Mona Kiani Samimi Research Methods Dr.

Jeffries Winter 2014 Emotional Intelligence: Annotated Bibliography This annotated bibliography contains ten peer-reviewed and trustworthy articles regarding emotional intelligence. Eight of them are articles about empirical studies, seven of which use quantitative research methods, and one of which uses a qualitative research method. Two of the articles cited below are of a theoretical nature. The articles address common themes within the field of emotional intelligence including describing what it is, how it affects academics and career success, how it affects leaders, and how it can be improved through various educational programs. References Dacre Pool, L., & Qualter, P. (2012). Improving emotional intelligence and emotional selfefficacy through a teaching intervention for university students. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(3), 306-312. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2012.01.010 This study helps further my research because it outlines key factors in developing an EI intervention class. It gives examples of valid and trustworthy tests that can be used and theoretical frameworks such as "The Four Branch Model of ability EI." The authors are corresponding authors at the School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire. This article adds to the definition of ability EI: "a type of cognitive ability involving the ability to perceive, use, understand and manage emotion" and trait EI: "personality traits related to dealing with emotions" (p. 306). The author discusses some recent developments in the field: "A further, more recent, addition to the literature is concerned with how confident people are in relation to their emotional abilities, termed emotional self-efficacy (ESE) (Kirk, Schutte, & Hine, 2008). There is evidence to suggest that adaptive emotional functioning predicts important workrelated outcomes may have an important role to play in relation to academic achievement and graduate employability" (p.306). We know that EI is important, so it behooves us to try to improve it. Past research has been inconclusive as to whether social and emotional learning can be taught through teaching interventions. This study aims to investigate if it is possible to "increase levels of ability EI and emotional self-efficacy through a theoretically based teaching intervention" (p.306). The authors discuss the Four Branch Model of ability EI and its ability to predict health and wellbeing, academic achievement, and success in the workplace. Emotional Self-Efficacy (ESE) is one's beliefs in "one's emotional functioning capabilities" (p.307). This is important in dealing with negative emotional experiences and not getting overwhelmed. Both AEI and TEI are important for success at work. When designing EI teaching interventions, 4 levels must be included: "1) knowledge of emotions and strategies to deal with emotional situations, 2) actual abilities in relation to emotional functioning, 3) personality traits in dealing with emotions...and 4) self-efficacy in relation to emotional functioning" (p.307). An EI course must be based on a "clear theoretically

sound model of EI" (p.307). "At present, very few EI training programmes have been systematically designed, implemented and evaluated" and that have a "solid theoretical underpinning (p.307). One-day workshops are good but won't have a lasting effect. Several weeks are necessary with time to reflect in between each class. Nelis et al. (2009) designed an EI intervention that had 4 classes of 2.5 hours each, weekly, and based on the Mayer and Salovey Four Branch Model (p.307). It included short lectures, role plays, group discussions, and readings and was designed for undergraduates (p.307). This study looked used Nelis et al.'s work and built on it. They had 134 participants from a university in England, 66 in the intervention group and 68 in the control group. They tested ability EI with MSCEIT and ESE with the Emotional Self Efficacy Scale. Cognitive ability was determined by GPA. The class called "Emotional Intelligence" was taught by the first author, 11 classes total taught weekly, 2 hours each and designed around the Mayer and Salovey Four Branch Model of EI. They took the diagnostic tests (which were repeated at the end of the class), had journal entries to reflect, and the class included "mini-lectures, video clips, case studies, group tasks and discussions, role play and field trips" (p.308). The study included a quasiexperimental design with eight mixed design group (intervention vs. control) x time (time 1 vs. time 2) and t-tests were conducted between the intervention and control groups (who were not in the class) at the inception of the study and again at the end of the study. The results show that in every category, the intervention group improved significantly (ie. understanding, identifying, and managing their own emotions and those of others), whereas the control group remained relatively unchanged. The areas of perceiving and using emotion showed no significant improvements. The authors suggest further study of this through Ekman's Micro-Expression Training Tool or METT. The authors discuss some limitations of the study and future directions, including that the study may have attracted people who are more open to improving their EI since they voluntarily signed up for the class. The study gathered data from a single source (the participants). Future studies should look at the influence of the teacher on EI and ESE development (this study only looked at one teacher's effect). Davis, S.K., & Humphrey, N. (2012). Emotional intelligence as a moderator of stressormental health relations in adolescence: Evidence for specificity. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(1), 100-105. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2011.09.006 This article will be useful in my study as it addresses various social justice topics such as how EI influences resilience to life stressors including family dysfunction, socio-economic adversity, depression, and negative life events. Additionally it outlines two valid and reliable tests used to test trait emotional intelligence and ability emotional intelligence. It is also useful to know how they tested for mental health, family dysfunction, negative life events, and socioeconomic adversity. The authors are both professors at the School of Education at the University of Manchester in the UK. This study includes a sample of 405 adolescents (mean 13.09 years) from the UK and "explored whether EI moderated the relationship between a range of stressors (family dysfunction; negative life events; and socio-economic adversity) and self-reported mental health (depression and disruptive behaviour symptomatology)" (p.100). Some findings of the study

include: depression and disruptive behavior are positively associated with socio-economic adversity, negative life events, and family dysfunction. "Individual differences in emotionally intelligent competencies could underpin variation in the experience of stressors (e.g., emotional perception or management may impact initial reactivity) such that low levels of EI confer vulnerability, whilst high levels function as a protective resource (Zeidner et al., 2009)" (p.101). There is a "pressing need to better understand 'resilience' processes and overwhelming eviddence implicating a wide array of chronic (e.g., poverty) and acute environmental stressors (e.g., negative life events) in the onset and maintenance of psychopathology (Grant, Compas, Thurm, McMahon, & Gipson, 2004)" (p.101). The current literature is inconclusive: TEI helps when faced with acute stress but studies are inclusive about the role of TEI in chronic stress. There are gaps in the study, especially when considering how AEI moderates stressors. This study attempts to address some of these gaps by "examining the moderating the effect of TEI and AEI on a range of pertinent chronic stressors (socioeconomic adversity, family dysfunction, negative life events) in relation to both internalising and externalising symptomatology in youth" (p.101). The study tested the youth's trait emotional intelligence with a questionnaire (TEIQueASF) where they had to rate 30 statements from strongly agree to strongly disagree about sociability, emotionality, self-control, and well-being. "The TEIQue has demonstrated good levels of reliability and validity (Petrides, 2009)"(p.101). For ability emotional intelligence, the authors used the MSCEIT-YV R Emotional Intelligence Test-Youth Version. This has 101 items that look at skills in experiential and strategic emotional information processing. This uses a variety of faces and emotion must be matched to the face. The authors gave 4 other tests/surveys to evaluate the following: mental health, family dysfunction, negative life events, and socioeconomic adversity. After various tests, the regression statistics provides the following findings: 1) depression and disruptive behavior were positively associated with family dysfunction, negative life experiences, and socio-economic adversity; 2) Emotional intelligence was inversely associated (negative correlation) with depression and disruptive behavior; 3) AEI and TEI were only weakly related; 4) females had higher levels of AEI than males; 5) females reported significantly higher levels of depression than males while the reverse was true for disruptive behaviors (p.102). The study also accounts for variables such as gender and age. The data plots illustrate how having higher TEI can help lower disruptive behavior regardless of family dysfunction. Another data plot shows that high AEI helps reduce depression when there is low socioeconomic adversity but does not help reduce depression when one has high socio-economic adversity. Some key concluding remarks include: "...that ability to perceive emotion in others was poorer in adults with higher socio-economic status. It has been suggested that within a risk context, chronically under-resourced with increased likelihood of exposure to uncontrollable stressors, individuals are more likely to be externally vs. internally focused to maximise the detection of salient information from their environment (Kraus et al., 2010)" (p.104). "Here, being emotionally unintelligent (i.e. less acutely aware of emotional cues, less knowledgeable of emotional consequences) appears advantageous" (p.104). The authors suggest that programs that teach emotional intelligences could be valuable "to the reduction of internalising disorder-particularly it would seem for oft-neglected, affluent youth, who have been found to be at risk for increased depression, anxiety and substance abuse (Luthar & Latendresse, 2005)" (p.104).

Goleman, D. (1998). What makes a leader? Inside the mind of a leader. Best of Harvard Business Review, 82(1), 82-91. This article is useful to my study because it addresses the theoretical foundation of emotional intelligence. The author is the thought-leader of emotional intelligence and although his work is beyond 5 years old, it is a perennial subject. Dr. Goleman is an accomplished author, psychiatrist, and science journalist. Goleman was the first to talk about emotional intelligence and leadership. Emotional intelligence directly affects business results. Goleman notes that IQ and technical skills areentry-level requirements for executive positions (p.82). A great leader cannot do without emotional intelligence. Goleman did research in business to evaluate what kind of intelligences were crucial for a leader and found that between IQ, technical skills, and emotional intelligence, that emotional intelligence proved to be twice as important as the others for jobs at all levels. Even more striking, he found that the higher level or rank the job was, the less technical skills mattered and the more emotional intelligence was critical to have. In the study, emotional intelligence was determined to be the reason for a persons effectiveness in their position. Thus, there is a direct link between emotional intelligence and a companys success. Emotional intelligence (EI) is a result of nature and nurture. Research shows that EI can be learned and that it increases with age. Technical and analytical ability comes from the neocortex of the brain while emotional intelligence comes from the brains limbic system, which governs feelings, impulses, and drives (p.86). The limbic system learns best through motivation, extended practice, and feedback (p.86). Most training that is out there for EI targets the neocortex and that is why it is largely unsuccessful (and can even have a negative impact). However, with enthusiasm, dedication, and patience, training targeting the limbic system to break old behavioral habits and replace them with new ones can be successful in improving EI. Goleman discusses the five components of emotional intelligence at work and provides a definition and hallmarks of each. They are: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. Goleman unpacks each component with detail. For example, the first component of emotional intelligence is self-awareness. People who are self-aware are honest with themselves and others, confident in their strengths and weaknesses, play to their strengths, have clear values and goals, are realistic with themselves, and know when to ask for help.

Nelis, D., Quoidbach, J., Mikolajczak, M., & Hansenne M. (2009). Increasing emotional intelligence: (How) is it possible? Personality and Individual Differences, 47(1), 36-41. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.046 This article is useful for my research because it outlines some of the key factors for a successful intervention program to improve emotional intelligence. They discuss some of the flaws in past research and training programs and give an outline of the training sessions they provided as part of their study. This article was published in a peer-reviewed journal. The authors use a controlled experimental design to investigate whether emotional intelligence can be improved through empirically-derived EI training. The article starts off by identifying the differences between ability EI and trait EI and how they are tested. AEI is

assessed with intelligence-like tests and captures maximal performance while TEI is assessed using personality-like questionnaires and aims to capture typical performance (p.36). The authors discuss empirical studies that have shown evidence that EI has a positive affect on "life quality, academic/occupational success, resistance to stress, health and the quality of social/marital relationships" (p.36). "Individuals with higher levels of trait EI get higher test scores and grades (Jaeger, 2003) and were less likely to have been excluded from school" and "ability and trait EI has been found to be associated with job performance and occupational success, especially for jobs involving high levels of interpersonal contacts, such as service workers (sales persons, nurses, call operators, ...)" (p.36). The issues with current IE interventions/trainings are: 1) they lack a theoretical foundation, 2) they usually only target part of EI and add in other unrelated elements, 3) the evaluations of the programs are too immediate and usually a subjective impression, and 4) control groups are usually not included (p.37). The goals of this study is to "investigate whether EI can be improved among young adults...using a controlled design, looking at the impact of theoretically based training on the different components of EI. A second goal of the study is to determine whether the benefits of the training depend or not on the initial level of EI" (p.37). The sample had 37 participants (19 in the intervention group and 18 in the matched control group) with a rough average age of 21 years old. The study measured various aspects of EI of the training group using a variety of tools: "Global Trait Emotional Intelligence was assessed using the French version of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)...Emotion Regulation (own emotions) was assessed through the Emotion Regulation Profile Questionnaire (ERP-Q)...Regulation of others emotions was assessed with the Emotional Management Abilities test (EMA)...Emotion identification was measured through the Dimensions of Openness to Emotional experiences -trait version (DOE)...and Emotional understanding was evaluated by means of the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU)" (p.37-38). These tests were given prior to session 1, at the end of the training, and 6 months after the training (to see long term affects). The intervention included 4 sessions (1 weekly) that were 2.5 hours each. The design of the training was based on the four-branch model (Elias et al.) and had a component where students would reflect each week in a personal diary on what they were learning and connecting the learning to their life. The sessions included a variety of lectures, role-plays, group discussions, readings, and techniques to enhance skills (p. 38). The control group had the same tests but did not have the training. This quantitative study included independent t-tests that showed no baseline differences between the training and control group and included a mixed model group (training vs. control) x time (time 1, time 2, time 3)" (p. 38). "Apart from emotion understanding which remained unchanged, the training led to a significant improvement in emotion identification and emotion management (self and others emotions)" (p.40). Also, the magnitude of changes are unrelated to the level of EI before training. This study has theoretical and practical implications. "At the theoretical level, our results suggest that traits that have shown to be relatively stable over time can be modified through intensive training" (p.40). However, the authors note that to have more sustainable results, the training must happen over a longer period of time with plenty of time for reflection between sessions. This could be done with follow-up sessions. The practical implications are that the level

of one's emotional competence may determine one's outcomes in many other arenas (health, social, performance, etc.). Finally, although the authors purport the importance of emotional intelligence, they mention some studies that show how higher emotional intelligence can cause greater sensitivity in a way that may have negative effects on the individual. This study had a small sample size with mostly female from the same field (psychology) so it limits the generalizability of the results. They suggest furthering this work by replicating the study with a more heterogeneous sample and larger group. The authors include the outline of their EI training sessions in the appendix.

Qualter, P., Gardner, K. J., Pope, D. J., Hutchinson, J. M., & Whiteley, H. E. (2012). Ability emotional intelligence, trait emotional intelligence, and academic success in British secondary schools: A 5 year longitudinal study. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(1), 8391. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.11.007 This article is relevant to my topic because it unpacks emotional intelligence and outlines the differences between ability and trait emotional intelligences. It gives an example of how a study of those two areas can be evaluated and provides results from a longitudinal empirical study. This article also uses the ability EI theory which exposes me to a new framework in which I can research my topic. Finally, this work highlights the variables of cognitive ability (IQ) and personality. The authors are professors at the School of Psychology at the University of Central Lancashire and Department of Social and Psychological Sciences at Edge Hill University in Lancashire, UK. The study included 413 students from 3 high schools in England. They investigated the "associations between ability- and trait-emotional intelligence (EI) and academic achievement." "The aims of the current study were (1) to determine whether ability- and trait EI at transfer into secondary school are associated with academic performance five years later, and (2) to investigate whether trait and ability EI moderate the relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance." This 5 year longitudinal study tested their EI at age 11 and looked at their affects again at age 16. Ability EI is defined here as "the cognitive ability to perceive, use, understand and regulate emotion." Trait EI is defined as "a constellation of emotion-related selfperceptions at the lower levels of personality hierarchies." The framework used is "ability EI theory" which says that successful academic performance depends on high ability EI to "effectively manage one's emotions, be resilient, and adapt to crises" (p.84). Self-efficacy theory suggests that emotional self-efficacy (a part of trait EI) is also a predictor for academic success because you must view yourself as someone who can manage their emotions effectively to believe that you can respond to academic stressors in the future. The empirical studies statistically control for personality and academic intelligence. They show that "ability EI is important within the context of academic success" while trait EI has some studies that who evidence of a connection and other studies "report no significant association." However, someone with a low IQ who has positive emotional self-efficacy will have higher academic success than the student with a low IQ and negative emotional self-efficacy. Thus "trait EI moderates the relationship between IQ and academic performance."

Based on previous studies, the authors expect IQ to impact academic success the most. Personality (neuroticism, psychoticism, and extraversion) have also been a predictor for academic success. Gender is another variable that is considered. Girls typically perform better on school assessments than boys (given that IQ scores are similar). This may be due to EI and its impact on academics. "Females typically score comparatively higher on EI tests compared to boys and girls may be able to utilise these EI skills in a way that facilitates performance (ie. via stress management)" (p.84). In this study, they apply the same model but separately for boys and girls. In this quantitative study, students 413 students were given a self-assessment survey that rates their trait EI. The 60-item assessment looked at their interpersonal, intrapersonal, stress management, and adaptability skills by asking questions and asking them to rate them from 1 to 4. Another test was used to assess ability EI. This measured "how well children perform tasks and solve emotional problems" (p.85). It tests how well they are able to perceive, facilitate, understand, and manage emotions. They control for personality and cognitive ability with 2 other tests, "The Revised Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire" and the "Cognitive Ability Test" respectively. They scored each student as well based on their academic performance in year 11. A Structural Equation Model (SEM) was established to test the association between the relevant variables: ability EI (perceive, facilitate, understand, and manage emotion), trait EI (interpersonal, intrapersonal, stress management, and adaptability), cognitive ability (verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal reasoning abilities), and academic performance. The full SEM examined the "links between the latent variables of cognitive ability, ability EI and trait EI taken when the children were in year 7 and the academic performance (GCSE) latent variable in year 11" (p. 86). The results show that there are "significant associations between certain aspects of ability EI and cognitive ability for girls and boys. Ability EI and trait EI were also moderately correlated" (p. 86). Although the findings show that cognitive ability is by far "the biggest predictor of academic performance," the studies also show that ability EI plays a part for both girls and boys. Specifically, higher ability EI helps both boys and girls who have high cognitive abilities, but for those with low cognitive abilities, the findings show that ability EI only helps boys (and does not provide an advantage for girls). This gender difference shows that "boys are more likely to express confidence in skills they may not possess and to express overconfidence in skills they do possess (p.89).

Rivers, S. E., Brackett, M. A., Omori, M., Sickler, C., Bertoli, M. C., & Salovey, P. (2013). Emotion skills as a protective factor for risky behaviors among college students. Journal of College Student Development, 54(2), 172183. doi:10.1353/csd.2013.0012 This study is useful to me as it looks at how emotional intelligence and self-esteem contribute to risky behaviors in college. I may want to focus on a similar topic but for high school students. The authors are a combination of research scientists, research associates, provost, president-elect, and Professor of Psychology at Yale University. Dr. Omori, however, is a Professor at Ochanomizu University. The authors describe the risky behaviors that students engage in as they enter college/college-age. They suggest Arnett's Theory of Emerging Adulthood and the Fuzzy Trace

Theory as possible reasons for the increased rates of promiscuity, drug and alcohol abuse, drunk driving, and conflicts with others. They discuss how emotions and emotional intelligence plays a role in risky behavior based on empirical evidence. "For example, college students who fail to recognize and effectively regulate negative, aroused emotional states are more likely to take risks (Leith & Baumeister, 1996) and have weaker impulse control (Tice, Bratslavsky, & Baumeister, 2001). Individuals who cannot accurately recognize emotional cues also tend to be more hostile, increasing the likelihood that they will participate in risky behavior (Fishbein et al., 2006). Having the emotion skills to cope with threats to the ego, among other daily emotional triggers, may enable college students to choose healthier regulation strategies" (p.174-5). The article discusses self-esteem and their prediction that it is negatively correlated with risky-behaviors in early adulthood. "individuals with high self-esteem tend to underestimate the riskiness of their behaviors, resulting in decreased discretion (e.g., women with high self-esteem tend to believe that they will not suffer negative consequences from engaging in unprotected sex; Smith, Gerrard, & Gibbons, 1997)" (p.174). The study included 243 undergraduates in a intro to psychology course at a state university in the northeastern US. They completed a series of surveys during class for course credit. To assess EI, the researchers used the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso EI Test (MSCEIT). They tested self-esteem using the 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. They assessed risky behaviors using the College Student Life Space Scale (CSLSS). Then they conducted a factor analysis of CSLSS and a zero-order correlations among self-esteem, emotional intelligence, and risky behavior using structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques (p.176). The results supported their prediction: emotional intelligence is inversely related to risky behaviors and self-esteem is not significantly associated with any of the risky behaviors among college students. Thus, high emotional intelligence is a protective factor against risky behaviors. "A variety of maladaptive behaviors, such as substance use, unprotected sex, delinquency, and aggressive behaviors, tend to occur as a result of decisions made under less than optimal conditions, like emotional distress. However, students with high emotional intelligence may be better able to organize and reason about emotion- laden situations, which in turn should reduce their engagement in risk-taking (Mayer et al., 2008)" (p.179). Some suggestions for future research include: a) the role of EI in decision making about risk (especially during strong negative emotions); b) the mechanisms by which EI protect people from risky behaviors; c) the causal direction of the links between EI and risky behaviors (does risky behavior impair EI?) (p. 179).

Ruiz-Aranda, D., Salguero J. M., Cabello R., Palomera, R., & Fernandez-Berrocal, P. (2012). Can an emotional intelligence program improve adolescents psychosocial adjustment? Results from the intemo project. Social Behavior and Personality, 40(8), 1373-1380. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2012.40.8.1373 This article informs my study because it analyzes the effects of an emotional intelligence improvement program on adolescents. The authors of the article are from the Universities of Malaga and Cantabria in Spain who have been published in the International Journal of Social Behavior & Personality. The "main goal in this study was to analyze the effects on adolescents psychosocial adjustment of an educational EI program based on Mayer and Saloveys (1997) ability

theoretical model, and in which we used a quasi- experimental pretest-intervention-posttest design" (p.1374). Their sample included 147 high school students, 69 in the control group and 78 in the training group. They assessed the youth's psychosocial adjustment using the Spanish adaptation of the "Behavior Assessment System for Children and Adolescents (BASC)." This test assesses their negative attitude toward teachers, atypicality, self-esteem, sensation seeking, selfconfidence, social stress, depression, locus of control, interpersonal relationship, relationships with mother/father, sense of incapacity, and somatization. (p.1375). The intervention for the research was a training program called the INTEMO Project. For 1 hour each week for 10 weeks (over the course of 2 years), the program was implemented as part of their school schedule. The training had various phases including the "assessment phase," "training phase," and "evaluation phase." The program was based on Mayer and Salovey's four-branch model of EI. The results of the study showed that the INTEMO Project had positive effects on the students in terms of lowering their anxiety, social stress, depression, atypicality, somatization, and self esteem compared to the control group (p. 1378). The program did not have any effect, however, on self-confidence and relationships with parents (p.1378). The researchers recommend a follow-up study at least 6 months after intervention. They also recommend researching further "which processes and skills are involved in the training of emotional intelligence and which mechanisms can enhance the acquisition of these emotional skills at critical developmental stages, in order to promote emotional and social adjustment from early childhood" (p.1378).

Smollan, R., & Parry, K. (2011). Follower perceptions of the emotional intelligence of change leaders: A qualitative study. Leadership, 7(4), 435-462. doi: 10.1177/1742715011416890 This article is very useful to my area of study because it examines the role of emotional intelligence for leaders using a qualitative. Since teachers are leaders (and their students are their followers), I am interested in how students' perceptions of their teachers emotional intelligence influences the educational experience. One of the authors of this study, Dr. Smollan, is a Senior Lecturer in Management at the Auckland University of Technology, Acukland, New Zealand. He has published a number of journal articles and book chapters about organizational change and emotional intelligence. The other author, Ken W. Parry, is a Professor of Leadership Studies at Bond University in Queensland, Australia. He is published widely in refereed journals, practioner journals, and the popular press. This study's research question seeks to answer "how employees' perceptions of the EI of change leaders influence their own cognitive, affective and behavioral reactions to a change" (p.436). Qualitative research into EI is rare especially as it relates to leadership and organizational change, thus, this study aims to fill some gaps in the literature. "Emotions in organizational settings have traditionally been seen as illogical and disruptive (Domagalski, 1999)...and people have been discouraged from displaying them" (p. 436). However "the EI of the leader, as perceived by the follower, [is] a crucial element in the follower's engagement with or resistance to the change" (p. 436). The central theme of this paper is the "three-way relationships between EI, leadership, and organizational change" (p. 437). The literature review focuses on "Roles in organizational change," "EI-construct and controversy," "EI and leadership," "Leader EI and follower

emotional expression," "Leader EI and organizational change," and "A model of follower perceptions of change leader EI." The article discusses the three streams that conceptualize EI (as discussed in another article). It makes the distinction between ability and trait EI. The authors discuss the different tests available for testing the different types of emotional intelligence and the pros and cons of each. The authors note that "most peer-reviewed articles use the Mayer and Salovey (1997) ability model" (p.439). A key theme of this article is emotional intelligence and leadership. "According to George (2000: 1044), leadership is an emotion-laden process, both from a leader and a follower perspective and she emphasizes the need for a follower-centric approach to EI and leadership" (p.439). "They propose that leaders with high EI are able to control their emotions and convey to followers the sincerity of their intentions and that followers with high EI pick up on these cues" (p.439). Research shows that "a person who has the ability to control his or her own emotions is likely to be able to respond appropriately to the emotions of others. Joseph and Newman's (2010) 'cascading model' indicates that before emotional regulation takes place, emotional perception, then emotional understanding, have to occur" (p. 441). This article provides a nice flow chart of EI and how it relates to leadership. Followers tend to follow the lead of expressing (or not expressing) emotion based on how open the leader is. "Perceived leader EI therefore in some way shapes followers' responses to change on cognitive, affective and behavioural levels" (p. 444). A qualitative method was used for the study because they were not so much concerned with whether change leaders were high in ability EI but rather with how followers perceive the EI of leaders and the impact this had on followers during processes of organizational change (p.445). The study includes 24 participants and the sample was heterogeneous to maximize validity and credibility of the findings. Semi-structured interviews of 90 minutes were conducted. Participants selected one change experience and explained it. Questions were asked to surface the participants' emotional responses to the change that occurred. The key question was "whether their direct managers (and others more senior) had understood what they had thought and felt" (p.446). An appendix is provided with sample interview questions. The interviews were transcribed and a table was created to document the interviewees' views on the EI of their leaders. Their answers were categorized into positive, negative, or ambivalent. They analyzed the responses further to interpret whether the participants hid their own emotions from their leaders or felt free to show them. The responses were coded from A to Y (excluding I) and looked for common threads that ran through the interviews. The authors concluded from the responses that "when followers perceived that their leaders genuinely responded to their emotions, they invariably felt a degree of psychological support and tended to adopt more positive attitudes towards the change. Conversely, lack of acknowledgement of their emotions often led participants to feel a sense of anguish or alienation, and contributed to their decision to exit the organization" (p. 448). Based on their data, "leaders who failed to regulate their emotions were considered by their followers to have acted inappropriately. This produced negative consequences for the followers wellbeing and attitudes to the change" (p.448). The authors use Joseph and Newman's (2010) 'cascading model' to help explain that some EI abilities often work in combination. They also discuss resonance and the idea of showing authentic emotion as a leader. Finally, the authors can answer their research question which was "How do employees' perceptions of the EI of change leaders influence those

employees' own cognitive, affective, and behavioural reactions to the change? Followers reacted better to change when they perceived their leaders to be high in the abilities to demonstrate understanding of followers' emotional responses and to express and regulate their own emotions appropriately" (p. 453). A limitation of this study includes the fact that the followers' EI was not examined thoroughly. Further research could look at follower EI and perceived/tested EI and their relationship. Some implications for management include: organizations should choose leaders with high EI and organizations should enhance leader IE through appropriate training courses (p.455).

Snyder, F.J., Vuchinich, S., Acock, A., Washburn, I.J., & Flay, B.R. (2012). Improving elementary school quality through the use of a social-emotional and character development program: A matched-pair, cluster-randomized, controlled trial in Hawaii. Journal of School Health, 82(1), 11-20. This study is helpful for my research because it is a matched-pair, cluster-randomized controlled trial and looks at the effectiveness of a specific social-emotional and character development program in improving the overall quality of schools. The authors have the following reputability: Dr. Snyder is a postdoctoral fellow at Yale University School of Medicine; Dr. Vuchinich is an associate professor at the School of Social and Behavioral Health Sciences at Oregon State University; Dr. Acock is a professor at the same university and same division as Dr. Vuchinich; Dr. Washburn is a research associate at the Oregon Social Learning Center; and Dr. Flay is a professor at the same university and department as Drs. Vuchinich and Acock. The quality of a school can be defined by a healthy learning environment and satisfaction among individuals, including student support, open communication, and student support. However, many of the programs out there are too narrowly focused. "During more recent years, a movement has occurred toward more integrative, comprehensive programs that address cooccurring behaviors and involve families and communities, such as some social-emotional and character development (SECD) programs" (p.12). This study looks at one particular program called "Positive Action," that has been implemented in schools across the US and is a "comprehensive, school-wide social-emotional and character development program designed to improve academics, student behavior, and character" (p.12). Past empirical studies on Positive Action (PA) showed its positive effects on academic achievement, absenteeism, and disciplinary outcomes at schools. Evidence from various studies supported that PA supported SECD education and improved "multiple behavioral domains. However, to date, no study has examined the PA program's influence on overall school quality" (p.12). Thus, the study aimed to address this gap. This study was done in Hawai'i and was a matched-pair, cluster-randomized, controlled trial, conducted over 3 years with a 1 year follow-up. The trial included 20 public diversely populated elementary schools (10 matched-pairs), all with a recognized need for improvement (ie, low performing, under-privileged). The study had 10 intervention schools and 10 control schools. The trial was done over a series of years because anecdotal evidence suggests that several years were needed to see significant benefits of the implementation of the program. The article gives background and details of the PA program. The full program includes K-12 classroom curricula, school-wide climate development curricula, training for

teachers/staff/administrators/counselors, and a family/community involvement component. The lessons cover topics related to "self-concept, physical and intellectual actions, social/emotional actions for managing oneself responsibly, getting along with others, being honest with yourself and others, and continuous self-improvement" (p.13). Authors note that program must be implemented with great fidelity to have desired results. Data was measured using the 9 school quality survey indicators: 1) safety and wellbeing, 2) involvement of parents, students, and teachers, 3) satisfaction of parents, students, and teachers, 4) quality student support, 5) focused and sustained action, 6) responsiveness of the system, 7) standards-based learning, 8) professionalism and capacity of the system, and 9) coordinated team work. Each indicator had up to 12 questions with answers ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." "Random-intercept growth curve models were conducted with Stata v11 xtmixed to represent all observations and to model school differences"(p.14). The results show that in the 1-year post trial, the PA schools outperformed control schools. They had significantly higher SQC scores by the end of the study, with a relative improvement of 21.1%, 13.1%, and 16.2% by teacher reports, parent reports, and student reports, respectively. Limitations are discussed: 1) SQS data was collected at 1 year post trial and not immediately after the formal trial; 2) only 20 schools participated; 3) there were a limited number of observations for the growth curve models, etc. The authors suggest further research to examine social-emotional and character development programs and their effect on school quality. This empirical evidence suggests that "students, families, schools, and communities would benefit from increasing concentration on enhancing youths' social learning skills and character development. The programs should be long-lasting and comprehensive, involving all stakeholders including school leaders, teachers, students, families, and communities" (p.19). Finally, they urge districts and governments to create policies directed towards and allocate funding for "effective, research-based SECDrelated programs" (p.19).

Walter, F., Cole, M. S., Humphrey, R. H. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Sine qua non of leadership or folderol?: EBSCOhost. (n.d.). Retrieved February 17, 2014, from http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.csusm.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=58751d2 5-e103-42f8-bbc7-ef673fa7fcb8%40sessionmgr111&vid=2&hid=121 This study is useful to my area of study because it illuminates the effect emotional intelligence has on leadership. This summary of various studies compares and contrasts the findings of other scholarly work and critiques the widely accepted theories of emotional intelligence based on empirical findings. The tables in this article are particularly useful because it outlines the different methodologies and tests used and their results for both ability and trait emotional intelligence. The authors of this article have the following credibility: Dr. Walter is an assistant professor of management at the University of Groningen in The Netherlands; Dr. Cole is an assistant professor at the Neely School of Business at Texas Christian University; and Dr. Humphrey is a professor at Virginia Commonwealth University. This article examines the different perspectives on the role of emotional intelligence (EI) on leadership. It summarizes the different approaches in testing EI found in the literature and

recent empirical findings. The authors identify three streams of EI research. Stream 1 looks at ability EI: "A set of interrelated abilities for effectively dealing with one's own and others' emotions (i.e., perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions)" (p.46) using abilitybased EI tests that "capture individuals' performance in solving emotional problems" (p.46). Stream 2 looks at the same abilities of dealing with emotions but this time using "selfassessments or other reports of emotional abilities and emotionally intelligent behavior" (p.46). Stream 3 looks at trait EI: "an array of dispositions, competencies and perceptions related to the effective management of emotions (e.g. self-awareness, empathy, positive mood, decision making, etc.) using self assessments or other reports of EI related dispositions, competencies, behaviors, and perceptions" (p.46). The authors give examples of the actual measures researchers have made for each stream of research. The theory states that "EI can help leaders generate and maintain follower confidence, cooperation, and trust (George, 2000); guide teams through situations of ambiguity, confusion, and conflict (Humphrey, 2006); Pescosolido, 2002); and provide inspiration and a sense of meaning, identity, and commitment to followers (Prati, Douglas, Ferris, Ammeter, & Buckley, 2003)" (p. 47). The authors focus on three areas of leadership and how they are affected by emotional intelligence: leadership emergence ("the degree to which a person is perceived as a leader and exerts influence on others" (p.47)), behavior, and effectiveness and compare these empirically researched areas by comparing and contrasting their results. The summary of the studies linking EI and leadership emergence shows all positive connections between EI and leadership emergence. The studies associating EI and leadership behavior have mixed results: some support, some partially support, and some do not support the EI-behavior link. Finally, the studies between linking EI and leader effectiveness has been mostly positive with a few partially supporting and others not supporting the linkage. Overall the empirical research supports the theory that EI supports the role of leadership. The authors argue that for advancements in this field, a greater methodological rigor is necessary, incorporating relevant control variables and a greater emphasis on ability-based EI tests. They also argue that more complete theoretical models are necessary, focusing on "underrepresented leadership criteria, uncovering generative mechanisms and boundary conditions, and examining the relative importance of separate EI dimensions" (p.53). Finally, they propose that researchers study novel research areas such as "examining cultural impacts on the role of EI for leadership, incorporating recent insights from neuroscience, and EI and leadership ethics" (p.54). The authors give implications for leadership education, training and development urging that proper programs be employed to help improve individual's EI. However, a program must be employed based on the outcomes desired. "...we believe it is incumbent upon leadership program designers and teachers to justify their choice of EI approaches(and associated measures). An approach from stream 1, stream 2, or stream 3 will produce different foci and the approach must be evidence-based and justified based on the results desired.