Pressure Measurement

Pressure Measurement
INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Bellows:
Cascaded capsules. One-piece, seamless, collapsible metallic unit with deep folds formed from very thin tubing They are made up of an alloy which is ductile, has high strength, fatigue and retains its properties over long use i.e., has very less hysteresis effect. Maximum diameter: 12 mm to 300 mm Have a maximum of 24 folds or corrugations High value of displacement compared to diaphragm Materials: Phosphor bronze, Brass, Stainless steel, Ni Alloy, Beryllium Copper
o o o o o o
P Pressure B Radius of corrugation N No. of semi-circular corrugations Poissons ratio E Youngs modulus T Thickness of the wall of bellows
o D Mean Diameter
1|Page BCRAM
Advantages:
Simple and rugged Its cost is moderate It is able to deliver high force. It is adaptable for absolute and differential pressures It is good in the low-to-moderate pressure range ( 9-13 kPa to 0-240 kPa)
Disadvantages It needs ambient temperature compensation Not suitable for dynamic measurement due to greater mass It is unsuitable for zero stiffness
SPRING LOADED BELLOWS:
2|Page BCRAM
To increase the life of Bellows To have more accuracy
d Deflection P Pressure Effective area of the bellow
Stiffness constant of bellows and spring respectively

If it operates on electric switch or other mechanism,
F Force required to operate switch or other mechanism Deflection required to operate switch on other mechanism
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT USING BELLOWS

a) Absolute Pressure Type i) Motion balance
When absolute pressure is to be sensed with bellows elements, it normally involves two bellows, one for measuring and the other for reference.
3|Page BCRAM
The compensating (reference) element is fully evacuated and sealed, while the sensing element is connected to the process. The diagrams given illustrate the beam balance version of this design and opposed bellows design. In either arrangement, an increase in process pressure causes the measuring bellows to extend, which results in an increase in readout through the motion balance mechanism. ii) Force balance
The force balance detector is available as a pneumatic or electronic transmitter, but not as a direct indicator because there is no motion to drive a pointer. For local indication, an output gauge can be installed. The pressure being sensed is applied to the inside of the bellow with in the capsule. The space on the outside of the bellows is evacuated, thus providing zero absolute pressure reference.
4|Page BCRAM
The process pressure exerts a force on the capsule that is applied to the lower end of the force bar. Due to the force balance nature of the unit, the force bar is constantly balanced; therefore, the sensing bellows do not move as long as the pressure detected is within the range of the instrument. Force balance transmitter mechanism is illustrated in diagram
b) Gauge Pressure Type Force balance:
When relatively low pressure need to be measured, the process

pressure is introduced into the inside of the bellows, while for higher pressures the outside surface of the bellows is exposed to the process pressure.
The force of the process pressure is applied to the lower end of

the force bar
5|Page BCRAM
The resulting force is then brought out via the force bar and a
new state of equilibrium (force balance is established using force-balance mechanism
BOURDON GAUGE
C Type Bourdon gauge:
The pressure responsive element in Bourdon tube pressure

gauge is a tube of steel or bronze which is elliptical crosssection and curved into a circular arc called Bourdon tube.
The outer end of the tube is closed and free to move. The other end of the tube, through which the fluid enters, is
rigidly fixed to the frame.
The pressure gauge is connected to the vessel containing fluid

under pressure.
Due to increase in internal pressure, the elliptical cross-section

of tube tends to become circular, thus causing the tube to straighten out slightly.
6|Page BCRAM
The outward movement of the free end of the tube is

transmitted, through a link, quadrant and pinion, to a pointer which moving clockwise on the graduated circular dial indicates the pressure intensity of the fluid.
Range: 0-100 kPa to 0-140 kPa Accuracy: 0.1% to 5% of FSD Materials used are Ni span C, stainless steel, Phosphor bronze,
beryllium.
Displacement of the tip, E Youngs modulus R Radius of the bourdon tube thickness of the tube Change in length
7|Page BCRAM
ELECTRICAL METHODS
1. Resistive Method: Potentiometric type:
This type of pressure sensor is used where there is sufficient force available to position the potentiometer. The wiper arms of potentiometric pressure transducers are usually linked to Bourdon or Bellows elements. A change in process pressure moves the connecting rod over the precision potentiometer, converting pressure into electric resistance. The contact is usually made by a noble metal contact wiper. Advantages: The output resistance can be easily converted into standard voltage or current signals. Simpler and less expensive Easy to design Disadvantages: Noises are more in the wiper
8|Page BCRAM
Wear occurs as the wiper moves back and forth across the wire The potentiometer cannot indicate pressure changes smaller than the increment from one to the next. 2. Strain Gauge Pressure
Resistance strain gauges are used as secondary element in pressure measurement. They may be conveniently used in conjunction with bellow elements and diaphragms. It consists of an arrangement in which the strain gauges are mounted on a cantilever spring which is operated by a pair of opposing bellow elements. The cantilever is properly chosen in dimension for compensation in the change in the Youngs modulus due to temperature changes. The sensor can be made using flat diaphragm also as seen in figure 2. Generally 4 gauges are mounted and the gauges are connected to a bridge circuit as given below:
9|Page BCRAM
At balance, when there is no pressure, no current flows through the galvanometer and hence, there is no deflection. As soon as the pressure is applied, the strain gauges stretch and compress accordingly and the bridge circuit is unbalanced due to the change in resistance of the strain gauges. Thus, current flows through the galvanometer which is measured by the deflection of the galvanometer. These changes affect the output of the bridge circuit, which indicates the change in measured pressure. Now, this change in output voltage may be calibrated for the pressure change. Range: 5 mm of Hg to 200,000 psig (1400 MPa) Accuracy: 0.1% of span to 0.25% of FSD. Advantages: Small and easy to install Good Accuracy Good Stability High output signal strength They possess good shock and vibration characteristics They possess fast speed of response
10 | P a g e BCRAM
Disadvantage: The bond between the diaphragm and the wire filament degrades with time causing changes in calibration.
3. Capacitive Type:
It consists of a pair of parallel plates with the middle plate moving with pressure and producing a differential capacitor system. Spherical depression of the glass plate is less than 0.0025 cm When a pressure differential exists, the thin steel diaphragm moves towards the low pressure side and the output voltage measured as the difference of voltage across the two capacitors formed with this movable plate is approximately is given by
11 | P a g e BCRAM
o output voltage o voltage across the capacitors o E supply voltage o x displacement of the diaphragm o d diameter of the diaphragm They are frequently used in pressure transmitter. Advantages: It gives rapid response to changes in pressure It is extremely sensitive It has a good frequency response It can withstand a lot of vibration and shock
Disadvantages: The performance of a capacitive transducer is severely affected by dirt or other contaminants because of change in dielectric constant The sensitivity is adversely affected by change in temperature. Errors may be caused by erratic and distorted signals.
12 | P a g e BCRAM
4. Inductive Transducer LVDTs can be used in conjunction with bellows or bourdon tubes to measure pressure.
Another arrangement, in which a diaphragm alters the reluctance of the flux path of two coils on application of a pressure difference, is often used.
13 | P a g e BCRAM
Here the coils having an equal number of turns are connected to two arms of a bridge, the other two arms of which consist of a pair of equal resistance R. For , the bridge is balanced and the output voltage . But when , the bridge will generate output voltage. The following analysis shows that this voltage linearly varies with the displacement of the diaphragm. And, since the diaphragm displacement varies linearly with the applied pressure within a certain limit, the output maintains a linear relationship with the differential pressure. Now, initial self-inductance of a coil = where N is its number of turns and is the reluctance of the flux path. If the diaphragm which is made of magnetic material, suffers a small displacement x owing to a pressure differential , then the two reluctances on either side of the diaphragm can be written as
where, d initial distance between the diaphragm and the coil K constant As a result, the two coils will have the following values of self-inductance,
14 | P a g e BCRAM
With the bridge connection shown, the output voltage is ( Substituting the values of ) in the above equation, we get
, other terms being constant and if the condition of linear response from a diaphragm is satisfied The range of inductive transducers is generally from 0 to 100 kN/ .
5. Electrostatic piezoelectric transducer
The charge developed across a piezoelectric crystal is

proportional to the force applied on it, and therefore, it can be used to measure pressure which is nothing but the force per unit area. where, q Electric charge generated by force F F Applied force across the faces, N Mechanical compliance of spring rate (m/N)
PZT remains constant

15 | P a g e BCRAM
The disadvantage is that the electric signal generated by the

electrostatic piezoelectric crystal decays rapidly.
This characteristic makes this sensor unsuitable for the

measurement of static pressure.
But they can be used for dynamic pressure measurement Small and rugged The pressure can be applied in either longitudinal or
transverse direction.
In either case, a high output voltage proportional to the

pressure is generated.
Their high speed response 30 kHz with peaks to 100 kHz

makes them suitable for measuring transient phenomena like rapidly changing pressures from blasts, explosions or other sources of shocks and vibrations.
Range: 0.1 psir to 10,000 psir (0.7 kPa to 70 MPa) Accuracy: 1% FSD Limitations: Mounting arrangement is critical. Sensitivity is almost temperature dependent, hence thermal
insulation is required.
Cost is High
16 | P a g e BCRAM
6. PIEZORESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
The resisitivity of silicon depends on the force applied on it. The piezoresistive pressure sensors operate on this principle
of measurement of the resistivity of silicon.
Like a strain gauge, in a piezoresistive sensor, four pairs of

silicon resistors are bonded onto a diaphragm.
But unlike the construction of strain gauge sensor, here the

diaphragm itself a silicon wafer and the sensing resistors are diffused into it during the growth of the wafer.
If a measurement of the absolute pressure is intended, the

bonding process is carried out in vacuum and the cavity behind the diaphragm is kept evacuated. If the relative measurement is required, the cavity behind is either ported to a reference pressure or to the atmosphere.
Range: 3 psi to 14000 psi (21 kPa to 100 MPa) The piezoresistivity does not decay with time, we can
measure static pressures with these sensors.
17 | P a g e BCRAM
7. Resonant Wire Transducer Resonant PZT pressure sensors utilise the variation of
resonant frequency of PZT crystals when a force is applied to them. They have an elegance of exciting oscillation just by placing the sensor in an oscillating electric field. The inverse piezoelectric effect causes the sensor to oscillate.
In resonant wire transducer, an oscillating current has to be

passed through the wire and the wire needs to be placed in the static magnetic field to excite oscillation.
The process pressures are detected by the high-and lowpressure diaphragms on the right and left of the unit.
As the pressure difference rises, the diaphragm and the

preload spring transmits a corresponding force to the wire, excited by the magnetic field.
The change in the wire tension modifies the resonant

frequency of the wire, which is then digitally counted.
Range: 10 mm of Hg to 6,000 psig (42MPa) Accuracy: 0.1% of the span.

where, frequency of vibration, TTension, mmass/unit length of wire
18 | P a g e BCRAM
The disadvantages are their sensitivity to temperature variation, shock and vibration, and a nonlinear output. But these can be compensated by suitable software.
VACUUM PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Vacuum: Space from which air is completely or partially removed. Mechanical Gauges Mcleod Gauge Knudsen Gauge Molecular Momentum Gauge Viscous friction gauge Thermal Gauges Thermocouple Gauge Pirani Gauge Convection gauge Ionization Gauge Hot cathode gauge Cold cathode gauge Alphatron gauge
19 | P a g e BCRAM
1. Mcleod Gauge Mcleod gauges are used for low pressure (vacuum) measurement. A unit that is used for such pressure is Torr. Torr is the pressure equivalent to that given by a column of mercury of 1 mm. 1 Torr = Pa.
This gauge works on the principle of Boyles law, for a fixed mass of an ideal gas the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume. Therefore, compressing a known volume of low pressure gas to high pressure and measuring the resulting volume change. The gauge initially has the mercury level at A so the gas in bulb is at pressure to be measured. The mercury level is then raised by allowing air to enter into the mercury reservoir. When the level reaches the cut-off point B, a known volume of gas is trapped in the bulb and capillary. The mercury level is then raised until it reaches C, the level in the open capillary tube corresponding to the top of the
20 | P a g e BCRAM
capillary tube containing the trapped volume of gas. The difference in height h between the mercury in the two capillary tube is then a measure of gas pressure Let the volume of gas trapped is V, and reduced volume is hA, where A is the cross-section area of the capillary tube. By using Boyles law.
where, PPressure being measured Density of mercury. Solving the expression for P,
Since, Ah<<V, the equation approximates to
The capillary can be directly calibrated in terms of pressure P Range: Pa to atmospheric pressure. Accuracy: 5 to 10%. Advantage: Pressure measurement is independent of gas composition Disadvantage: Continuous pressure measurement is not possible If vapour present, may condense and leads to inaccuracy.
21 | P a g e BCRAM
2. PIRANI GAUGE (Resistance Thermometer Gauge)
A pirani gauge is nothing but a heated resistive element placed in an envelope, the element constituting one arm of a wheatstone bridge. The resistive element is taken in the form of four coiled tungsten or platinum filaments connected in parallel. It possesses an evacuated compensator to reduce the effect of changes in bridge excitation & temperature Such a construction is adopted to increase the contribution of conduction process in the heat loss mechanism
22 | P a g e BCRAM
As the pressure inside the envelopes goes down, heat conduction decreases thus increasing the temperature of the resistive element with the consequent increase in its resistance. In a current-sensitive bridge, the output current thus becomes the function of pressure of gas within the envelope. Range: where the pressure versus current curve is nearly linear. Accuracy: 2% in the calibrated region. This gauge is useful to measure the pressure fluctuations since the change of resistance of the element with pressure is instantaneous.
3. THERMOCOUPLE GAUGE
This gauge consists of heated surface (H) and a thermocouple (C) in contact with it. The arrangement is kept within a sealed vessel and the surface is kept hot by passing a constant current through it, while the output of the thermocouple is measured by a high impedance microvoltmeter. Heat is transferred from the hot surface to the cold envelope by conduction and radiation. While heat conduction is proportional to the pressure of the gas within the envelope, the radiation loss depends upon the
23 | P a g e BCRAM
emissivity of the hot surface as well as the temperature difference between the hot surface and the cold enclosure. Thus a surface of low emissivity can be used to minimise the radiation loss. The plot of thermocouple voltage versus pressure assumes a form in which the linear region falls between and the range is the same. Here the gas A may be air and the gas B may be Argon.
4. IONIZATION GAUGE i) Hot Cathode Gauge
This comprises a heated filament, a grid and an anode. The filament acts as a cathode, the grid with a negative potential acts as ion collector and the anode collects electrons. The hot filaments breaks up impinging gas atoms into ions and electrons
24 | P a g e BCRAM
The ions get collected at the grid producing an ion current , while electrons collected at the anode produce an electron current . The higher the pressure of the gas, the more the number of ions, i.e., where is the input pressure. A higher number of ions, in turn, capture more number of electrons emitted from the filament. Therefore input pressure as . The two currents are related to the
Where, S is a constant called sensitivity of the gauge. Range: Disadvantages: Filament burnout if exposed to air, when it is hot. Decomposition of some gases by hot filament Contamination of measured gas by gases forced out of the hot filament.
25 | P a g e BCRAM
ii) Cold Cathode Gauge
A high electric field of about 4kV is applied between the cathode and the anode to draw electrons out. A magnetic field of about 1500 gauss, applied around the tube, causes the electrons to spiral their way to the anode. This spiralling of electrons increase their probability of collision with the gas molecules thereby increasing the ionization. Range: Having no hot filament, the cold cathode gauge can safely be used in a decomposable gas environment and for the same reason, is unaffected by the inrush of air.
26 | P a g e BCRAM
CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGES Dead Weight Tester
This tester is a primary standard for pressure measurement. It consists of an accurately machined and finished piston which is inserted into a close fitting cylinder; both of known cross-sectional areas. At the top of the piston is provided a platform to hold standard weights of known accuracy. Working: The chamber and the cylinder of the tester are filled with clean oil. The gauge to be tested is fixed at its appropriate place and piston is inserted in the cylinder. A weight is placed on the piston. Consequently, the pressure is exerted on the oil and this pressure is transmitted to the gauge deflecting its pointer. In order to get the desired setting of gauge pointer, the weights are adjusted. Then pressure is varied by forcing the plunger in, by moving the handle. The movement of the handle is continued till enough pressure is built up to lift the piston-weight
27 | P a g e BCRAM
combination. The piston weight combination floats freely under these conditions. Thus the equilibrium is established with fluid force balanced against the gravitational force of the weights plus the friction drag. hence, pressure where, MMass, Kg gAcceleration due to gravity, m/ Friction drag, N AEffective area of piston-cylinder combination, The effect of equivalent area A depends on piston cylinder clearance, pressure level, temperature and is normally taken as the mean of the cylinder and piston areas. The following factors affect the accuracy of dead weight tester: o Friction between the piston and the cylinder. o Uncertainty of value of effective area A o Uncertainty of gravitational constant g o The value of local gravity o Thermal expansion and elastic deformation of piston and cylinder o Air buoyancy on the weights o Fluid buoyancy on the weights and the fluid heads involved. Weights are given normally in standard gravity value of at sea level.
28 | P a g e BCRAM

Pressure Measurement

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Pressure Measurement

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Pressure Measurement

SPRING LOADED BELLOWS:

To increase the life of Bellows To have more accuracy

d Deflection P Pressure Effective area of the bellow

Stiffness constant of bellows and spring respectively

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT USING BELLOWS

b) Gauge Pressure Type Force balance:

When relatively low pressure need to be measured, the process

The force of the process pressure is applied to the lower end of

The pressure responsive element in Bourdon tube pressure

The pressure gauge is connected to the vessel containing fluid

Due to increase in internal pressure, the elliptical cross-section

The outward movement of the free end of the tube is

5. Electrostatic piezoelectric transducer

The charge developed across a piezoelectric crystal is

PZT remains constant

The disadvantage is that the electric signal generated by the

This characteristic makes this sensor unsuitable for the

In either case, a high output voltage proportional to the

Their high speed response 30 kHz with peaks to 100 kHz

Like a strain gauge, in a piezoresistive sensor, four pairs of

But unlike the construction of strain gauge sensor, here the

If a measurement of the absolute pressure is intended, the

In resonant wire transducer, an oscillating current has to be

As the pressure difference rises, the diaphragm and the

The change in the wire tension modifies the resonant

Range: 10 mm of Hg to 6,000 psig (42MPa) Accuracy: 0.1% of the span.

VACUUM PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Since, Ah<<V, the equation approximates to

2. PIRANI GAUGE (Resistance Thermometer Gauge)

4. IONIZATION GAUGE i) Hot Cathode Gauge

ii) Cold Cathode Gauge

CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGES Dead Weight Tester

Potrebbero piacerti anche