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4. Communicating [supportively]
5. Motivating and influencing others
Interpersonal skills
6. Conflict management
7. Decision making
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i. creative problem solving
ii. leading positive change
iii. fostering innovation
3. Market Skills focus on competition [power and influence]:
i. motivating others
ii. gaining power and influence
iii. managing conflict
4. Hierarchy skills focus on control [and rationality]:
i. Managing personal stress
ii. Managing time
iii. Maintaining self-awareness
iv. Analytical problem solving
Effective leadership and effective management are inseparable.
Effective management is a key source of financial success for firms. But effective managers are
not always successful personally, and vice versa, personally successful managers are not always
effective. Effective managers focus on managing employees, getting results, downward
communication and motivation, problem solving and human resource management. Successful
managers focus on networking and relationship building, especially with higher ups.
Thus, even though good management of people might be the best predictor of a firm’s financial
success, being a good manager (and helping the firm financially as a result) is not a good
predictor for your own success. Ideally, you will combine behaviors that lead to success and
effectiveness by:
“Skills” or “competencies” are identifiable sets of action that lead to outcomes. Unlike
personality traits they are controllable and can be developed. Being a good manager or even a
good sales person is attributable to skills rather than personality, and these competencies can be
learned and developed. The key is emotional intelligence. That is, being able to handle emotions
and balance contradictory skill areas such as human relations, power and control, innovativeness
and rationality.
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Scientific Management
➢ Time and motion studies
➢ Selection
➢ Training
➢ Financial incentives
➢ Piece rates
1. Self-knowledge: our assumptions, trigger points, sensitive line, comfort zone, strengths
and weaknesses.
2. Understanding differences in others: different perspectives, needs, inclinations; and
focusing on those differences rather than on distinctions such as qualifications, titles,
status, etc.
Most of us have a tendency to interact with others like ourselves, but if managers do that they
lose information and perspectives that aid decision making. Good managers need to be much
broader minded than the average person.
Fear of self-awareness
• People are afraid of self knowledge and self awareness because it threatens self-concept.
The fear of public speaking shows that humiliation that causes harm to our self concept is
prevalent.
• The sensitive line is the point at which individuals become defensive or protective when
encountering information that is inconsistent with their self-concept or when encountering
pressure to alter their behavior. This is similar to the notion of cognitive dissonance, that
people resist holding two inconsistent beliefs at the same time. If we need a positive self-
concept to survive, then negative information about ourselves will cause cognitive
dissonance, or mental conflict, which we will resolve, likely by rejecting the information,
possibly to the extent of the treat-rigidity response to protect the image we hold of
ourselves.
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• Become more self-aware of key traits including personal values, learning style, orientation
toward change, and interpersonal orientation.
Dimensions of Self-Awareness:
1. Emotional Intelligence is the ability to manage ourselves [recognize and control our
emotions]; and to manage relationships with others [recognize and respond appropriately
to the emotions of others].
2. Personal values identify an individual’s basic standards about what is good/bad,
worthwhile/worthless, desirable/undesirable, true/false, moral/immoral. Personal values
may be either:
i. Terminal values that refer to end states or goals. An example would be “peace.”
They can be personal or social, or
ii. Instrumental values that refer to standards of behavior. Examples would include
morality and competence.
Several psychologists have argued that the level of moral development is a key
predictor of the way people behave. Moral development or moral maturity has
most famously been measured by Kohlberg in his Values Maturity scale.
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Kohlberg Values Maturity scale:
Preconventional (self centered): i. Fear of punishment. Think of a criminal.
Moral duty resides in external factors, Infantile stage.
and consequences, not persons or ii. Individual instrumental purpose and
relationships. exchange. Meeting one’s own needs,
and being fair to others. Childish stage.
Think of the mafia.
Values often conflict. Chester Barnard, in his seminal book The Functions of the Executive,
argues that the executive’s most important function is to motivate employees to accept
moral codes that are consistent with the firm’s goals. Firms need to balance economic
performance with social performance most adults have neither constructed nor do they
follow a well developed sense of principle.
3. Learning style refers to the manner in which we perceive, interpret and respond to
information. Two dimensions are: gathering information and evaluating information.
Gathering information is characterized by two poles of one dimension:
i. Abstract Conceptualization (AC): information is obtained from books and/or from
analysis of theoretical relationships, and
ii. Concrete Experience (CE): information is obtained from other people and/or from
experience.
Evaluating information is characterized by two poles of a second dimension:
i. Reflective observation (RO) which involves pondering and reflecting on information.
Differing perspective are considered.
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ii. Active experimentation (AE) which involves testing and acting. Ability to get things
done. Taking risks. Influence through action.
The four poles result in four learning styles, combining one gathering and one evaluating
information pole each:
a. Diverging combines RO & CE indicating that the learner is creative, imaginative, and
interactive such as people in the arts and social services. These people view concrete
situations from many points of view and are good at idea generation.
b. Accommodating combines AE & CE indicating people act on gut feel and are risk
taking…such as entrepreneurs, marketing, sales, managers.
c. Converging combines AC & AE indicating problem solvers: technical people and
decision makers who are good at processing a wide range of information. They are good
at practical uses for ideas. Engineers.
d. Assimilating combines AC & RO indicating abstract thinking: science, computers and
math. These people are good at processing a wide range of information.
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4. Attitudes toward change involve the ability to learn, and adapt. Two dimensions that
reflect the ability to cope with change are tolerance of ambiguity and locus of control:
I. Tolerance of ambiguity refers to the extent to which individuals have difficulty
coping with ambiguous, changing circumstances. Tolerance of ambiguity is related to
cognitive complexity, the ability to integrate seemingly contradictory information.
Cognitive complexity, though, may be associated with lack of focus. Three subdivisions
are:
a. Novelty: extent to which people are tolerant of new, unfamiliar information or
situations,
b. Complexity: extent to which people are tolerant of multiple, distinctive, or
unrelated information, and
c. Insolubility: extent to which people are tolerant of difficult problems.
II. Locus of control refers to the attitude people develop regarding the extent to which
they are in control of their own destinies. Locus of control can shift over time, or vary
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according to position or situation.
People having internal locus of control believe reinforcements or outcomes are
contingent on their own actions. Such people are associated with successful
management in North America, are less alienated from work environment, are more
satisfied at work, and experience less stress and more position mobility. On the
negative side, they are less likely to comply with leader directions, and are less
accurate in processing feedback about successes and failures. They also have greater
difficulty making decisions that have serious consequences.
People having external locus of control believe others or external factors cause
success or failure. Such people are most commonly found in managers from Eastern
cultures, tend to use coercive power more than internal leaders, and perform poorly in
stressful situations.
Positive core self-evaluation implies sensitivity to others and to the environment so that
relationships with others are strengthened and developed.
Personality
Personality is the relatively enduring traits that make an individual unique. In contrast to skills,
which can be learned, and values, which are inculcated through cultural exposure, personality
traits are relatively permanent and difficult to change. Locus of control and tolerance of
ambiguity are borderline traits/values and is easier than some of the other traits, like the ones in
FIRO-B to change. You should not think of changing your personality traits, such as those
measured by FIRO-B (see chapter 6 notes). Your values can change much more easily.
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4. Neuroticism
5. Openness
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Trompenaars—Cultural Values Dimensions
Value Valued Country
dimension example
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Chapter 2 – Stress Management
Stress management is important because the ability to manage stress will help you to succeed.
Stress affects managers’ abilities to make decisions, to be creative and to focus. Furthermore,
stress has many health and other social implications. Managing stress is fundamental to our
ability to manage change, and the management of change is a key management mandate in
today’s technologically shifting and globally evolving world.
Force field analysis suggests that there are stressors whose force is opposed by resistors or
resiliency. Your job is to build the resiliency and so manage the stressors.
Sources of Stress
Source Causes Counters
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Anticipatory • Unpleasant expectations • Goal setting
• Fear • Small wins
Reacting to stress:
1. Alarm stage is characterized by acute increases in anxiety/fear/sorrow/depression.
2. Resistance stage in which defense mechanisms predominate. Defense mechanisms
include:
a. aggression – attacking the stressor directly
b. regression – adoption of previously successful behaviors
c. repression – denial, forgetting, or redefining the stressors
d. withdrawal – fantasizing, inattentiveness, purposive forgetting, escape
e. fixation – persisting in a response regardless of its effectiveness
3. Exhaustion stage (if resistance fails to counter stressors) in which efforts to defend
against stress ceases.
Stress management
1. Enactive: eliminate stressors by creating new environments.
2. Proactive: develop resiliency (capacity to handle stress).
3. Reactive: temporary on the spot remedies including deep breathing, muscle relaxation,
imagery and fantasy, rehearsal of positive reactions to potentially stressful situations, and
reframing by redefining the situation as manageable.
Work Redesign
Hackman and Oldham argue that more interesting, challenging and fulfilling jobs have certain
characteristics that lead to psychological states that in turn lead to job performance outcomes.
Skill variety Combine tasks to utilize more skills, and foster pride of ownership in
the job.
Goal Setting
Good goals are SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable (but challenging), Relevant, and Time-
Bound.
1. Establish SMART goals.
2. Specify actions & behavior requirements.
3. Generate accountability and reporting mechanism.
4. Identify criteria of success and reward.
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Resiliency
1. Physiological resiliency is attained through exercise, proper diet, avoiding alcohol, sugar,
fat.
2. Psychological resiliency is attained by “hardiness” and avoiding Type A personality.
Hardiness means feeling in control, feeling committed and feeling challenged. In turn, it
implies internal locus of control and self esteem. In contrast, Type A personalities feel a
lot of tension, focus on having rather than being, are unaware of the broader environment,
have a strong need to compete, chronic sense of being in a hurry, have a feeling of guilt
when relaxing.
Ways to build psychological resiliency include balanced lifestyle, small wins strategy, and
deep relaxation.
3. Social resiliency implies developing a supportive social system: mentors, small groups
and teams.
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Chapter 3 – Problem Solving
Problem solving is an important skill and marketable to employers. Creativity is important to
entrepreneurship. But problem solving and creativity are likely NOT critical to career success
and moving up the corporate ladder. Networking and power and influence skills are likely more
important to career success. Creativity, problem solving and innovation and (more importantly)
management of creativity, problem solving and innovation are important for managerial
effectiveness.
Two types of problem solving are analytical problem solving which focuses on eliminating
problems, and creative problem solving which focuses on creating something new.
1. Generate alternatives
a) Be sure all involved individuals generate alternatives
b) Specify alternatives that are consistent with goals
c) Specify both short- and long-term solutions
d) Specify alternatives that solve the problem
e) Postpone evaluating alternatives
f) Build on others’ ideas
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e) State the selected alternative explicitly
1. Implement and follow up
a) Implement at proper time and in the right sequence
b) Implement using a small-wins strategy to discourage resistance
c) Provide opportunities for feedback
d) Engender acceptance by facilitating participation by affected individuals
e) Establish ongoing measurement and monitoring system
f) Evaluate based on problem solution not side benefits
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a) Experimentation, exploration, risk taking, transformational ideas, revolutionary
thinking, unique vision.
b) Flexible/External/Large.
c) Appropriate when there is need for brand-name breakthrough, emerging markets,
resources needed for experimentation.
1. Improvement (be better)
a) Incremental improvements; process control; systematic approaches; careful methods;
clarifying problems.
b) Internal/control/small.
c) Requirement for quality, safety, and reliability; high technical specialization; effective
standardized procedures.
1. Investment (be first)
a) Rapid goal achievement, faster responses than others; competitive approaches; attack
problems directly
b) External/control/fast
c) Fast results a necessity; highly competitive environments; emphasis on bottom line
outcomes.
Conceptual Blocks
Conceptual blocks are mental obstacles that constrain the ways problems are defined. Selective
perception causes conceptual blocks. We are bombarded with much information and our minds
screen that information out. For example, formal education makes people less creative. Play,
not education, leads to creativity.
1. Constancy: being wedded to one way of solving a problem
a) Vertical thinking: defining a problem one way without considering alternative views.
b) One thinking language: not using more than one language (Words, Symbols, Sensory,
feelings and emotions, visual imagery) to define and assess the problem.
1. Commitment: being committed to one point of view.
a) Related to cognitive dissonance, defined as discomfort with contradictions among
beliefs and actions
b) Perceptual stereotyping: define present problems in terms of problems faced in the
past.
c) Ignoring commonalities: failure to find the common thread that exists between
dissimilar problems.
1. Compression:
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a) Artificial constraints: defining the boundaries of a problem too narrowly (not thinking
outside the box).
b) Distinguishing figure from the ground: Not filtering out irrelevant information or
finding needed information.
1. Complacency
a) Non-inquisitiveness: not asking questions.
b) Non-thinking: a bias toward activity in place of mental work. Reliance on left-
hemispheric (logical, sequential, analytical, linear) thinking instead of being
ambidextrous. Right-hemispheric thinking utilizes intuition, synthesis, qualitative
judgment, etc.
Improving creativity
A. Improving the definition of the problem:
1. Synectics: Put something you know in terms of what you don’t know. Transform the
problem definition through synectics or analogies and metaphors. Ask: what does this
remind me of? What does it make me feel like?
a) Personal analogies - Identify yourself as the problem.
b) Direct analogies - Apply facts, technology, and common experience to the problem.
c) Symbolic analogies - Impose symbols or images on the problem.
d) Fantasy analogies - In my wildest dreams how would I wish the problem to be resolved.
1. Elaborate on the definition.
a) Generate several plausible definitions.
b) Question checklist - is there anything else? Is the reverse true? Is this a symptom? Who
sees it differently?
1. Reverse the definition: reverse the way you think about the problem. Janusian thinking:
thinking contradictory thoughts at the same time.
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Chapter 4 – Communicating
Communication has gotten more accurate because of technology such as e-mail and fax
machines. But good communication depends on trust as well as accuracy. Much writing on
communication focuses on accuracy. Technology has improved accuracy but not the emotional
content of communication.
But the emotional dimension of communication is more important than accuracy. More often
than not, it is the impersonal aspect of communication that stands in the way of accuracy.
Obstacles to communication
If principles of supportive communication are not followed, two major results are:
1. Defensiveness:
i. One individual feels threatened or attacked as a result of the communication
ii. Self-protection becomes paramount
iii. Energy is spent on constructing a defense rather than on listening
iv. Aggression, anger, competitiveness, and/or avoidance as a result of the
communication.
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1. Disconfirmation:
i. Individual feels incompetent, unworthy, or insignificant as a result of the
communication
ii. Attempts to reestablish self-worth take precedence
iii. Energy is spent trying to portray self-importance rather than on listening
iv. Showing off, self-centered behavior, withdrawal, and/or loss of motivation are common
reactions.
Listening Responses
1. Advising provides direction, evaluation, personal opinion, or instruction. Most appropriate
when the listener has expertise that the speaker lacks. Cautions:
a) Creates listener control over the topic.
b) Can produce dependence.
c) The speaker may feel misunderstood.
d) Shifts the focus of the conversation.
e) Should almost always follow other responses.
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1. Deflecting switches focus from the speaker to the listener e.g. “A similar thing happened to
me.”, and can produce feeling of being one-upped. Appropriate if reassurance is needed.
Even more important than good listening technique is genuine concern for the person with
whom you are communicating. Covey advocates empathetic listening: seek first to
understand, then to be understood. Through empathy for others, you will gain their trust.
Behavioral Guidelines
1. Differentiate between coaching situations and counseling situations.
2. Use problem-oriented statements rather than person-oriented statements.
3. Communicate congruently by acknowledging your true feelings without acting them out in
destructive ways.
4. Use descriptive, not evaluative, statements.
5. Use validating statements that acknowledge the other person’s importance and uniqueness.
6. Use specific rather than global statements when correcting behavior.
7. Use conjunctive statements that flow smoothly from what was said previously.
8. Own your statements, and encourage, the other person to do likewise.
9. Demonstrate supportive listening.
10.Implement a personal management interview program characterized by supportive
communication.
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Chapter 5 – Power and Influence
Power is the potential to influence behavior - to get things done. Political competence is
critical to getting things done in an organization. In involves management of bosses, underlings,
customers, suppliers, unions, etc. It also involves the capacity to make others feel powerful.
Not all cultures see power the same way. Ascriptive cultures value inherent attributes, and don’t
value personal power as Americans do. They believe that power resides in stable, personal
characteristics. Collectivist cultures believe in power of groups.
McClelland predicted that while entrepreneurs have a high need for achievement and like to
get things done and demonstrate excellence, top managers tend to have a high need for
power.
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Power determinants
1. Personal attributes: abilities and competencies, also referred to as human capital, and
2. Positional characteristics: social connections within and without the organization, also
referred to as social capital.
3. Effort: higher than expected commitment of time leads to cognitive dissonance on others’
part. They associate the hard worker with a higher level job. But in some organizations hard
work is discouraged by peer groups and group norms. In some organizations everyone works
very hard, so effort will not distinguish anyone. If you put out more effort your boss relies on
you. At the same time, it is better to benefit than to impress your boss. It is important to:
a) Understand your boss’s goals and objectives.
b) Understand your boss’s traits.
c) Maintain a relationship that fits the needs and style of both you and the boss.
4. Legitimacy: Conformity to organizational norms and values. The person who mirrors their
boss and conforms to the boss’s ways and the ways of the higher ups and of the organization
tends to be more successful.
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2. Confront individuals who are using manipulative bargaining tactics
3. Refuse to bargain with individuals who use high pressure tactics
Behavioral Guidelines
1. Enhance personal power in the organization
2. Increase centrality of position
3. Increase latitude and flexibility of the job
4. Increase visibility of job performance
5. Increase task relevance to major organizational objectives
6. Use appropriate influencing strategies
7. Neutralize inappropriate influencing strategies directed toward you
8. Sell issues to superiors.
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Chapter 6 – Motivating Others
Employee commitment has important competitive value but is difficult to achieve. The challenge
for managers is to create a motivating work environment.
Performance
Attribution bias is the tendency to blame people or a human cause. It is sometime incorrect to
say that “someone” is to blame.
Motivation Issues
Macgregor argued that there are two kinds of managers:
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1. Theory X who believe that workers are lazy, need to be closely supervised, need financial
incentives.
2. Theory Y who believe that workers can be trusted, and naturally want to do a good job
and assume more responsibility.
Management styles
1. Indulging focuses on satisfaction rather than performance; and undermines performance of
subordinates.
2. Imposing focuses on performance rather than satisfaction; results in exploited, and
consequently, unhappy employees.
3. Ignoring both performance & satisfaction is a lack of management.
4. Integrating focuses equally on performance and satisfaction though specific cases will
involve some trade-offs.
.
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3. Use rewards appropriately to encourage exceptional performance and discipline to
extinguish unacceptable behavior.
4. Provide salient intrinsic and extrinsic incentives.
5. Distribute rewards equitably.
6. Provide timely rewards and specific, accurate, and honest feedback on performance.
Path-Goal Model
The path-goal model is a contingency theory of motivation. It suggests that leaders should get
involved to a varying degree depending upon the needs of subordinates: need for support, need
for autonomy, need for achievement, locus of control, and experience, as well as the task
difficulty and structure.
➢ Task structure high low management involvement.
➢ Task mastery high low management involvement.
➢ Subordinates’ need for autonomy high low management involvement.
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory holds that motivation depends on the manager’s ability to gauge the
employee’s desire for a given reward, the employee’s expectancy of competence to do the
required task, the employee’s expectancy that the manager can be trusted, and that the
manager will actually provide the reward if the required task is done.
Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence for reward
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Equity theory
Equity is the absolute value the employee associate with a reward. Fairness is comparative
value the employee associate with a reward; and is determined by the value of the reward to
their efforts, as well as comparing the rewards they receive for their efforts –v- the rewards other
employees receive for their efforts. In the latter case,
Equity: Output of person = Output of other
Input of person Input of other
The absence of equity leads to cognitive dissonance. Inequity leads to employees’ attempts to
resolve the inequity, such as quitting, forming a union, sabotage, restricting work.
Fiedler distinguished between task and socio-emotional (relations) orientation. Task oriented
people focus on the task rather than harmony in relationships, while socio-emotionally oriented
people focus on interpersonal relationships and interpersonal harmony. Fiedler measured task
versus socio-emotional orientation with his least-preferred coworker scale. The least preferred
coworker scale measured the extent to which the subject disliked the coworker s/he liked the
least. If the subject liked the coworker s/he liked the least, then they were relations or socio-
emotionally oriented, while if they disliked the worker they liked the least, then they were task
oriented.
Fiedler found that task oriented people tend to do best when the task is very difficult or very
easy, as in a military battle (very difficult) or in the civil service (very easy). In those
circumstances task orientation is good. In contrast, socio-emotional orientation is important
when the task is moderately difficult or unfavorable. Then socio-emotionally oriented leaders
work best. Fiedler argued that it is best to fit the manager to the job, and that orientation is
difficult to change. Which style works best will depend on the circumstances, so his theory is a
contingency theory.
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Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning or behaviorism is a theoretical underpinning of scientific management,
expectancy theory and equity theory. It emphasizes the timing of rewards: it is best to give
rewards around the time behavior occurs. Other schedules such as interval (based on time
periods) and ratio (based on units of output) are also possible.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism emphasizes that learning occurs through experience or reinforcement. The reason
behavior changes, is that positive or unpleasant results have occurred because of past behavior.
Types of reinforcement
➢ Positive response (rewarding);
➢ Extinction: No response (Neutrality). This could be misinterpreted as either negative or
positive response depending on what was the typical/expected response.
➢ Negative response (disciplining).
➢ Negative reinforcement: (withholding a negative when someone does something right)
Improving Behavior
1. Reinforce exceptional behavior,
2. Redirect (clarify expected behavior), and
3. Reprimand (extinguish unwanted behavior).
Needs Hierarchies
An alternative view of motivation focuses on intrinsic rewards such as self esteem and self
actualization. Maslow argued that there is a hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, social,
self esteem, self actualization.
He thought that you need to satisfy the lower order needs first.
Herzberg built on Maslow’s theory. He suggested that the lower order needs have to be
satisfied, but do not motivate workers to achieve important achievements. He called things that
satisfy the lower order needs “hygiene factors” or “de-motivators” because their absence
dissatisfies or demotivates, but their presence does not motivate.
He argued that what motivates workers to work hard are the higher order needs, the self
actualization and self esteem needs. He called the things that satisfy these “motivators.”
Intrinsic to the work, motivators are challenge and interest in the work. Interesting work is the
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most important motivator. In Herzberg’s view, the way you make work interesting is “vertical job
loading” or job enrichment. You take the supervisor’s work and give it to the employee.
**************************************************************************************************
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Moral belief is often the most important motivator. Leadership involves inspiring work that is
incrementally greater than expectations. Leadership can be transactional, which means that it
depends on financial or bureaucratic incentives such as fear of being fired or other work rewards.
Leadership can also be transformational, which means based on moral values, and emotional
belief.
Schutz created the FIRO-B questionnaire to measure an individual's orientation toward the six
interpersonal needs. The B on the end of the acronym indicates that the purpose of the
instrument is to examine behavior. Responding to six sample items will give you a better
understanding of the theory and might help you understand yourself at the same time.
2. Inclusion expressed: When people are doing things together, I tend to join them.
4. Control expressed: I try to have other people do things the way I want them done.
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6. Affection expressed: I try to have close relationships with people.
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It is important to understand that the best leaders go beyond the transactional and inspire their
employees to do more than is expected. This is done through organizational cultures that great
business leaders create. Examples include Bill Gates at Microsoft and Jack Welch at GE.
Great leadership involves the creation of a vision and the creation of a moral code that will
inspire employees to become committed to the organization. Military organizations have always
known this.
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Chapter 7 – Managing Conflict
Conflict is important to corporate competitiveness. Too much agreement leads to business
failure. Conflict leads to deeper understanding and a richer solution set. Confidence in one’s
conflict resolution skills and ability to handle conflict leads to better management of conflict.
Important to understand and manage conflict in light of heterogeneity and diversity. Different
views and diversity lead to conflict but also lead to more and better ideas.
Some cultures like Japan have high uncertainty avoidance; others like the US have high tolerance
of uncertainty.
Rules of Engagement
➢ Work with more information.
➢ Focus on the facts.
➢ Develop multiple alternatives.
➢ Share agreed-upon goals.
➢ Inject humor into the decision process.
➢ Maintain a balanced power structure.
➢ Resolve issues without forcing consensus.
Type of conflict
Much conflict focuses on people rather than issues. People focused conflict is emotional and
hurts relationships, whereas issue-based conflict is rational and enhances relatinships. Hostile
behavior often reflects the frustrations of people who have good intentions but are unskilled.
Issue-focused conflicts are rational negotiations that entail an amicable settlement that is fair to
all parties.
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Five ways to manage conflict
Strategies Attributes Applicability
Forcing Using formal authority, threats, and/or High issue importance, low relationship
intimidation. Breeds hostility and important, high relative power, med-
(Distributive) undermines confidence. high time constraints.
Accommodati Satisfying the other party’s interests Low issue importance, high
ng while neglecting your own. Win-lose. relationship importance, low relative
power, med-high time constraints.
(Distributive)
Avoiding Ignoring conflict = failure to resolve Low issue importance, low relationship
issues; festering ill feeling. Lose-lose. importance, equal relative power, med-
(Distributive) high time constraints.
Compromisin Reach quick agreement. Splitting the Med issue importance, med
g difference. Win-lose. relationship importance, equal relative
power, low time constraints.
(Distributive)
Negotiation strategy
a) Distributive bargaining is win-lose. In distributive bargaining you don’t want to give up too
much information, especially about your threat point or the worst offer that you’ll accept.
Involves splitting the pie.
b) Integrative bargaining is win-win based on sharing information. Involves expanding the
pie, to make both sides better off.
Behavioral Guidelines
1. Collect information on the sources of conflict.
2. Examine relevant situational considerations.
3. Take into consideration your personal preferences for using the conflict management
approaches.
4. Utilize the collaborative approach unless conditions dictate the use of an alternative
approach.
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