1.

Listening then and now1

In order that all men may be taught to speak the truth, it is necessary that all likewise should learn to hear it. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), British lexicographer

1.1 Early days In the earl !a s o" #nglish $anguage %eaching (#$%), listening chie"l ser&e! as a means o" intro!ucing ne' grammar through mo!el !ialogues( )ommentators ha&e sometimes implie! that it 'as not until the late 1970s an! the a!&ent o" communicati&e approaches that the s*ill 'as "irst taught in its o'n right( %his &ersion o" e&ents is not strictl true( In language schools in Britain, listening practice "eature! +uite regularl in course programmes "rom the late sixties on'ar!s, though the materials a&aila,le 'ere relati&el "e' an! on tape rather than cassette( -ne o" the "irst listening courses (.,,s, )oo* an! /n!er'oo!) came out in 1908, an! 1ar /n!er'oo!2s no'-classic authentic inter&ie's an! oral narrati&es !ate "rom 1971 an! 1970 (though, a!mitte!l , the 'ere ahea! o" their time in terms o" recor!e! content)( Still, it is so,ering to re"lect that it 'as onl "rom 1970 that a listening component "eature! in the )am,ri!ge 3irst )erti"icate exam, an! that until 1984 its listening texts consiste! o" passages o" 'ritten prose 'hich 'ere rea! alou! 4( %he lesson "ormat use! , man teachers in those earl !a s 'as a relati&el rigi! one 'hich re"lecte! the structuralist ortho!ox o" the time (see %a,le 1(1)( Some "eatures o" this earl lesson "ormat are 'orth noting( The three stages. %he lesson pro&i!e! "or a preliminar stage 'hen teachers prepare! learners "or the listening exercise an! "or a "inal stage !uring 'hich the listening experience 'as re&ie'e!( 5uring prelistening, teachers tra!itionall presente! the ne' items o" &oca,ular that learners 'ere a,out to encounter in the recor!ing( In post-listening, the chec*e! the ans'ers to comprehension +uestions an! explore! the language o" the recor!ing( Table 1.1 Early format for a listening lesson Pre-listening 6re-teach &oca,ular 2to ensure maximum un!erstan!ing2 Listening #xtensi&e listening "ollo'e! , general +uestions on context Intensi&e listening "ollo'e! , !etaile! comprehension +uestions Post -listening %each an ne' &oca,ular .nal se language (Why did the speaker use the Present Perfect here?)
1

In Jonh 3iel!7s istening in the anguage !lassroom, )am,ri!ge /ni&ersit 6ress (4008), pages 18-49)

Spols* (1990) i!enti"ies the "irst-e&er secon! language listening test as ,eing the Barnar!- :ale .ural test, !e&elope! , Broo*s in the earl 1990s(

6ause! pla ( Stu!ents listen an! repeat Listening at two levels. . proce!ure !e&elope! 'here, learners are "irst as*e! to listen to the recor!ing generall , in or!er to gain some i!ea as to 'ho the spea*ers are an! 'hat the are spea*ing a,out( %his phase o" extensi&e listening ser&es a similar purpose to s*imming a rea!ing text; it ensures some "amiliarit 'ith the content an! also allo's the listener to esta,lish the 2geograph 2 o" the recor!ing in the "orm o" 'hat in"ormation is pro&i!e! 'here( %he *in! o" +uestion that the teacher might as* at this stage is extremel general; Who are the people? What are they talking about? an! (one I personall "a&our) "ow are they feeling# angry? happy? disappointed? 5uring the secon! an! su,se+uent pla s, the listeners, no' "amiliar 'ith the general content o" the text, are a,le to listen "or !etail an! to respon! to more "ocuse! +uestions( %his central part o" the listening exercise 'as tra!itionall re"erre! to as intensi&e listening( Multiple-play. %he "ormat em,race! the notion that the listeners might ,ene"it "rom se&eral pla s o" the listening passage !uring intensi&e listening( %he thin*ing at the time ('ith its emphasis on "orm rather than meaning) 'as that repeate! listening ena,le! the teacher to "ocus , !egrees on the language o" the recor!ing an! ha,ituate! the learner to the rh thms an! intonation patterns o" the target language( %hese three characteristics ha&e pro&e! remar*a,l ro,ust an! continue to "eature in present-!a practice( %he o&erall "ormat o" 2pre-listening - listening - post-listening2 has "orme! the ,asis "or man accounts o" listening metho!olog (e(g( /n!er'oo!, 1989< =ilson, 4008), though there are serious +uestions to ,e a!!resse! a,out the relati&e timing an! importance accor!e! to each part, an! a,out 'hat constitutes appropriate 2preparation2 an! 2"ollo'-up2( %he continue! use o" an 2extensi&e listening2 phase might perhaps ,e +uestione! on the argument that, in real li"e, a listener !oes not ha&e the opportunit to listen t'ice( %hat ma ,e so, ,ut in real li"e a listener usuall has the a!&antage o" &isual cues 'hich esta,lish ,oth the context o" the con&ersation an! the respecti&e roles o" the participants( In a hotel chec*-in encounter, 'e 'oul! see a hotel "o er, a guest 'ith a suitcase stan!ing on one si!e o" a !es* an! a receptionist (possi,l in uni"orm) stan!ing on the other( -ur un!erstan!ing o" the con&ersation might also ,e consi!era,l assiste! , "acial expressions an! gesture( >one o" this is a&aila,le 'hen a learner is listening to an au!io recor!ing( ?ecognising the issue, listening teachers increasingl ma*e use o" &isual material on 5@5 or &i!eo( -ne coul! argue that, 'hen this *in! o" in"ormation is a&aila,le, the case "or an extensi&e listening phase is less con&incing( But 'e also ha&e to ,ear in min! that the situation o" sitting an! listening to a recor!ing in a classroom is a highl arti"icial one( .s Bro'n an! :ule (1988,; 84) point out, ea&es!ropping on some,o! else2s !ialogue rather than participating in it is not a con&entional listening acti&it ( It is all &er 'ell to aspire to real-li"e con!itions, ,ut a real-li"e con&ersation 'oul! pro&i!e the listener 'ith the possi,ilit o" interrupting the spea*er an! as*ing "or a clari"ication o" an thing that ha! not ,een un!erstoo!( -n these groun!s, most teachers continue to "a&our a "irst hearing 'hich ena,les learners to esta,lish a general i!ea o" 'hat is going on( In point o" "act, the extensi&e listening phase !oes much more than

compensate "or the limitations o" an au!io recor!ing( It also ser&es an important "unction "or the 'ea*er listeners in the class( %he ma ha&e un!erstoo! &er little the "irst time roun!, ,ut the ans'ers gi&en , their peers pro&i!e them 'ith a "e' pegs upon 'hich to hang i!eas 'hen the listen again( In!ee!, an rehearing o" the recor!e! material assists all mem,ers o" the class to exten! their un!erstan!ing o" it( . case can ,e ma!e not Aust "or *eeping the extensi&eBintensi&e tra!ition ,ut also "or emplo ing multiple repla s throughout the listening lesson( %he original thin*ing 'as that repla ing the recor!ing allo'e! attention to ,e gi&en to the "orms o" language, ,ut it is no' recognise! that repeate! listening ena,les the learner to ,uil! increasingl on the in"ormation that is extracte!( . "irst hearing o" a "oreign language passage ma pro!uce a partial un!erstan!ing, 'hich can ,e !eepene! onl , su,se+uent exposure an! , increasingl !eman!ing +uestions on the part o" the teacher( %he con&ention o" multiple-pla thus em,o!ies a principle 'hich shapes much text-,ase! 'or* in language teaching - the i!ea o" 2narro'ing in2 (see 3igure 1(1)( %he lesson starts 'ith general notions an! "ocuses on more !etail as the learner ,ecomes increasingl "amiliar 'ith the text( C#>#?.$ )->%#D%

3.)%/.$ 5#%.I$

$I>C/IS%I) .>.$:SIS

So much "or the "eatures o" this earl lesson "ormat that ha&e sur&i&e!( But a general criticism o" the "ormat is that it 'as in"lexi,le, an! that the se+uence o" acti&ities ,ecame highl pre!icta,le( -&er time, a num,er o" other aspects o" the approach 'ere also calle! into +uestion( It 'as not correct (an! smac*e! o" 2nann ing2) to assume that stu!ents coul! han!le a listening exercise onl i" the *ne' most or all o" the &oca,ular in it( Intensi&e listening too* place 'ithout an clear aim( Stu!ents 'ere not as*e! +uestions until a"ter the ha! hear! the passage, so the !i! not *no' 'hat the 'ere listening "or( %heir success in ans'ering !epen!e! on memor as much as on listening s*ill( %he con&ention o" !ra'ing attention to examples o" grammar 'as a relic o" the i!ea that the listening lesson shoul! ser&e to !emonstrate recentl taught language in e&er !a use( In the en!, lessons o"ten "ocuse! more on !iscussing the language o" the recor!ing than on practising listening ( 6ause! pla coul! lea! to 2parroting2( Its critics argue! that stu!ents coul! repeat a stretch o" soun! 'ithout necessaril un!erstan!ing 'hat it meant(

1.2 Current practice -&er the ears, the original mo!el has ,een mo!i"ie!( %he listening lesson that one encounters in goo! #$% practice to!a has a rather !i""erent structure, 'hich inclu!es some or most o" the elements sho'n in %a,le1(4( $et us consi!er the rationale ,ehin! the changes( %a,le 1(4 !urrent format for a listening lesson Pre-listening #sta,lish context )reate moti&ation "or listening 6re-teach onl critical &oca,ular Extensive listening Ceneral +uestions on context an! attitu!e o" spea*ers Intensive listening 6re-set +uestions Intensi&e listening )hec*ing ans'ers to +uestions Post listening optional! 3unctional language in listening passage $earners in"er the meaning o" un*no'n 'or!s "rom the sentences in 'hich the appear 3inal pla < learners loo* at transcript

1.2.1 Pre-listening Pre-teaching vocabulary. %here are a num,er o" reasons "or not pre-teaching all the un*no'n &oca,ular in a recording. It ta"es ti#e - ti#e which is #uch better spent listening. $ery i#portantly% it also leaves stu!ents unprepare! "or 'hat happens in a real-li"e listening encounter 'here, ine&ita,l , there 'ill ,e 'or!s 'hich the !o not *no' an! ha&e to 'or* out "or themsel&es( . thir! consi!eration is the e""ect upon the listening process( B pre-teaching all the ne' 'or!s in a recor!ing, regar!less o" their importance, the teacher encourages the learner to listen out "or those 'or!s( ?esult; the learner2s attention is "ocuse! upon the language o" the text rather than its meaning( It ma also ,e mis!irecte! to parts o" the recor!ing 'hich are not strictl rele&ant to the main argument( %he current polic is to pre-teach onl critical 'or!s( 2)ritical2 is ta*en to mean those 'or!s 'ithout 'hich the recor!ing coul! not ,e un!erstoo! ("or example, in a passage a,out Aogging, 'e 'oul! 'ant to ,e sure that learners *ne' the &er, to $og). In an gi&en listening text, there shoul! ,e &er "e' such critical items - at most, "our or "i&e( Establishing context. .s alrea! note!, it is important to compensate "or the limitations o" using an au!io

cassette , gi&ing stu!ents a general i!ea o" 'hat the are going to hear( In a real-li"e situation, the 'oul! usuall ,e a'are o" 'ho the spea*ers 'ere, 'here the 'ere an! so on( It is onl "air to pro&i!e some o" this in"ormation ,e"ore the listening exercise( Eo'e&er, the in"ormation !oes not nee! to ,e extensi&e( In "act, there is consi!era,le !anger in expoun!ing too much on the context o" the listening passage( %he more 'e tell the learners, the less the 'ill nee! to listen to the recor!ing to extract the ans'ers the nee!( %he criterion shoul! ,e; what would the listener already know in real life before the speech e%ent began? & Eere are t pical pieces o" contextualisation "rom the )am,ri!ge 3irst )erti"icate (3)#) exam; 'ou will hear part of a radio programme in which two women, (ary and Pat, will talk about their interest in being an amateur radio operator, or radio )ham). (6aper 108, 6art 8) , 'ou will hear a man talking about how he $ogs - runs - in order to keep fit. (6aper 108, 6art 4) %hese intro!uctions ser&e three !i""erent pre-listening purposes; a( %he esta,lish 2context2; inclu!ing the situation, the topic an! the genre o" the recor!ing( ,( %he intro!uce critical &oca,ular ( c( %he mention names 'hich help the listener to 2la,el2 the spea*ers( . teacher might also inclu!e other proper nouns (e(g( names o" cities) 'hich 'oul! not ,e regar!e! as 2"air game2, i(e( as part o" an learner2s normal &oca,ular ,ase( Creating motivation. %his is an important goal o" pre-listening, an! one that is sometimes neglecte!( =e nee! to gi&e listeners a purpose "or listening( %he, +ualit an! !epth o" listening is also enormousl enhance! 'hen the listener has the right mental set - in other 'or!s, 'hen she has gi&en some "orethought to 'hat the listening passage is li*el to contain( Eo' to create moti&ationF -ne 'a is to 'rite a title "or the listening passage on the ,oar!, an! then to as* the learners to pre!ict 'hat the 'ill hear (see panel ,elo')( -nce the ha&e create! a set o" expectations, the goal o" the extensi&e listening phase is to chec* 'hich o" their pre!ictions pro&e to ,e correct an! 'hich not( %he process can e&en ,e competiti&e (*nna thinks there will be something about noise pollution+ Enri,ue doesn)t agree. et)s see who is right.). >ote, , the 'a , that the interaction exempli"ie! in the panel !oes more than Aust create mental set( It also per"orms the pre-listening "unctions o" outlining context an! intro!ucing critical &oca,ular (

Creating #otivation &or listening %; :ou2re going to hear some,o! tal*ing a,out camels( Ee2s a Goologist 'ho2s stu!ie! them( =hat !o ou thin* he2ll tal* a,outF

Si; %; S4; %; S8; S4; %; Si; %; S4; %; S8; S9; %; %;

5esert(2 :es, he might mention !eserts -writes .E/E01 on board2. .n -thing elseF =ater( =ater on the camel2s ,ac*( Ee might mention 'hat the camel has on its ,ac*( Its hump( %he 'or! is 2hump2 -writes "3(P2. .n other i!easF Eot temperature( =al*ing( $ong !istance( Ee might tal* a,out the heat in the !esert -writes "E*12. Eo' !o 'e measure thatF 5egree( :es, in !egrees( .n thing elseF =al*ing( )amels 'al* a long !istance, carr people( :es, he might mention ho' "ar the camel 'al*s -writes .I/1*4!E2. -r (((F @er slo'l ( Eo' "ast is the camel( :es, ho' "ast the camel 'al*s -writes /PEE.2. -5ther possibilities e6plored2 =ell, some o" ou guesse! correctl an! some o" ou are 'rong( $et2s listen an! see 'ho 'as right(

. similar guessing acti&it ta*es a!&antage o" the lac* o" real-li"e context in an au!io recor!ing , pla ing a short uncontextualise! extract an! as*ing learners to 'or* out 'hat is happening( %his is !one to great e""ect , 1ale an! 5u"" (1978) 'ith passages such as the one ,elo'( )on"licting interpretations lea! to animate !iscussion in the classroom an! (most importantl ) to some &er care"ul listening an! relistening to Austi" the conclusions that ha&e ,een reache!( Contextual a#biguity .; :ou *no' 'hat this is, I2m sure ((( B; /m ((( ); -h, isn2t it, er ((( .; :es, I thought ou might li*e something "amiliar B; -h, es((( ( .; It2s "unn , it too* me a long time to get to li*e it ((( ); -hF .; But no' I2m &er "on! o" it ((( -" course, it2s nothing special ((( B; -h no, it2s ((( &er goo!( .; I thought ou2! li*e it ((( (1ale an! 5u"", 1978; 84)8 1.2.2 uring listening %he goals o" extensi&e listening remain unchange! - "or the reasons outline! a,o&e( Eo'e&er, the approach to intensi&e listening has ,een greatl restructure!( Pre-set !uestions. I" +uestions are not as*e! until a"ter the recor!ing has ,een hear!, learners listen in a
3

6ossi,le explanations; . has coo*e! a meal "or t'o &isitors "rom o&erseas( . has Aust pla e! a recor!ing o" a rather hea& piece o" classical music(

&er untargete! 'a ( %he are unclear a,out 'here to !irect their attention< an! their a,ilit to ans'er !epen!s upon 'hich parts o" the recor!ing the happen to ha&e pai! special hee! to( %heir responses also ,ecome hea&il !epen!ent upon memor - an! their recall ,ecomes unrelia,le as the teacher as*s more an! more +uestions an! as time goes , ( . polic o" setting +uestions before the secon! pla o" the cassette ensures that learners *no' in a!&ance 'hat the are listening "or( %he can 'rite notes o" their ans'ers !uring listening, an! their a,ilit to respon! 'ill not ,e !epen!ent upon their a,ilit to remem,er 'hat 'as sai!( >ote the con&ention in ,oth teaching an! testing (a con&ention that has rarel ,een +uestione!) 'here, the +uestions "ollo' the same or!er as the passage( Chec"ing answers. %he teacher allo's learners time to 'rite up their ans'ers, an! then chec*s them 'ith the class as a 'hole( %his is sometimes a !i""icult phase o" the listening lesson( $earners ma ,e slo' to respon! - partl ,ecause the nee! to s'itch ps chologicall "rom the recepti&e role o" listener to the acti&e one o" class participant ,ut o"ten ,ecause o" a lac* o" con"i!ence in their replies( Some learners attri,ute their insecurit to the "act that the !o not (as in rea!ing) ha&e the text ,e"ore them in or!er to !ou,le-chec* ,e"ore the commit themsel&es to an ans'er( -ne 'a o" o&ercoming reluctance is "or learners to compare ans'ers in pairs ,e"ore su,mitting them to the 'hole class( 1.2.# Post-listening $unctional language. %he practice o" repla ing a listening passage in or!er to rein"orce recentl taught grammar has ,een a,an!one!, along 'ith other structuralist notions( Eo'e&er, man o" the !ialogues 'hich "eature in pu,lishe! listening materials represent common t pes o" human interaction( %he there"ore a""or! use"ul an! 'ell-contextualise! examples o" language "unctions such as re"using, apologising, threatening, o""ering, etc( %hese "unctions are relati&el !i""icult to teach in isolation( It is 'orth'hile !ra'ing attention to an 'hich "eature prominentl in a listening passage, an! e&en pausing ,rie"l to practise them( 'rawing attention to &unctional language %; Si; %; S4; %; S8; %; S4; %; S4; %; SS; =hat !i! Ceorge sa a,out the !amageF Ee 'ante! to pa ( 5o ou remem,er the 'or!s Ceorge use!F I2ll pa the !amage(2 :es( 2I2ll pa "or the !amage(2 So 'hat 'as he !oingF Ee promise!( >ot +uite promising ((( Ee o""ere!( %hat2s right( Ee o""ere! to pa "or the !amage( Ee offered .(( -""er to carr m ,ag( -pause2 I2ll carr our ,ag( -""er to post the letter( I2ll post the letter( etc.

%n&erring vocabulary. I" onl minimal &oca,ular is pre-taught, listeners ha&e to learn to cope 'ith un*no'n 'or!s in the passage( Eere, the are gaining experience o" exactl the *in! o" process that occurs in a real-li"e encounter, 'here there is no teacher or !ictionar on han! to explain e&er 'or! in an utterance( It is usuall assume! (perhaps , analog 'ith $4 rea!ing) that the 'a in 'hich an $4listener !eals 'ith an un*no'n 'or! is to 'or* out its meaning "rom the context in 'hich it occurs( I" one accepts the assumption, it is appropriate to gi&e listeners some controlle! practice in the process o" in"erring 'or! meaning, similar to the practice gi&en to rea!ers( %he teacher i!enti"ies a num,er o" use"ul 'or!s in the recor!ing 'hich ma ,e ne' to the class an! 'hose meanings are relati&el clearl illustrate! , the context (one or t'o sentences) 'ithin 'hich the occur( %he teacher then 'rites the 'or!s on the ,oar!, an! repla s the sections o" the listening passage 'hich contain them( Stu!ents suggest possi,le meanings( %hat is the principle< m experience is that it o"ten !oes not "in! its 'a into practice( .lthough man teachers recognise the &alue o" this *in! o" in"erring acti&it , the are reluctant to engage in it( %he reason is simple; e&en 'ith2 a counter on the cassette or )5 pla er, it can ,e +uite complicate! an! timeconsuming to locate a num,er o" short pieces o" text( In "act, the solution is simple as 'ell( It is to prerecor! the target sentences on to a separate cassette or )5 so that the are easil retrie&e! "or the in"erring exercise( Pause' play. 6ause! pla has generall ,een !roppe!( It 'as o"ten use! as a 'a o" practising intonation patterns - an! 'as thus part o" the unsatis"actor mixing o" language an! listening goals 'hich has alrea! ,een commente! on( It 'as also criticise! on the groun!s that learners coul! repeat 'hat the hear! 'ithout necessaril un!erstan!ing an thing - the *in! o" parroting associate! 'ith ,eha&iourist !rilling( 1 personal ,elie" is that pause! pla can still ser&e some purpose, as a 'a o" chec*ing 'hether learners can !i&i!e up short sections o" connecte! speech into in!i&i!ual 'or!s( Eo'e&er, one has to recognise that it !oes not "it in 'ell 'ith current communicati&e approaches( $inal play. %here is sometimes a "inal pla !uring 'hich, "or the "irst time, the stu!ents are gi&en a transcript o" the listening passage( %his is a &alua,le acti&it , since it allo's learners, on an in!i&i!ual ,asis, to clari" sections o" the recor!ing 'hich the ha&e not so "ar succee!e! in !eco!ing( It ma also ena,le them to notice, "or example, the presence o" short 'ea*-+ualit "unction 'or!s 'hich the 'oul! other'ise ha&e o&erloo*e!( -ne o" the strengths o" earl approaches to listening 'as the insistence on separating the spo*en an! the 'ritten 'or!( Eo'e&er, there is no reason 'h the latter shoul! not ,e intro!uce! at a late stage in the lesson in the "orm o" a transcript that assists 'or! recognition( It is important that learners ta*e a'a 'ith them some *in! o" permanent recor! o" 'hat the ha&e co&ere! in the listening lesson - an! not Aust an echo in their hea!s o" the &oices o" the spea*ers( In a!!ition to the a,o&e, t'o other maAor !e&elopments ha&e occurre!( 3irstl , it has ,een recognise! that it is &er !i""icult to chec* un!erstan!ing accuratel through the use o" con&entional comprehension +uestions( .ns'ering such +uestions o"ten in&ol&es a great !eal o" rea!ing or 'riting< an! i" a learner

gi&es a 'rong ans'er, it ma not ,e !ue to a "ailure o" listening at all( It ma ,e ,ecause heBshe has not un!erstoo! the +uestion properl (a rea!ing pro,lem) or ,ecause heBshe lac*s the language to "ormulate a 'ritten ans'er (a 'riting pro,lem)( %here has there"ore ,een a mo&e to'ar!s chec*ing un!erstan!ing , setting tas*s rather than +uestions (see, e(g(, Blun!ell an! Sto*es, 1981)( %hese tas*s can ,e +uite simple( 1an in&ol&e the completion o" simple gri!s( -thers in&ol&e "illing in "orms( I" the listening passage is a !ialogue ,et'een 2a customer an! a tra&el agent, then the tas* might re+uire the learner to complete the *in! o" "orm that the agent 'oul! ,e using( %he a!&antage o" this *in! o" acti&it is not Aust that it re!uces the amount an! complexit o" rea!ing (an! in!ee! 'riting) that has to ,e !one( It also aligns the purposes an! processes o" listening more closel 'ith 'hat occurs in real-li"e encounters( %as*-,ase! acti&ities compare "a&oura,l 'ith the practice o" as*ing 'hole-class comprehension +uestions, 'here the strong listeners are o"ten *een to respon! 'hile the 'ea*er ones mas* their "ailure o" un!erstan!ing ,ehin! ,right smiles( .ll class mem,ers ha&e to participate, an! there is a tangi,le outcome in the "orm o" a complete! "orm or chec*list 'hich can ,e collecte! an! mar*e!( Secon!l , there has ,een a mo&e to'ar!s using authentic recor!ings 'here&er possi,le( %he term 2authentic2 usuall re"ers to listening items originall inten!e! "or the ears o" a nati&e listener rather than speciall prepare! "or language learners( %he arguments "or using such materials are that the expose learners to the real soun!s o" the language (inclu!ing the hesitations o" spontaneous speech) an! that the pro&i!e a listening experience more li*e that o" real li"e, 'here stu!ents !o not *no' e&er 'or! an! ha&e to ma*e guesses to "ill in gaps in un!erstan!ing( %o summarise, the changes that ha&e ta*en place re"lect three !e&elopments in the 'a listening is &ie'e!( 3irstl , there has ,een a shi"t in perspecti&e so that listening as a s*ill ta*es priorit o&er !etails o" language content( Secon!l , there has ,een a 'ish to relate the nature o" listening practise! in the classroom to the *in! o" listening that ta*es place in real li"e( %his is re"lecte! in the 'a the teacher pro&i!es contextual ,ac*groun!, gi&es practice in in"erring the meaning o" ne' 'or!s, uses recor!ings 'hich are 2authentic2 in origin an! uses simulate! tas*s rather than "ormal exercises( %hir!l , 'e ha&e ,ecome a'are o" the importance o" pro&i!ing moti&ation an! a "ocus "or listening( %he listener is encourage! to !e&elop expectations as to 'hat 'ill ,e hear! in the recor!ing, then to chec* them against 'hat is actuall sai!( B pre-setting +uestions an! tas*s, 'e ensure that learners are clear "rom the start a,out the purpose o" the listening exercise an! 'ill not ha&e to rel hea&il on memor ( 1.( Conclusion %he purpose ,ehin! this re&ie' o" changing practice has ,een to highlight some o" the principles 'hich ga&e rise to present-!a approaches to the teaching o" listening( It ma seem curious that the !iscussion shoul! ha&e co&ere! these important i!eas in the ,rie" space o" a single chapter rather than exten!ing them o&er the maAor part o" the ,oo*( But the o&er&ie' presente! here is inten!e! to ser&e simpl as a point o" !eparture( 1 aim is not to pro&i!e a !etaile! exposition o" current practice< other sources (/r, 1984< /n!er'oo!, 1989< =ilson, 4008) alrea! !o that comprehensi&el , i" in rather !i""erent 'a s "rom the historical angle a!opte! here( Instea!, it is to challenge man o" the recei&e! i!eas 'hich un!erlie our &ie's o" secon! language listening an! the metho!s that 'e emplo in practising it in the classroom( It 'ill ,e argue! that our present comprehension-,ase! metho!olog is "la'e!( . case 'ill

,e ma!e "or a ra!ical rethin*ing o" the 'a in 'hich 'e approach listening in the secon! language classroom so that 'e can more closel a!!ress the nee!s an! concerns o" the learner(