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CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
Home automation is become more advantageous for safety, security. An embedded board physically connected all home automation devices and through integration with a personal computer (PC) based web server, provided remote access to the system that is smart home security system using android .We are going to use these wireless sensors for home monitoring. owadays, home automation became more modern and precise to monitor the fields. !here are so many challenges in the modern home automation such as !emperature, gas, light, fan, obstacles and human healthcare for smart home. !his paper concentrates smart home monitoring using sensors. !he physical parameters such as temperature and gas for the "itchen, #ight and $an for the bed room, obstacle sensor used as some important places and the human healthcare should be closely monitored. $or this there are three sensors are used. %sing embedded c and lab view programming part has been done.

Figure 1!1 HO"E AUTO"ATION

1!1 RE#ATED $OR%

Physical Parameters of the home are sensed by data ac&uisition system. 'ata ac&uisition has been done using sensor nodes. A node contains three sensors. !he sensors are used for monitoring the physical parameter measurements. (n the home monitoring, the parameters such as "itchen temperature, gas and
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obstacle are monitored. !hese parameter measurements are gathered and processed using digital signal processing. (n digital signal processing, the analog signals generated from the sensor nodes are converted into digital signals. Again the digital signals are converted into analog signal. !he analog signals from various sensor nodes are transmitted to the local home monitoring server using )igbee. *afety is the most important re&uirement of home for people. $or that we need an automated system which can be used for home security. With the development of embedded technology, networ" and automatic control technology

1!& Po'er (u))*y

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or P*%. !he term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others !his power supply section is re&uired to convert AC signal to 'C signal and also to reduce the amplitude of the signal. !he available voltage signal from the mains is +,-./0-H) which is an AC voltage, but the re&uired is 'C voltage(no fre&uency) with the amplitude of 10. and 12+. for various applications. (n this section we have !ransformer, 3ridge rectifier, are connected serially and voltage regulators for 10. and 12+. (45-0 and 452+) via a capacitor (2---6$) in parallel are connected parallel as shown in the circuit diagram below. 7ach voltage regulator output is again is connected to the capacitors of values (2--6$, 2-6$, 2 6$, -.2 6$) are connected parallel through which the corresponding output(10. or 12+.) are ta"en into consideration.

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1!&!1FI+URE PO$ER (UPP#, CIRCUIT

Circuit E-)*anation 1. Trans/ormer

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in the first circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field8 in turn, this magnetic field induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). 3y adding a load to the secondary circuit, one can ma"e current flow in the transformer, thus transferring energy from one circuit to the other. !he secondary induced voltage .*, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary .P by a factor e&ual to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings9

Basic principle:
!he transformer is based on two principles9 firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). 3y changing the current in the primary coil, it changes the strength of its magnetic field8 since the changing magnetic field e:tends into the secondary coil, a voltage is induced across the secondary. A simplified transformer design is shown below. A current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. !he primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron8 this ensures

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that most of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary current are within the iron and pass through the secondary coil as well as the primary coil.

FI+URE 1!&!& ID#E (TEP DO$N

An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core Induction *a'
!he voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from $araday;s law of induction, which states that9

Where .* is the instantaneous voltage,

is the number of turns in the

secondary coil and < e&uals the magnetic flu: through one turn of the coil. (f the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flu: is the product of the magnetic field strength 3 and the area A through which it cuts. !he area is constant, being e&ual to the cross=sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the e:citation of the primary. *ince the same magnetic flu: passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding e&uals

!a"ing the ratio of the two e&uations for VS and VP gives the basic e&uationfor stepping up or stepping down the voltage

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Idea* )o'er e0uation

(f the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. (deally, the transformer is perfectly efficient8 all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. (f this condition is met, the incoming electric power must e&ual the outgoing power. Pincoming > (P.P > Poutgoing > (*.* giving the ideal transformer e&uation

Pin=coming > (P.P > Pout=going > (*.* giving the ideal transformer e&uation

(f the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS?VP), then the current is decreased (stepped down) (IS@IP) by the same factor. !ransformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable appro:imation. (f the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS?VP), then the current is decreased (stepped down) (IS@IP) by the same factor. !ransformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable appro:imation. !he impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. $or e:ample, if an impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of
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!his relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance ZP of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be

Detai*ed o)eration
!he simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current re&uired to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. !he changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (7A$) across each winding. *ince the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages .P and .* measured at the terminals of the transformer, are e&ual to the corresponding 7A$s. !he primary 7A$, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the Bbac" 7A$B. !his is due to #en);s law which states that the induction of 7A$ would always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.

1ridge Recti/ier
A diode bridge or bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge configuration that provides the same polarity of output voltage for any polarity of input voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC) input into direct current ('C) output, it is "nown as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full=wave rectification from a two=wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a center=tapped transformer design, but has two diode drops rather than one, thus e:hibiting reduced efficiency over a center=tapped design for the same output voltage.

1asic O)eration
When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right along the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the lower one.

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When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored path.

(n each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to the lower right one. *ince this is true whether the input is AC or 'C, this circuit not only produces 'C power when supplied with AC power9 it also can provide what is sometimes called Breverse polarity protectionB. !hat is, it permits normal functioning when batteries are installed bac"wards or 'C input=power supply wiring Bhas its wires crossedB (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage that might occur without this circuit in place).

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Out)ut smoothing 2Using Ca)acitor.

$or many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full=wave bridge serves to convert an AC input into a 'C output, the addition of a capacitor may be important because the bridge alone supplies an output voltage of fi:ed polarity but pulsating magnitude (see diagram above).

!he function of this capacitor, "nown as a reservoir capacitor (a"a smoothing capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or ;smooth;) the rectified AC output voltage. 3ecause a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit, defined as percentage voltage change from minimum to ma:imum load, is improved. However in many cases the improvement is of insignificant magnitude. *ome early console radios created the spea"er;s constant field with the current from the high voltage (B3 1B) power supply, which was then routed to the consuming circuits, (permanent magnets were considered too wea" for good performance) to create the spea"er;s constant magnetic field. !he spea"er field coil thus performed + Cobs in one9 it acted as a cho"e, filtering the power supply, and it produced the magnetic field to operate the spea"er.

3o*tage Regu*ator
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level.45:: (Cs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the !D++- form factor, although smaller surface=mount and larger !rD, pac"ages are also available from

1!4 Po'er (u))*y

!he input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. !he a.c. input i.e., +,-. from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 2+. and is fed to a rectifier. !he output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. *o in order
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to get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even after rectification. ow, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage.

230V AC 50Hz

D!C Out)ut

(te) do'n trans/ormer

1ridge Recti/ier

Filter

Regulator

FI+URE 1!4!1 Po'er su))*y

Trans/ormer
%sually, 'C voltages are re&uired to operate various electronic e&uipment and these voltages are 0., E. or 2+.. 3ut these voltages cannot be obtained directly. !hus the a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., +,-. is to be brought down to the re&uired voltage level. !his is done by a transformer. !hus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a re&uired level.

Recti/ier
!he output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. (t converts A.C. into pulsating '.C. !he rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. (n this proCect, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits li"e good stability and full wave rectification.

Fi*ter
Capacitive filter is used in this proCect. (t removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the '.C. Dutput received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, '.C. voltage received at this point changes. !herefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.

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3o*tage regu*ator
As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. (n this proCect, power supply of 0. and 2+. are re&uired. (n order to obtain these voltage levels, 45-0 and 452+ voltage regulators are to be used. !he first number 45 represents positive supply and the numbers -0, 2+ represent the re&uired output voltage levels.

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CHAPTER-& "ICRO CONTRO##ER(

&!1 "icro)rocessors 5s! "icrocontro**ers
Aicroprocessors are single=chip CP%s used in microcomputers. Aicrocontrollers and microprocessors are different in three main aspects9 hardware architecture, applications, and instruction set features. Hardware architecture9 A microprocessor is a single chip CP% while a microcontroller is a single (C contains a CP% and much of remaining circuitry of a complete computer (e.g., FAA, FDA, serial interface, parallel interface, timer, interrupt handling circuit). Applications9 Aicroprocessors are commonly used as a CP% in computers while microcontrollers are found in small, minimum component designs performing control oriented activities. Aicroprocessor instruction sets are processing (ntensive. !heir instructions operate on nibbles, bytes, words, or even double words.

Di//erence 6et'een 7891 and 789&

!he 5-0+ microcontroller is the 5-02;s Bbig brother.B (t is a slightly more powerful microcontroller, sporting a number of additional features which the developer may ma"e use of9

+0G bytes of (nternal FAA (compared to 2+5 in the standard 5-02). A third 2G=bit timer, capable of a number of new operation modes and 2G=bit reloads. Additional *$Fs to support the functionality offered by the third timer.

&!& AT7:(9&
Features

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Compatible with AC*=02Products 5H 3ytes of (n=*ystem Programmable ((*P) $lash Aemory 7ndurance9 2--- Write/7rase Cycles I.-. to 0.0. Dperating Fange $ully *tatic Dperation9 - H) to ,, AH)
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!hree=level Program Aemory #oc" +0GH (nternal FAA ,+ Programmable (/D #ines , 2G=bit !imer/Counters 7ight (nterrupt *ources $ull 'uple: %AF! *erial Channel #ow=power (dle and Power=down Aodes (nterrupt Fecovery from Power=down Aode Watchdog !imer 'ual 'ata Pointer Power=off $lag

&!4 DE(CRIPTION OF "ICROCONTRO##ER 7:(9&

!he A!5E*0+ is a low=power, high=performance CAD* 5=bit micro controller with 5Hbytes of in=system programmable $lash memory. !he device is manufactured %sing AtmelJs high=density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry=standard 5-C02 micro controller. 3y combining a versatile 5=bit CP% with in=system programmable flash one monolithic chip8 the Atmel A!5E*0+ is a powerful micro controller, which provides a highly fle:ible and cost=effective solution to many embedded control application. , the A!5E*0+ is designed with static logic for perationdown to )ero fre&uency and supports two software selectable power saving modes.

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FI+URE &!4!1 "icro Contro**er

FI+URE &!4!& Pin Diagram o/ 7891

!he A!5E*0+ provides the following standard features9 5H bytes of $lash, +0G bytes of FAA, ,+ (/D lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 2G=bit timer/counters,
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full duple: serial port, on=chip oscillator, and cloc" circuitry. (n addition, the A!5E*0+ is designed with static logic for perationdown to )ero fre&uency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. !he (dle Aode stops the CP% while allowing the FAA timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. !he Power=down mode saves the FAA contents but free)es the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the ne:t interrupt. .

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CHAPTER-4 1#UETOOTH
4!1

Introduction
3luetooth is a wireless protocol utili)ing short=range communications

technology facilitating data transmission over short distances from fi:ed and/or mobile devices, creating wireless personal area networ"s (PA s). !he intent behind the development of 3luetooth was the creation of a single digital wireless protocol, capable of connecting multiple devices and overcoming issues arising from synchroni)ation of these devices. 3luetooth uses a very robust radio technology called fre&uency hopping spread spectrum. (t chops up the data being sent and transmits chun"s of it on up to 40 different fre&uencies. (n its basic mode, the modulation is Kaussian fre&uency shift "eying (K$*H). !he 3luetooth *(K consists of companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing. 3luetooth is a standard and communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range (power=class=dependent9 2 meter, 2- meters, 2-- meters) based on low=cost transceiver microchips in each device. 3luetooth enables these devices to communicate with each other when they are in range. !he devices use a radio communications system, 3luetooth device class indicates the type of device and the supported services of which the information is transmitted during the discovery process.
C*ass C*ass 1 C*ass & C*ass 4 "a-imum Permitted Po'er Range m$2d1m. 2a))ro-imate. 2-- mW (+- d3m) +.0 mW (I d3m) 2 mW (- d3m) L2-- meters L2- meters L2 meter

4!1 TA1#E (n most cases the effective range of class + devices is e:tended if they connect to a class 2 transceiver, compared to pure class + networ". !his is accomplished by the higher sensitivity and transmission power of Class 2 devices.

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Data Rate

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3ersion 1!& 3ersion &!8 ; EDR $i"edia A**iance 2)ro)osed.

2 Abit/s , Abit/s 0, = I5- Abit/s

TA1#E 4!&

4!& 1*uetooth )ro/i*es

(n order to use 3luetooth, a device must be compatible with certain 3luetooth profiles. !hese define the possible applications and uses of the technology. 4!&!11*uetooth 5s! $i-Fi in net'or<ing 3luetooth and Wi=$i have different applications in today;s offices, homes, and on the move9 setting up networ"s, printing, or transferring presentations and files from P'As to computers. 3oth are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. Wi=fi differs from bluetooth in that it provides higher throughput and covers greater distances, but re&uires more e:pensive hardware and may present higher power consumption. !hey use the same fre&uency range, but employ different modulation techni&ues. While 3luetooth is a replacement for cabling in a variety of small=scale applications, Wi=$i is a replacement for cabling for general local area networ" access. 3luetooth can be ta"en as replacement for %*3 or any other serial cable lin", whereas Wi=$i is wireless 7thernet communications according to the protocol architectures of (777 5-+., with !CP/(P. 3oth standards are operating at a specified bandwidth not identical with that of other networ"ing standards8 the mechanical plug compatibility problem "nown with cables is replaced by the compatibility re&uirement for an air interface and a protocol stac". 3.2.2Mobile Phone requirements: A mobile phone that is 3luetooth enabled is able to pair with many devices. !o ensure the broadest support of feature functionality together with legacy device support. !he DA!P forum has recently published a recommendations paper, entitled B3luetooth #ocal ConnectivityB, see e:ternal lin"s below to download this paper. !his publication recommends two classes, 3asic and Advanced, with re&uirements that cover imaging, printing, stereo audio and in car useage.

4!4 1*ue Tooth $e Use Parani-E(D188=118=&88=&18

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Features
2) Dutput (nterface %AF!, Compliant 3luetooth stac" v2.+=improved A$H (Adaptive $re&uency Hoping), $ast connection +) !ransmit Power = 7*'2--/22-9 Aa:. 125d3m 7*'+--/+2-9 Aa:. 1Id3m ,) Feceiving *ensitivity = 7*'2--/22-9 =55d3m (-.2M37F) 7*'+--/+2-9 =5-d3m (-.2M37F) I) Antenna gain = Chip9 -d3i, *tub9 1+d3i, 'ipole9 1,d3i, Patch9 1Ed3i 0) Compact si)e = 7*'2--9+4.0 : ,- : 2I(mm) 7*'22-9 +4.0 : +4.4 : 2I(mm) 7*'+--/+2-925 : +- : 22.4 (mm) G) Provides transparent F*+,+ serial cable replacement. 4) *upports 3luetooth *erial Port Profile. 5) (nteroperability with P'A, laptops etc. E) 3uilt=in chip antenna included 2-) *upports firmware upgrade via windows=based *oftware (Parani %pdater) 22) Wor"ing distance ( (n an open field )9 Parani=7*'2--9 Class 2, om. 2-- meters Parani=7*'22-9 Class 2, om. 2-- meters, up to 2---m using patch antenna Parani=7*'+--9 Class +, om. ,-meters Parani=7*'+2-9 Class +, om. ,-meters, up to ,--m using patch Antenna

2+) 7asy to use Windows configuration tool available.

4!> #ist o/ a))*ications

Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands=free headset. !his was one of the earliest applications to become popular. Wireless networ"ing between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is re&uired. Wireless communications with PC input and output devices, the most common being the mouse, "eyboard and printer. !ransfer of files between devices with D37N. !ransfer of contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with D37N.

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Feplacement of traditional wired serial communications in test e&uipment, KP* receivers, medical e&uipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices. $or controls where infrared was traditionally used. *ending small advertisements from 3luetooth enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, 3luetooth devices. !wo seventh=generation game consoles, intendo;s Wii and *ony;s Play*tation , use

3luetooth for their respective wireless controllers.

'ial=up internet access on personal computer or P'A using a data=capable mobile phone as a modem.

CHAPTER->
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T,PE( OF (EN(OR
>!1 +as (ensor
(n current technology scenario, monitoring of gases produced is very important. $rom home appliances such as air conditioners to electric chimneys and safety systems at industries monitoring of gases is very crucial. +as sensors are very important part of such systems. *mall li"e a nose, gas sensors spontaneously react to the gas present, thus "eeping the system updated about any alterations that occur in the concentration of molecules at gaseous state. +as sensors are available in wide specifications depending on the sensitivity levels, type of gas to be sensed, physical dimensions and numerous other factors. !his (nsight covers a methane gas sensor that can sense gases such as ammonia which might get produced from methane. When a gas interacts with this sensor, it is first ioni)ed into its constituents and is then adsorbed by the sensing element. !his adsorption creates a potential difference on the element which is conveyed to the processor unit through output pins in form of current. What is this sensing elementO (s it "ept in some chamber or is "ept e:posedO How does it get current and how it is ta"en outO #etJs find out in this (nsightP

FI+URE >!1!1 +A( (EN(OR

Wireless Kas 'etection9 (mage -2 shows e:ternals of a standard gas sensor module9 a steel mesh, copper clamping ring and connecting leads. !he top part is a stainless steel mesh which ta"es care of the following9

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FI+URE >!1!& +as (ensor

QCR2.

QCR$iltering out the suspended particles so that only gaseous elements are able to pass to insides of the sensor.

QCR+. QCRProtecting the insides of the sensor. QCR,. QCR7:hibits an anti e:plosion networ" that "eeps the sensor module intact at high temperatures and gas pressures. (n order to manage above listed functions efficiently, the steel mesh is made into two layers. !he mesh is bound to rest of the body via a copper plated clamping ring. !he connecting leads of the sensor are thic" so that sensor can be connected firmly to the circuit and sufficient amount of heat gets conducted to the inside part. !hey are casted from copper and have tin plating over them. $our of the si: leads (A, 3, C, ') are for signal fetching while two (2,+) are used to provide sufficient heat to the sensing element. !he pins are placed on a 3a"elite base which is a good insulator and provides firm gripping to the connecting leads

>!& Tem)erature (ensors 2#"49. >!&!1 Introduction

!he #A,0 series are precision integrated=circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. !he #A,0 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Helvin, as the user is not re&uired to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain
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convenient centigrade scaling. !he #A,0 does not re&uire any e:ternal calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of S2/ITC at room temperature and S,/ITC over a full =00 to 120-TC temperature range. #ow cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. !he #A,0Js low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration ma"e interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. (t can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only G- 6A from its supply, it has very low self=heating, less than -.2TC in still air. !he #A,0 is rated to operate over a =00T to 120-TC temperature range, while the #A,0C is rated for a =I-T to 122-TC range (=2-T with improved accuracy). !he #A,0 series is available pac"aged plastic !D=E+ transistor pac"age. !he #A,0' is also available in an 5=lead surface mount small outline pac"age and a plastic !D=++pac"age. Features
2. Calibrated directly in T Celsius (Centigrade) +. #inear 1 2-.- m./TC scale factor ,. -.0TC accuracy guaranteeable (at 1+0TC) I. Fated for full =00T to 120-TC range 0. *uitable for remote applications G. #ow cost due to wafer=level trimming 4. Dperates from I to ,- volts 5. #ess than G- 6A current drain E. #ow self=heating, -.-5TC in still air 2-. onlinearity only S2/ITC typical 22. #ow impedance output, -.2 Ufor 2 mA loa

Pin diagram

FI+URE >!&!1 (O-7 PIN DIA+RA"

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>!&!&A))*ications
!he #A,0 can be applied easily in the same way as other integrated=circuit temperature sensors. (t can be glued or cemented to a surface and its temperature will be within about -.-2TC of the surface temperature. !his presumes that the ambient air temperature is almost the same as the surface temperature8 if the air temperature were much higher or lower than the surface temperature, the actual temperature of the #A,0 die would be at an intermediate temperature between the surface temperature and the air temperature.

FI+URE >!&!1 #"49 !his is especially true for the !D=E+ plastic pac"age, where the copper leads are the principal thermal path to carry heat into the device, so its temperature might be closer to the air temperature than to the surface temperature. !o minimi)e this problem, be sure that the wiring to the #A,0, as it leaves the device, is held at the same temperature as the surface of interest. !he easiest way to do this is to cover up these wires with a bead of epo:y which will insure that the leads and wires are all at the same temperature as the surface, and that the #A,0 dieJs temperature will not be affected by the air temperature. !he !D=IG metal pac"age can also be soldered to a metal surface or pipe without damage. Df course, in that case the .= terminal of the circuit will be grounded to that metal. Alternatively, the #A,0 can be mounted inside a sealed=end metal tube, and can then be dipped into a bath or screwed into a threaded hole in a tan". As with any (C, the #A,0 and accompanying wiring and circuits must be "ept insulated and dry, to avoid lea"age and corrosion.

FI+URE >!&!& T,PE( OF #"49 !his is especially true if the circuit may operate at cold temperatures where condensation can occur. Printed=circuit coatings and varnishes such as Humiseal and epo:y ECE 22

TRR Engineering College of Women paints or dips are often used to insure that moisture cannot corrode the #A,0 or its connections. !hese devices are sometimes soldered to a small light=weight heat fin, to decrease the thermal time constant and speed up the response in slowly=moving air. Dn the other hand, a small thermal mass may be added to the sensor, to give the steadiest reading despite small deviations in the air temperature.

>!4 FIRE (EN(OR

!his fire sensor circuit e:ploits the temperature sensing property of an ordinary signal diode ( ,I to detect heat from fire. At the moment it senses heat, a loud alarm simulating that of $ire brigade will be produced. !he circuit is too sensitive and can detect a rise in temperature of 2- degree or more in its vicinity. Drdinary signal diodes li"e ( ,I and DA 42 e:hibits this property and the internal resistance of these devices will decrease when temperature rises. !he fire sensor circuit is too sensitive and can detect a rise in temperature of 2- degree or more in its vicinity. Drdinary signal diodes li"e ( ,I and DA 42 e:hibits this property and the internal resistance of these devices will decrease when temperature rises. (n the reverse biased mode, this effect will be more significant. !ypically the diode can generate around G-- milli volts at 0 degree centigrade. $or each degree rise in temperature8 the diode generates + m. output voltage. !hat is at 0 degree it is 2- m. and when the temperature rises to 0- degree, the diode will give 2-- milli volts. !his voltage is used to trigger the remaining circuit. !ransistor !2 is a temperature controlled switch and its base voltage depends on the voltage from the diode and from .F and F2. ormally !2 conducts (due to the voltage set by .F) and #7' glows. !his indicates normal temperature. When !2 conducts, base pf !+ will be grounded and it remains off to inhibit the Alarm generator. (C %A ,0G2 is used in the circuit to give a $ire force siren. !his FDA (C has an internal oscillator and can generate different tones based on its pin connections. Here pin G is shorted with the .cc pin 0 to get a fire force siren. When the temperature near the diode increases above 0- degree, it conducts and ground the base of !2. !his ma"es !2 off and !+ on. Alarm generator then gets current from the emitter of !+ which is regulated by V' to ,.2 volt and buffered by C2.Fesistor FI ( ++-H) determines the fre&uency of oscillation and the value ++-H is a must for
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correct tone. !o set the fire sensor circuit, "eep a lighted candle near the diode and wait for 2 minute. *lowly adCust .F till the alarm sounds. Femove the heat .After one minute, alarm will turns off. .F can be used for further adCustments for particular temperature levels.

Fire (ensor Circuit Diagram

FI+URE >!4!1 FIRE (EN(OR CIRCUIT DI+RA"

>!> #DR2#I+HT DEPENDENT RE+I(TER. >!>!1 Introduction

A photo resistor or #ight 'ependent Fesistor or Cd* (Cadmium *ulphide) Cell is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. (t can also be referred to as a photoconductor. A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. (f light falling on the device is of high enough fre&uency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to Cump into the conduction band. !he resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.

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FI+URE >!>!1 #DR A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or e:trinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. (n intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to e:cite the electron across the entire band gap. 7:trinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band8 since the electrons don;t have as far to Cump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower fre&uencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. (f a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be e:tra electrons available for conduction. !his is an e:ample of an e:trinsic semiconductor.
conduction band band ban d gap valence bands

>!>!& Cadmium (u*)hide Ce**s

(Cd*) cells rely on the material;s ability to vary its resistance according to the amount of light stri"ing the cell. !he more light that stri"es the cell, the lower the resistance. though not accurate, even a simple Cd* cell can have a wide range of resistance from less than 2-- W in bright light to in e:cess of 2- AW in dar"ness. *tandard cadmium based #'Fs have a fre&uency response that varies according to light level, but typical fall times range from 20ms to +0ms and typical rise times

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range from 0-ms to 4-ms, Probably the best "nown #'F is the DFP2+. *maller cheaper devices are more popular today

A sam)*e #DR *ight sensor circuit

When the light level is low the resistance of the #'F is high. !his prevents current from flowing to the base of the transistors. Conse&uently the #7' does not light. However, when light shines onto the #'F its resistance falls and current into the base of the first transistor and then the second transistor. !he preset resistor can be turned up or down to increase or decrease resistance, in this way it can ma"e the circuit more or less sensitive.

. FI+URE >!>!& #DR CIRCUIT

A))*ications
Photo resistors come in many different types. (ne:pensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, cloc" radios, security alarms, street lights and outdoor cloc"s. !hey are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction. #ead sulfide and indium antimonite #'Fs are used for the mid infrared spectral region. Ke9Cu photoconductors are among the best far=infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

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CHAPTER-9 1U??ER
9!1 INTRODUCTION
A 6u@@er or 6ee)er is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically used in automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave oven, or game shows. (t most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent bu))ing or beeping sound. (nitially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to an electric bell without the metal gong . Dften these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC=connected devices was to implement a circuit to ma"e the AC current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspea"er and hoo" this circuit up to a cheap 5=ohm spea"er. owadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic=based pie)oelectric sounder li"e a *on alert which ma"es a high=pitched tone. %sually these were hoo"ed up to BdriverB circuits which varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off. (n game shows it is also "nown as a Bloc"out system,B because when one person signals (Bbu))es inB), all others are loc"ed out from signaling. *everal game shows have large bu))er buttons which are identified as BplungersB. !he word Bbu))erB comes from the rasping noise that bu))ers made when they were electromechanical devices, operated from stepped=down AC line voltage at 0- or G- cycles. Dther sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed.

9!& T,PE( OF 1U??ER(

!here are different "inds of bu))ers that wor" in different ways. Dne type uses a coil of wire that has current that runs through it. Another "ind uses a transistor circuit.

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FI+URE 9!&!1 T,PE( OF 1U??ER(

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FI+URE 9!&!& 1U??ER When a small 'C voltage is applied to the input pins, it is first converted to an oscillating signal using the combination of resistor and transistor. !hese oscillating signals are amplified using the inductor coil. When high voltage alternating signals are applied to the pie)o ceramic disc, it causes mechanical e:pansion and contraction in radial direction. !his causes the metal plate to bend in opposite direction. When metal plate bends and shrin"s in opposite direction cont

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CHAPTER-A A!1 #CD 2#IBUID CRI(TA# DI(P#A,.

A!1 Introduction
A li&uid crystal display (#C') is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pi:els arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. 7ach pi:el consists of a column of li&uid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two polari)ing filters, the a:es of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the li&uid crystals between them, light passing through one would be bloc"ed by the other. !he li&uid crystal twists the polari)ation of light entering one filter to allow it to pass through the other. A program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices that communicate directly with a human being. Dne of the most common devices attached to an controller is an #C' display. *ome of the most common #C's connected to the contollers are 2GN2, 2G:+ and +-:+ displays. !his means 2G characters per line by 2 line 2G characters per line by + lines and +- characters per line by + lines, respectively.

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available. #ine lengths of 5,

2G, +-,

+I, ,+ charact all ECE 31 standar d, one, two

and I-

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Features
2. +. ,. I. 0. G. 4. 5. E. 2-. 22. 2+. (nterface with either I=bit or 5=bit microprocessor. 'isplay data FAA 5-:5 bits (5- characters). Character generator FDA 2G- different 04 dot=matri: character patterns. Character generator FAA 5 different user programmed 04 dot=matri: patterns. 'isplay data FAA and character generator FAA may be accessed. umerous instructions Clear 'isplay, Cursor Home, 'isplay D /D$$, Cursor D /D$$, 3lin" Character, Cursor *hift, 'isplay *hift. 3uilt=in reset circuit is triggered at power D . 3uilt=in oscillator.

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TRR Engineering College of Women 'ata can be placed at any location on the #C'. $or 2GX2 #C', the address locations are9

TA1#E A!1!1

ADDRE(( #OCATION( FOR A 1C1A #INE #CD

(ha)es and si@es

FI+URE A!1!& (HAPE( AND (I?E( OF #CD 7ven limited to character based modules, there is still a wide variety of shapes and si)es available. #ine lengths of 5,2G,+-,+I,,+ and I- characters are all standard, in one, two and four line versions. *everal different #C technologies e:ists. Ysuper twistZ types, for e:ample, offer (mproved contrast and viewing angle over the older Ytwisted nematicZ types. *ome modules are available with bac" lighting, so that they can be viewed in dimly=lit conditions. !he bac" lighting may be either Yelectro=luminescentZ, re&uiring a high voltage inverter circuit, or simple #7' illumination.

A!& Po'er su))*y /or #CD dri5ing

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FI+URE A!&!1 PO$ER (UPP#, FOR #CD PIN DE(CRIPTION

FI+URE A!&!& )in diagram o/ 1-1A *ines #CD

TA1#E A!&!4 PIN DIA+RA" FUCNTION(

A!4 #ED2#I+HT E"ITTIN+ DIODE. A!4!1 Introduction

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TRR Engineering College of Women A light=emitting diode(#7') is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electrical current is applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple #7' circuit. !he effect is a form of electroluminescence. where incoherent and narrow=spectrum light is emitted from the p=n Cunction.

#7's are widely used as indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area lighting. An #7' is usually a small area (less than 2 mm +) light source, often with optics added to the chip to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection . !he color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semi conducting material used, and can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. 3esides lighting, interesting applications include using %.=#7's for sterili)ation of water and disinfection of devices, and as a grow light to enhance photosynthesis in plants.

1asic )rinci)*e
#i"e a normal diode, the #7' consists of a chip of semi conducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p=n Cunction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p=side, or anode, to the n=side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge=carriers electrons and holes flow into the Cunction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. !he wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p=n Cunction. (n silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non=radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. #7' development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever=shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors. #7's are usually built on an n=type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p=type layer deposited on its surface. P=type substrates, while less.

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Figure A!4!1 Three "ain Category

#ED Dis)*ay ty)es

3ar graph *even segment *tar burst 'ot matri:

1asic #ED ty)es

"iniature #EDs

Figure A!4!& Di//erent si@ed #EDs! 7 mmD 9mm and 4 mm !hese are mostly single=die #7's used as indicators, and they come in various=si)e pac"ages9
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2- mm Dther si)es are also available, but less common.

A!4!& There are three main categories o/ miniature sing*e die #EDs

#ow current ] typically rated for + mA at around + . (appro:imately I mW consumption). *tandard ] +- mA #7's at around + . (appro:imately I- mW) for red, orange, yellow ^ green, and +- mA at I_0 . (appro:imately 2-- mW) for blue, violet and white.

%ltra=high output ] +- mA at appro:imately + . or I_0 ., designed for viewing in direct sunlight.

Fi5e- and t'e*5e-5o*t #EDs

!hese are miniature #7's incorporating a series resistor, and may be connected directly to a 0 . or 2+ . supply.

F*ashing #EDs
$lashing #7's are used as attention see"ing indicators where it is desired to avoid the comple:ity of e:ternal electronics. $lashing #7's resemble standard #7's but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit inside which causes the #7' to flash with a typical period of one second.

High )o'er #EDs

High power #7's from lumileds mounted on a star shaped heat sin" High power #7's (HP#7') can be driven at more than one ampere of current and give out large amounts of light. *ince overheating destroys any #7' the HP#7's must be highly efficient to minimi)e e:cess heat, furthermore they are often mounted on a heat sin" to allow for heat dissipation. (f the heat from a HP#7' is not removed the device will burn out in seconds.. $or each half cycle part of the #7' diode emits light and part is dar", and this is reversed during the ne:t half cycle. Current efficiency is 5- lm/W.

"u*ti-co*or #EDs
A Ybi=color #7'Z is actually two different #7's in one case. (t consists of two dies connected to the same two leads but in opposite directions. Current flow in one direction produces one color, and current in the opposite direction produces the other
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color. FK3 #7's contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four=wire connection with one common (anode or cathode). !he !aiwanese #7' manufacturer 7verlight has introduced a , watt FK3 pac"age capable of driving each die at 2 watt.

A*)hanumeric #EDs
#7' displays are available in seven=segment and starburst format. *even=segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. *tarburst displays can display all letters. *even=segment #7' displays were in widespread use in the 2E4-s and 2E5-s, but increasing use of li&uid crystal displays, with their lower power consumption and greater display fle:ibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric #7' displays.

A!> "AC &4& A!>!1 Introduction

A standard serial interface for PC, F*+,+C, re&uires negative logic, i.e., logic 2 is =,. to =2+. and logic - is 1,. to 12+.. !o convert !!# logic, say, !:' and F:' pins of the microcontroller thus need a converter chip. A AAN+,+ chip has long been using in many microcontrollers boards. (t is a dual F*+,+ receiver / transmitter that meets all F*+,+ specifications while using only 10. power supply. (t has two onboard charge pump voltage converters which generate 12-. to =2-. power supplies from a single 0. supply. (t has four level translators, two of which are F*+,+ transmitters that convert !!#/CAD* input levels into 1E. F*+,+ outputs. !he other two level translators are F*+,+ receivers that convert F*+,+ input to 0.. !ypical AAN+,+ circuit is shown below.

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Figure A!>!1 IC

Feachers
2. +. ,. I. 0. G. 4. 5. Dperates With *ingle 0=. Power *upply #in3iCAD*7 Process !echnology !wo 'rivers and !wo Feceivers S,-=. (nput #evels #ow *upply Current . 5 mA !ypical Aeets or 7:ceeds !(A/7(A=+,+=$ and (!% Fecommendation ..+5 'esigned to be (nterchangeable with Aa:im AAN+,+ Applications !(A/7(A=+,+=$

3attery=Powered *ystems !erminals Aodems Computers E. 2-. 7*' Protection 7:ceeds +--- . Per A(#=*!'=55,, Aethod ,-20 Pac"age Dptions (nclude Plastic *mall=Dutline (', 'W) Pac"ages and *tandard Plastic ( ) '(Ps

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Circuit connections
A standard serial interfacing for PC, F*+,+C, re&uires negative logic, i.e., logic ;2; is =,. to =2+. and logic ;-; is 1,. to 12+.. !o convert a !!# logic, say, !:' and F:' pins of the uC chips, thus need a converter chip. A AAN+,+ chip has long been using in many uC boards. (t provides +=channel F*+,+C port and re&uires e:ternal 2-u$ pacitors. Carefully chec" the polarity of capacitor when soldering the board. A '*+40 however, no need e:ternal capacitor and smaller. 7ither circuit can be used without any problem

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CHAPTER-E %EI# (OFT$ARE

E!1 Introduction
Insta**ing the %ei* so/t'are on a $indo's PC

(nsert the C'=FDA in your computerJs C' drive Dn most computers, the C' will Yauto runZ, and you will see the Heil installation menu. (f the menu does not appear, manually double clic" on the *etup icon, in the root directory9 you will then see the Heil menu.

Dn the Heil menu, please select Y(nstall 7valuation *oftwareZ. (`ou will not re&uire a license number to install this software). $ollow the installation instructions as they appear. !he e:ample proCects for this boo" are D! loaded automatically when you

#oading the ProFects

install the Heil compiler. !hese files are stored on the C' in a directory Y/PontZ. !he files are arranged by chapter9 for e:ample, the proCect discussed in Chapter , is in the directory Y/Pont/Ch-,a--=HelloZ. Father than using the proCects on the C' (where changes cannot be saved), please copy the files from C' onto an appropriate directory on your hard dis". ote9 you will need to change the file properties after copying9 file transferred from the C' will be bread onlyJ.

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TRR Engineering College of Women Con/iguring the (imu*ator

Dpen the Heil .ision+ Ko to ProCect _ Dpen ProCect

and browse for Hello in Ch-,a-- in Pont and open it.

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Ko to ProCect _ *elect 'evice for !arget b!arget2J

*elect 5-0+(all variants) and clic" DH

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ow we need to chec" the oscillator fre&uency9 Ko to proCect _ Dptions for !arget b!arget2J

Aa"e sure that the oscillator fre&uency is 2+AH).

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3uilding the !arget

3uild the target as illustrated in the figure below

Funning the *imulation Having successfully built the target, we are now ready to start the debug session and run the simulator.

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$irst start a debug session

!he flashing #7' we will view will be connected to Port 2. We therefore want to observe the activity on this port

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!o ensure that the port activity is visible, we need to start the bperiodic window updateJ flag

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Ko to 'ebug = Ko

While the simulation is running, view the performance analy)er to chec" the delay durations.

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Ko to 'ebug _ Performance Analy)er and clic" on it

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'ouble clic" on '7#A`a#DDPaWait in $unction *ymbols9 and clic" 'efine button

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CHAPTER-7 ($ITCHE(
7!1 Introduction
A switch is a mechanical device used to connect and disconnect an electric circuit at will. *witches cover a wide range of types, from subminiature up to industrial plant switching megawatts of power on high voltage distribution lines. (n applications where multiple switching options are re&uired (e.g., a telephone service), mechanical switches have long been replaced by electronic switching devices which can be automated and intelligently controlled. !he switch is referred to as a BgateB when abstracted to mathematical form. (n the philosophy of logic, operational arguments are represented as logic gates. !he use of electronic gates to function as a system of logical gates is the fundamental basis for the computer i.e. a computer is a system of electronic switches which function as logical gates. A railroad switch is not electrical, but a mechanical device to divert a train from one trac" to another.

FI+URE 7!1!1

4 TRACTI#E ($ITCHE(

Ty)es o/ s'itches
A pair of contacts is said to be ;closed; when there is no space between them, allowing electricity to flow from one to the other. When the contacts are separated by an insulating air gap, an air space, they are said to be ;open;, and no electricity can flow at typical voltages.*witches can be and are classified according to the arrangement of their contacts in electronics field, but electricians in the electrical wiring service business and their electrical supplier industries use different nomenclature, such as Bone=wayB, Btwo=wayB, Bthree=wayB and Bfour=wayB switches.
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We have types of switches also, *P*! (single pole single through), *P'!(single pole double through), 'P*!(double pole single through), 'P'! (double pole double through)

"a<e-6e/ore-6rea<D 6rea<-6e/ore-ma<e
(n a multi=throw switch, there are two possible transient behaviors as you move from one position to another. (n some switch designs, the new contact is made before the old contact is bro"en. !his is "nown as ma"e=before=brea", and ensures that the moving contact never sees an open circuit (also referred to as a shorting switch). !he alternative is brea"=before=ma"e, where the old contact is bro"en before the new one is made. !his ensures that the two fi:ed contacts are never shorted to each other. 3oth types of design are in common use, for different applications.

1iased s'itches
!he momentary push=button switch is a type of biased switch. (n this contact is made by spring. !he most common type is a push=to=ma"e switch, which ma"es contact when the button is pressed and brea"s when the button is released. A push=to= brea" switch, on the other hand, brea"s contact when the button is pressed and ma"es contact when it is released. An e:ample of a push=to=brea" switch is a button used to release a door held open by an electromagnet. Changeover push button switches do e:ist but are even less common.

"ercury ti*t s'itch

!he mercury switch consists of a drop of mercury inside a glass bulb with + contacts. !he two contacts pass through the glass, and are connected by the mercury when the bulb is tilted to ma"e the mercury roll on to them. !his type of switch performs much better than the ball tilt switch, as the li&uid metal connection is unaffected by dirt, debris and o:idation, it wets the contacts ensuring a very low resistance bounce free connection, and movement and vibration do not produce a poor contact.

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%ni/e s'itch
Hnife switches are uni&ue, because rather than employing an enclosed circuit connection area with a rubber= or plastic=insulated section for the user, the contacts and bridge are fully e:posed. !he B"nifeB, a flat metal swinging arm, oscillates via user operation between a set of two or more contact areas. !he "nife and contacts are typically formed of copper, steel, or brass, depending on the application. Although "nife switches are inferior to traditional switches in applications where user safety are paramount, "nife switches are still commonly employed in everyday high=voltage applications such as building transformers, large power relays, air=conditioning units, etc.

Changeo5er s'itch
A changeover switch provides two distinct events, the ma"ing of one contact and the brea"ing of the other. !hese can be used to feed the inputs of a flip=flop. !his way the press will only be detected when the pressed contact is made and the release will only be detected when the released contact is made. When the switch is bouncing around in the middle no change is detected. !o get a single logic signal from such a setup a simple *F latch can be used.

!oggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more positions. !he common light switch used in household wiring is an e:ample of a toggle switch. Aost toggle switches will come to rest in any of their lever positions, while others have an internal spring mechanism returning the lever to a certain normal position, allowing for what is called BmomentaryB operation.

Pushbutton switches are two=position devices actuated with a button that is pressed and released. Aost pushbutton switches have an internal spring mechanism returning
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the button to its Bout,B or Bunpressed,B position, for momentary operation. *ome pushbutton switches will latch alternately on or off with every push of the button. Dther pushbutton switches will stay in their Bin,B or Bpressed,B position until the button is pulled bac" out. !his last type of pushbutton switches usually have a mushroom=shaped button for easy push=pull action.

*elector switches are actuated with a rotary "nob or lever of some sort to select one of two or more positions. #i"e the toggle switch, selector switches can either rest in any of their positions or contain spring=return mechanisms for momentary operation.

A Coystic" switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one a:is of motion. Dne or more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated depending on which way the lever is pushed, and sometimes by how far it is pushed. !he circle= and=dot notation on the switch symbol represents the direction of Coystic" lever motion re&uired to actuate the contact. coystic" hand switches are commonly used for crane and robot control. *ome switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion of a machine rather than by the hand of a human operator. !hese motion=operated switches are commonly called limit switches, because they are often used to limit the motion of a machine by turning off the actuating power to a component if it moves too far. As with hand switches, limit switches come in several varieties9

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!hese limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selector hand switches fitted with a lever pushed by the machine part. Dften, the levers are tipped with a small roller bearing, preventing the lever from being worn off by repeated contact with the machine part.

Pro:imity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part either by a magnetic or high=fre&uency electromagnetic field. *imple pro:imity switches use a permanent magnet to actuate a sealed switch mechanism whenever the machine part gets close (typically 2 inch or less). Aore comple: pro:imity switches wor" li"e a metal detector, energi)ing a coil of wire with a high=fre&uency current, and electronically monitoring the magnitude of that current. (f a metallic part (not necessarily magnetic) gets close enough to the coil, the current will increase, and trip the monitoring circuit. !he symbol shown here for the pro:imity switch is of the electronic variety, as indicated by the diamond=shaped bo: surrounding the switch. A non=electronic pro:imity switch would use the same symbol as the lever=actuated limit switch. Another form of pro:imity switch is the optical switch, comprised of a light source and photocell. Aachine position is detected by either the interruption or reflection of a light beam. Dptical switches are also useful in safety applications, where beams of light can be used to detect personnel entry into a dangerous area. (n many industrial processes, it is necessary to monitor various physical &uantities with switches. *uch switches can be used to sound alarms, indicating that a process variable has e:ceeded normal parameters, or they can be used to shut down processes or e&uipment if those variables have reached dangerous or destructive levels. !here are many different typesof process switches9

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!hese switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft either by a centrifugal weight mechanism mounted on the shaft, or by some "ind of non=contact detection of shaft motion such as optical or magnetic.

Kas or li&uid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if that pressure is applied to a piston, diaphragm, or bellows, which converts pressure to mechanical force.

An ine:pensive temperature=sensing mechanism is the Bbimetallic strip9B a thin strip of two metals, Coined bac"=to=bac", each metal having a different rate of thermal e:pansion.

1i6*iogra)hy
!he 5-02 Aicro controller and 7mbedded *ystems "uhammad A*i "a@idi Ganice +i**is)ie "a@idi
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!he 5-02 Aicro controller Architecture, Programming ^ Applications %enneth G!Aya*a $undamentals of Aicro processors and Aicro computers 1!Ram Aicro processor Architecture, Programming ^ Applications Ramesh (!+aon<ar 7lectronic Components D!3!Prasad

Re/erences on the $e6 www.national.com www.atmel.com www.microsoftsearch.com www.geocities.com

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