LLE4161/4261 English literature (The literature of the Victorian Age)

C1-3 + 1 !ntro"uction# The Victorian Age $ ocietal an" literar% issues

C&'CE(T)AL *+A,E-&+. / C&'TE/T)AL! AT!&'#

01hen2 is 0Victorianis324

the "ou5le connotation of 0Victorianis32 cultural period social conduct governed by strict rules, formality, primness, welldefined gender roles, sexual prudery, penchant for conservatism / conventionality, desire too keep up appearances in public)

1. Key-words:
Future-shock Social restructuring The age of opposites / contradictions / conflicting impulses nformation explosion !ostalgia for the past

2. Victoria and the Victorians:

first use of the term " #$%#, &'reat (xhibition of the )orks of ndustry of *ll !ations+ ,first world fair, supported by -rince *lbert, husband to .ictoria) /ueen .ictoria as an iconic figure0 motherhood, family values, unifying force, sign of authority, image of imperial power, most powerful woman on earth /ueen .ictoria as an embodiment of contradictions ,stance on motherhood and the &women 1uestion+)

 The .ictorians as contradictory people0 energetic, confident, religiously devout, guided by a sense of duty and devotion to the public good ,2urton, Stanley, 3ivingston, F4 !ightingale) doubting, insecure, afraid of change .ictorians about themselves0

&we are living in an age of transition+ ,Sir 5enry 5olland, #$%$) &begin with an idea of the world in order not to be prevailed by the worlds multitudinousness+ ,6atthew *rnold, #$7$) &)e are of the time of chivalry444 )e are of the age of steam4+ ,)illiam 6akepeace Thackeray, #$89) & t is a privilege to live in this age of rapid and brilliant events4 What an error to consider it a utilitarian age4 t is one of infinite romance4+ ,2en:amin ;israeli, #$8#) & t was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of 3ight, it was the season of ;arkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to 5eaven, we were all going direct the other way444+ ,<harles ;ickens, A Tale of Two Cities, #$%=)

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6)AL! , - Collecti7e an" in"i7i"ual achie7e3ent - 6es8air - *aith in econo3% an" e38ire - Crisis of religion an" s8iritualit% - (rogress - )nease: cause" 5% fear of change - 6e7otion to 1or9: creati7e energ% - !nsecurit% regar"ing the 0utilit%2 of one;s actions - ocial an" 8olitical refor3 - )r5anisation - ocial tur3oil: 7erging on o8en 1arfare - lu3ification

- ()to8ian) +e7isionis3 - Technological an" scientific a"7ances - Co38ression of ti3e (rail1a%: 8hotogra8h%) - Too 3uch ti3e (6ar1in;s e7olutionis3) - )nha38ere" 8ro"uction - <ross 3aterialis3: fetishis3 T+A' !T!&'

3. The age of progress and inventions. What do we owe the Victorians?

?ailway Subway (lectric tram 2icycle @rganised excursion @cean crossing Street lighting -hotographic record 'ramophone 6ovies )ireless communication ,radio) Telegraph/Transatlantic cable -ostage stamp !ewsstand <hain stores )ashing and sewing machines <anned food Toothpaste Typewriter Slide-pro:ector Skin-cream ;iet-pill 2reakfast cereal Shampoo Slippers

4. The age of dou t and !uestioning

4.1 "theis# $ "gnosticis#:
4.1.1 %ti&itarianis#' &aisse( faire capita&is#' econo#ic and po&itica& &i era&is# Figures usually mentioned in discussions of the Atilitarian frame of mind0 *dam Smith, Thomas ?obert 6althus, ?obert ;avid ?icardo 6asterminds of the Atilitarian ethos0 B4 2entham, B4 S4 6ill A"a3 3ith " rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity ,Wealth of Nations, #CC8)0 & t is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest4 )e address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages4+ Tho3as ,althus " the dangers of population growth " wages fall as population growth leads to an increase in the cost of living ,&*n (ssay on the -rinciple of -opulation+, #C=$)0 &The power of population is so superior to the power of the earth to produce subsistence for man, that premature death must in some shape or other visit the human race4 The vices of mankind are active and able ministers of depopulation4 They are the precursors in the great army of destruction, and often finish the dreadful work themselves4+ +o5ert 6a7i" +icar"o " theory of profit0 &Profits depend on high or low wages, wages on the price of necessaries, and the price of necessaries chiefly on the price of food4+ =ere3% >entha3 " the principle of &utility+ ,#CC8, #C$=)0 &it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong+ =ohn tuart ,ill ,#$89)0 &The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the reatest !appiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness4 2y happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of painD by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure4
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4.1.2 )arwinis# #$%>, 5erbert Spencer coined the phrase &survival of the fittest+ #$%= ;arwinEs The "rigin of the #pecies was published0 species are in a continuous form of flux/change, tending towards perfection by eliminating the weak and unadapted elementsD all life is essentially a struggle to exist and to produce the greatest number of offspring ,struggle-abundance-adaptationsurvival) in the #$8FEs Thomas 5enry 5uxley coined the term &agnosticism+ ,'od can only be known by resorting to knowledge that goes beyond reason) social ;arwinism0 evolutionary forces dictated that only the strongest should survive in capitalist competition as in natural evolution ,ultimately, this was also invoked as a :ustification for 2ritainEs imperialist-colonialist claims and con1uests)

4.2 *eviva& of re&igious fervour +#ost pro#inent in ,ng&and since -uritan ti#es.
6ay be seen both as ,i) a tension between faith and science / politics / economy and as ,ii) a crisis within the church itself4 4.2.1 ,vange&ica&is# +/ow 0hurch. 3iteral meaning0 &of, or pertaining to the 'ospel+ Focus on the 2ible ,esp4 <hristEs sacrifice as atonement for our sins)D the 2ible was also the sole authority in terms of doctrine Faith alone, rather than good deeds or sacraments, can ensure salvation nsistence frugality and self-denial ?e:ection of entertainment as sinful and frivolous (mphasis on <hristian conscience to promote social activism and missionary works *nti-<atholicism 6any representative figures of .ictorian thought/arts began as (vangelicals ,and retained (vangelical elements, such as religious symbolism)0 ?obert 2rowning, Thomas 5ardy, Thomas <arlyle, 'erard 6anley 5opkins 4.2.2 Tractarianis# +1igh 0hurch$The 23ford 4ove#ent. lasted between #$99-7% main figures0 <ardinal Bohn 5enry !ewman, ;r4 (dward -usey, Bohn Geble nsistence on the authority of the church Sought to revitaliHe the power of the <hurch of (ngland *ntirational, romantic spirit
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 *n apprehension of sensuous beauty and mysticism reminiscent of the times before ?eformation ,'othic revival architecture, resplendent vestments of the clergy, exacerbation of church ritual) 4.2.3 The 5road 0hurch +/i era& "ng&icanis#. not an organised, homogeneous group the precursor of liberal >Fth century -rotestantism influenced by 'erman liberal thought emphasis on the ;ivine inspiration for the 2ible but also on the fact that it should not be read and interpreted literally, but rather symbolically, metaphorically or even mythically

6. The age of refor#

*irst +efor3 >ill #$9> Chartist ,o7e3ent #$9$-7$ gave representation to new industrial towns ,6anchester, 2irmingham), thereby enlarging the electorate by %FI ,propertied middle-class victory) loose alliance of artisans and factory workers, calling for sweeping reforms0 universal male suffrage secret ballot e1ual electoral districts annual elections petitions signed by one to five million people movement collapsed in #$7$ intended to re:ect the protectionist measures propounded by the aristocracy, interested in keeping the price of indigenous grain ,corn) high by levying tariffs on foreign grain improved the availability of tea, sugar and beer safety inspections of machinery, prohibition of employment of children under nine, 7$hour limit on working-week for children under #> ,#$99) The Ten 5ours *ct ,#$7C) limited the daily working time of women and children in textile industries ensuing acts contributed to improving safety norms and working conditions in other industries doubled the electorate by including all male urban householders unionists were no longer perceived as anarchist murderersD unionist miners were the first working-class members of the -arliament in #$C7 #4% million trade union members by the #$=FEs the foundations of the modern 3abour -arty were laid
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+e8eal of the Corn La1s #$78 (u5lic ?ealth Acts #$7$, #$8= *actor% Acts #$99, #$7C

econ" +efor3 >ill #$8C Legalisation of tra"e unions #$C#

E"ucation Act #$CF The 01o3an @uestion2 ,arrie" -o3en;s (ro8ert% Acts #$CF, #$$>D

nationally funded state education was initiated in (ngland and )ales prior to the #$CFEs married women had no legal rightsD this was rooted in the belief that the ideal .ictorian woman should be an example of motherhood, femininity and fertility, whose purpose and duty was to selflessly serve others and to tame the husbandEs savage nature even with successful .ictorian figures ,the 2rontJs, 'eorge (liot, (liHabeth 'askell, Florence !ightingale), intellectual activities were regarded as aberrations making women unfitted for motherhood domesticity ,&the angel in the house+) was the ideal prescribed for the women of the time womenEs work opportunities were severely limited for much of the period0 scullery maids, governesses, housekeepers, servants though they formed about #/9 of the total number of workers, they usually received lower wages than their male counterparts the two said acts gave women the right to possess wages earned after marriage and any property owned before it #$7$ " the first womenEs college opened in 3ondon #$8=, #$C=, womenEs colleges in @xford, <ambridge ,without yet being granted the right to obtain degrees) increase in number of medical professions after the #$8FEs a new image of the .ictorian woman gradually emerged0 the leisured, smart, consumer, &liberated+ female incipient feminismD at the end of the century women were allowed for the first time to vote in local electionsD however, universal female suffrage was instituted only in the second decade of the >Fth century

E"ucation o88ortunities for 1o3en

7. The age of #ass cu&ture

To a great extent ,albeit unprogrammatically), literature and culture were themselves driven by Atilitarianist motives " to be seen in0

Serialisation ,novels, especially the early ones, were published in weekly/monthly installments)D illustrations were often integral to these publications

(ngagement of the artist / author with the public0 letters, debates, lectures, tours " both advantages and drawbacks -ublishing became an industry

Three-deckers ,books conceived in three volumesD this was fre1uently dictated by publishers / libraries)D ;ickensE The Pic$wic$ Papers was the first to successfully employ this form

@ther characteristics of culture in the .ictorian *ge0 ncrease of literacy rates " about =C I of both sexes were able to read and write by the end of the century4

'rowing appetite for cheap literature with the working-class readershipD the middle class represented the largest audience for prose and poetry <ulture as a commodity " beginnings of consumerism -redilection for fiction " the novel became the representative bourgeois genre0 it can adhere to truth and probability more closely than other genres it is a protean genre ,thus, better suited to an ever-changing society) for satisfying its concerns, it is reliant on certain pre-existing, well-established social structures, whose working mechanisms it tends to replicate ,interaction, conflict, tension, progression, etc4) continues ,rather than confronts) some older modes, yet being also open to experimentation ,(mily 2rontJD 'eorge (liotD Thomas 5ardy) there is no clear distinction between the romance ,allegorical / symbolic / partially fantastic or improbable fiction) and the novel ,empirical / realistic fiction mainly drawing on verisimilitude) " to be seen esp4 in the works of the first generation of .ictorian writers ,;ickens, Thackeray, the 2rontJs), which, there is, generally, a combination of romantic / mythical / allegorical / fantastic elements and realistic / satirical / moralistic elements ,another example of the typical .ictorian dualism) ;own-to-earth poetry and prosodic innovationsD soul-searching replaced the ?omantic emphasis on self-expression
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-ro#inent Victorian thin8ers

=ere3% >entha3 (1A4B $ 1B32)
philosopher, :urist, social reformer and founder of Atilitarianism ,see above) strong supporter of the abolition of slavery and the death penalty opponent of the idea of &natural law+ / &natural rights+ and staunch advocate of &individual rights+ his &principle of utility+ is founded on the basic distinction between two human guiding forces " pleasure and pain0
!ature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure4 t is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do4 "n the one hand the standard of right and wrong% on the other the chain of causes and effects% are fastened to their throne4 They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think, and the principle of utility recognises this sub:ection4 ,Principles of &orals and 'egislation% #C$=, emphasis added)

hence, the moralist and the legislator should labour towards advancing this truth and to oppose the principles adverse to utility ,asceticism, sympathy and antipathy) " <arlyle laboured towards setting up a Pannomion ,a body of legal principles to apply the Atilitarianist doctrine) the ob(ect of all laws is the total happiness of the community, therefore any form of punishment not guided by this is morally wrong ,in practical terms, this implies a distinction to be made between crimes and offences and a reform of the legal system) proponent of legal and social reform " e4g4, the )Panopticon* ,a modern prison building / system meant to reform morals, preserve the health of the inmates, diffuse instruction and invigorate industry)0
The building which was to work these wonders was to be circular, with cells on every story of the circumference4 n the centre there was a lodge for the inspector , who would be able to see all the prisoners without being himself seen, and who could give directions without being obliged to 1uit his post4 * contractor was to undertake the keep of the prisoners at a certain sum per head, reserving to himself all profits derived from their labour4 The manager was to be bound to insure the lives of all who were entrusted to himD that is, he was to be obliged to pay a sum for every one beyond a certain average lost to the prison by death or by escaping4 ,source0 The +ictorian Web, emphasis added)

ma:or works0

,ragment on overnment ,#CC8) -efence of Usury ,#C$C) Panopticon ,#C$C) .ntroduction to the Principles of &orals and 'egislation ,#C$=) Parliamentary /eform Catechism ,#$#C)
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Tho3as Carl%le (1ACD $ 1BB1)

philosopher, satirist, essayist, historian, teacher had strict <alvinist upbringingD the -rotestant principles of living and the <alvinist outlook followed him throughout his life, influencing his vision attended Aniversity of (dinburgh, then became a mathematics teacherD after a short time, he returned to the Aniversity of (dinburgh and between #$#=->#, suffered a crisis of faith and a subse1uent conversion ,which influenced his work #artor /esartus) his thought was mainly influenced by 'erman idealist philosophy ,B4'4 Fichte, in particular) became a principal critic of AtilitarianismD influenced the thinking and works of <h4 ;ickens and Bohn ?uskin ma:or works0 translation of 'oetheEs Wilhelm &eisters Apprenticeship #igns of the Times ,#$>=) #artor /esartus ,#$9#) The ,rench /evolution ,#$9C) "n !eroes% !ero-Worship and the !eroic in !istory ,#$7#) !istory of ,rederic .. of Prussia ,#$%$) #igns of the Times n a sermon-like essay, <arlyle warns of the unbearable condition of his society, i4e4 of how the industrial revolution has turned people into mechanical automatons devoid of spirituality and individuality0
)ere we re1uired to characterise this age of ours by any single epithet, we should be tempted to call it, not an 5eroical, ;evotional, -hilosophical, or 6oral *ge, but, above all others, the 6echanical *ge4 t is the *ge of 6achinery, in every outward and inward sense of that wordD the age which, with its whole undivided might, forwards, teaches and practises the great art of adapting means to ends4 !othing is now done directly, or by handD all is by rule and calculated contrivance4 ,97)

#artor /esartus 0The Tailor /etailored1 *n obli1ue attack against Atilitarianism and a story of spiritual conversion in the form of a partly fictional, partly factual analysis of the ideas propounded by ;iogenes TeufelsdrKckh, a 'erman &philosopher of clothes & " in actuality, a creation of <arlyleLs imagination4 The ,rench /evolution <ontains, in an incipient form, his views on the role of the &hero+ in society " that of counteracting the &spiritual+ ,the hopes and aspirations of people, ossified into ideologies, in truth, a source of dehumanisation)
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"n !eroes2 2y referring to a wide array of religious, literary, historical and political figures ,@din, <romwell, !apoleon, Shakespeare, ;ante, S4 Bohnson, ?ousseau, 6uhammad), <arlyle proposes a &hero-archy+ of exceptional, strong personalities who have acted in the course of history as shepherds of the flock4 5is &hero+ embodies everything virtuous in man and is seen as salvation in times of spiritual confusion ,as is the .ictorian *ge, in his opinion)4 (xamples of &heroes+0 the hero as god0 @din the hero as prophet0 6ahomet the hero as poet0 ;ante, Shakespeare the hero as priest0 3uther, Bohn Gnox the hero as man of letters0 Bohnson, ?ousseau, 2urns the hero as a king0 <romwell, !apoleon

<arlyleEs proposal is fundamentally ?omantic and anachronisticD it announces a series of extreme ideologies of the >Fth century ,FascismD <ommunism) ,rederic .. <arlyle saw in the figure of Frederick the 'reat the transition from liberal enlightenment to a more dynamic spirituality ,embodied in 'ermany)D through a very vivid, but essentially biased presentation of FrederickEs battles, he attempts at illustrating, once again, his philosophical ideas regarding the &hero+

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=ohn tuart ,ill (1BE6 $ 1BA3)

a scholar of classical schooling ,'reek, 3atin, mathematics, economics, philosophy), he is considered one of the greatest .ictorian liberal thinkers and a most important figure in the history of liberal / libertarian thought though initially brought up in the strictest Atilitarianist spirit, in his later years he became a idealist commentator and humaniser of it ,clarified many of 2enthamEs original ideas and tried to find a :ustification for them) became a sympathiser of socialist ideas ,supporter of labour-unions and farmcooperatives) an advocate of womenEs rights ,e1ualityD female suffrage) a staunch supporter of laisse3-faire policy and of individual freedom / individuality ma:or works0 A #ystem of 'ogic ,#$79) The Negro 4uestion ,#$%F) "n 'iberty ,#$%=) Utilitarianism ,#$89) The #ub(ection of Women ,#$8=) 6illEs contribution to shaping the modern idea of &liberty+ $ "n 'iberty0 close analysis of the degree of intervention of the state in the individualEs affairs ,the 1uestion of censorship of freedom) " limited control is acceptable as long as it means no harm in fact, the same applies to the individual too0 the individual is free to act as he wills, provided this does not impede upon the freedoms of others despotism is acceptable only in &backward+ societies, and only if it serves the greater good &harm+ includes both &omission+ and &commission+ ,ignorance / noninvolvement vs4 wilful disregard), e4g4, failure to rescue a drowning child or unwillingness to pay oneEs taxes ,both of which would lead to harming both the individual and the society) defence of free speech and exchange of ideas as prere1uisites for progress nevertheless, his ideas are guided by the -rinciple of Atility, not by a belief in natural rights 6illEs enhancing of 2enthamEs Atilitarianism $ Utilitarianism0 a clear argument is made for a 1ualitative separation of pleasures ,basic vs4 spiritual ones / lower vs4 higher forms of happiness), as seen in his reference to 2enthamEs example of the hopscotch
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 he admits that people who have benefited from higher education and who could thus better contribute to the spiritual emancipation of society ,thereby ensuring greater happiness to greater numbers) should be sub:ect to positive discrimination ,e4g4, university graduates should be granted extra voting power) 6illEs position on the &woman 1uestion+ " The #ub(ection of Women0 he may be regarded as one of the earliest representatives of feminism starting from a discussion of the current position of women in .ictorian society ,and especially in the .ictorian family), he argues for perfect e1uality in his view, the sub:ection of women is due to three factors0 education ,or lack thereof), marriage and gender construction 6ill proposes a comparison of female and male personality with their strong and weak points and their peculiar contributions to society the principles underpinning his views are &cooperation+ and &collaboration+ between the sexes emancipation of women meets the basic Atilitarian outlook, ensuring the greater welfare of the entire society

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,atthe1 Arnol" (1B22 $ 1BBB)

poet, literary and social critic and inspector of schools educated at @xford, where he attended Bohn 5enry !ewmanEs sermons, without actually being influenced by them in #$%# was appointed 5er 6a:estyEs nspector of Schools in #$%C elected -rofessor of -oetry at @xford together with *lfred, 3ord Tennyson and ?obert 2rowning, he is commonly regarded as the third great .ictorian poet representative works0 &The Scholar 'ipsy+ ,#$%9) &;over 2each+ ,#$8C) "n Translating !omer ,#$8#) Culture and Anarchy ,#$8=) 5ssays in Criticism ,#$8%, #$$$) *rnoldEs view on culture and society - Culture and Anarchy ,#$8=)0 his society is best divided into three groups0 &2arbarians+, &-hilistines+, &-opulace+ ,aristocracy, middle class, lower class) &philistinism+ is the main characteristic of the .ictorian middle-classes ,the only layer of society that could end the crisis)D it is defined as antiintellectualism, narrow-mindedness, provincialism, traditionalism, contempt for art, sensuality and beauty, gross materialism culture is the solution to a society in crisis, as it is0
the great help out of our present difficultiesD culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world

culture M &the study of perfection+ a pursuit of &sweetness and light+ ,a term first used by Swift) a distinction is made between two existential modes0 the !ellenistic one and the !ebraistic one ,defined by analogy with ancient 'reek, respectively, ?oman/5ebrew societies) within an action-reaction paradigm, *rnold calls for an e1uilibrium between the two modes ,cultivation of the spirit " preoccupation for material progress)

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