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Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………1
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………2
The structure of the atom………………………………………………………………………..3
Mass measurements……..………………………………………………………………………..4
Einstein’s Theory…………………………………………………………………………………….5
What kind of “fuels” should we use?...........................................................6
Conditions for fusion……………………………………………………………………………….8
Magnetic Confinement…………………………………………………………………………….9
The particle’s trajectories………………………………………………………………………..9
Plasma heating……………………………………………………………………………………..10
ITER Objectives…………………………………………………………………………………….13
History of ITER……………………………………………………………………………………...14
Time table…………………………………………………………………………………………....15
Energy production………………………………………………………………………………….15
Safety……………………………………………………………………………………………………16
Fusion economics…………………………………………………………………………………..17
The energy now…………………………………………………………………………………….17
Epilogue……………………………………………………………………………………………….19
Glossary……………………………………………………………………………………………….20
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………….21
Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………22
Abstract
ITER
1
Introduction
2
The structure of the atom
1
Deuterium ( 1 proton 1 neutron) and tritium ( 1 proton 2 neutrons) are two very common isotopes of
Hydrogen and they are widely used as “fuels” in nuclear fusion
3
Mass measurements
mass spectrograph
Firstly the atoms of the element are ionized2 and they are accelerated in
an electric field with energy :
(1/2)mv2=eV=E (1)
Then they get in a magnetic field where they execute rotative motion with
specified radius.
mv2/r=BeV (2)
2
Ionized atoms are charged particles because they have no electrons.
4
Einstein’s theory
Aston’s measurements showed that the sum of the mass of 4 individual
hydrogen atoms was 0.03 times greater than the mass of a Helium atom. The
significance of this result was pointed out by the astrophysicist Arthur
Eddington who realized that there was a mass loss between the two elements.
Here comes Albert Einstein with his famous theory about the
equivalence of mass and energy ( ΔΕ=Δm c2 ) who says that this mass defect
(loss) is actually an energy defect (It is said that the energy is frozen mass).
This can be understood if we think that the nucleons (protons and neutrons)
inside the nucleus are kept together by a strong nuclear force. Supposing that
we could separate the nucleons we would consume energy in order to make it
equal to ΔΕ=Δm c2.
The iron has the least mass defect per nucleon. From this we can understand
that the iron nucleus has the least energy. Therefore it is the most stable
which means that the closer is an element on this, the more difficult we can
reform it.
5
Light nucleus Heavy nucleus
Theoretically, there are many reactions that make fusion but if we want
to develop an industrial application we should use the proper elements in order
to maximize the profitability and usability of the vessel. This query was set
from the age of Rutherford, however, during World War II the research did not
focus on how we can make controlled nuclear fusion. Later scientists started
by fusing deuterium atoms which are isotopes of hydrogen. (1)
In the first one we join two deuterium atoms and we get an atom of
tritium (an isotope of hydrogen which is 3 times heavier than it) and a
proton.
3
In the second we join two deuterium atoms and we get an atom of He
(Which is a rare form of helium) and a neutron.
The products of the reactions above (T and 3H) were fused again with
deuterium forming 4He (α particles) and a proton or a neutron.
6
He3
Currently, scientists have come up with the result that the most efficient
reaction is the fusion between Deuterium and Tritium, because it is the fastest
and the one that demands the lowest temperature. Additionally, it is the most
probable reaction:
Cross-section
fix
“Bringing two nuclei together is rather like trying to roll up a ball and put it
into a hole on the top”. The bigger the hole the more potential is that you find
the target. (1) In quantum mechanics, this probability is named cross-section
and it depends on the energy of the colliding nuclei. As we observe in the
diagram the DT reaction has the greatest cross-section with the less energy
so it would be the most efficient.
7
Moreover it is the cheapest as deuterium can be found in sea where 6, 7 kg of
water gives us 1 gram of deuterium.
The Tritium does not exist in the natural environment so we use Lithium
(a common element that is used widely for example in lithium batteries) to
produce it. There are two main forms of Lithium in nature 6Li and 7Li (The
Lithium consists of 92, 6% 7Li and 6, 4% 6Li). When the neutrons of D-T
reactions fall on the lithium, tritium and helium is released:
6,7
Li + n → 4He + T
The process of making fusion is rather easy. We can achieve that for
example by accelerating particles in high voltages and throw them on solid
targets. Nevertheless, these methods were not efficient because most of the
particles did not find their target, so a new need was created to develop
systems that would recycle the unused particles until they succeed.
The solution was to give energy to these particles by heating them in
great temperatures during a process called thermonuclear fusion. For this to
happen the gas of the element is heated in 200.000.000oC where it exists in a
form called plasma. This is the most common state of matter in the universe
there all the atoms have lost all their electrons which are ionized and they
move individually at a random track. (1)
This perpetual motion had to be controlled in order to make a vessel
because there is not a material that may handle these temperatures (even the
most compact material would evaporate). Scientists exploited the fact that
plasma is a very good conductor (ex. The hydrogen in the form of plasma is 10
times better conductor than the copper in the normal form) as it is comprised
of ions and electrons. This property of plasma enables us to handle it via
magnetic fields. This method is known as magnetic confinement.
8
Magnetic confinement
The trajectory of the particles depends on the magnetic field and the
track that they have owing to the warming. As a result, they make a
combination of a circular and a rectilinear motion (cycloid). (6) The radius of
their orbit is named Larmor radius or cyclotron radius and it depends on the
magnetic field the mass, the charge and the velocity of the particle. The
electron’s Larmor radius is: ρe=1.07x10-4Te0.5/B where Te is the temperature of
the plasma in KeV and B the magnetic field. The ion’s radius is : ρi=4,57x10-
3(A05/Z)Ti0.5/B A is the mass number and Z the atomic number. As we
understand the stronger the magnetic field the smaller the radius. (1)
9
Plasma heating
Ohmic heating
As we said in order to confine plasma we lead current through it. Its
resistance which is owned to the collisions between the electrons and the ions
does not allow all of the electricity to pass and therefore the lost energy is
released as thermal energy (Joule effect). In order to understand that we can
thing of a lump that gets hot when current flows in its wire. (10)
Nevertheless, this technique is insufficient as it can only give the device
10 million oC from the 200 million oC that is needed. Someone would think that
we can increase the plasma current but this is technically difficult for two
reasons. Firstly, when we increase the current its resistance falls thus then we
need more power to heat it. Secondly, the magnetic field is increased vastly
and it is difficult to confine it (1)
α particle heating
The helium nuclei or α particle that rest from the reactions between D
and T or neutrons and Lithium are still moving before they are absorbed by a
divertor. This means that they still have energy to collide with other particles
and give them energy. However this procedure does not provide enough heat
to the plasma.
10
Neutral beam injection
In this method a beam of high kinetic energy particles enters into the
plasma and collides with the particles in it (ions and electrons). Then each
particle crashes the other particles (ions – electrons, ions – ions) and heating
is released. In order to do that we have to take into account some factors. To
begin with the magnetic field encloses charged particles and it does not let
others to get in, consequently we have to insert neutral particles which are
going to be ionized inside the plasma. Furthermore, neutral beams can not be
accelerated so firstly we have to accelerate an ion beam (charged particles)
and then to neutralize it. To do that we use the following mechanism:
As we may see deuterium is inserted in the form of gas and then it is ionized it
loses its electrons . The ions are accelerated in high voltage and they acquire
great energy in JET their velocity is 3600 km/sec almost 5 times the velocity of
the particles inside the plasma. Then, they are neutralized by passing through
a “cloud of gas” where they acquire electrons again.
Continuing the beam passes through a magnetic field where the ions
that have not been neutralized change their track because they are charged
and they fall into a dump. Moreover, the particles that come from the
neutralizer and have not been accelerated are captured by a vacuum pumping.
(5 p 4) However, during the neutralization the efficiency is about 30% (1) so
many injectors have to be used.
11
Radiofrequency heating
12
Heating at the ion hybrid frequency
The frequency in this case is between the electron’s cyclotron and the
ion’s cyclotron one (1-8GHz). This way of heating is not very efficient however
it is very useful in driving the currents in plasma as it has “a magnetic
component parallel to magnetic field lines”. This means that we can have
Landau type absorption where the particle propagates at the same speed as
the wave you can think a particle which is “surfing” on the electromagnetic
wave. Either the particle has greater velocity than the wave or not it will
acquire the same one. Nevertheless, only a few electrons loose energy and
finally electric current is produced. (7)
ITER Objectives
As we said, there have been many experiments before ITER that gave
us the know-how about the materials which are going to be used in the next
generation reactor and plasma engineering (Plasma heating, magnetic
confinement, appliances that measure plasma). For example, Jet, a vessel in
UK obtained high quality of plasmas for a short period of time. In Tore Supra
managed to make plasma for more time but with less performance. (11)
13
History of ITER
In 1985, after a lot of years of tokamaks operating, the Russians
proposed to the international scientific community the construction of a larger
experiment of fusion. This idea was widely acceptable by E.U., USA, Japan
and Canada, under the procuration of AIEA (International agency for atomic
energy). The initial studies about the project were made during 1988 and 1990,
however a more detailed approach became in the 90’s. For major reasons at
that time USA decides to get of the party and this enforces the other countries
to lessen the project’s budget by achieving fewer targets. Nevertheless USA
will join again later. Finally as we can see in the following map Korea, China
and India also joined the club. (11)
14
Time table
As we referred ITER, as well as and its precursors (JET, Tore supra), is an
experimental reactor, nevertheless its size will be much greater than them. As
a result they will produce more plasma and more energy. Its designing is going
to last 10 years and its operation at least 30. After that if the operation is
successful DEMO (Demonstration) a new vessel will be constructed in which
the feasibility of building a fusion power plant will be proven. (11)
Energy production
The question is how will ITER produce energy? The energy which is
released due to fusion is given to neutrons (80%) (1), which acquire great
velocity. The fact that they are neutral allow them to pass through the
magnetic field and fall on the walls of the reactor and heat the reactors. Then
the classical procedure follows where water is warmed, steam is produced and
an alternator is activated to produce electricity. The energy of the other
particles is 20% and as we said it is used in order to heat the plasma.
(FAQ) The difficulty in these attempts is to produce more energy thay it
is consumed. Of course the nuclear one proved that this is possible, however
the target is to make controlled fusion. Now this problem hasn’t been solved
yet. The best power that JET reactor produces is 16 MW for 1-2 sec for
injected power 24 MW.
ITER will produce 500 MW for 400s and additionally 20% due to the
exothermic reactions of the materials. Nevertheless, there is going to be too
much waste during the convention to electricity as the efficiency is only 40%
so the final gaining is going to be 1 MW. This is not a large amount of energy
but it is enough to prove that energy can be produced. Further more, we
should not forget that ITER is an experiment in a small scale that needs to
comply with today’s standards for safety. Therefore, if ITER is a successful
project, DEMO (Demonstration) will be constructed in 2040 which is going to
be much more efficient. All these steps will enable us to erect safe and
profitable plants. (8)
15
Safety
The scientists in ITER have carefully analyzed all the factors like
weather conditions, terrorism, accidents etc (9) that may harm the facilities in
order to make a reliable vessel. The conclusion from this research is that even
in the worst scenarios the plant will be destroyed and the most affected
citizens will have 1% more radiation than they do.
First of all the possibility of explosions is not alarming because any time
in the reactor has less than a gram of fuel which feeds the fusion. This means
that the reaction can not continue unless we give fuel. Fission plants, use
radioactive materials like Uranium and Plutonium, which are very dangerous
and they have to be kept for tenths of thousands of years in safety. Unlike
them, fusion factories use only Lithium and water which are completely
nonradioactive and abundant in the natural environment.
The fact that Tritium is appearing in the procedure is not apprehensive
because it only has 12.3 years half life so it is destroyed quickly. Neverthe-
less it is considered that the next generation of reactors will only use
Deuterium as fuel. The offals of the installation are the materials suck as
advanced steels that compose the reactor which are going to be
removed when its operation finishes. These will be kept safe for 100
years or less as they are all carefully chosen to have the least
radioactivity possible.
This is not that dangerous if we think that after a decade the radiation
will be the same as in a coal power plant. This happens owing to the Uranium
and other harmful elements which are contained in this. To sum up, a coal
factory that produces 1GWatt of energy per year releases 5 tons of Uranium,
lot less than the amount which is needed in a fission power plant.
Finally, in comparison to the other plants no green house gasses are
released and generally nothing that may harm too the environment
excessively. (1)
16
Fusion Economics
In order to use a kind of energy in our every day life it should be cheap
and competitive to the other types of energy. The fact that fusion will get widely
in use in 2050 does not allow us to predict exactly the cost of the other power
plants. This happens because some roles change in the economy and the
environment. (1)
For example we know well the standard costs to operate a coal plant.
However we do not know:
What resources of fuel we will have in the future and which is going to be
their price.
Today some filters have been developed that reduce the emission of the
greenhouse gases but are very expensive. Will the factories be obliged to
use them?
The consequences of the environment’s distraction are not visible yet. What
is going to be their cost?
What will the taxes be in the future?
Besides all these, some models which are satisfyingly acceptable have shown
that the energy from nuclear fusion will be feasible because:
The cost of the fuels will be only 1% of the total and the fuels exist widely in
any place on earth so there is no country that may capitalize them.
The cost of a big part of the installation is already known (generators,
turbines).
From the current cost of the tokamaks we assume that the confinement
cost will be high, however the produced power will be 1000 MWatt very
must bigger than the conventional vessel’s efficiency.
17
Currently, many types of energy are used in order to cover our needs.
Depending on its resources (Petrol, coal, gas, even wood or animal dung). Its
requirements and its alliances, each country uses different energy production
systems. The dominant countries like USA and the European Union consumes
mainly petrol and as a result of this the 80% of world-wide energy is taken out
from it. However, oil stores are gradually reduced. Although it is said that many
reserves have not been discovered yet, owing to the scientists, the current are
going to last approximately from 20 to 40 years as the consumption is going to
be greater due to the population increase. Additionally the prices are going to
be so high, so the purchase of petrol completely will be inefficient. To continue,
coal is another solution as we have resources for 200 years, coal may be
found almost in every country on earth so we can not have a monopoly.
Nevertheless, fossil fuels are very harmful to the environment. For
instance, an energy production plant that uses coal, for each tone of fuel
releases 3.5 tones of CO2. If we consider the fact that an annual operation
demands 5 billion tones of coal we can understand that the offals exist in a
dangerous quantity in the air. As a result, abnormal phenomena are observed
like the greenhouse effect and acid rain. Beyond the infection of the natural
environment all these also affect the temperature on earth and cause unusual
weather conditions and ice melting in the poles. Finally, an attempt that was
made to replace the coal with “the more ecological” gas was not viable
because gas does not exist in a large quantity on earth.
Electricity is a very clear and easy to use form of energy which
comprises the 13% of the total energy that we consume. Its disadvantage is
that it cannot be produced directly therefore it has to be made by processing
“other kinds of fuels” like coal, petrol, hydroelectric and fission. Fission is
widespread in France 80% of electric energy is produced by fission and 30% in
18
Japan. Both countries have reduced the greenhouse effect emissions, however
the safety of the factories’ facilities remains controversial.
Conclusively, the hydroelectric plants are not completely harmless and
we do not know if the rivers have water in the future in order to operate. The
other conventional types of energy such as solar power, wind, energy are not
so efficient as they do not offer continually and they are too expensive facilities.
(1)
Conclusion
19
Glossary
20
Bibliography
Books
WebPages
http://www.efda.org/eu_fusion_programme/r-plasma_physics.htm
From European fusion development agreement site. (3)
http://www.jet.efda.org/pages/content/fusion3.html
From Jet’s official site. (4)
httphttp://www.iter.org/pdfs/presskitITEReng.pdf
From the ITER’s official site. (2)
http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/gb/fusion/physique/trajectoire.htm
F From CEA a French technological research organization. (6)
http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/gb/fusion/physique/chauffagerf.htm
From CEA a French technological research organization. (7)
http://www.iter.org/FAQ/EE.htm
From the ITER’s official site. (8)
http://www.iter.org/FAQ/SA.htm
From the ITER’s official site. (9)
http://www.iter.org/Conditions.htm
From the ITER’s official site. (10)
http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/gb/iter/iter.htm
From CEA a French technological research organization. (11)
Articles
http://www.jet.efda.org/pages/focus/006heating/index.pdf
By Jam Mlynar, From Jet’s official site. (5)
http://www.iter.org/pdfs/presskitITEReng.pdf
From the ITER ’s official site. (2)
21