testing. Flat plate electrodes and axial magnetic field elec trodes were investigated.

As for the contact materials used in this investigation, three different contact materials used practically for many commercial vacuum circuit breakers were applied.namely Cu, Cu-W, and Ag-W. Effects of the main arc current (l0), the rate of decrease of current (di/dt), and the rate of increase of recovery voltage (dv/dt) were measured for each set of electrodes. Regardless of the types of electrode, the peak value of post arc current (lp) increased slowly with an increase of l0, but began to show a sharp increase when the main arc current reached certain values. These current values were 18 kA rms for the Cu flat plate electrode, and 26 kA rms (Cu), 16 kA rms (Cu-W), and 12 kA rms (Ag-W) for the axial magnetic field electrodes. It is considered that these phenomena are caused by arc concentration and anode spot formation. This result shows that applying a magnetic field parallel to the arc columns prevents easy formation of anode spots, and the magnitude of l0 at which the first anode spot is formed is in the order of Cu > Cu-W > Ag-W. lp increased with an increase of dv/dt for all types of electrodes, while the total charge of post arc current (Qp) also increased. No difference of tendency was observed between dv/dt and lp and between dv/dt and Qp regardless of the types of electrodes (flat type electrode or axial magnetic field one). But the difference in material caused a large difference in lp and Qp values, which took the order of Cu > Cu-W > Ag-W. With increasing di/dt, lp increased for all electrodes, and Qp also increased. As an effect of dv/dt, the types of electrode had little effect on lp and Qp, although the effect of the

plasma density. Interruption failures were occasionally observed at 22 kA rms or higher for the Cu flat-plate electrode, and at 32 kA rms or higher (Cu-W) and 21 kA rms or higher (Ag-W) for the axial magnetic field electrodes. No interruption failure was ob served with the Cu axial magnetic field electrode. Interruption failures were classified into two types: "thermal breakdown" (occurring as a result of rapidly increasing post arc current) and "dielectric breakdown" (occurring due to reduced dielec tric strength following interruption of arc current). Thermal breakdown was observed for the Cu electrodes, while dielectric breakdown was predominant for the Cu-W and the Ag-W electrodes. Post arc currents flowing after interruption of arc currents were measured, especially in the high arc current region. The result revealed new, useful information regarding the post arc current characteristics that so far have been veiled.particu larly, the effects of electrode types and materials. These results are considered to be useful in the design of
electrodes and the selection of electrode materials.

electrode material was significant. With increasing l0, shield (ls) increased for all electrodes, and the difference in material caused a large change in ls values, which took the order of Cu > Cu-W > Ag-W. The reason is that the total charge of ions dissipated from cathode spots varies, depend ing upon electrode materials. The measured waveforms agreed well with the calculated waveforms at high dv/dt; however, the measured waveforms were smaller than the calculated waveforms at low dv/dt. It is considered that the difference resulted from the decay of
current

Transformers
frequency, the dynamic amplification has the following value: 1/2iy, if Tj damping ratio. To define the dynamic amplification in the situation of a seism characterized by a vibration with irregular and aleatory mode, we have to resort to the spectrum notion. These Seismic Behavior of spectra are diagrams showing the reaction of several oscilla tors to a well-known seism in accordance to the frequency Current Transformers and damping ratio of these oscillators. Nevertheless, there is an important difference between the F. Moors model of this theory and the real transformer which simple Eng. at Balteau S.A., Beyne-Heusay, Belgium represents a quite complicated assembly, fitted with damping devices and located on a supporting column. The main design stresses in the problem is to succeed in keeping the internal Seisms happen in a lot of countries where the production various materials within reasonable limits. We can get this and distribution of electric energy is permanently increasing. result by using adequate dampers, by choosing a favorable These seisms are characterized by their intensity and magni own frequency and by correctly dimensioning the insulator tude. We have quite a lot of recordings of ground move and the several metallic parts. There are two types of ments. In order to study a CT (Current transformer) in seismic construction: the classical assembly with the active part, conditions, we can consider it, in a first step, as a simple cores and windings, located in a housing in the lower part of oscillator including one mass, one spring, and one damping the (Fig. 1), and the inverted type, with the active device. The study of its behavior in free oscillation state part assembly at the top (Fig. 2). The advantage of this type is to allow shows that its frequency "f", in the case of low damping, a linear and very short primary circuit characterized by a low has the value of: rate and a regular magnetic flux distribution. The heating inverted type CTs have a higher CG than the classical ones, but this difference decreases if we consider that the CTs are located on a column of several meters high. Fig. 3 shows the 2* im characteristics regarding this matter and the respective if we call the stiffness of the spring "k" and the mass "m". heights of the CG with respect to the ground for both types. The values of "k" and "f" are relatively low for the inverted A damper giving a lot of advantages regarding this matter type CTs as the stiffness is inversely proportional to the exists and is called: metallic rings damper made out of a steel centre of gravity (CG) height and these inverted CTs have a rings pile. The friction forces acting between the rings absorb high located CG since their active part is mounted at the top. energy. We further study the TKX 765 PT which is a 800 kV During a seism the CT is not in free oscillation state but in CT inverted type, built for Venezuela. It is fitted with the hereforced oscillation state because it is excited by the displace above mentioned dampers and we can show that its rather ment of its base. Since it has a low frequency, it belongs to high located CG does not penalize it. Thereafter follows a the flexible equipments family, so its CG reproduces the long description of a test-program, able to check the different ground movements with an amplification factor which is CT performances under artificial seismic conditions. The called: the dynamic amplification. In the situation of reso conclusion is that the inverted type CT is well adapted to the nance, if the given frequency is equal to the own CT requirements of the seismic environment. IEEE Power Engineering Review, January 1985 43

January 1985, pp. 174-180

84 T&D 400-8

Voltage

Very High

84 T&D 390-1

January 1985, pp. 181-193

B^H2
UPPER INSULATOR

Distribution Transformer No-Load Losses

Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Jefferson City, MO R. L. Boggavarapu, Member, IEEE Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA
Background The subject of losses in electrical machines, particularly losses associated with electrical steels used in these ma chines, has gained in importance in the last several years because of dramatic increases in the cost of producing
D. S. Takach, Senior Member, IEEE

LOWER V, INSULATOR

SECONDARY TERMINALS

FTTT
Fig.
1.

3
Fig. 2.

DAMPERS

electrical power. Losses in electrical steels found in trans formers alone have been estimated to be over 41 x 109 kwhr year. The evaluated cost of transformer no-load loss can, per in some cases, exceed the first cost of the transformer. Thus, the subjects of transformer no-load losses, the factors that influence them and their measurement assume greater impor

Transformer no-load losses are sensitive to a number of factors in its operating environment. Two factors that are of particular importance, and addressed in this paper, are waveform distortion and operating temperature. Any distor tion in the exciting voltage will alter the measured no-load losses from those under sinusoidal conditions. Higher core temperature could reflect in lower measured no-load losses. Transformer test facilities, in general, will have power supplies and metering equipment with different impedances which produce different amounts of distortion in the excita tion voltage. Also, the transformer manufacturing sequence can leave the cores at different temperatures during the test for no-load losses. Hence, the measured no-load losses could be different for different distortions of the voltage and at different temperatures. For comparison and evaluation pur poses, it is advantageous to be able to convert these losses to standard reference conditions of sinusoidal excitation and reference temperature. It is the object of this paper to develop methods for achieving such conversion.

tance.

Summary
The no-load losses measured during the test are assumed to consist essentially of core losses, i.e., hysteresis and eddy current losses. Eddy current losses deduced from experi ments are generally higher than those calculated from the classical theory. The difference between these two quantities

Fig. 3.

2 CTs side by side with comparison of the the centres of gravity.

heights

44

is called the "anomalous" loss. A brief review of these losses is given, although in most of the analyses the no-load losses are assumed to consist of hysteresis and eddy current losses. The calculation of losses in magnetic materials for distorted flux waveforms is rather complex. Several attempts have been made in recent years to convert the losses measured under non-sinusoidal excitation conditions to a common base of losses under sinusoidal excitation conditions. A brief of review of the work done by previous investigators and the correction methods they proposed are given. The effect of temperature on no-load losses is illustrated through two sets of experiments. In the first set, hysteresis loss and total loss on Epstein samples of 12 mil RGO and HGO steels were obtained as a function of temperature in the range of 20C to 200C. The results showed that hysteresis loss is constant with temperature, and eddy current loss decreased with increasing temperature. In the other set, no-load losses of a number of distribution transformers, ranging in size from 10 through 50 KVA, were measured in the temperature range of 20C to 100C. The results showed that the losses decreased with increasing temperature. Results for both sets of experiments are illustrated in Fig. 1. .IEEE Power Engineering Review, January 1985