" %ot (t"el* a 7alue. ;hy- (t w(ll be a"ked- doe" a ma% buy a "u(t o* clothe" u%le"" that (" a 7alue- or at lea"t a pro:(mate mea%" to a *urther 7alue D ,he a%"wer (" "hort a%d "(mple: Becau"e he ha" to> becau"e the

03C31 "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch he l(7e" dema%d" (t. ,he a%"wer problably "eem" too "ummary. But (t may "u!!e"t that wh(le a ma% l(7e"- he %e7er (" called upo% to jud!e whether he "hall act- but "(mply how he "hall act. < dec("(o% %ot to act (" a dec("(o% to act (% a certa(% way> (t (" %e7er a jud!me%t %ot to act- u%=ual(*(edly. 8t (" a jud!me%t to do "ometh(%! el"e Oto wa(t- *or e:ample. < jud!me%t that the be"t th(%! to do (" to ret(re *rom act(7e l(*e- to become a +(mo% +tyl(te"- (" a jud!me%t to act (% a certa(% wayco%d(t(o%ed upo% the %ece""(ty that- (rre"pect(7e o* jud!(%!- a ma% w(ll ha7e to act "omehow a%yway. < dec("(o% to comm(t "u(c(de (" %ot a dec("(o% to be dead> (t (" a dec("(o% to per*orm a certa(% act. ,he act may depe%d upo% reach(%! the co%clu"(o% that l(*e (" %ot worth l(7(%!. But a" a jud!me%t- th(" (" a co%clu"(o% to act (% a way to term(%ate the po""(b(l(ty o* *urther "(tuat(o%" re=u(r(%! jud!me%t a%d act(o%. <%d (t doe" %ot (mply that a jud!me%t about l(*e a" a "upreme 7alue a%d "ta%dard u%derl(e" all jud!me%t" a" to how to l(7e. More "pec(*(cally- (t (" %ot a jud!me%t upo% the 7alue o* l(*e per se, but a jud!me%t that o%e doe" %ot *(%d at ha%d the "pec(*(c mea%" o* mak(%! l(*e worth wh(le. <" a% act to be do%e- (t *all" w(th(% a%d a""ume" l(*e. <" a jud!me%t upo% the 7alue o* l(*e- by de*(%(t(o% (t e7ade" the (""ue. Eo o%e e7er (%*lue%ced a per"o% co%"(der(%! comm(tt(%! "u(c(de by ar!ume%t" co%cer%(%! the 7alue o* l(*e- but o%ly by "u!!e"t(%! or "upply(%! co%d(t(o%"

03CJ1 a%d mea%" wh(ch make l(*e worth l(7(%!> (% other word"- by *ur%("h(%! direct "t(mul( to l(7(%!. 4owe7er- 8 *ear that all th(" ar!ume%t may o%ly ob"cure a po(%t ob7(ou" w(thout ar!ume%t- %amely- that all del(berat(o% upo% what to do (" co%cer%ed w(th the complet(o% a%d determ(%at(o% o* a "(tuat(o% (% "ome re"pect (%complete a%d "o (%determ(%ate. 57ery "uch "(tuat(o% (" "pec(*(c> (t (" %ot merely (%complete> the (%complete%e"" (" o* a "pec(*(c "(tuat(o%. 4e%ce the "(tuat(o% "et" l(m(t" to the re*lect(7e proce""> what (" jud!ed ha" re*ere%ce to (t a%d that wh(ch l(m(t" %e7er (" jud!ed (% the part(cular "(tuat(o% (% wh(ch (t (" l(m(t(%!. Eow we ha7e (% ord(%ary "peech a word wh(ch e:pre""e" the %ature o* the co%d(t(o%" wh(ch l(m(t the jud!me%t" o* 7alue. 8t (" the word &(%7aluable.& ,he word doe" %ot mea% "ometh(%! o* "upreme 7alue a"

compared w(th other th(%!" a%y more tha% (t mea%" "ometh(%! o* 6ero 7alue. 8t mea%" "ometh(%! out o* the "cope o* 7aluat(o% O"ometh(%! out o* the ra%!e o* jud!me%t> whate7er (% the "(tuat(o% at ha%d (" %ot a%d ca%%ot be a%y part o* the "ubject3matter o* jud!me%t a%d wh(ch yet (%"t(!ate" a%d cut" "hort the jud!me%t. 8t mea%"- (% "hort- that jud!me%t at "ome po(%t ru%" a!a(%"t the brute act o* hold(%! "ometh(%! dear a" (t" l(m(t.

4
,he "tateme%t that 7alue" are determ(%ed (% the proce"" o* jud!me%t o* what to do 0that (". (% "(tua3

03C21 3t(o%" where pre*ere%ce depe%d" upo% re*lect(o% upo% the co%d(t(o%" a%d po""(b(l(t(e" o* a "(tuat(o% re=u(r(%! act(o%1 w(ll be met by the object(o% that our pract(cal del(berat(o%" u"ually a""ume precede%t "pec(*(c 7alue" a%d al"o a certa(% order or !rade amo%! them. ,here (" a "e%"e (% wh(ch 8 am %ot co%cer%ed to de%y th(". 9ur del(berate cho(ce" !o o% (% "(tuat(o%" more or le"" l(ke tho"e (% wh(ch we ha7e pre7(ou"ly cho"e%. ;he% del(berat(o% ha" reached a 7aluat(o%- a%d act(o% ha" co%*(rmed or 7er(*(ed the co%clu"(o%- the re"ult rema(%". +(tuat(o%" o7erlap. ,he m wh(ch (" jud!ed better tha% (t (% o%e "(tuat(o% (" *ou%d wor"e tha% l (% a%other- a%d "o o%> thu" a certa(% order o* precede%ce (" e"tabl("hed. <%d we ha7e to broade% the *(eld to co7er the hab(tual order o* re*lect(7e pre*ere%ce" (% the commu%(ty to wh(ch we belo%!. ,he 7alu3 ed" or 7aluable" thu" co%"t(tuted pre"e%t them"el7e" a" *act" (% "ub"e=ue%t "(tuat(o%". Moreo7er- by the "ame k(%d o* operat(o%- the dom(%at(%! object" o* pa"t 7aluat(o%" pre"e%t them"el7e" a" "ta%dard(6ed 7alue". But we ha7e to %ote that "uch 7alue3"ta%dard" are o%ly pre"umpt(7e. ,he(r "tatu" depe%d"- o% o%e ha%d- upo% the e:te%t (% wh(ch the pre"e%t "(tuat(o% (" l(ke the pa"t. 8% a pro!re""(7e or rap(dly alter(%! "oc(al l(*e- the pre"umpt(o% o* (de%t(cal pre"e%t 7alue (" weake%ed. <%d wh(le (t would be *ool("h %ot to a7a(l o%eH" "el* o* the a""("ta%ce (% pre"e%t 7aluat(o%" o* the 7aluable" e"tabl("hed (% other "(tuat(o%"-

03C?1 we ha7e to remember that hab(t operate" to make u" o7erlook d(**ere%ce" a%d pre"ume (de%t(ty where (t doe" %ot e:("t Oto the m("lead(%! o* jud!me%t. 9% the other ha%d- the co%tr(butory worth o* pa"t determ(%at(o%" o* 7alue (" depe%de%t upo% the e:te%t (% wh(ch they were cr(t(cally made> e"pec(ally upo% the e:te%t (% wh(ch the co%"e=ue%ce" brou!ht about throu!h act(%! upo% them ha7e bee% care*ully %oted. 8% other word"- the pre"umpt(7e *orce o* a pa"t 7alue (% pre"e%t jud!me%t depe%d" upo% the pa(%" take% w(th (t" 7er(*(cat(o%. 8% a%y ca"e- "o *ar a" jud!me%t take" place 0(%"tead o* the rem(%("ce%ce o* a pr(or !ood operat(%! a" a d(rect "t(mulu" to pre"e%t act(o%1 all 7aluat(o% (" (% "ome de!ree a re7aluat(o%. E(et6"che would probably %ot ha7e made "o much o* a "e%"at(o%- but he would ha7e bee% w(th(% the l(m(t" o* w("dom- (* he had co%*(%ed h(m"el* to the a""ert(o% that all jud!me%t- (% the de!ree (% wh(ch (t (" cr(t(cally (%tell(!e%t- (" a tra%"7aluat(o% o* pr(or 7alue". 8 ca%%ot e"cape reco!%(t(o% that a%y allu"(o% to mod(*(cat(o% or tra%"*ormat(o% o* a% object throu!h jud!me%t arou"e" part("a% "u"p(c(o% a%d ho"t(l(ty. ,o ma%y (t appear" to be a "ur7(7al o* a% (deal("t(c ep("temolo!y. But 8 "ee o%ly three alter%at(7e". 5(ther there are %o pract(cal jud!me%t" Oa" jud!me%t" they are wholly

(llu"ory> or the *uture (" bou%d to be but a repet(t(o% o* the pa"t or a reproduct(o% o* "ometh(%! eter%ally e:("te%t (% "ome tra%"ce%de%t realm 0wh(ch (" the "ame th(%!

03CB1 lo!(cally1-( $) or the object o* a pract(cal jud!me%t (" "ome cha%!e- "ome alterat(o%- to be brou!ht about (% the !(7e%- the %ature o* the cha%!e depe%d(%! upo% the jud!me%t a%d yet co%"t(tut(%! (t" "ubject3matter. @%le"" the ep("temolo!(cal real("t accept" o%e o* the two *(r"t alter%at(7e"- he "eem" bou%d- (% accept(%! the th(rd- to adm(t %ot merely that pract(cal jud!me%t" make a d(**ere%ce (% th(%!" a" a% a*ter3e**ect 0th(" he "eem" ready e%ou!h to adm(t1- but that the (mport a%d 7al(d(ty o* jud!me%t" (" a matter o* the d(**ere%ce thu" made. 9%e may- o* cour"e- hold that th(" (" ju"t what mark" the d("t(%ct(o% o* the pract(cal jud!me%t *rom the "c(e%t(*(c jud!me%t. But o%e who adm(t" th(" *act a" re"pect" a pract(cal jud!me%t ca% %o lo%!er cla(m that (t (" *atal to the 7ery (dea o* jud!me%t to "uppo"e that (t" proper object (" "ome d(**ere%ce to be brou!ht about (% th(%!"- a%d that the truth o* the jud!me%t (" co%"t(tuted by the d(**ere%ce" (% co%"e=ue%ce" actually made. <%d a lo!(cal real("t who take" "er(ou"ly the

03CC1 %ot(o% that moral !ood (" a *ul*(lme%t o* a% or!a%(6at(o% or (%te!rat(o% mu"t adm(t that a%y propo"(t(o% about "uch a% object (" pro"pect(7e 0*or (t (" "ometh(%! to be atta(%ed throu!h act(o%1- a%d that the propo"(t(o% (" made *or the "ake o* *urther(%! the *ul*(lme%t. 'et o%e "tart at th(" po(%t a%d carry back the co%cept(o% (%to a co%"(derat(o% o* other k(%d" o* propo"(t(o%"- a%d o%e w(ll ha7e- 8 th(%k- the read(e"t mea%" o* apprehe%d(%! the (%te%t o* the theory that all propo"(t(o%" are but the propou%d(%!" o* po""(ble k%owled!e- %ot k%owled!e (t"el*. .or u%le"" o%e mark" o** the jud!me%t o* !ood *rom other jud!me%t by mea%" o* a% arb(trary d(7("(o% o* the or!a%("m *rom the e%7(ro%me%t- or o* the "ubject(7e *rom the object(7e- %o !rou%d *or a%y "harp l(%e o* d(7("(o% (% the propo"(t(o%al3co%t(%uum w(ll appear. But 0to ob7(ate m("u%der"ta%d(%!1 th(" doe" %ot mea% that "ome p"ych(c "tate or act make" the d(**ere%ce (% th(%!". 8% the *(r"t place- the "ubject3matter o* the jud!me%t (" a cha%!e to be brou!ht about> a%d- (% the "eco%d place- th(" "ubject3matter doe" %ot become a% ob!ect u%t(l the jud!me%t ha" (""ued (% act. 8t (" the act wh(ch make" the d(**ere%ce- but %e7erthele"" the act (" but the complete object o* jud!me%t a%d the jud!me%t (" complete a" a jud!me%t o%ly (% the act. ,he a%t(3pra!mat("t" ha7e bee% a"ked 0%otably by Pro*e""or <. ;. Moore1 how they "harply d("t(%!u("h betwee% jud!me%t Oor k%owled!eO a%d

0 3C91 act a%d yet *reely adm(t a%d (%"("t that k%owled!e make" a d(**ere%ce (% act(o% a%d he%ce (% e:("te%ce. ,h(" (" the cru: o* the whole matter. <%d (t (" a lo!(cal =ue"t(o%. 8t (" %ot a =uery 0a" (t "eem" to ha7e bee% co%"(dered1 a" to how the me%tal ca% (%*lue%ce a phy"(cal th(%! l(ke act(o% Oa 7ar(a%t o* the old =ue"t(o% o* how the m(%d a**ect" the body. 9% the co%trary- the (mpl(cat(o% (" that the relat(o% o* k%owled!e to act(o% become" a problem o* the act(o% o* a me%tal 0or lo!(cal1 e%t(ty upo% a phy"(cal o%e o%ly whe% the lo!(cal (mport o* jud!me%t ha" bee% m("co%ce(7ed. ,he po"(t(7e co%te%t(o% (" that the realm o* lo!(cal propo"(t(o%" pre"e%t" (% a realm o* po""(b(l(ty the "pec(*(c rearra%!eme%t o* th(%!" wh(ch o7ert act(o% pre"e%t" (% actual(ty. 4e%ce the pa""a!e o* a propo"(t(o% (%to act(o% (" %ot a m(racle- but the real(6at(o% o* (t" ow% character O(t" ow% mea%(%! a" lo!(cal. 8 do %ot pro*e""- o* cour"e- to ha7e "how% that

"uch (" the ca"e *or all propo"(t(o%"> that (" a matter wh(ch 8 ha7e %ot d("cu""ed. But (% "how(%! the te%ab(l(ty o* the hypothe"(" that pract(cal jud!me%t" are o* that %ature- 8 ha7e at lea"t ruled out a%y purely d(alect(c proo* that the nature of k%owled!e a" "uch *orb(d" e%terta(%(%! the hypothe"(" that the (mport O(%d(rect (* %ot d(rectO o* all lo!(cal propo"(t(o%" (" "ome d(**ere%ce to be brou!ht about. ,he road (" at lea"t cleared *or a more u%prejud(ced co%"(derat(o% o* th(" hypothe"(" o% (t" ow% mer(t".

03901

S.'S. %.:C.%T2O' AS ;'O<L.D=.

8 me%t(o%ed (%c(de%tally (% the *(r"t "ect(o% that (t (" co%ce(7able that *a(lure to !(7e ade=uate co%"(derat(o% to pract(cal jud!me%t" may ha7e a comprom("(%! e**ect upo% the co%"(derat(o% o* other type". 8 %ow (%te%d to de7elop th(" remark w(th re!ard to "e%"e percept(o% a" a *orm o* k%owled!e. ,he top(c (" "o bou%d up w(th a mult(tude o* perple:(%! p"ycholo!(cal a%d ep("temolo!(cal trad(t(o%" that 8 ha7e *(r"t to make (t rea"o%ably clear what (t (" a%d what (t (" %ot wh(ch 8 propo"e to d("cu"". 8 e%dea7ored (% a% earl(er "er(e" o* paper"( &) to po(%t out that the =ue"t(o% o* the material o* "e%"e percept(o% (" %ot- a" "uch- a problem o* the theory o* k%owled!e at all- but "(mply a problem o* the occurre%ce o* a certa(% mater(al O a problem o* cau"al co%d(t(o%" a%d co%"e=ue%ce". ,hat (" to "ay- the problem pre"e%ted by a% (ma!e( *) o* a be%t "t(ck- or by a dream- or by &"eco%dary& "e%"ory =ual(t(e" (" properly a problem o* phy"(c" O o* co%d(t(o%" o* occurre%ce- a%d %ot o* lo!(c- o* truth or *al"(ty- *act or *(ct(o%. ,hat the e:("te%ce o* a red quale is depe%de%t upo% d("turba%ce" o* a certa(% 7eloc(ty o* a med(um (% co%%ect(o% w(th certa(% cha%!e" o* the or!a%("m (" %ot to be co%*u"ed w(th the %ot(o% that red (" a way o* k%ow(%!- (% "ome more or le"" ade=uate *a"h(o%- "ome more &real& object or el"e

03911 o* k%ow(%! (t"el*. ,he *act o* cau"at(o% Oor *u%ct(o%al depe%de%ceO %o more make" the quale a% &appeara%ce& to the m(%d o* "ometh(%! more real tha% (t"el* or o* (t"el* tha% (t make" bubble" o% the water a real *("h tra%"*erred by "ome co!%(t(7e d("tort(o% (%to a re!(o% o* appeara%ce. ;(th a l(ttle "tretch(%! we may u"e the term appeara%ce (% e(ther ca"e- but the term o%ly mea%" that the red quale or the water3 bubble (" a% obvious or co%"p(cuou" th(%! *rom wh(ch we (%*er "ometh(%! el"e %ot "o ob7(ou". ,h(" po"(t(o% thu" *reely re"umed here %eed" to be ade=uately !uarded o% all "(de". 8t (mpl(e" that the =ue"t(o% o* the e:("te%ce or pre"e%ce o* the sub!ect1matter o* e7e% a comple: "e%"e percept(o% may be treated a" a =ue"t(o% o* phy"(c". 8t al"o (mpl(e" that the e$istence o* a "e%"e percept(o% may be treated a" a problem o* phy"(c". But the po"(t(o% (" %ot that all the problem" o* "e%"e percept(o% are thereby e:hau"ted. ,here (" "t(ll- o% the co%trary- the problem o* the co!%(t(7e "tatu" o* "e%"e percept(o%. +o *ar *rom de%y(%! th(" *act- 8 mea% rather to empha"(6e (t (% hold(%! that th(" k%owled!e a"pect (" %ot to be (de%t(*(ed O a" (t ha" bee% (% both real("t(c a%d (deal("t(c ep("temolo!(e" O w(th the "(mple occurrence o* pre"e%ted "ubject3matter a%d w(th the occurrence o* a percept(7e act. 8t (" o*te% "tated- *or e:ample- that pr(m(t(7e "e%"e object" whe% they are "tr(pped o* all (%*ere%t(al mater(al ca%%ot po""(bly be *al"e O w(th the (mpl(cat(o% that they- there*ore- mu"t

039 1 be true. ;ell- 8 mea%t to !o th(" "tateme%t o%e better Oto "tate that they are %e(ther true %or *al"eO that ("- that the d("t(%ct(o% o* true3or3*al"e (" a" (rrele7a%t a%d (%appl(cable a" to a%y other e:("te%ce- a" (t ("- "ay- to be(%! more tha% *(7e *eet h(!h or ha7(%! a low blood pre""ure. ,h(" po"(t(o% whe% take% lea7e" o7er the =ue"t(o% o* "e%"e percept(o% a" k%owled!e- a" capable o* truth or *al"(ty. 8t (" th(" =ue"t(o%- the%- wh(ch 8 (%te%d to d("cu"" (% th(" paper.

2
My *(r"t po(%t (" that "ome "e%"e percept(o%" at lea"t 0a" matter o* *act the !reat bulk o* them1- are w(thout a%y doubt *orm" o* pract(cal jud!me%t Oor- more accurately- are term" (% pract(cal jud!me%t" a" propo"(t(o%" o* what to do. ;he% (% walk(%! dow% a "treet 8 "ee a "(!% o% the lamp3po"t at the cor%er- 8 a""uredly "ee a "(!%. Eow (% ord(%ary co%te:t 08 do %ot "ay alway" or %ece""ar(ly1 th(" (" a "(!% o* what to do Oto co%t(%ue walk(%! or to tur%. ,he other term o* the propo"(t(o% may %ot be "tated or (t may be> (t (" probably more o*te% tac(t. 9* cour"e- 8 ha7e take% the ca"e o* the "(!% purpo"ely. But the ca"e may be e:te%ded. ,he lamp3po"t a" perce(7ed (" to a lamp3l(!hter a "(!% o* "ometh(%! el"e tha% a tur%- but "t(ll a "(!% o* "ometh(%! to be do%e. ,o a%other ma%- (t may be a "(!% o* a po""(ble "upport. 8 am a%:(ou" %ot to *orce the "cope o* ca"e" o* th("

03931 cla"" beyo%d what would be accepted by a% u%b(a"ed per"o%- but 8 w("h to po(%t out that certa(% *eature" o* the perce(7ed object- a" a co!%(t(7e term- wh(ch do %ot "eem at *(r"t "(!ht to *all w(th(% th(" co%cept(o% o* the object- a"- a% (%tellectual "(!% o* what to do- tur% out upo% a%aly"(" to be co7ered by (t. 8t may be "a(d- *or e:ample- that our "uppo"ed pede"tr(a% perce(7e" much be"(de" that wh(ch "er7e" a" e7(de%ce o* the th(%! to be do%e. 4e perce(7e" the lamp3po"t- *or e:ample- a%d po""(bly the carbo%" o* the arc. <%d the"e a""uredly do %ot e%ter (%to the (%d(cat(o% o* what to do or how to do (t. ,he reply (" three*old. 8% the *(r"t place- (t (" ea"y Oa%d u"ualO to read back (%to the "e%"e percept(o% more tha% wa" actually (% (t. 8t (" ea"y to recall the *am(l(ar *eature" o* the lamp3po"t> (t (" pract(cally (mpo""(ble Oor at lea"t 7ery u%u"ualO to recall what wa" actually perce(7ed. +o we read the *ormer (%to the latter. ,he tendency is *or actual percept(o% to l(m(t (t"el* to the m(%(mum wh(ch w(ll "er7e a" "(!%. But- (% the "eco%d place- "(%ce (t (" %e7er wholly "o l(m(ted- "(%ce there (" alway" a "urplu"a!e o* perce(7ed object- the *act "tated (% the object(o% (" adm(tted. But (t (" prec("ely th(" "urplu"a!e wh(ch ha" %ot cognitive "tatu". 8t doe" %ot "er7e a" a "(!%- but %e(ther (" (t )nown, or a term (% k%owled!e. < ch(ld- walk(%! by h(" *atherH" "(de- w(th %o a(m a%d he%ce %o rea"o% *or "ecur(%! (%d(cat(o%" o* what to do- w(ll probably "ee more (% h(" (dle cur(o"(ty tha% h("

039J1 pare%t. 4e w(ll ha7e more pre"e%ted mater(al. But th(" doe" %ot mea% that he (" mak(%! more propo"(t(o%"- but o%ly that he (" !ett(%! more mater(al *or po""(ble propo"(t(o%". 8t mea%"- (% "hort- that he (" (% a% ae"thet(c att(tude o* real(6at(o% rather tha% (% a co!%(t(7e att(tude. But e7e% the mo"t eco%om(cal ob"er7er ha" "ome ae"thet(c%o%3co!%(t(7e "urplu"a!e.( +) 8% the th(rd place- "urplu"a!e (" %ece""ary *or the operat(o% o* the "(!%(*y(%! *u%ct(o%. 8%depe%de%tly o* the *act that "urplu"a!e may be re=u(red to re%der the "(!% "pec(*(c- act(o% (" *ree 0(t" 7ar(at(o% (" u%der co%trol1 (% the

de!ree (% wh(ch alternatives are pre"e%t. ,he pede"tr(a% ha" probably the two alter%at(7e" (% m(%d: to !o "tra(!ht o% or to tur%. ,he perce(7ed object m(!ht (%d(cate to h(m a%other alter%at(7e Oto "top a%d (%=u(re o* a pa""er3by. <%d- a" (" ob7(ou" (% a more compl(cated ca"e- (t (" the e:te%t o* the perce(7ed object wh(ch both mult(pl(e" alter%at(7e way" o* act(%! a%d !(7e" the !rou%d" *or "elect(%! amo%! them. < phy"(c(a%*or e:ample- del(berately a7o(d" "uch hard3a%d3*a"t alter%at(7e" a" ha7e bee% po"tulated (% our (%"ta%ce. 4e doe" %ot ob"er7e "(mply to !et a% (%d(cat(o% o* whether the ma% (" well or (ll> but (% order to determ(%e what to do he e:te%d" h(" e:plorat(o%" o7er a

03921 w(de *(eld. :Much o* h(" perce(7ed object *(eld (" (mmater(al to what he *(%ally doe"> that ("- doe" %ot "er7e a" "(!%. But (t (" all rele7a%t to !udging what he (" to do. +e%"e percept(o% a" a term (% pract(cal jud!me%t must (%clude more tha% the eleme%t wh(ch *(%ally "er7e" a" "(!%. 8* (t d(d %ot- there would be %o percept(o%- but o%ly a d(rect "t(mulu" to act(o%.( ,) ,he co%clu"(o% that "uch percept(o%" a" we ha7e bee% co%"(der(%! are term" (% a% (%*ere%ce (" to be care*ully d("cr(m(%ated *rom the loo"e "tateme%t that "e%"e percept(o%" are u%co%"c(ou" (%*ere%ce". ,here (" a !reat d(**ere%ce betwee% "ay(%! that the percept(o% o* a "hape a**ord" a% (%d(cat(o% *or a% (%*ere%ce a%d "ay(%! that the percept(o% o* "hape (" (t"el* a% (%*ere%ce. ,hat de*(%(te "hape" would %ot be perce(7edwere (t %ot *or %eural cha%!e" brou!ht about (% pr(or (%*ere%ce"- (" a po""(b(l(ty> (t may be- *or au!ht 8 k%ow- a% a"certa(%ed *act. +uch tele"cop(%! o* a perce(7ed object w(th the object (%*erred *rom (t may be a co%"ta%t *u%ct(o%> but (% a%y ca"e the tele"cop(%! (" %ot a matter o* a pre"e%t (%*ere%ce

0 39?1 !o(%! o% u%co%"c(ou"ly- but (" the re"ult o* a% or!a%(c mod(*(cat(o% wh(ch ha" occurred (% co%"e=ue%ce o* pr(or (%*ere%ce". 8% "(m(lar *a"h(o%- to "ay that to "ee a table (" to !et a% (%d(cat(o% o* "ometh(%! to wr(te o% (" (% %o way to "ay that the percept(o% o* a table (" a% (%*ere%ce *rom "e%"ory data. ,o "ay that certa(% earl(er perce(7ed object" %ot ha7(%! a" perce(7ed the character o* a table ha7e %ow &*u"ed& w(th the re"ult" o* (%*ere%ce" draw% *rom them (" %ot to "ay that the percept(o% o* the table (" %ow a% (%*ere%ce. +uppo"e we "ay that the *(r"t percept(o% wa" o* colored patche"> that we (%*erred *rom th(" the po""(b(l(ty o* reach(%! a%d touch(%!- a%d that o% per*orm(%! the"e act" we "ecured certa(% =ual(t(e" o* hard%e""- "mooth%e""- etc.- a%d that the"e are %ow all *u"ed w(th the color3patche". <t mo"t th(" o%ly "(!%(*(e" that certa(% previously (%*erred =ual(t(e" ha7e %ow become co%"ol(dated w(th =ual(t(e" *rom wh(ch they were *ormerly (%*erred. <%d "uch *u"(o% or co%"ol(dat(o% (" prec("ely not inference. <" matter o* *act- "uch &*u"(o%& o* =ual(t(e"- !(7e% a%d formerly (%*erred- (" but a matter o* "peak(%!. ;hat ha" really happe%ed (" that brain proce""e" wh(ch *ormerly happe%ed "ucce""(7ely %ow happe% "(multa%eou"ly. ;hat we are deal(%! w(th (" %ot a *act o* co!%(t(o%- but a *act o* the or!a%(c co%d(t(o%" o* the occurre%ce o* a% act o* percept(o%. 'et u" apply the re"ult" to the =ue"t(o% o* "e%"e &(llu"(o%".& ,he be%t reed (% the water w(%e"

039B1 %aturally to m(%d. Purely phy"(cal co%"(derat(o%" accou%t *or the re*ract(o% o* the l(!ht wh(ch produce" a% opt(cal (ma!e o* a be%t "t(ck. ,h(" ha" %oth(%! to do w(th

k%owled!e or w(th "e%"e percept(o% Ow(th "ee(%!. 8t (" "(mply a%d wholly a matter o* the propert(e" o* l(!ht a%d a le%". +uch re*ract(o%" are co%"ta%tly produced w(thout our %ot(%! them. 8% the pa"t- howe7er- l(!ht re*racted a%d u%re*racted ha" bee% a co%"ta%t "t(mulu" to re"po%"(7e act(o%". 8t (" a matter o* the %at(7e co%"t(tut(o% o* the or!a%("m that l(!ht "t(mulate" the eye" to *ollow a%d the arm" to reach a%d the ha%d" to clutch a%d ha%dle. <" a co%"e=ue%ce- certa(% arra%!eme%t" o* re*lected a%d re*racted l(!ht ha7e become a "(!% to per*orm certa(% "pec(*(c act" o* ha%dl(%! a%d touch(%!. <" a rule"t(mul( a%d react(o%" occur (% a% appro:(mately homo!e%eou" med(um Othe a(r. ,he "y"tem o* "(!%" or (%de:e" o* act(o% "et up ha" bee% ba"ed upo% th(" *act a%d accommodated to (t. < hab(t or b(a" (% *a7or o* a certa(% k(%d o* (%*ere%ce ha" bee% "et up. ;e (%*er *rom a be%t ray o* l(!ht that the ha%d- (% touch(%! the re*lect(%! objectw(ll- at a certa(% po(%t- ha7e to cha%!e (t" d(rect(o%. ,h(" hab(t (" carr(ed o7er to a med(um (% wh(ch the co%clu"(o% doe" %ot hold. 8%"tead o* "ay(%! that l(!ht (" be%t O wh(ch (t ("O we infer that the "t(ck (" be%t: we (%*er that the ha%d could %ot protract a "tra(!ht cour"e (% ha%dl(%! the object. But a% e:pert *("herma% %e7er make" "uch a% error (% "pear(%! *("h.

039C1 Ieact(%! (% med(a o* d(**ere%t re*ract(7e capac(t(e"- he ba"e" h(" "(!%" a%d (%*ere%ce" upo% the co%d(t(o%" a%d re"ult" o* h(" med(a. 8 "ee %o d(**ere%ce betwee% the"e ca"e" a%d that o* a ma% who ca% read h(" ow% to%!ue. 4e "ee" the word &pa(%& a%d (%*er" (t mea%" a certa(% phy"(cal d("com*ort. <" matter o* *act- the th(%! perce(7ed e:("t" (% a% u%*am(l(ar med(um a%d "(!%(*(e" bread. ,o the o%e accu"tomed to the .re%ch la%!ua!e the r(!ht (%*ere%ce occur".( -) ,here (" %e(ther error %or truth (% the opt(cal (ma!e: 8t ju"t e:("t" phy"(cally. But we take (t *or "ometh(%! el"e- we beha7e to (t a" (* (t were "ometh(%! el"e. ;e m("3take (t.

22
+o *ar a" 8 ca% "ee- the pro%ou%ced te%de%cy to re!ard the perce(7ed object a" (t"el* the object o* a pecul(ar k(%d o* k%owled!e (%"tead o* a" a term (% k%owled!e o* the pract(cal k(%d ha" two cau"e". 9%e (" the co%*(rmed hab(t o* %e!lect(%! the w(de "cope a%d (mport o* pract(cal jud!me%t". ,h(" lead" to o7erlook(%! the re"po%"(7e act a" the other term (%d(cated by the percept(o%- a%d to tak(%! the perce(7ed object a" the whole o* the "(tuat(o% ju"t by (t"el*. ,he other cau"e (" the *act that becau"e perce(7ed object" are co%"ta%tly employed a" e7(de%ce o* what (" to be do%e Oor how to do "ometh(%!O they them3

03991 3"el7e" become the object" o* prolo%!ed a%d care*ul "crut(%y. ;e pa"" %aturally a%d (%e7(tably *rom reco!%(t(o% to observation. 8%*ere%ce w(ll u"ually take care o* (t"el* (* the datum (" properly determ(%ed. <t the pre"e%t day- a "k(lled phy"(c(a% w(ll ha7e l(ttle d(**(culty (% (%*err(%! typho(d (%"tead o* malar(a *rom certa(% "ymptom" pro7(ded he ca% make certa(% ob"er7at(o%"3that ("- "ecure certa(% data *rom wh(ch to (%*er. ,he labor o* (%tell(!e%ce (" thu" tra%"*erred *rom (%*ere%ce to the determ(%at(o% o* data- the data be(%! determ(%ed- howe7er- (% the (%tere"t" o* (%*ere%ce a%d a" part" o* a% (%*ere%ce. <t th(" po(%t- a "(!%(*(ca%t compl(cat(o% e%ter" (%. ,he ord(%ary a""umpt(o% (% the d("cu""(o% o* the relat(o% o* perce(7ed object" to k%owled!e (" that &the& object Othe

real objectO o* k%owled!e (% percept(o% (" the th(%! wh(ch caused the =ual(t(e" wh(ch are !(7e%. 8t (" a""umed- that ("- that the other term o* a propo"(t(o% (% wh(ch a "e%"e datum (" o%e term mu"t be the th(%! wh(ch produced (t. +(%ce th(" produc(%! object doe" %ot *or the mo"t part appear (% ord(%ary "e%"e percept(o%- we ha7e o% our ha%d" percept(o% a" a% ep("temolo!(cal problem Othe relat(o% o* a% appeara%ce to "ome real(ty wh(ch (t- "omehow- co%ceal" rather tha% (%d(cate". 4e%ce al"o the d(**(cult(e" o* &reco%c(l(%!& "c(e%t(*(c k%owled!e (% phy"(c" where the"e cau"e" are the term" o* the propo"(t(o%" w(th &emp(r(cal& or "e%"e percept(o% k%owled!e where they do %ot e7e% appear.

0J001 4ere (" where the pr(mary ad7a%ta!e o* reco!%(6(%! that ord(%ary "e%"e percept(o%" are *orm" o* pract(cal jud!me%t come" (%. 8% pract(cal jud!me%t"- the other term (" a" ope% a%d abo7eboard a" (" the "e%"ory =ual(ty: (t (" the th(%! to be do%e- the re"po%"e to be "elected. ,o borrow a% (llu"trat(o% o* Pro*e""or ;oodbr(d!eH": < certa(% "ou%d (%d(cate" to the mother that her baby %eed" atte%t(o%. 8* "he tur%" out to be (% error- (t (" %ot becau"e "ou%d ou!ht to mea% "o ma%y 7(brat(o%" o* the a(r- a%d a" matter o* *act doe"%Ht e7e% "u!!e"t a(r 7(brat(o%"- but becau"e there (" wro%! (%*ere%ce a" to the act to be per*ormed. 8 (ma!(%e that (* error %e7er occurred (% (%*ere%ce" o* th(" pract(cal "ort the huma% race would ha7e !o%e o% =u(te co%te%ted w(th them. 4owe7er that may be- error" do occur a%d the e%dea7or to co%trol (%*ere%ce a" to co%"e=ue%ce" 0"o a" to reduce the(r l(kel(hood o* error1 lead" to propo"(t(o%" where the k%owled!e3object o* the perce(7ed th(%! (" %ot "ometh(%! to be do%e- but the cau"e wh(ch produced (t. ,he mother *(%d" her baby peace*ully "leep(%! a%d "ay" the baby d(d%Ht ma)e the %o("e. +he (%7e"t(!ate" a%d dec(de" a "w(%!(%! door made (t. 8%"tead o* (%*err(%! a co%"e=ue%ce- "he (%*er" a cau"e. 8* "he had (de%t(*(ed the %o("e (% the *(r"t place- "he would ha7e co%cluded that the h(%!e" %eeded o(l(%!. Eow where doe" the ar!ume%t "ta%d:H ,he proper co%trol o* (%*ere%ce (% "pec(*(c ca"e" (" *ou%d *a- to l(e (% the proper (de%t(*(cat(o% o* t(le datum. 8*

0J011 the percept(o% (" o* a certa(% k(%d- the (%*ere%ce take" place a" a matter o* cour"e> or el"e (%*ere%ce ca% be "u"pe%ded u%t(l more ade=uate data are *ou%d- a%d thu" error (" a7o(ded e7e% (* truth be %ot *ou%d. .urthermore 0b1 (t (" d("co7ered that the mo"t e**ect(7e way o* (de%t(*y(%! datum 0a%d "ecur(%! ade=uate data1 (" by (%*ere%ce to (t" cau"e. ,he mother "top" "hort w(th the baby a%d the door a" cau"e". But the "ame mot(7e" wh(ch made her tra%"*er her (%*ere%ce *rom co%"e=ue%ce" to co%d(t(o%" are the mot(7e" wh(ch lead other" to (%*err(%! *rom "ou%d" to 7(brat(o%" o* a(r. 4e%ce our "c(e%t(*(c propo"(t(o%" about "e%"ory data. ,hey are %ot- a" "uch- about th(%!" to do- but about th(%!" wh(ch ha7e bee% do%e- ha7e happe%ed O&*act".& But they ha7e re*ere%ce%e7erthele""- to (%*ere%ce" re!ard(%! co%"e=ue%ce" to be e**ected. ,hey are the mea%" o* "ecur(%! data wh(ch w(ll pre7e%t error" wh(ch would otherw("e occur- a%d wh(ch *ac(l(tate a% e%t(rely %ew crop o* (%*ere%ce" a" to po""(b(l(t(e" Omea%" a%d e%d"O o* act(o%. ,hat "c(e%t(*(c me% "hould be co%"c(ou" o* th(" re*ere%ce or e7e% (%tere"ted (% (t (" %ot at all %ece""ary- *or 8 am talk(%! about the lo!(c o* propo"(t(o%"- %ot about b(o!raphy %or p"ycholo!y. 8* 8 re7erted to p"ycholo!y- (t would be to po(%t out that there (" %o rea"o% (% the world why the pract(cal act(7(ty o* "ome me% "hould %ot be

predom(%a%tly d(rected (%to the pur"u(t" co%%ected w(th d("co7ery. ,he e:te%t (% wh(ch they actually are "o d(rected depe%d" upo% "oc(al co%d(t(o%".

0J0 1

222
;e are brou!ht to a co%"(derat(o% o* the %ot(o% o* &pr(m(t(7e& "e%"e data. 8t wa" lo%! cu"tomary to treat the attempt to de*(%e true k%owled!e (% term" der(7ed *rom "e%"e data a" a co%*u"(o% o* p"ycholo!y Oor the h("tory o* the !rowth o* k%owled!eO w(th lo!(cthe theory o* the character o* k%owled!e a" k%owled!e. <" matter o* *act- there (" co%*u"(o%- but (% the oppo"(te d(rect(o%. ,he attempt (%7ol7ed a co%*u"(o% o* lo!(c w(th p"ycholo!y Othat ("- (t treated a pha"e o* the tech%(=ue o* (%*ere%ce a" (* (t were a %atural h("tory o* the !rowth o* (dea" a%d bel(e*". ,he ch(e* "ource o* error (% ord(%ary (%*ere%ce (" a% u%reco!%(6ed comple:(ty o* data. Percept(o% wh(ch (" %ot e:per(me%tally co%trolled *a(l" to pre"e%t "u**(c(e%tly w(de data to "ecure d(**ere%t(a o* po""(ble (%*ere%ce"- a%d (t *a(l" to pre"e%t- e7e% (% what (" !(7e%l(%e" o* clea7a!e wh(ch are (mporta%t *or proper (%*ere%ce. ,h(" (" o%ly a% elaborate way o* "ay(%! what "c(e%t(*(c (%=u(ry ha" made clear- that- *or purpo"e" o* (%*ere%ce a" to co%d(t(o%" o* product(o% o* what (" pre"e%t- ordinary "e%"e percept(o% (" too %arrowtoo co%*u"ed- too 7(7(d a" to "ome quales a%d too blurred a" to "ome other". 'et u" co%*(%e our atte%t(o% *or the mome%t to co%*u"(o%. 8t ha" o*te% bee% po(%ted out that "e%"e =ual(t(e" be(%! ju"t what they are- (t (" (lle!(t(mate to (%troduce "uch %ot(o%" a" ob"cur(ty or co%*u"(o% (%to them: a "l(!htly

0J031 (llum(%ated color (" ju"t a" (rretr(e7ably what (t ("- a" clearly (t"el*- a" a% object (% the broad !lare o* %oo%day. But the ca"e "ta%d" otherw("e whe% the quale is take% a" a datum *or (%*ere%ce. 8t (" %ot "o ea"y to (de%t(*y a perce(7ed object for purposes of inference (% the du"k a" (% br(!ht l(!ht. .rom the "ta%dpo(%t o* a% (%*ere%ce to be e**ected- the co%*u"(o% (" the "ame a" a% u%ju"t(*(able "(mpl(*(cat(o%. ,h(" o7er3 "(mpl(*(cat(o% ha" the e**ect o* mak(%! the quale, a" a term o* (%*ere%ce- amb(!uou". ,o (%*er *rom (t (" to "ubject our"el7e" to the da%!er o* all *allac(e" o* amb(!u(ty wh(ch are e:pou%ded (% the te:tbook". ,he remedy (" clearly the re"olut(o%- by e:per(me%tal mea%"- o* what "eem" to be a "(mple datum (%to (t" &eleme%t".& ,h(" (" a ca"e o* a%aly"("> (t d(**er" *rom other mode" o* a%aly"(" o%ly (% the "ubject3matter upo% wh(ch (t (" d(rected- 7(6.- "ome th(%! wh(ch had bee% pre7(ou"ly accepted a" a "(mple whole. ,he re"ult o* th(" a%aly"(" (" the e:("te%ce a" object" o* percept(o% o* ("olated =ual(t(e" l(ke the color" o* the "pectrum "c(e%t(*(cally determ(%ed- the to%e" o* the "cale (% all the(r 7ary(%! (%te%"(t(e"- etc.- (% "hort- the &"e%"at(o%"& or "e%"e =ual(t(e" o* co%temporary p"ycholo!y te:tbook" or the &"(mple (dea"& o* "e%"at(o% o* 'ocke or the &object" o* "e%"e& o* Iu""ell. ,hey are the mater(al o* "e%"e percept(o% d("cr(m(%ated *or the purpo"e o* better (%*ere%ce". Eote that the"e "(mple data or eleme%t" are %ot or(!(%al> p"ycholo!(cally or h("tor(cally> they are

0J0J1 logical pr(m(t(7e" Othat ("- (rreduc(ble *or purpo"e" o* (%*ere%ce. ,hey are "(mply the mo"t u%amb(!uou" a%d be"t de*(%ed object" o* percept(o% wh(ch ca% be "ecured to "er7e a" "(!%". ,hey are e:per(me%tally determ(%ed- w(th !reat art- prec("ely becau"e the %aturally !(7e%- the cu"tomary- object" (% percept(o% ha7e bee% amb(!uou" or co%*u"ed term" (% (%*ere%ce. 4e%ce they are replaced- throu!h e:per(me%tal mea%" (%7ol7(%! the u"e o* w(de "c(e%t(*(c k%owled!e deduct(7ely employed- by "(mpler "e%"e object". +tated (% curre%t phra"eolo!y- &"e%"at(o%"& 0(.e.- =ual(t(e" pre"e%t to "e%"e1 are %ot the eleme%t" out o* wh(ch percept(o%" are compo"ed- co%"t(tuted- or co%"tructed> they are the *(%e"t- mo"t care*ully d("cr(m(%ated object" o* percept(o%. ;e do %ot *(r"t perce(7e a "(%!le- thorou!hly de*(%ed "hade- a t(%t a%d hue o* red> (t" percept(o% (" the la"t re*(%eme%t o* ob"er7at(o%. +uch th(%!" are the l(m(t" o* percept(o%- but they are *(%al%ot (%(t(al- l(m(t". ,hey are what (" perce(7ed to be !(7e% u%der the mo"t *a7orable po""(ble co%d(t(o%"> co%d(t(o%"- moreo7er- wh(ch do %ot pre"e%t them"el7e" acc(de%tally- but wh(ch ha7e to be (%te%t(o%ally a%d e:per(me%tally e"tabl("hed- a%d detect(o% o* wh(ch e:act" the u"e o* a 7a"t body o* "c(e%t(*(c propo"(t(o%". 8 hope (t (" %ow e7(de%t what wa" mea%t by "ay(%! that curre%t lo!(c pre"e%t" u" %ot w(th a co%*u"(o% o* p"ycholo!y w(th lo!(c- but w(th a whole"ale m("tak(%! o* lo!(cal determ(%at(o%" *or *act" o* p"y3

0J021 cholo!y. ,he co%*u"(o% wa" be!u% by 'ocke Oor rather made completely curre%t throu!h the e%ormou" (%*lue%ce e:erc("ed by 'ockeO a%d "ome re*ere%ce to 'ocke may be o* a(d (% clear(%! up the po(%t. 'ockeH" co%cept(o% o* k%owled!e wa" lo!(cal%ot p"ycholo!(cal. 4e mea%t by k%owled!e thorou!hly ju"t(*(ed bel(e*" or propo"(t(o%"&certa(%ty-& a%d care*ully d("t(%!u("hed (t *rom what pa""ed curre%t a" k%owled!e at a !(7e% t(me. ,he latter he called &a""e%t-& op(%(o%- bel(e*- or jud!me%t. Moreo7er- h(" (%tere"t (% the latter wa" lo!(cal. 4e wa" a*ter a% art o* co%troll(%! the proper de!ree o* a""e%t to be !(7e% (% matter" o* probab(l(ty. 8% "hort- h(" "ole a(m wa" to determ(%e certa(%ty where certa(%ty (" po""(ble a%d to determ(%e the due de!ree o* probab(l(ty (% the much 7a"ter ra%!e o* ca"e" where o%ly probab(l(ty (" atta(%able. < %atural h("tory o* the !rowth o* &k%owled!e& (% the "e%"e o* what happe%" to pa"" *or k%owled!e wa" the la"t o* h(" (%tere"t". But he wa" completely u%der the dom(%at(o% o* the rul(%! (dea o* h(" t(me> %amely- that #ature is the %orm o* truth. Eow the earl(e"t per(od o* huma% l(*e pre"e%t" the &work o* %ature& (% (t" pure a%d u%adulterated *orm. ,he %ormal (" the or(!(%al- a%d the or(!(%al (" the %ormat(7e. Eature (" both be%e*(ce%t a%d truth*ul (% (t" work> (t reta(%" all the propert(e" o* the +upreme Be(%! who"e 7(ce3re!e%t (t (". ,o !et the lo!(cal ult(mate" we ha7e o%ly- there*ore- to !et back to the %atural pr(m(t(7e". @%der the (%*lue%ce

0J0?1 o* "uch de("t(c (dea"- 'ocke wr(te" a mytholo!y o* the h("tory o* k%owled!e"tart(%! *rom clear a%d d("t(%ct mea%(%!"- each "(mple- well de*(%ed- "harply a%d u%amb(!uou"ly ju"t what (t (" o% (t" *ace- w(thout co%cealme%t" a%d compl(cat(o%"- a%d proceed" by &%atural& compou%d(%!" up to the "tore o* comple: (dea"- a%d to the percept(o% o* "(mple relat(o%" o* a!reeme%t amo%! (dea": a percept(o% alway" certa(% (* the (dea" are "(mple- a%d alway" co%trollable (% the ca"e o* comple: (dea" (* we co%"(der the "(mple (dea" a%d the(r compou%d(%!". ,hu" he e"tabl("hed the hab(t o* tak(%! lo!(cal d("cr(m(%at(o%" a" h("tor(cal or p"ycholo!(cal pr(m(t(7e" Oa" &"ource"& o* bel(e*" a%d k%owled!e (%"tead o* a" check" upo% (%*ere%ce a%d a" mea%" o* k%ow(%!.

8 hope re*ere%ce to 'ocke w(ll %ot make a "cape!oat. 8 "hould %ot ha7e me%t(o%ed h(m (* (t were %ot that th(" way o* look(%! at th(%!" *ou%d (t" way o7er (%to orthodo: p"ycholo!y a%d the% back a!a(% (%to the *ou%dat(o%" o* lo!(cal theory. 8t may be "a(d to be the "tock (% trade o* the "chool o* emp(r(c("t lo!(c(a%"- a%d 0what (" e7e% more (mporta%t1 o* the other "chool" o* lo!(c whe%e7er they are deal(%! w(th propo"(t(o%" o* percept(o% a%d ob"er7at(o%: vide Iu""ellH" tru"t(%! co%*(de%ce (% &atom(c& propo"(t(o%" a" p"ycholo!(cal pr(m(t(7e". 8t led to the "uppo"(t(o% that there (" a k(%d o* )nowledge or "(mple apprehe%"(o% 0or "e%"e ac=ua(%ta%ce1 (mply(%! %o (%*ere%ce a%d yet ba"(c to (%*ere%ce. Eote- (* you

0 J0B1 plea"e- the mult(tude o* problem" !e%erated by th(%k(%! o* whate7er (" pre"e%t (% e:per(e%ce 0a" "e%"ory =ual(t(e" are pre"e%t1 a" (* (t were (%tr(%"(cally a%d apart *rom the u"e made o* (t" "ubject3matter o* k%owled!e. a1 ,he m(%d3body problem become" a% (%te!ral part o* the problem o* k%owled!e. +e%"e or!a%"- %euro%e"- a%d %euro%(c co%%ect(o%" are certa(%ly (%7ol7ed (% the occurre%ce o* a "e%"e =ual(ty. 8* the occurre%ce o* the latter (" (% a%d o* (t"el* a mode o* k%owled!e- (t become" a matter o* utmo"t (mporta%ce to determ(%e ju"t how the "e%"e or!a%" take part (% (t. 8* o%e (" a% (deal("t he re"po%d" w(th joy to a%y (%t(mat(o% that the &proce"" o* apprehe%"(o%& 0that ("- "peak(%! truly- the phy"(cal co%d(t(o%" o* the occurre%ce o* the "e%"ory datum1 tra%"*orm" the e:tra or!a%(c "t(mulu": the alterat(o% (" te"t(mo%y "omehow to the co%"t(tut(7e %ature o* m(%dG But (* he (" a real("t he co%ce(7e" h(m"el* u%der obl(!at(o% to "how that the e:ter%al "t(mulu" (" tra%"m(tted w(thout a%y alterat(o% a%d (" apprehe%ded ju"t a" (t ("> color mu"t be "how% to be "(mply- a*ter all- a compact(%! o* 7(brat(o%" Oor el"e the 7al(d(ty o* k%owled!e (" (mpu!%edG Ieco!%(6e that k%owled!e (" "ometh(%! about the color- whether about (t" co%d(t(o%" or cau"e" or co%"e=ue%ce" or whate7er a%d that we do%Ht ha7e to (de%t(*y color (t"el* w(th a mode o* k%ow(%!- a%d the "(tuat(o% cha%!e". ;e k%ow a color whe% we u%der"ta%d- ju"t a" we k%ow a

0 J0C1 thu%der3"torm whe% we u%der"ta%d. More !e%erally "peak(%!- the relat(o% o* bra(%3cha%!e to co%"c(ou"%e"" (" thou!ht to be a% e""e%t(al part o* the problem o* k%owled!e. But (* the bra(% (" (%7ol7ed (% k%ow(%! "(mply a" part o* the mecha%("m o* act(%!- a" the mecha%("m *or co3ord(%at(%! part(al a%d compet(%! "t(mul( (%to a "(%!le "cheme o* re"po%"e- a" part o* the mecha%("m o* actual e:per(me%tal (%=u(ry- there (" %o m(racle about the part(c(pat(o% o* the bra(% (% k%ow(%!. 9%e m(!ht a" well make a problem o* the *act that (t take" a hammer to dr(7e a %a(l a%d take" a ha%d to hold the hammer a" to make a problem out o* the *act that (t al"o re=u(re" a phy"(cal "tructure to d("co7er a%d to adapt the part(cular act" o* hold(%! a%d "tr(k(%! wh(ch are %eeded. b- ,he propo"(t(o%" o* phy"(cal "c(e%ce are %ot *ou%d amo%! the data o* apprehe%"(o%. Mathemat(cal propo"(t(o%" may be d("po"ed o* by mak(%! them purely a pr(or(> propo"(t(o%" about "e%"e object" by mak(%! them purely a po"ter(or(.( 7) But phy"(cal propo"(t(o%"- "uch a" make up phy"(c"- chem("try- b(olo!y- to "ay %oth(%! o* propo"(t(o%" o* h("tory- a%thropolo!y- a%d "oc(ety- are %e(ther o%e %or the other. 8 ca%%ot "tate the ca"e better tha% Mr. Iu""ell ha" "tated (t- althou!h- 8 am bou%d to addthe "tat(%! d(d %ot arou"e (% Mr. Iu""ell a%y "u"p(c(o% o* the prem("e" w(th wh(ch he wa" operat(%!. &Me% o* "c(e%ce- *or the mo"t part- are w(ll(%!

0 J091 to co%dem% (mmed(ate data a" Hmerely "ubject(7e-H wh(le yet ma(%ta(%(%! the truth o* the phy"(c" (%*erred *rom tho"e data. But "uch a% att(tude- thou!h (t may be capable o* ju"t(*(cat(o%- ob7(ou"ly "ta%d" (% %eed o* (t> a%d the o%ly ju"t(*(cat(o% po""(ble mu"t be o%e wh(ch e:h(b(t" matter a" a lo!(cal co%"truct(o% *rom "e%"e data . . . . . 8t (" there*ore %ece""ary to *(%d "ome way o* br(d!(%! the !ul* betwee% the world o* phy"(c" a%d the world o* "e%"e.&( 8) 8 do %ot "ee how a%yo%e *am(l(ar w(th the two3world "cheme" wh(ch ha7e played "uch a part (% the h("tory o* huma%(ty ca% read th(" "tateme%t w(thout depre""(o%. <%d (* (t occurred to o%e that the "ole !e%erat(%! co%d(t(o% o* these two world" (" the a""umpt(o% that "e%"e object" are mode" o* apprehe%"(o% or k%owled!e 0are "o (%tr(%"(cally a%d %ot (% the u"e made o* them1- he m(!ht th(%k (t a "mall pr(ce to pay to (%=u(re (%to the "ta%d(%! o* th(" a""umpt(o%. .or (t wa" prec("ely the *act that "e%"e percept(o% a%d phy"(cal "c(e%ce appeared h("tor(cally 0(% the "e7e%tee%th ce%tury1 a" r(7al mode" o* k%ow(%! the "ame world wh(ch led to the co%cept(o% o* "e%"e object" a" &"ubject(7e & O"(%ce they were "o d(**ere%t *rom the object" o* "c(e%ce. @%le"" "e%"e a%d "c(e%ce had both *(r"t bee% thou!ht o* a" mode" o* k%ow(%! a%d the% a" mode" o* k%ow(%! the "ame th(%!"- there would %ot ha7e bee% the "l(!hte"t rea"o% *or re!ard(%! (mmed(ate data- a" &merely "ubject(7e.& ,hey would ha7e

0J101 bee% %atural phe%ome%a- l(ke a%y other. ,hat they are phe%ome%a wh(ch (%7ol7e the (%teract(o% o* a% or!a%("m w(th other th(%!" (" ju"t a% (mporta%t d("co7ery about them- a" (" al"o a d("co7ery about "tarch (% pla%t". Phy"(cal "c(e%ce (" the )nowledge o* the world by the(r mea%". 8t (" a r(7al- %ot o* thembut o* the medley o* pr(or do!ma"- "uper"t(t(o%"- a%d cha%ce op(%(o%" about the world3a medley wh(ch !rew up a%d *lour("hed prec("ely becau"e o* ab"e%ce o* a w(ll to e:plore a%d o* a tech%(=ue *or detect(%! u%amb(!uou" data. ,hat Mr. Iu""ell- who (" a pro*e""ed real("t- ca% do %o better w(th the problem 0o%ce comm(tted to the %ot(o% that "e%"e object" are o* them"el7e" object" o* k%owled!e1 tha% to hold that althou!h the world o* phy"(c" (" %ot a le!(t(mate (%*ere%ce *rom "e%"e data- (t (" a perm(""(ble lo!(cal co%"truct(o% *rom them Operm(""(ble (% that (t (%7ol7e" %o lo!(cal (%co%"("te%c(e" O "u!!e"t" that the pra!mat(c d(**ere%ce betwee% (deal("t a%d real("t Oo* th(" typeO (" %ot 7ery !reat. .rom %ece""ary (deal co%"truct(o%" to perm(""(ble lo!(cal co%"truct(o%" (%7ol7e" co%"(derable d(**ere%ce (% tech%(=ue but %o percept(ble pract(cal d(**ere%ce. <%d the po(%t o* th(" *am(ly l(ke%e"" (" that both 7(ew" "pr(%! *rom re!ard(%! "e%"e percept(o% a%d "c(e%ce a" way" o* k%ow(%! the "ame object"- a%d he%ce a" r(7al" u%t(l "ome "cheme o* co%c(l(at(o% ha" bee% de7("ed. c1 8t (" but a 7ar(a%t o* th(" problem to pa"" to what may he called e(ther the e!o3ce%tr(c pred(ca3

0J111 3me%t or the pr(7ate3publ(c problem. +e%"e data d(**er *rom (%d(7(dual to (%d(7(dual. 8* they are reco!%(6ed to be %atural e7e%t"- th(" 7ar(at(o% (" %o more "(!%(*(ca%t tha% a%y cha%!e depe%d(%! upo% 7ar(at(o% o* !e%erat(%! co%d(t(o%". 9%e doe" %ot e:pect two lump" o* wa: at d(**ere%t d("ta%ce" *rom a hot body to be a**ected e:actly al(ke> the up"ett(%! th(%! would be (* they were. Ee(ther doe" o%e e:pect ca"t3 (ro% to react e:actly a" doe" "teel. ,hat or!a%("m"- becau"e o* d(**ere%t po"(t(o%" or d(**ere%t (%ter%al "tructure"- "hould (%troduce d(**ere%ce" (% the phe%ome%a wh(ch they

re"pect(7ely ha7e a "hare (% produc(%! (" a *act o* the "ame %ature. But make the "e%"e =ual(t(e" thu" produced %ot %atural e7e%t" 0wh(ch may the% be made e(ther object" o* (%=u(ry or mea%" o* (%=u(ry (%to "ometh(%! el"e1 but mode" o* k%ow(%!- a%d e7ery "uch de7(at(o% mark" a departure *rom true k%ow(%!: (t co%"t(tute" a% a%omaly. ,ake% e% ma""e the de7(at(o%" are "o marked a" to lead to the co%clu"(o% 0e7e% o% the part o* a real("t l(ke Mr. Iu""ell1 that they co%"t(tute a world o* pr(7ate e:("te%ce"- wh(chhowe7er- may be correlated w(thout lo!(cal (%co%"("te%cy w(th other "uch world". Eot all real("t" are 'e(b%(6(a% mo%ad("t" a" (" Mr. Iu""ell> 8 do %ot w("h to lea7e the (mpre""(o% that all come to ju"t th(" "olut(o%. But all who re!ard "e%"e data a" apprehe%"(o%" ha7e o% the(r ha%d" (% "ome *orm the problem o* the "eem(%!ly d("tort(%! act(o% e:erc("ed by the

0J1 1 (%d(7(dual k%ower upo% a publ(c or commo% th(%! k%ow% or bel(e7ed (%.

24
8 am %ot try(%! to d("cu"" or "ol7e the"e problem". 9% the co%trary- 8 am try(%! to "how that the"e problem" e:("t o%ly becau"e o* the (de%t(*(cat(o% o* a datum determ(%ed w(th re*ere%ce to co%trol o* (%*ere%ce w(th a "el*3"u**(c(e%t k%owled!e3object. <" a!a(%"t th(" a""umpt(o% 8 po(%t to the *ollow(%! *act". ;hat (" actually !(7e% a" matter o* emp(r(cal *act may be (%de*(%(tely compl(cated a%d d(**u"ed. <" emp(r(cally e:("te%t- perce(7ed object" %e7er co%"t(tute the whole "cope o* the !(7e%> they ha7e a co%te%t o* (%de*(%(te e:te%t (% wh(ch they are "et. ,o co%trol (%*ere%ce (t (" %ece""ary to a%aly6e th(" comple: "(tuat(o%3to determ(%e what (" data *or (%*ere%ce a%d what (" (rrele7a%t. ,h(" a%aly"(" (%7ol7e" d("cr(m(%at(7e re"olut(o% (%to more ult(mate "(mple". ,he re"ource" o* e:per(me%tat(o%- all "ort" o* m(cro"cop(c- tele"cop(c- a%d re!("ter(%! apparatu"- are called (% to per*orm that a%aly"(". <" a re"ult we d(**ere%t(ate %ot merely 7("ual data *rom aud(tory Oa d("cr(m(%at(o% e**ected by e:per(me%t" w(th(% the reach o* e7erybody O but a 7a"t mult(tude o* 7("ual a%d aud(tory data. Phy"(c" a%d phy"(olo!y a%d a%atomy all play a part (% the a%aly"(". ;e e7e% carry the a%aly"(" to the po(%t o* re!ard(%!- "aya color a" a "el*3(%cluded object u%re*erred to a%y other object. ;e may a7o(d a *al"e (%*ere%ce by co%ce(7(%! (t- %ot a" a dual(ty o* a%y ob3

0J131 3ject- but a" merely a product o* a %er7ou" "t(mulat(o% a%d react(o%. 8%"tead o* re*err(%! (t to a r(bbo% or p(ece o* paper we may re*er (t to the or!a%("m. But th(" (" o%ly a" a part o* the tech%(=ue o* "u"pe%ded (%*ere%ce. ;e a7o(d "ome hab(tual (%*ere%ce (% order to make a more care*ul (%*ere%ce. ,hu" we e"cape- by a "tra(!hte%(%! out o* our lo!(c 0by a7o(d(%! erect(%! a "y"tem o* lo!(cal d("t(%ct(o%" a%d check" (%to a mytholo!(cal %atural h("tory1- the ep("temolo!(cal problem". ;e al"o a7o(d the co%trad(ct(o% wh(ch hau%t" e7ery ep("temolo!(cal "cheme "o *ar propou%ded. <" matter o* *act e7ery propo"(t(o% re!ard(%! what (" &!(7e%& to "e%"at(o% or percept(o% (" depe%de%t upo% the a""umpt(o% o* a 7a"t amou%t o* "c(e%t(*(c k%owled!e wh(ch (" the re"ult o* a mult(tude o* pr(or a%aly"e"- 7er(*(cat(o%"- a%d (%*ere%ce". ;hat a comb(%at(o% o* ,a%talu" a%d +("yphu" we !et whe% we *a%cy that we ha7e cleared the "late o* all the"e mater(al (mpl(cat(o%"- *a%cy that we ha7e really "tarted w(th "(mple a%d (%depe%de%t !(7e%"- a%d the% try to "how how *rom the"e or(!(%al

!(7e%" we ca% arr(7e at the 7ery k%owled!e wh(ch we ha7e all the t(me employed (% the d("co7ery a%d *(:at(o% o* the "(mple "e%"e dataG($9)

SC2.'C. AS A %:ACT2CAL A:T

Eo o%e w(ll de%y that- a" "ee% *rom o%e a%!le "c(e%ce (" a pur"u(t- a% e%terpr("eOa mode o* pract(ce. 8t (" at lea"t that- %o matter how much more

0J1J1 or el"e (t (". 8% cour"e o* the pract(ce o* k%ow(%! d("t(%ct(7e pract(cal jud!me%t" w(ll the% %aturally be made. 5"pec(ally doe" th(" hold !ood whe% a% (%tellectual cla"" (" de7eloped- whe% there (" a body o* per"o%" work(%! at k%ow(%! a" a%other body (" work(%! at *arm(%! or e%!(%eer(%!. Moreo7er- the (%"trume%tal(t(e" o* th(" (%=u(r(%! cla"" !a(% (% (mporta%ce *or all cla""e" (% the de!ree (% wh(ch (t (" real(6ed that "ucce"" (% the co%duct o* the pract(ce o* *arm(%! or e%!(%eer(%! or med(c(%e depe%d" upo% u"e o* the "ucce""e" ach(e7ed (% the bu"(%e"" o* k%ow(%!. ,he (mporta%ce o* the latter (" throw% (%to rel(e* *rom a%other a%!le (* we co%"(der the e%terpr("e"- l(ke d(plomacypol(t(c"- a%d- to a co%"(derable e:te%t- moral"- wh(ch do %ot ack%owled!e a thorou!h!o(%! a%d co%"ta%t depe%de%ce upo% the pract(ce o* "c(e%ce. <" 4obbe" wa" wo%t to "ay- the ad7a%ta!e" o* a "c(e%ce o* moral" are mo"t ob7(ou" (% the e7(l" wh(ch we "u**er *rom (t" lack. ,o "ay that "ometh(%! (" to be lear%ed- (" to be *ou%d out- (" to be a"certa(%ed or pro7ed or bel(e7ed- (" to "ay that "ometh(%! (" to be do%e. 57ery "uch propo"(t(o% (% the co%crete (" a pract(cal propo"(t(o%. 57ery "uch propo"(t(o% o* (%=u(ry- d("co7ery a%d te"t(%! w(ll ha7e the% the tra(t" a""(!%ed to the cla"" o* pract(cal propo"(t(o%". ,hey (mply a% (%complete "(tuat(o% !o(%! *orward to complet(o%- a%d the propo"(t(o% a" a "pec(*(c or!a% o* carry(%! o% the mo7eme%t. 8 ha7e %ot the (%te%t(o% o* dwell(%! at le%!th upo% th("

0J121 theme. 8 w("h to ra("e (% a" de*(%(te a%d emphat(c a way a" po""(ble a certa(% =ue"t(o%. +uppo"e that the propo"(t(o%" ar("(%! w(th(% the pract(ce o* k%ow(%! a%d *u%ct(o%(%! a" a!e%c(e" (% (t" co%duct could be "how% to pre"e%t all the d("t(%ct(o%" a%d relat(o%" character("t(c o* the "ubject3matter o* lo!(c: what would be the co%clu"(o%D ,o a% u%b(a"ed m(%d the =ue"t(o% probably a%"wer" (t"el*: <ll purely lo!(cal term" a%d propo"(t(o%" *all w(th(% the "cope o* the cla"" o* propo"(t(o%" o* (%=u(ry a" a "pec(al *orm o* propo"(t(o%" o* pract(ce. My *urther remark" are %ot a(med at pro7(%! that the ca"e accord" w(th the hypothe"(" propou%ded- but are (%te%ded to procure ho"p(tal(ty *or the hypothe"(". 8* th(%k(%! (" the art by wh(ch k%owled!e (" pract(ced- the% the mater(al" w(th wh(ch th(%k(%! deal" may be "uppo"ed- by a%alo!y w(th the other art"- to take o% (% co%"e=ue%ce "pec(al "hape". ,he ma% who (" mak(%! a boat w(ll !(7e wood a *orm wh(ch (t d(d %ot ha7e- (% order that (t may "er7e the purpo"e" to wh(ch (t (" to be put. ,h(%k(%! may the% be "uppo"ed to !(7e (t" mater(al the *orm wh(ch w(ll make (t ame%able to (t" purpo"e Oatta(%(%! k%owled!e- or- a" (t (" ord(%ar(ly put- !o(%! *rom the u%k%ow% to the k%ow%. ,hat phy"(cal a%aly"(" a%d "y%the"(" are (%cluded (% the proce""e" o* (%7e"t(!at(o% o* %atural object" make" them a part o* the pract(ce o* k%ow(%!. <%d (t make" a%y !e%eral tra(t" wh(ch re"ult (% co%"e=ue%ce o* "uch treatme%t

0 J1?1 character" o* ob!ects as they aye involved in )nowledge1getting. ,hat (" to "ay- (* there are a%y *eature" wh(ch %atural e:("te%ce" a""ume (% order that (%*ere%ce may be more *ert(le a%d more "a*e tha% (t would otherw("e be- tho"e *eature" corre"po%d to the "pec(al tra(t" wh(ch would be !(7e% to wood (% proce"" o* co%"truct(%! a boat. ,hey are ma%u*actured- w(thout be(%! a%y wor"e becau"e o* (t. ,he =ue"t(o% wh(ch 8 ra("ed (% the la"t para!raph may the% be re"tated (% th(" *a"h(o%: <re there "uch *eature"D 8* there areare they l(ke tho"e character" wh(ch book" o% lo!(c talk about D )ompar("o% w(th la%!ua!e may help u". 'a%!ua!e O8 co%*(%e my"el* *or co%7e%(e%ce to "poke% la%!ua!eO co%"("t" o* "ou%d". But (t doe" %ot co%"("t "(mply o* tho"e "ou%d" wh(ch (""ue *rom the huma% or!a%" pr(or to the attempt to commu%(cate. 8t ha" bee% "a(d that a% <mer(ca% baby be*ore talk(%! make" almo"t e7ery "ou%d *ou%d (% a%y la%!ua!e. But el(m(%at(o% take" place. <%d "o doe" (%te%"(*(cat(o%. )erta(% "ou%d" or(!(%ally "lurred o7er are made prom(%e%t> the baby ha" to work *or them a%d the work (" o%e wh(ch he %e(ther u%dertake" %or accompl("he" e:cept u%der the (%c(tat(o% o* other". 'a%!ua!e (" ch(e*ly marked o**- howe7er- by art(culat(o%> by the arra%!eme%t o* what (" "elected (%to a% orderly "e=ue%ce o* 7owel" a%d co%"o%a%t" w(th certa(% rule" o* "tre""- etc. 8t may *a(rly be "a(d that "peech (" a ma%u*actured art(cle: (t co%"("t" o*

0J1B1 %atural ebull(t(o%" o* "ou%d wh(ch ha7e bee% "haped *or the "ake o* be(%! e**ect(7e (%"trume%tal(t(e" o* a purpo"e. .or the mo"t part the mak(%! ha" !o%e o% u%der the "tre"" o* the %ece""(t(e" o* commu%(cat(o% w(th l(ttle del(berate co%trol. ;ork" o% pho%et(c"- d(ct(o%ar(e"- !rammar"- rhetor(c"- etc.- mark "ome part(c(pat(o% o* del(berate (%te%t(o% (% the proce"" o* ma%u*acture. 8* we br(%! wr(tte% la%!ua!e (%to the accou%twe "hould *(%d the co%"c(ou" *actor e:te%ded "omewhat. But mak(%!- "hap(%! *or a% e%d- there ("- whether w(th or w(thout co%"c(ou" co%trol. Eow wh(le there (" "ometh(%! (% the a%tecede%t propert(e" o* "ou%d wh(ch e%ter" (%to the determ(%at(o% o* "peech- the worth o* "peech (" (% %o way mea"ured by *a(th*ul%e"" to the"e a%tecede%t propert(e". 8t (" mea"ured o%ly by (t" e**(c(e%cy a%d eco%omy (% real(6(%! the "pec(al re"ult" *or wh(ch (t (" co%"tructed. ;r(tte% la%!ua!e %eed %ot look l(ke "ou%d" a%y more tha% "ou%d" look l(ke object". 8t mu"t represent art(culate "ou%d"but *a(th*ul repre"e%tat(o% (" wholly a matter o* carry(%! the m(%d to the "ame outcomeo* e:erc("(%! the "ame *u%ct(o%- %ot o* re"embla%ce or copy(%!. 9r(!(%al "tructure limits what may be made out o* a%yth(%!: o%e ca%%ot 0at lea"t at pre"e%t1 make a "(lk pur"e out o* p(!"H br("tle". But th(" co%d(t(o%(%! relat(o%"h(p (" 7ery d(**ere%t *rom o%e (% wh(ch the a%tecede%t e:("te%ce"- are a model or prototype to wh(ch

0J1C1 the co%"e=ue%t mu"t be "er7(lely *a(th*ul. ,he boatmaker mu"t take accou%t o* the !ra(% a%d "tre%!th o* h(" wood. ,o take accou%t o*- to recko% w(th- (" a 7ery d(**ere%t matter- howe7er- *rom repet(t(o% or l(teral loyalty. ,he mea"ure (" *ou%d (% the co%"e=ue%ce" *or wh(ch e:("te%ce" are u"ed. 8 w("h- o* cour"e- to "u!!e"t that lo!(cal tra(t" are ju"t *eature" o* or(!(%al e:("te%ce" a" they ha7e bee% worked o7er *or u"e (% (%*ere%ce- a" the tra(t" o* ma%u*actured art(cle" are =ual(t(e" o* crude mater(al" mod(*(ed *or "pec(*(c purpo"e". @po% the whole- pa"t theor(e" ha7e 7(brated betwee% treat(%! lo!(cal tra(t" a" &"ubject(7e-& "ometh(%! re"(de%t

(% &m(%d& 0m(%d be(%! thou!ht o* a" a% (mmater(al or p"ych(cal e:("te%ce (%depe%de%t o* %atural th(%!" a%d e7e%t"1- a%d a"cr(b(%! o%tolo!(cal pre3e:("te%ce to them. ,hu" *ar (% the h("tory o* thou!ht- each method ha" *lour("hed awh(le a%d the% called out a react(o% to (t" oppo"(te. ,he re(*(cat(o% 08 u"e the word here w(thout prejud(ce1 o* lo!(cal tra(t" ha" take% both a% 8deal("t(c *orm 0becau"e o* empha"(" upo% the(r "p(r(tual or (deal %ature a%d "tu**1 a%d a Ieal("t(c o%e- due to empha"(" upo% the(r (mmed(ate apprehe%"(o% a%d !(7e%%e"". ,hat mathemat(c" ha7e bee% *rom Plato to De"carte" a%d co%temporary a%alyt(c real("m the !reat pro7ocat(7e o* Ieal("t(c 8deal("m" (" a *am(l(ar *act. ,he hypothe"(" here propou%ded (" a via media. ;hat ha" bee% o7erlooked (" the real(ty a%d (mporta%ce o* art a%d (t" work". ,he tool" a%d

0 J191 work" o* art are %e(ther me%tal- "ubject(7e th(%!"- %or are they a%tecede%t e%t(t(e" l(ke crude or raw mater(al. ,hey are the latter "haped *or a purpo"e. 8t (" (mpo""(ble to o7er"tate the(r object(7(ty *rom the "ta%dpo(%t o* the(r e:("te%ce a%d the(r e**(cacy w(th(% the operat(o%" (% =ue"t(o%> %or the(r object(7(ty (% the "e%"e o* the(r depe%de%ce upo% pr(or %atural e:("te%ce" who"e tra(t" ha7e to be take% accou%t o*- or recko%ed w(thby the operat(o%" o* art. 8% the ca"e o* the art o* (%*ere%ce- the art "ecurely o* !o(%! *rom the !(7e% to the ab"e%t- the depe%de%ce o* m(%d upo% (%*ere%ce- the *act that where7er (%*ere%ce occur" we ha7e a co%"c(ou" a!e%t3o%e who reco!%(6e"- pla%"- (%7e%t"- "eek" out- del(berate"- a%t(c(pate"- a%d who- react(%! to a%t(c(pat(o%"- *ear"- hate"- de"(re"- etc. O e:pla(%" the theor(e" wh(ch- becau"e o* m("co%cept(o% o* the %ature o* m(%d a%d co%"c(ou"%e""- ha7e labeled lo!(cal d("t(%ct(o%" p"ych(cal a%d "ubject(7e. 8% "hort- the theory "how" why lo!(cal *eature" ha7e bee% made (%to o%tolo!(cal e%t(t(e" a%d (%to me%tal "tate". ,o elaborate th(" the"(" would be to repeat what ha" bee% "a(d (% all the e""ay" o* th(" 7olume. 8 w("h o%ly to call atte%t(o% to certa(% co%"(derat(o%" wh(ch may *ocu" other d("cu""(o%" upo% th(" hypothe"(". 1. ,he e:("te%ce o* (%*ere%ce (" a *act- a *act a" certa(% a%d u%=ue"t(o%ed a" the e:("te%ce o* eye" or car" or the !rowth o* pla%t"- or the c(rculat(o% o* the

0J 01 blood. 9%e ob"er7e" (t tak(%! place e7erywhere where huma% be(%!" e:("t. < "tude%t o* the h("tory o* ma% *(%d" that h("tory (" compo"ed o* bel(e*"- (%"t(tut(o%"- a%d cu"tom" wh(ch are (%e:pl(cable w(thout act" o* (%*ere%ce. ,h(" *act o* (%*ere%ce (" a" much a datum Oa hard *actO *or lo!(cal theory a" a%y "e%"ory =ual(ty what"oe7er. 8t (" "ometh(%! me% do a" they walk- chew- or jump. ,here (" %oth(%! a pr(or( or (deolo!(cal about (t. 8t (" ju"t a brute emp(r(cally ob"er7able e7e%t. . 8t" (mporta%ce (" almo"t a" co%"p(cuou" a" (t" e:("te%ce. 57ery act o* huma% l(*e- %ot "pr(%!(%! *rom (%"t(%ct or mecha%(cal hab(t- co%ta(%" (t> mo"t hab(t" are depe%de%t upo% "ome amou%t o* (t *or the(r *ormat(o%- a" they are depe%de%t upo% (t *or the(r readaptat(o% to %o7el c(rcum"ta%ce". .rom the humble"t act o* da(ly l(*e to the mo"t (%tr(cate calculat(o%" o* "c(e%ce a%d the determ(%at(o% a%d e:ecut(o% o* "oc(al- le!al- a%d pol(t(cal pol(c(e"- th(%!" are u"ed a" "(!%"- (%d(cat(o%"- or e7(de%ce *rom wh(ch o%e proceed" to "ometh(%! el"e %ot yet d(rectly !(7e%.

3. ,he act o* (%*err(%! take" place %aturally- (.e.- w(thout (%te%t(o%. 8t (" at *(r"t "ometh(%! we do- %ot "ometh(%! wh(ch we mean to do. ;e do (t a" we breathe or walk or !e"ture. 9%ly a*ter (t (" do%e do we %ot(ce (t a%d re*lect upo% (t Oa%d the !reat ma"" o* me% %o more re*lect upo% (t a*ter (t" occurre%ce tha% they re*lect upo% the proce"" o* walk(%! a%d try to d("co7er (t" co%d(t(o%" a%d mecha%("m.

0J 11 ,hat a% (%d(7(dual- a% a%(mal or!a%("m- a ma% or a woma% per*orm" the act" (" to "ay "ometh(%! capable o* d(rect proo* throu!h appeal to ob"er7at(o%> to "ay that "ometh(%! called m(%d- or co%"c(ou"%e"" doe" (t (" (t"el* to employ (%*ere%ce a%d dub(ou" (%*ere%ce. ,he *act o* (%*ere%ce (" much "urer- (% other word"- tha% that o* a part(cular (%*ere%ce- "uch a" that to "ometh(%! called rea"o% or co%"c(ou"%e""- (% co%%ect(o% w(th (t> "a7e a" m(%d (" but a%other word *or the *act o* (%*ere%ce- (% wh(ch ca"e o* cour"e (t ca%%ot be rere*erred to a" (t" cau"e- "ource- or author. Moreo7er- by all pr(%c(ple" o* "c(e%ce- (%*ere%ce ca%%ot be re*erred to m(%d or co%"c(ou"%e"" a" (t" co%d(t(o%- u%le"" there (" independent proo* o* the e:("te%ce o* that m(%d to wh(ch (t (" re*erred. Pr(ma *ac(e we are co%"c(ou" or aware o* (%*ere%ce prec("ely a" we are o* a%yth(%! el"e- %ot by (%tro"pect(o% o* "ometh(%! w(th(% the 7ery co%"c(ou"%e"" wh(ch (" "uppo"ed to be (t" "ource- but by ob"er7at(o% o* "ometh(%! tak(%! place (% the world O a" we are co%"c(ou" o* walk(%! after we ha7e walked. <*ter (t ha" bee% do%e %aturally Oor &u%co%"c(ou"ly&O (t may be do%e &co%"c(ou"ly-& that ("- w(th (%te%t or o% purpo"e. But th(" mea%" that (t (" do%e with co%"c(ou"%e"" 0whate7er co%"c(ou"%e"" may be d("co7ered to mea%1- %ot that (t (" do%e by co%"c(ou"%e"". Eow (* other %atural e7e%t" character("t(c o%ly 0"o *ar a" ca% be a"certa(%ed1 o* h(!hly or!a%(6ed be(%!" are marked by u%(=ue or by d("t(%ct(7e tra(t"- there (" !ood !rou%d

0J 1 *or the a""umpt(o% that (%*ere%ce w(ll be "o marked. <" we do %ot *(%d the c(rculat(o% o* blood or the "t(mulat(o% o* %er7e" (% a "to%e- a%d a" we e:pect a" a matter o* cour"e to *(%d pecul(ar co%d(t(o%"- =ual(t(e"- a%d co%"e=ue%ce" (% the be(%! where "uch operat(o%" occur- "o we do %ot *(%d the act o* (%*ere%ce (% a "to%e- a%d we e:pect pecul(ar co%d(t(o%"- =ual(t(e"- a%d co%"e=ue%ce" (% whate7er be(%!" per*orm the act. @%le""- (% other word"- all the ord(%ary ca%o%" o* (%=u(ry are "u"pe%ded- (%*ere%ce (" %ot a% ("olated %or a merely *ormal e7e%t. <" a!a(%"t the latter- (t ha" (t" ow% d("t(%ct(7e "tructure a%d propert(e"> a" a!a(%"t the *ormer- (t ha" "pec(*(c !e%erat(%! co%d(t(o%" a%d "pec(*(c re"ult". J. Po""(bly all th(" "eem" too ob7(ou" *or me%t(o%. But there (" o*te% a 7(rtual co%"p(racy (% ph(lo"ophy- %ot to me%t(o% ob7(ou" th(%!" %or to dwell upo% them: otherw("e remote "peculat(o%" m(!ht be brou!ht to a "udde% halt. ,he po(%t o* the"e commo%place" re"(de" (% the pu"h they may !(7e a%yo%e to e%!a!e (% a "earch *or distinctive features in the act of inference. ,he "earch may perhap" be be"t (%(t(ated by %ot(%! the "eem(%! (%co%"("te%cy betwee% what ha" bee% "a(d about (%*ere%ce a" a% art a%d (%*ere%ce a" a %atural- u%premed(tated occurre%ce. ,he ob7(ou" *u%ct(o% o* "po%ta%eou" (%*ere%ce (" to br(%! be*ore a% a!e%t ab"e%t co%"(derat(o%" to wh(ch he may re"po%d a" he otherw("e re"po%d" to the "t(mulat(%! *orce o* the !(7e% "(tuat(o%. ,o (%*er ra(% ("

0 J 31 to e%able o%e to beha7e %ow a" !(7e% co%d(t(o%" would %ot otherw("e e%able h(m to co%duct h(m"el*. ,h(" (%"t(!at(o% to beha7e toward the remote (% "pace or t(me (" the pr(mary tra(t o* the (%*ere%t(al act> de"cr(pt(7ely "peak(%!- the act co%"("t" (% tak(%! up a% att(tude o* re"po%"e to a% ab"e%t th(%! a" (* (t were pre"e%t. But ju"t becau"e the th(%! (" ab"e%t- the att(tude take% may be e(ther (rrele7a%t a%d po"(t(7ely harm*ul or e:tremely pert(%e%t a%d ad7a%ta!eou". ;e may (%*er ra(% whe% ra(% (" %ot !o(%! to happe%- a%d act(%! upo% the (%*ere%ce be wor"e o** tha% (* there had bee% %o (%*ere%ce. 9r we may make preparat(o%"- wh(ch we would %ot otherw("e ha7e made> the ra(% may come- a%d the (%*ere%ce "a7e our l(7e" Oa" the ark "a7ed Eoah. 8%*ere%ce br(%!"- (% "hort- truth a%d *al"(ty (%to the world- ju"t a" de*(%(tely a" the c(rculat(o% o* the blood br(%!" (t" d("t(%ct(7e co%"e=ue%ce"- both ad7a%ta!e" a%d l(ab(l(t(e" (%to the world- or a" the e:("te%ce o* ba%k(%! br(%!" w(th (t co%"e=ue%ce" o* bu"(%e"" e:te%"(o% a%d o* ba%kruptcy %ot pre7(ou"ly e:("te%t. 8* the reader object" to the (%troduct(o% o* the term" &truth& a%d &*al"(ty&- 1 am per*ectly w(ll(%! to lea7e the cho(ce o* word" to h(mpro7(ded the *act (" reco!%(6ed that throu!h (%*ere%ce me% are capable o* a k(%d o* "ucce"" a%d e:po"ed to a k(%d o* *a(lure %ot otherw("e po""(ble: depe%de%t upo% the *act that (%*ere%ce take" ab"e%t th(%!" a" be(%! (% a certa(% real co%t(%uum w(th pre"e%t th(%!"- "o that our att(tude toward the latter

0J J1 (" bou%d up w(th our react(o% to the *ormer a" part" o* the "ame "(tuat(o%. <%d (% a%y e7e%t- 8 w("h to prote"t a!a(%"t a po""(ble object(o% to the (%troduct(o% o* the term" &*al"e& a%d &true&. 8t may be "a(d that (%*ere%ce (" %ot re"po%"(ble *or the occurre%ce o* error" a%d truth"- becau"e the"e accompa%y "(mple apprehe%"(o%" where there (" %o (%*ere%ce: a" whe% 8 "ee a "%ake wh(ch ("%Ht there Oor a%y other ca"e wh(ch may appear to the objector to a**ord a% (llu"trat(o% o* h(" po(%t. ,he object(o% (llu"trate" my po(%t. ,o a**(rm a "%ake (" to a**(rm pote%t(al(t(e" !o(%! beyo%d what (" actually !(7e%> (t "ay" that what (" !(7e% (" going to do "ometh(%! Othe do(%! character("t(c o* a "%ake- "o that we are to react to the !(7e% a" to a "%ake. 9r (* we take the ca"e o* a *ace (% the cloud reco!%(6ed a" a pha%ta"y> the% 0to "ay %oth(%! o* &(% the cloud& wh(ch (%7ol7e" re*ere%ce beyo%d the !(7e%1 &pha%ta"y-& &dream-& e=ually mea%" a re*ere%ce to object" a%d co%"(derat(o%" not !(7e% a" the actual datum (" !(7e%. ;e ha7e %ot !ot 7ery *ar w(th our =ue"t(o% o* d("t(%ct(7e- u%(=ue tra(t" called (%to e:("te%ce by (%*ere%ce- but we ha7e !ot *ar e%ou!h to ha7e l(!ht upo% what (" called the &tra%"ce%de%ce& o* k%owled!e. <ll (%*ere%ce (" a going beyond the a""uredly pre"e%t to a% ab"e%t. 4e%ce (t (" a more or le"" precar(ou" jour%ey. 8t (" tra%"ce%d(%! l(m(t" o* "ecur(ty o* (mmed(ate re"po%"e. ,he "to%e wh(ch react" o%ly to "t(mul( o* the pre"e%t%ot o* the *uture- ca%%ot

0J 21 make the m("take" wh(ch a be(%! react(%! to a *uture take% to be co%%ected w(th the pre"e%t (" "ure to make. But (t (" (mporta%t to %ote ju"t what th(" tra%"ce%de%ce co%"("t" (%. 8t ha" %oth(%! to do w(th tra%"ce%d(%! me%tal "tate" to arr(7e at a% e:ter%al object. /t is behaving to the given situation as involving something not given. 8t (" Iob(%"o% )ru"oe !o(%! *rom a "ee% *oot to a% u%"ee% ma%- %ot *rom a me%tal "tate to "ometh(%! u%me%tal. 2. ,he m("take" a%d *a(lure" re"ult(%! *rom (%*ere%ce co%"t(tute the !rou%d *or tra%"(t(o% *rom %atural "po%ta%eou" per*orma%ce to a tech%(=ue or del(berate art o* (%*ere%ce.

,here (" "ometh(%! humorou" about the d("cu""(o% o* the problem o* error a" (* (t were a rare or e:cept(o%al th(%! Oa% a%omalyO whe% the bare"t !la%ce at huma% h("tory "how" that m("take" ha7e bee% the rule- a%d that truth l(e" at the bottom o* a well. <" to (%*ere%ce" bou%d up w(th barely keep(%! al(7e- ma% ha" had to e**ect a co%"(derable bala%ce o* !ood !ue""e" o7er bad. <"(de *rom th(" "omewhat %arrow held- the or(!(%al appeara%ce o* (%*ere%ce upo% the "ce%e probably added to the (%tere"t o* l(*e rather tha% to (t" e**(c(e%cy. 8* the cla""(c de*(%(t(o% o* ma% a" a rat(o%al a%(mal mea%" "(mply a% (%*err(%! or !ue""(%! a%(mal- (t appl(e" to the %atural ma%- *or (t allow" *or the !ue""e" be(%! mo"tly wro%!. 8* (t (" u"ed w(th (t" cu"tomary eulo!("t(c co%%otat(o%"- (t appl(e" o%ly to ma% cha"te%ed to the u"e o* a hardly wo% a%d to(l"ome art.

0 J ?1 8* (t alle!e" that ma% ha" a%y %atural pre*ere%ce *or a rea"o%able (%*ere%ce or that the rat(o%al(ty o* a% (%*ere%ce (" a mea"ure o* (t" hold upo% h(m- (t (" !rote"=uely wro%!. ,o propa!ate th(" error (" to e%coura!e ma% (% h(" mo"t bale*ul (llu"(o%- a%d to po"tpo%e the day o* a% e**ect(7e a%d w(de"pread adopt(o% o* a per*ected art o* k%ow(%!. +ummar(ly put- the wa"te a%d lo"" co%"e=ue%t upo% the %atural happe%(%! o* (%*ere%ce led ma%- "lowly a%d !rud!(%!ly- to the adopt(o% o* "a*e!uard" (% (t" per*orma%ce. 8% "ome part- the "cope o* wh(ch (" ea"(ly e:a!!erated- ma% ha" come to attr(bute ma%y o* the (ll" *rom wh(ch he "u**er" to h(" ow% premature- (%ept- a%d u%!uarded per*orm(%! o* (%*ere%ce- (%"tead o* to *ate- bad luck- a%d acc(de%t. 8% "ome th(%!"- a%d to "ome e:te%t (% all th(%!"- he ha" (%7e%ted a%d per*ected a% art o* (%=u(ry: a "y"tem o* check" a%d te"t" to be u"ed be*ore the co%clu"(o% o* (%*ere%ce (" cate!or(cally a**(rmed. 8t" %ature ha" bee% co%"(dered (% ma%y other place" (% the"e pa!e"- but (t may pro7e (%"truct(7e to re"tate (t (% th(" co%te:t. a1 Eoth(%! (" le"" adapted to a "ucce""*ul accompl("h(%! o* a% (%*ere%ce tha% the "ubject3matter *rom wh(ch (t ord(%ar(ly *are" *orth. ,hat "ubject3matter (" a %e"t o* ob"cur(t(e" a%d amb(!u(t(e". ,he ord(%ary war%(%!" a!a(%"t tru"t(%! to (ma!(%at(o%- the bad %ame wh(ch ha" come (%tellectually to attach to *a%cy- are e7(de%ce" that a%yth(%! may "u!!e"t a%y3

0J B1 3th(%!. Ie!ard(%! mo"t o* the (mporta%t happe%(%!" (% l(*e %o (%*ere%ce ha" bee% too e:tra7a!a%t to obta(% *ollower" a%d (%*lue%ce act(o%- becau"e "ubject3matter wa" "o 7ar(e!ated a%d comple: that a%y object" wh(ch (t "u!!e"ted had a pr(ma *ac(e plau"(b(l(ty. ,hat e7ery ad7a%ce (% k%owled!e ha" bee% e**ected by u"(%! a!e%c(e" wh(ch break up a comple: "ubject3matter (%to (%depe%de%t 7ar(able" 0*rom each o* wh(ch a d("t(%ct (%*ere%ce may be draw%1- a%d by attack(%! each o%e o* the"e th(%!" by e7ery co%ce(7able tool *or *urther re"olut(o% "o a" to make "ure we are deal(%! w(th "ometh(%! "o "(mple a" to be u%amb(!uou"- (" the report o* the h("tory o* "c(e%ce. 8t (" "omet(me" held that k%owled!e come" ult(mately to a %ece""(ty o* bel(e*- or accepta%cewh(ch (" the e=u(7ale%t o* a% (%capac(ty to th(%k otherw("e tha% "o a%d "o. ;ell- e7e% (% the ca"e o* "uch a% appare%tly "(mple &"el*3e7(de%t& th(%! a" a red- th(" (%ab(l(ty- (* (t (" worth a%yth(%!- (" a re"(duum *rom e:per(me%tal a%aly"(". ;e do %ot bel(e7e (% the th(%! a" red 0whe%e7er there (" a %eed o* "c(e%t(*(c te"t(%!1 t(ll we ha7e e:hau"ted all k(%d" o* act(7e attack a%d *(%d the red "t(ll re"("t(%! a%d per"("t(%!. 9rd(%ar(ly we mo7e the head> we "hade the eye"> we tur% the th(%! o7er> we take (t to a d(**ere%t l(!ht. ,he u"e o* le%"- pr("m- or whate7er de7(ce- (" "(mply carry(%! *arther the u"e o* l(ke method"

a" o* phy"(cal re"olut(o%. ;hate7er e%dure" all the"e act(7e 0%ot me%tal1 attack"- we acceptO

0J C1 pe%d(%! (%7e%t(o% o* more e**ect(7e weapo%". ,o make "ure that a !(7e% *act (" ju"t a%d "uch a "hade o* red ("- o%e may "ay- a *(%al tr(umph o* "c(e%t(*(c method. ,o tur% arou%d a%d treat (t a" "ometh(%! %aturally or p"ycholo!(cally !(7e% (" a mo%"trou" "uper"t(t(o%. ;he% a""ured- "uch a "(mple datum (" *or the "ake o* !uard(%! the act o* (%*ere%ce. )olor may mea% a lot o* th(%!"> a%y red may mea% a lot o* th(%!"> "uch th(%!" are amb(!uou"> they a**ord u%rel(able e7(de%ce or "(!%". ,o !et the color dow% to the la"t touch o* po""(ble d("cr(m(%at(o% (" to l(m(t (t" ra%!e o* te"t(mo%y> (deally- (t (" to "ecure a 7o(ce wh(ch "ay" but o%e th(%! a%d "ay" that u%m("takably. 8t" "(mpl(c(ty (" %ot (de%t(cal w(th ("olat(o%- but w(th specified relat(o%"h(p. ,hu" the hard &*act"-& the brute data- the "(mple =ual(t(e" or (dea"- the "e%"e eleme%t" o* trad(t(o%al a%d o* co%temporary lo!(c- !et placed a%d (de%t(*(ed w(th(% the art o* co%troll(%! (%*ere%ce. ,he all(ed term" &"el*3e7(de%t-& &"e%"ory truth"-& &"(mple apprehe%"(o%"& ha7e the(r mea%(%!" u%amb(!uou"ly determ(%ed (% th(" "ame co%te:t> wh(le apart *rom (t they are the "ource o* all k(%d" o* error. ,hey are %o lo%!er %ot(o%" to co%jure w(th. ,hey e:pre"" the la"t re"ult" atta(%able by pre"e%t phy"(cal method" o* d("cr(m(%at(7e a%aly"(" employed (% the "earch *or depe%dable data *or (%*ere%ce. 8mpro7e the phy"(cal mea%" o* e:per(me%tat(o%- (mpro7e the m(cro"cope or the

0J 91 re!("ter(%! apparatu" or the chem(cal rea!e%t- a%d they may be replaced tomorrow by %ew- "(mple apprehe%"(o%" o* "(mple a%d ult(mate data. b1 Eatural or "po%ta%eou" (%*ere%ce depe%d" 7ery lar!ely upo% the hab(t" o* the (%d(7(dual (% whom (%*err(%! take" place. ,he"e hab(t" depe%d (% tur% 7ery lar!ely upo% the cu"tom" o* the "oc(al !roup (% wh(ch he ha" bee% brou!ht up. <% ecl(p"e "u!!e"t" 7ery d(**ere%t th(%!" accord(%! to the r(te"- ceremo%(e"- le!e%d"- trad(t(o%"- etc.- o* the !roup to wh(ch the "pectator belo%!". ,he a7era!e layma% (% a c(7(l(6ed !roup may ha7e %o more per"o%al "c(e%ce tha% a% <u"tral(a% Bu"hma%- but the le!e%d" wh(ch determ(%e h(" react(o%" are d(**ere%t. 4(" (%*ere%ce (" better- %e(ther becau"e o* "uper(or (%tellectual capac(ty- %or becau"e o* more care*ul per"o%al method" o* k%ow(%!- but becau"e h(" (%"truct(o% ha" bee% "uper(or. ,he (%"truct(o% o* a "c(e%t(*(c (%=u(rer (% the be"t "c(e%t(*(c k%owled!e o* h(" day (" ju"t a" much a part o* the co%trol 0or art1 o* (%*ere%ce a" (" the tech%(=ue o* ob"er7at(o%al a%aly"(" wh(ch he u"e". <" the bulk o* pr(or a"certa(%me%t" (%crea"e"- the te%de%cy (" to (de%t(*y th(" "tock o* lear%(%!- th(" "tore o* ach(e7ed truth- w(th k%owled!e. ,here (" %o object(o% to th(" (de%t(*(cat(o% "a7e a" (t lead" the lo!(c(a% or ep("temolo!("t to (!%ore that wh(ch made (t &k%owled!e& 0that wh(ch !(7e" (t a r(!ht to the t(tle1- a%d a" a co%"e=ue%ce to *all (%to two error": o%eo7erlook(%! (t" *u%ct(o% (% the !u(da%ce a%d ha%dl(%! o*

0J301 *uture (%*ere%ce"> the other- co%*u"(%! the mere act o* re*ere%ce to what (" k%ow% 0k%ow% "o *ar a" (t ha" accrued *rom pr(or te"ted (%=u(r(e"1 w(th k%ow(%!. ,o rem(%d my"el* o* what (" k%ow% a" to the top(c w(th wh(ch 8 am deal(%! (" a% (%d("pe%"able per*orma%ce- but to call th(" rem(%der &k%ow(%!& 0a" the pre"e%tat(7e real("t u"ually

doe"1 (" to co%*u"e a p"ycholo!(cal e7e%t w(th a lo!(cal ach(e7eme%t. 8t (" *rom m("co%cept(o% o* th(" act o* rem(%d(%! o%eH" "el* o* what (" k%ow%- a" a check (% "ome actual (%=u(ry- that ar("e mo"t o* the *allac(e" about "(mple ac=ua(%ta%ce- mere apprehe%"(o%- etc. Othe *allac(e" wh(ch el(m(%ate (%=u(ry a%d (%*err(%! *rom k%owled!e. c1 ,he art o* (%*ere%ce !(7e" r("e to "pec(*(c *eature" character(6(%! the inferred th(%!. ,he %atural ma% react" to the "u!!e"ted th(%! a" he would to "ometh(%! pre"e%t. ,hat ("he te%d" to accept (t u%cr(t(cally. ,he ma% called up by the *ootpr(%t o% the "a%d (" ju"t a" real a ma% a" the *ootpr(%t (" a real *ootpr(%t. 8t (" a man, %ot the (dea o* a ma%- wh(ch (" (%d(cated. ;hat a th(%! mea%" (" a%other thing0 (t doe"%Ht mea% a mea%(%!. ,he o%ly d(**ere%ce (" that the th(%! (%d(cated (" *arther o**- or more co%cealed- a%d he%ce 0probably1 more my"ter(ou"- more power*ul a%d awe"ome- o% that accou%t. ,he ma% (%d(cated to )ru"oe by the *ootpr(%t" wa" l(ke a ma% o* me%ac(%! power" "ee% at a d("ta%ce throu!h a tele"cope. ,h(%!" %aturally (%*erred are accepted- (% other word"- by the %atural ma% o% alto!ether too

0 J311 real("t(c a ba"(" *or ade=uate co%trol> they H (mpo"e them"el7e" too d(rectly a%d (rretr(e7ably. ,here are %o alter%at(7e" "a7e e(ther accepta%ce or reject(o% in toto. ;hat (" %eeded *or co%trol (" "ome de7(ce by wh(ch they ca% be treated *or ju"t what they are%amely- inferred object" wh(ch- howe7er a""ured a" object" o* prior e:per(e%ce"- are u%certa(% a" to the(r e:("te%ce (% co%%ect(o% w(th the object *rom wh(ch pre"e%t (%*ere%ce "et" out. ;h(le more care*ul (%"pect(o% o* the !(7e% object Oto "ee (* (t be really a *ootpr(%t- how *re"h- etc. Omay do much *or "a*e3!uard(%! (%*ere%ce> a%d wh(le *oray" (%to whate7er el"e (" k%ow% may help- there (" "t(ll %eed *or "ometh(%! el"e. ;e %eed "ome method o* *reely e:am(%(%! a%d ha%dl(%! the object (% (t" "tatu" a" a% (%*erred object. ,h(" mea%" "ome way o* detach(%! (t- a" (t were- *rom the part(cular act o* (%*ere%ce (% wh(ch (t pre"e%t" (t"el*. ;(thout "ome "uch detachme%t- )ru"oe ca% %e7er !et (%to a *ree a%d e**ect(7e relat(o% w(th the ma% (%d(cated by the *ootpr(%t. 4e ca% o%ly- "o to "peak- !o o% repeat(%!- w(th co%t(%uou"ly (%crea"(%! *r(!ht- &,hereH" a ma% about- thereH" a ma% about.& ,he &ma%& %eed" to be treated- %ot a" ma%- but a" "ometh(%! ha7(%! a merely (%*erred a%d he%ce pote%t(al "tatu"> a" a mea%(%! or thou!htor &(dea.& ,here (" a !reat d(**ere%ce betwee% mea%(%! a%d a mea%(%!. Mea%(%! (" "(mply a *u%ct(o% o* the "(tuat(o%: th(" th(%! mea%" that th(%!: mea%(%! (" th(" relat(o%"h(p. < mea%(%! (" "ometh(%! =u(te d(**ere%t> (t

0J3 1 (" %ot a *u%ct(o%- but a "pec(*(c e%t(ty- a pecul(ar th(%!- %amely the ma% a" "u!!e"ted. ;ord" are the !reat (%"trume%t o* tra%"lat(%! a relat(o% o* (%*ere%ce e:("t(%! betwee% two th(%!" (%to a %ew k(%d o* th(%! wh(ch ca% be operated w(th o% (t" ow% accou%t> the term o* d("cour"e or re*lect(o% (" the "olut(o% o* the re=u(reme%t *or !reater *le:(b(l(ty a%d l(berat(o%. 'et me repeat: )ru"oeH" (%=u(ry ca% play *reely arou%d a%d about the ma% (%*erred *rom the *ootpr(%t o%ly a" he ca%- "o to "ay- !et away *rom the (mmed(ate "u!!e"t(7e *orce o* the *ootpr(%t. <" (t or(!(%ally "ta%d"- the ma% "u!!e"ted (" o% the "ame coerc(7e le7el a" the "u!!e"t(7e *ootpr(%t. ,hey are related- t(ed to!ether. But a !e"ture- a "ou%d- may be u"ed a" a substitute *or the th(%! (%*erred. 8t e:("t" (%depe%de%tly o* the *ootpr(%t a%d may there*ore be thou!ht about a%d (deally

e:per(me%ted w(th (rre"pect(7e o* the *ootpr(%t. 8t at o%ce pre"er7e" the mea%(%!3*orce o* the "(tuat(o% a%d detache" (t *rom the (mmed(acy o* the "(tuat(o%. 8t (" d mea%(%!- a% (dea. 4ere we ha7e- 8 "ubm(t- the e:pla%at(o% o* %ot(o%"- *orm"- e""e%ce"- term"- "ub"("te%ce"(dea"- mea%(%!"- etc. ,hey are "urro!ate" o* the object" o* (%*ere%ce o* "uch a character that they may be elaborated a%d ma%(pulated e:actly a" pr(mary th(%!" may be- "o *ar a" (%*ere%ce (" co%cer%ed. ,hey ca% be brou!ht (%to relat(o% w(th o%e a%other- =u(te (rre"pect(7e o* the th(%!" wh(ch or(!(%ally3 "u!!e"ted them. ;(thout

0J331 "uch *ree play re*lect(7e (%=u(ry (" mockery- a%d co%trol o* (%*ere%ce a% (mpo""(b(l(ty. ;he% a "peck o* l(!ht "u!!e"t" to the a"tro%omer a comet- he would ha7e %oth(%! to do but e(ther to accept the (%*erred object a" a real o%e- or to reject (t a" a mere *a%cy u%le"" he could treat &comet& *or the t(me be(%! %ot a" a th(%! at all- but a" a mea%(%!- a co%cept(o%> a mea%(%! ha7(%!- moreo7er- by co%%ect(o% w(th other mea%(%!"- (mpl(cat(o%" Omea%(%!" co%"e=ue%t *rom (t. @%le"" a mea%(%! (" a% (%*erred object- detached a%d *(:ed a" a term capable o* (%depe%de%t de7elopme%t- what "ort o* a !ho"tly Be(%! (" (t D 5:cept o% the ba"(" "tated- what (" the tra%"(t(o% *rom the *u%ct(o% o* mea%(%! to a mea%(%! a" a% e%t(ty (% rea"o%(%!D <%d- o%ce more- u%le"" there (" "uch a tra%"(t(o%- (" rea"o%(%! po""(bleD )at" ha7e claw" a%d teeth a%d *ur. ,hey do %ot ha7e (mpl(cat(o%". Eo phy"(cal th(%! ha" (mpl(cat(o%". ,he term &cat& ha" (mpl(cat(o%". 4ow ca% th(" d(**ere%ce be e:pla(%ed D 9% the !rou%d that we ca%%ot u"e the &cat& object (%*erred *rom !(7e% (%d(cat(o%" (% "uch a way a" w(ll te"t the (%*ere%ce a%d make (t *ru(t*ul- help*ul- u%le"" we ca% detach (t *rom (t" e:("te%t(al depe%de%ce upo% the part(cular th(%!" wh(ch "u!!e"t (t. ;e %eed to k%ow what a cat would be (* (t were there> what other th(%!" would al"o be (%d(cated (* the cat (" really (%d(cated. ;e there*ore create a new object: we take "ometh(%! to "ta%d *or the cat3(%3(t"3"tatu" a" (%*erred (%

0J3J1 co%tra"t w(th the cat a" a l(7e th(%!. < "ou%d or a 7("(ble mark (" the ord(%ary mecha%("m *or produc(%! "uch a %ew object. ;hate7er the phy"(cal mea%" employedwe %ow ha7e a %ew object> a term- a mea%(%!- a %ot(o%- a% e""e%ce- a *orm or "pec(e"accord(%! to the term(%olo!y wh(ch may be (% 7o!ue. 8t (" a" much a "pec(*(c e:("te%ce a" a%y "ou%d or mark (". But (t (" a mark wh(ch %ote"- co%ce%trate"- a%d record" a% outcome o* a% (%*ere%ce wh(ch (" %ot yet accepted a%d a**(rmed. ,hat (" to "ay- (t de"(!%ate" a% object wh(ch (" not yet to be reacted to a" o%e react" to the !(7e% "t(mulu"but wh(ch (" a% object o* *urther e:am(%at(o% a%d (%=u(ry- a med(um o* a po"tpo%ed co%clu"(o% a%d o* (%7e"t(!at(o% co%t(%ued t(ll better !rou%d" *or a**(rm(%! a% object 0mak(%! a de*(%(te- u%(*(ed re"po%"e1 are !(7e%. < term is an ob!ect so far as that ob!ect is undergoing shaping in a directed act o* inquiry. 8t may be called a po""(ble object or a hypothet(cal object. +uch object" do %ot walk or b(te or "cratch- but they are %e7erthele"" actually pre"e%t a" the 7(tal a!e%c(e" o* re*lect(o%. 8* we but *or!et where they l(7e a%d operate Ow(th(% the e7e%t o* co%trolled (%*ere%ceO we ha7e o% our ha%d" all the my"ter(e" o* the double world o* e:("te%ce a%d e""e%ce- part(cular a%d u%(7er"alth(%! a%d (dea- ord(%ary l(*e a%d "c(e%ce. .or the world o* "c(e%ce- e"pec(ally o* mathemat(cal "c(e%ce- (" the world o* co%"(derat(o%" wh(ch ha7e appro7ed them"el7e" to be e**ect(7ely re!ulat(7e o* the operat(o%" o*

0J321 (%*ere%ce. 8t (" ea"(er to wa"h w(th ord(%ary water tha% w(th 4 9 a%d there (" a marked d(**ere%ce betwee% *all(%! o** a bu(ld(%! a%d +9,gt,. But 4 9 a%d +9,gt, are a" pote%t *or the d("t(%ct(7e act o* (%*ere%ce Oa" !e%u(%e a%d d("t(%ct(7e a% act a" wa"h(%! the ha%d" or roll(%! dow% h(llO a" ord(%ary water a%d *all(%! are (mpote%t. +c(e%t(*(c me% ca% ha%dle the"e th(%!"3o*3(%*ere%ce prec("ely a" the black"m(th ha%dle" h(" tool". ,hey are %ot thou!ht" a" they are ord(%ar(ly u"ed- %ot e7e% (% the lo!(cal "e%"e o* thou!ht. ,hey are rather th(%!" who"e ma%(pulat(o% 0a" the black"m(th ma%(pulate" h(" tool"1 y(eld k%owled!e Oor method" o* k%owled!eO w(th a m(%(mum o* recour"e to th(%k(%! a%d a ma:(mum o* e**(c(e%cy. ;he% o%e co%"(der" the (mporta%ce o* the e%terpr("e o* k%owled!e- (t (" %ot "urpr("(%! that appropr(ate tool" ha7e bee% de7("ed *or carry(%! (t o%- a%d that the"e tool" ha7e %o prototype" (% pre3e:("te%t mater(al". ,hey are real object"- but they are ju"t the real object" wh(ch they are a%d %ot "ome other object".

T>.O:? A'D %:ACT2C.

9ur la"t para!raph" ha7e touched upo% the %ature o* "c(e%ce. ,hey co%ta(%- by way o* (%t(mat(o%- a% e:pla%at(o% o* the d("ta%ce wh(ch l(e" betwee% the th(%!" o* da(ly (%tercour"e a%d the term" o* "c(e%ce. )o%trolled (%*ere%ce (" "c(e%ce- a%d "c(e%ce ("accord(%!ly- a h(!hly "pec(al(6ed (%du"try. 8t (" "uch a

0J3?1 "pec(al(6ed mode o* pract(ce that (t doe" %ot appear to be a mode o* pract(ce at all. ,h(" h(!h "pec(al(6at(o% (" part o* the rea"o% *or the curre%t a%t(the"(" o* theory a%d pract(ce- k%owled!e a%d co%duct- the other part be(%! the "ur7(7al o* the a%c(e%t co%cept(o% o* k%owled!e a" (%tu(t(7e a%d d(alect(cal Othe co%cept(o% wh(ch (" "et *orth (% the <r("totel(a% lo!(c. +tart(%! *rom the hypothe"(" that the art o* co%trolled (%*ere%ce re=u(re" *or (t" e**(c(e%t e:erc("e "pec(ally adapted e%t(t(e"- (t *ollow" that the 7ar(ou" "c(e%ce" are the 7ar(ou" *orm" wh(ch the (%du"try o* co%trolled (%=u(ry a""ume". 8t *ollow" that the co%cept(o%" a%d *ormulat(o%" o* the "c(e%ce" Ophy"(cal a%d mathemat(calO co%cer% th(%!" wh(ch ha7e bee% re"haped (% 7(ew o* the e:(!e%c(e" o* re!ulated a%d *ert(le (%*ere%ce. ,o !et th(%!" (%to the e"tate where "uch (%*ere%ce (" pract(cable- ma%y =ual(t(e" o* the water a%d a(r- cat" a%d do!"- "to%e" a%d "tar"- o* da(ly (%tercour"e w(th the world ha7e bee% dropped or depre""ed. Much that wa" tr(7(al or remote ha" bee% ele7ated a%d e:a!!erated. Ee(ther the om(""(o%" %or the acce%tuat(o%" are arb(trary. ,hey are purpo"e*ul. ,hey repre"e%t the cha%!e" (% the th(%!" o* ord(%ary l(*e wh(ch are %eeded to "a*e!uard the (mporta%t bu"(%e"" o* (%*ere%ce. ,here (" the% a !reat d(**ere%ce betwee% the e%t(t(e" o* "c(e%ce a%d the th(%!" o* da(ly l(*e. ,h(" may be *ully ack%owled!ed. But u%le"" the adm("3

0J3B1 3"(o% (" accompa%(ed by a% (!%or(%! o* the *u%ct(o% o* (%*ere%ce- (t create" %o problem o* co%c(l(at(o%- %o %eed o* apolo!(6(%! *or e(ther o%e or the other. 8t !e%erate" %o problem o* the real a%d the appare%t. ,he &real& or &true& object" o* "c(e%ce are tho"e wh(ch be"t *ul*(l the dema%d" o* "ecure a%d *ert(le (%*ere%ce. ,o arr(7e at them (" "uch a d(**(cult operat(o%- there are "o ma%y "pec(ou" ca%d(date" clamor(%! *or the o**(ce- that

(t (" %o wo%der that whe% the object" "u(table *or (%*ere%ce are co%"t(tuted- they te%d to (mpo"e them"el7e" a" the real object"- (% compar("o% w(th wh(ch the th(%!" o* ord(%ary l(*e are but (mpre""(o%" made upo% u" 0accord(%! to much moder% thou!ht1- or de*ect(7e "ample" o* Be(%! Oaccord(%! to much o* a%c(e%t thou!ht. But o%e ha" o%ly to %ote that the(r !e%u(%ely character("t(c *eature (" *(t%e"" *or the a(m" o* (%*ere%ce to awake% *rom the %(!htmare o* all "uch problem". ,hey d(**er *rom the th(%!" o* the commo% world o* act(o% a%d a""oc(at(o% a" the mea%" a%d e%d" o* o%e occupat(o% d(**er *rom tho"e o* a%other. ,he d(**ere%ce (" %ot that wh(ch e:("t" betwee% real(ty a%d appeara%ce- but (" that betwee% the "ubject3matter o* crude occupat(o%" a%d o* a h(!hly "pec(al(6ed a%d d(**(cult art- upo% the "ucce"" o* wh(ch 0"o (t (" d("co7ered1 the pro!re"" o* other occupat(o%" ult(mately depe%d". ,he e%t(t(e" o* "c(e%ce are %ot o%ly *rom the "c(e%t("t> they are al"o *or h(m. ,hey e:pre""- that ("- %ot o%ly the outcome o* re*lect(7e (%=u(r(e"- but

0J3C1 e:pre"" them (% the part(cular *orm (% wh(ch they ca% e%ter mo"t d(rectly a%d e**(c(e%tly (%to "ub"e=ue%t (%=u(r(e". ,he *act that they are "u"ta(%ed w(th(% the u%(7er"e o* (%=u(ry accou%t" *or the(r remote%e"" *rom the th(%!" o* da(ly l(*e- the latter be(%! promptly prec(p(tated out o* "u"pe%"e (% "uch "olut(o%". ,hat mo"t o* the (mmed(ate =ual(t(e" o* th(%!" 0(%clud(%! the "o3called "eco%dary =ual(t(e"1 are dropped "(!%(*(e" that "uch =ual(t(e" ha7e %ot tur%ed out to be *ru(t*ul *or (%*ere%ce. ,hat mathmat(calmecha%(cal- a%d &pr(mary& d("t(%ct(o%" a%d relat(o%" ha7e come to co%"t(tute the proper "ubjectmatter o* "c(e%ce "(!%(*(e" that they repre"e%t "uch =ual(t(e" o* or(!(%al th(%!" a" are mo"t ma%(pular *or k%owled!e3!ett(%! or a""ured a%d e:te%"(7e (%*ere%ce. )o%"(der what a hard t(me the "c(e%t(*(c ma% had (% !ett(%! away *rom other =ual(t(e"- a%d how the more (mmed(ate =ual(t(e" ha7e bee% pre""ed upo% h(m *rom all =uarter"- a%d (t (" %ot "urpr("(%! that he (%cl(%e" to th(%k o* the (%tellectually u"e*ul propert(e" a" alo%e &real& a%d to rele!ate all other" to a =ua"((llu"ory *(eld. But h(" 7(ctory (" %ow "u**(c(e%tly ach(e7ed "o that th(" te%"(o% may well rela:> (t may be ack%owled!ed that the d(**ere%ce betwee% "c(e%t(*(c e%t(t(e" a%d ord(%ary th(%!" (" o%e o* *u%ct(o%- the *ormer be(%! "elected a%d arra%!ed *or the "ucce""*ul co%duct o* (%*ere%t(al k%ow(%!". 8 co%clude w(th a% attempt to "how how bootle"" the ord(%ary a%t(the"(" betwee% k%owled!e 0or theory1

0 J391 a%d pract(ce become" whe% we reco!%(6e that (t really (%7ol7e" o%ly a co%tra"t betwee% the k(%d" o* jud!me%t" appropr(ate to ord(%ary mode" o* pract(ce a%d tho"e appropr(ate to the "pec(al(6ed (%du"try o* k%owled!e3!ett(%!. 8t (" %ot true that to (%"("t that "c(e%t(*(c propo"(t(o%" *all w(th(% the doma(% o* pract(ce (" to deprec(ate them. 9% (t" *ace- the (%"("te%ce mea%" "(mply that all k%owled!e (%7ol7e" e:per(me%tat(o%- w(th whate7er appl(a%ce" are "u(ted to the problem (% ha%d- o* a% act(7e a%d phy"(cal type. 8%"tead o* th(" doctr(%e lead(%! to a low e"t(mate o* k%owled!e- the co%trary (" the ca"e. ,h(" art o* e:per(me%tal th(%k(%! tur%" out to !(7e the key to the co%trol a%d de7elopme%t o* other mode" o* pract(ce. 8 ha7e touched el"ewhere (% the"e e""ay" upo% the way (% wh(ch k%owled!e (" the (%"trume%t o* re!ulat(o% o* our huma% u%dertak(%!"- a%d 8 ha7e al"o po(%ted out that (%tr(%"(c (%creme%t" o* mea%(%! accrue (% co%"e=ue%ce o* th(%k(%!. 8 w("h here to po(%t how that

mode o* pract(ce wh(ch (" called theor(6(%! ema%c(pate" e:per(e%ce Ohow (t make" *or "teady pro!re"". Eo matter how much "pec(al(6ed "k(ll (mpro7e"- we are re"tr(cted (% the de!ree (% wh(ch our e%d" rema(% co%"ta%t or *(:ed. +(!%(*(ca%t pro!re""- pro!re"" wh(ch (" more tha% tech%(cal- depe%d" upo% ab(l(ty to *ore"ee %ew a%d d(**ere%t re"ult" a%d to arra%!e co%d(t(o%" *or the(r e**ectuat(o%. +c(e%ce (" the (%"trume%t o* (%crea"(%! our tech%(=ue (%

0JJ01 atta(%(%! re"ult" already k%ow% a%d cher("hed. More (mporta%t yet- (t (" the method o* ema%c(pat(%! u" *rom e%"la7eme%t to cu"tomary e%d"- the e%d" e"tabl("hed (% the pa"t. 'et me borrow *rom pol(t(cal ph(lo"ophy a k(%d o* car(cature o* the *act". <" "oc(al ph(lo"opher" u"ed to "ay that the "tate came (%to e:("te%ce whe% (%d(7(dual" a!reed to "urre%der "ome o* the(r %at(7e per"o%al r(!ht" *or the "ake o* !ett(%! the ad7a%ta!e" o* %o%3(%ter*ere%ce a%d a(d *rom other" who made a l(ke "urre%der- "o we m(!ht "ay that "c(e%ce be!a% whe% me% !a7e up the cla(m to *orm the "tructure o* k%owled!e each *rom h(m"el* a" a ce%ter a%d mea"ure o* mea%(%! Owhe% there wa" a% a!reeme%t to take a% (mper"o%al "ta%dpo(%t. Eo%3"c(e%t(*(c mode" o* pract(ce- le*t to the(r %atural !rowth- repre"e%t- (% other word"- arra%!eme%t" o* object" wh(ch clu"ter about the "el*a%d wh(ch are clo"ely t(ed dow% to the hab(t" o* the "el*. +c(e%ce or theory mea%" a "y"tem o* object" detached *rom a%y part(cular per"o%al "ta%dpo(%t- a%d there*ore a7a(lable *or a%y a%d e7ery po""(ble per"o%al "ta%dpo(%t. 57e% the e:(!e%c(e" o* ord(%ary "oc(al l(*e re=u(re a "l(!ht amou%t o* "uch detachme%t or ab"tract(o%. 8 mu"t %e!lect my ow% pecul(ar e%d" e%ou!h to take "ome accou%t o* my %e(!hbor (* 8 am !o(%! to be (%tell(!(ble to h(m. 8 mu"t at lea"t *(%d commo% !rou%d. +c(e%ce "y"temat(6e" a%d (%de*(%(tely e:te%d" th(" pr(%c(ple. 8t take" (t" "ta%d- %ot w(th what ("

0JJ11 commo% w(th "ome part(cular %e(!hbor l(7(%! at th(" e"pec(al date (% th(" part(cular 7(lla!e- but w(th a%y po""(ble %e(!hbor (% the w(de "tretche" o* t(me a%d "pace. <%d (t doe" "o by the mere *act that (t (" co%t(%ually re"hap(%! (t" pecul(ar object" w(th a% eye "(%!le to a7a(lab(l(ty (% (%*ere%ce. ,he more ab"tract- the more (mper"o%althe more (mpart(ally object(7e are (t" object"- the !reater the 7ar(ety a%d "cope o* (%*ere%ce made po""(ble. 57ery "treet o* e:per(e%ce wh(ch (" la(d out by "c(e%ce ha" (t" track" *or tra%"portat(o%- a%d e7ery l(%e (""ue" tra%"*er check" to e7ery other l(%e. Aou a%d 8 may keep ru%%(%! (% certa(% part(cular rut"- but co%d(t(o%" are pro7(ded *or "omebody el"e to *ore"ee Oor (%*erO %ew comb(%at(o%" a%d %ew re"ult". ,he deper"o%al(6(%! o* the th(%!" o* e7eryday pract(ce become" the ch(e* a!e%cy o* the(r reper"o%al(6(%! (% %ew a%d more *ru(t*ul mode" o* pract(ce. ,he parado: o* theory a%d pract(ce (" that theory (" w(th re"pect to all other mode" o* pract(ce the mo"t pract(cal o* all th(%!"- a%d the more (mpart(al a%d (mper"o%al (t ("- the more truly pract(cal (t (". <%d th(" (" the "ole parado:. But le"t the ma% o* "c(e%ce- the ma% o* dom(%a%tly re*lect(7e hab(t"- be pu**ed up w(th h(" ow% co%ce(t"- he mu"t bear (% m(%d that pract(cal appl(cat(o% Othat ("- e:per(me%tO (" a co%d(t(o% o* h(" ow% call(%!- that (t (" (%d("pe%"able to the (%"t(tut(o% o* k%owled!e or truth. )o%"e=ue%tly- (% order that he keep h("

0JJ 1 ow% bala%ce- (t (" %eeded that h(" *(%d(%!" be e7erywhere appl(ed. ,he more the(r appl(cat(o% (" co%*(%ed w(th(% h(" ow% "pec(al call(%!- the le"" mea%(%! do the co%cept(o%" po""e""- a%d the more e:po"ed they are to error. ,he w(de"t po""(ble ra%!e o* appl(cat(o% (" the mea%" o* the deepe"t 7er(*(cat(o%. <" lo%! a" the "pec(al("t hu!" h(" ow% re"ult" they are 7a!ue (% mea%(%! a%d u%"a*e (% co%te%t. ,hat (%d(7(dual" (% e7ery bra%ch o* huma% e%dea7or "hould be e:per(me%tal("t" e%!a!ed (% te"t(%! the *(%d(%!" o* the theor("t (" the "ole *(%al !uara%ty *or the "a%(ty o* the theor("t.

'otes
1. &cientific "ethod ill Philosophy, p.2B. . ,he a%alyt(c real("t" ha7e "how% a pecul(ar d("(%cl(%at(o% to d("cu"" the %ature o* *uture co%"e=ue%ce" a" term" o* propo"(t(o%". ,hey certa(%ly are %ot (de%t(cal w(th the me%tal act o* re*err(%! to them> they are &object(7e& to (t. Do theythere*ore- already "ub"("t (% "ome realm o* "ub"("te%ce D 9r (" "ub"("te%ce but a %ame *or the *act o* lo!(cal re*ere%ce- lea7(%! the determ(%at(o% o* the mea%(%! o* &"ub"("te%ce& depe%de%t upo% a determ(%at(o% o* the mea%(%! o* &lo!(cal&D More !e%erally- what (" the po"(t(o% o* a%alyt(c real("m about the *uture D 3. +uppo"(%! the =ue"t(o% to be that o* "ome molte% "tate o* the earth (% pa"t !eolo!(c a!e". ,ake% a" the complete "ubject3matter o* a propo"(t(o% Oor "c(e%ceO the *act" d("co7ered ca%%ot be re!arded a" cau"at(7e o*- or a mecha%("m o*- the appeara%ce o* l(*e. .or by de*(%(t(o% they *orm a clo"ed "y"tem> to (%troduce re*ere%ce to a *uture e7e%t (" to de%y the de*(%(t(o%. )o%trar(w("e- a "tateme%t o* that pa"t co%d(t(o% o* the earth a" a mecha%(cal co%d(t(o% o* the later emer!e%ce o* l(*e mea%" that that pa"t "ta!e (" take% %ot merely a" pa"t- but a" (% proce"" o* tra%"(t(o% to (t" *uture- a" (% proce"" o* alterat(o% (% the d(rect(o% o* l(*e. )ha%!e (% th(" d(rect(o% (" a% (%te!ral part o* a "tateme%t o* the early "ta!e o* the earthH" h("tory. < purely !eolo!(c "tateme%t may be =u(te accurate (% (t" ow% u%(7er"e o* d("cour"e a%d yet =u(te (%complete a%d he%ce (%accurate (% a%other u%(7er"e o* d("cour"e. ,hat (" to "ay- a !eolo!("tH" propo"(t(o%" may accurately "et *orth a pr(or "tate o* th(%!"- wh(le (!%or(%! a%y re*ere%ce to a later "tate e%ta(led by them. But a would3be ph(lo"ophy may %ot (!%ore the (mpl(ed *uture. J. Philosophical .ssays, pp. 10J- 102. 2. &i$th "editation. ?. Principles of Philosophy, p. 90. B. 'reatise o* :uman #ature, Part 888- "ec. (((. C. 8t (" perhap" poor tact(c" o% my part to compl(cate th(" matter w(th a%yth(%! el"e. But (t (" e7(de%t that &pa""(o%"& a%d pa(%" a%d plea"ure" may be u"ed a" evidences o* "ometh(%! beyo%d them"el7e" 0a" may the *act o* be(%! more tha% *(7e *eet h(!h1 a%d "o !et a repre"e%tat(7e or co!%(t(7e "tatu". 8" there %ot al"o a pr(ma *ac(e pre"umpt(o% that all "e%"ory =ual(t(e" are o* them"el7e" bare e:("te%ce" or occurre%ce" w(thout co!%(t(7e prete%"(o%- a%d that they ac=u(re the latter "tatu" a" "(!%" or e7(de%ce o* "ometh(%! el"eH 5p("temolo!(cal (deal("t" or real("t" who adm(t the %o%3co!%(t(7e character o* plea"ure a%d pa(% would "eem to be u%der "pec(al obl(!at(o%" care*ully to co%"(der the the"(" o* the %o%3 co!%(t(7e %ature o* all "e%"ory =ual(t(e" e:cept a" they are employed a" (%d(cat(o%" or (%de:e" o* "ome other th(%!. ,h(" reco!%(t(o% *ree" lo!(c *rom the ep("temolo!(cal d("cu""(o% o* "eco%dary =ual(t(e".

9. ,o reader" who ha7e !ra"ped the thou!ht o* my ar!ume%t- (t may %ot be mea%(%!le"" to "ay that the typ(cal (deal("t(c *allacy (" to (mport (%to the d(rect e:per(e%ce the re"ult" o* the (%tellectual or re*lect(7e e:am(%at(o%- wh(le that o* real("m (" to treat the re*lect(7e operat(o% a" deal(%! w(th prec("ely the "ame "ubject3matter a" the or(!(%al act wa" co%cer%ed w(th3tak(%! the !ood o* &rea"o%& a%d the !ood o* (mmed(ate beha7(or to be the "ame "ort o* th(%!". <%d both *allac(e" w(ll re"ult *rom a%y a""(m(lat(o% o* two d(**ere%t act" to o%e a%other throu!h !(7(%! them both the t(tle &k%owled!e-& a%d he%ce treat(%! the d(**ere%ce betwee% them a" "(mply the d(**ere%ce betwee% a d(rect apprehe%"(o% a%d a med(ated o%e. 10. <%alyt(c real("m ou!ht to be *a7orable to "uch a hedo%("m> the *act that pre"e%t3 day a%alyt(c real("t" are %ot *a7orable would "eem to (%d(cate that they ha7e %ot take% the(r lo!(c "er(ou"ly e%ou!h- but ha7e bee% re"tra(%ed- by pract(cal mot(7e"- *rom apply(%! (t thorou!hly. ,o "ay that the moral l(*e pre"e%t" a h(!h de!ree o* or!a%(6at(o% a%d (%te!rat(o% (" to "ay "ometh(%! wh(ch (" true- but (" al"o to "ay "ometh(%! wh(ch by the a%alyt(c lo!(c call" *or (t" re"olut(o% (%to ult(mate a%d (%depe%de%t "(mple". @%le"" they accept the plea"ure" a%d pa(%" o* Be%tham a" "uch ult(mate"- they are bou%d to pre"e%t acceptable "ub"t(tute". But here they te%d to "h(*t the(r lo!(c a%d to make the *ul*(lme%t o* "ome or!a%("at(o% 07ar(ou"ly de*(%ed1 the "ta%dard !ood. )o%"("te%cy would the% adm(t the hypothe"(" that (% all ca"e" a% e7e%tual or!a%(6at(o% rather tha% a%tecede%t "(mple" "upply the "ta%dard o* k%owled!e. Mea%wh(le the term &*ul*(lme%t& 0or a%y "(m(lar term1 "ta%d" a" a% ack%owled!me%t that the or!a%(6at(o% (% =ue"t(o% (" %ot "ometh(%! o%tolo!(cally pr(or but (" o%e yet to he ach(e7ed. 11. 8t mu"t %ot be o7erlooked that a mere rem(%der o* a% e%d pre7(ou"ly "ettled upo% may operate a" a "u**(c(e%t "t(mulu" to act(o%. 8t (" probably th(" act o* call(%! the e%d to m(%d wh(ch the real("t co%*u"e" w(th k%owled!e- a%d there*ore term" apprehe%"(o%. But there (" %oth(%! co!%(t(7e about (t- a%y more tha% there (" (% pre""(%! a butto% to !(7e the "(!%al *or a% act already dec(ded upo%. 1 . @pholder" o* th(" 7(ew !e%erally d("!u("e the a""umpt(o% o* repet(t(o% by the %ot(o% that what (" jud!ed (" pro!re"" (% the d(rect(o% o* appro:(mat(o% to a% eter%al 7alue. But a" matter o* *act- pro!re"" (" %e7er jud!ed 0a" 8 ha7e had repeated occa"(o% to po(%t out1 by re*ere%ce to a tra%"ce%de%t eter%al 7alue- but (% re*ere%ce to the "ucce"" o* the e%d3(%37(ew (% meet(%! the %eed" a%d co%d(t(o%" o* the "pec(*(c "(tuat(o%3a "urre%der o* the doctr(%e (% *a7or o* the o%e "et *orth (% the te:t. 'o!(cally- the %ot(o% o* pro!re"" a" appro:(mat(o% ha" %o place. ,he the"(" "hould read that we alway" try to repeat a !(7e% 7alue- but alway" *a(l a" a matter o* *act. <%d co%"ta%t *a(lure (" a =ueer %ame *or pro!re"". 13. +ee 8M a%d M ante. 1J. 8 u"e the term &(ma!e& (% the "e%"e o* opt(c"- %ot o* p"ycholo!y. 12. ,hat "ometh(%! o* the co!%(t(7e- "ometh(%! o* the "(!% or term *u%ct(o%- e%ter" (% a" a cataly6er- "o to "peak- (% e7e% the mo"t ae"thet(c e:per(e%ce"- "eem" to be alto!ether probable- but that =ue"t(o% (t (" %ot %ece""ary to rare l(tre. 1?. ,he "uper"t(t(o% that whate7er (%*lue%ce" the act(o% o* a co%"c(ou" be(%! mu"t be a% u%co%"c(ou" "e%"at(o% or percept(o%- (* (t (" %ot a co%"c(ou" o%e- "hould be "ummar(ly d("m(""ed. ;e are act(7e be(%!" *rom the "tart a%d are %aturallywholly apart *rom co%"c(ou"%e""- e%!a!ed (% red(rect(%! our act(o% (% re"po%"e to cha%!e" (% our "urrou%d(%!". Alternative po""(b(l(t(e"- a%d he%ce a% (%determ(%ate "(tuat(o%- cha%!e d(rect re"po%"e (%to a re"po%"e med(ated by a

percept(o% a" a "(!% o* po""(b(l(t(e"- that ("- a phy"(olo!(cal "t(mulu" (%to a perce(7ed =ual(ty: a "e%"ory datum. 1B. )ompare ;oodbr(d!e- 2ournal of Philosophy and Psychology- M- 2. 1C. &ee (ussell, &cientific "ethod in Philosophy, p. ;4. 19. /bid., p. 101. 0. +ee the e""ay on 'he .$istence o* the 3orld as a %ogical Problem.