SIMULATION MODELS TO OPTIMISE HYDROGEN FUELLED ENGINE PERFORMANCE

MOHAMMED KAMIL MOHAMMED

Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical Engineering (Automotive)

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG

2011

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ABSTRACT Hydrogen is a strong candidate as an alternative fuel and energy carrier which could address answers to environmental pollution, emissions and geo-political tensions. This thesis aims to develop modeling codes for rapid simulation and optimisation for hydrogen fuelled engines (H2ICE). A composition and property model is developed for calculating the composition and thermodynamic properties of the multi-components gases in the H2ICE. The framework of this model encapsulates all possible situations from gases that are modelled on a molecular level to gases that are modelled as fresh air with some residuals. A one-dimensional model for a port injection H2ICE is also developed. This model uses a single-zone approach and simulates the different physical phenomena in the intake, compression, combustion and expansion processes. Previous models for heat transfer and heat release are introduced for hydrogen applications after proposing suitable modifications and calibrating factors. In addition, computational models are developed to investigate and optimise injection characteristics in direct injection H2ICEs as well as common rail port injection fuelling system. Following this, a one dimensional model is developed for an engine with dual pure fuels and blended fuels. The considered fuels are hydrogen, gasoline, methane, gasoline-hydrogen blends and methane-hydrogen blends. These models have been calibrated and validated against experimental works and the findings of previous studies. The results have showed the accuracy of the composition and property code and that it is a very useful tool for H2ICE simulations. Less than 0.3% deviation has been noticed for the entire considered range of temperature and equivalence ratio ( ). In addition, the port injection code has highlighted that spark timing as a very important contributor among the different parameters and how an optimisation for these contributors can enhance the performance. A calibration factor of 2.183 has been proved to give accurate results for the new heat transfer correlation. Besides, the deviation in the results of the heat release model was 2.3% in the worst case. From the injection models, it was shown that optimizing the injection parameters, in particular injection timing, are very crucial factors for engine performance and proper operation for the feeding system. The performance of H2ICE in comparison with engines use other fuels was investigated using the dual fuel model. Hydrogen fuel showed its superiority in the lean conditions ( < 0.4). Furthermore, the penalty and benefits from hydrogen enrichment were clarified. It was shown that adding small controllable mass factions of hydrogen (< 10%) to gasoline enhances the burning velocity and combustion process in the low speed range. However, a small reduction in the output power (< 6%) was documented. Adding hydrogen to methane showed greater advantages due to the extremely low burning velocity of methane. It can be recognized that the developed simulation codes are powerful tools for the H2ICE community. With these models, experiments can be supplemented and supported by fast calculations.

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ABSTRAK
Hidrogen ialah calon terbaik sebagai bahan bakar alternatif dan pembawa tenaga yang dapat menyelesaikan permasalahan pencemaran alam sekitar, emisi dan ketegangan geo-politik. Thesis ini menumpukan kepada pembangunan model untuk simulasi pantas dan optimisasi enjin dengan bahan bakar hidrogen. Sebuah model komposisi dan ciri telah dibangunkan untuk menyelesaikan pengiraan komposisi dan ciri termodinamik bagi pelbagai komposisi gas di dalam enjin hydrogen. Rangka kerja model ini meliputi pelbagai kemungkinan keadaan gas yang dimodelkan pada tahap molekul sehingga kepada pemodelan gas yang mengandungi udara segar dan sedikit gas baki. Model satu dimensi untuk enjin hidrogen bersuntikan pancarongga juga telah dibangunkan. Pendekatan satu dimensi telah digunakan untuk mensimulasi beberapa fenomena fizikal yang berbeza semasa proses masukan, mampatan, pembakaran dan pengembangan. Beberapa model terdahulu bagi pembebasan dan pemindahan haba telah digunakan untuk aplikasi hidrogen setelah mengambilkira beberapa pengubahsuaian dan faktor kalibrasi. Tambahan lagi, model berkomputer juga telah dibangunkan untuk menyiasat dan mengoptimumkan ciri suntikan bagi suntikan terus dan suntikan pancarongga enjin pembakaran dalam dengan bahan bakar hidrogen. Seterusnya, model satu dimensi juga telah dibangunkan bagi enjin yang menggunakan bahan bakar duaan dan bahan bakar campuran. Bahan api yang dikaji adalah hidrogen, petrol, metana, campuran petrolhidrogen, dan juga campuran metana-hidrogen. Model ini telah dikalibrasi dan disahkan dengan menggunakan data eksperimen dan penemuan daripada kajian yang terdahulu. Keputusan menunjukkan ketepatan hasil pengiraan program komposisi dan ciri yang terdahulu dan membuktikan kebergunaannya untuk simulasi enjin pembakaran dalam hydrogen. Jurang pengiraan adalah kurang daripada 0.5% bagi kesemua julat suhu dan nisbah kesetaraan yang diambilkira. Sebagai tambahan, bagi suntikan pancarongga, keputusan telah menunjukkan bahawa pemasaan pencucuhan adalah factor terpenting yang menyumbang kepada penambahbaikan prestasi enjin berbanding beberapa parameter lain dan bagaimana parameter ini dioptimumkan. Faktor kalibrasi sebanyak 2.183 membuktikan kemampuan korelasi pemindahan haba mampu memberikan hasil pengiraan yang tepat. Selain daripada itu, jurang perbandingan terbesar sebanyak 2.3% telah dikenalpasti bagi model pelepasan haba. Daripada model suntikan, telah ditunjukkan bahawa proses optimisasi parameter suntikan, khususnya pemasaan suntikan sangat penting bagi prestasi enjin dan pengoperasian system campuran enjin yang lebih baik. Prestasi enjin hidrogen telah dibandingkan dengan enjin yang menggunakan bahan bakar berbeza dengan menggunakan model bahan bakar duaan. Enjin hidrogen telah menunjukkan kelebihannya yang ketara untuk operasi campuran rendah dimana nilai nisbah kesetaraannya adalah kurang dari 0.4. Sebagai tambahan, kelemahan dan kelebihan daripada pengayaan hidrogen telah berjaya dinyatakan secara jelas. Terbukti bahawa penambahan sejumlah amaun pecahan jisim hydrogen (kurang dari 10%) kepada petrol mampu meningkatkan prestasi halaju nyalaan dan proses pembakaran semasa julat halaju enjin yang rendah. Walau bagaimanapun, sedikit pengurangan daripada keluaran enjin (kurang dari 6%) telah dikenalpsti. Penambahan hidrogen kepada metana telah memberikan penambahbaikan yang lebih ketara akibat daripada halaju nyalaan asli metana yang sangat rendah. Secara umumnya, dapat dinyatakan bahawa model yang telah dibangunkan adalah alat bantu yang sangat berguna untuk komuniti kajian enjin pembakaran dalam hydrogen. Dengan menggunakan model ini, eksperimentasi dapat diperbaiki dan dibantu dengan suatu kaedah pengiraan yang pantas.

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CONTENTS Page SUPERVISORS' DECLARATION STUDENT'S DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT ABSTRAK CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES NOMENCLATURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER I 1.1 1.2 INTRODUCTION 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 9 ii iii v vi vii viii xii xiii xvii xxv

Introduction Hydrogen as a Fuel 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 Hydrogen production Hydrogen storage and infrastructure Incentives toward hydrogen Barriers and challenges

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Hydrogen Economy Malaysian Hydrogen Energy Roadmap Problem Statement Objectives of the Study Scope of The Study Outline of The Thesis

CHAPTER II 2.1 2.2 2.3

LITERATURE REVIEW 11 11 12 13 14

Introduction Historical Milestones Hydrogen Combustion Properties 2.3.1 2.3.2 Wide range of flammability Low ignition energy

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2.3.3 2.3.4 2.4

Small quenching gap High auto-ignition temperature

15 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 18 19 19 20 21 23 24 25 27 28 29 30 32

Hydrogen Fuel Research Parties 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 BMW car manufacturer research group, Germany MAN car manufacturer research, Germany Ford motor company research, USA Technical University of Graz, Austria Argonne and Sandia National Laboratories, USA University of Ghent, Belgium

2.5

Abnormal Combustion 2.5.1 Pre-ignition and backfire

2.6

Hydrogen Induction Mechanisms 2.6.1 2.6.2 Port injection fuel systems Direct injection fuel systems

2.7 2.8

Equilibrium and Property Simulations Hydrogen Engine Modelling 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 Heat transfer Friction Residual gas fraction

2.9 2.10

Hydrogen as Dual and Blended Fuel Conclusions

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 3.1 3.2 Introduction Composition and Property Model 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.3 Chemical equilibrium model Thermodynamic properties Hydrogen-air-residual gas mixture Adiabatic flame temperature Overview of HydEnPro 33 34 35 42 46 47 48 50 51 52 53 53 54 58 60 66

Modelling of Port Injection Hydrogen Fuelled Engine 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 3.3.8 Definitions and classifications Model characterisation Model assumptions Governing equations Crankshaft drive model Charge changing model Heat transfer model Heat release

3.3.9 3.3.10 3.3.11 3.3.12 3.3.13 3.3.14 3.3.15 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.5

Residual gas fraction Load operation modes Engine cycle processes Injector delivery rate Engine friction Engine performance characterisation Overview of HydEnMod Direct injection hydrogen fuelled engine Common rail injection system

73 74 75 76 78 83 84 85 85 90 98 98 104 108

Injection Characteristics of Hydrogen Fuelled Engine

Performance Modelling of Dual Fuel Engine 3.5.1 3.5.2 Engine model setup Validation test set-up

3.6

Summary RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER IV 4.1 4.2

Introduction Calibration And Validation 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 Composition and properties Engine performance Injection models Dual fuel model

109 109 110 114 119 121 125 125 126 128 131 132 133 143 146 150 156 156 168 175 175 181 188

4.3

Predictions Of HydEnPro 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 HydEnPro multi-choices Mole fraction Thermodynamic properties

4.4

Predictions Of HydEnMod 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 Heat transfer Sensitivity analysis using HydEnMod Heat release approaches Friction losses Engine performance parameters

4.5

Hydrogen Injection Systems 4.5.1 4.5.2 Direct injection model for hydrogen fuelled engine Rail Injection model for hydrogen fuelled engine

4.6

Dual Fuels Operation 4.6.1 4.6.2 Hydrogen, gasoline and methane as pure fuels Hydrogen blends as fuels

4.7

Summary

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

5.1 5.2

Introduction Summary of Findings 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 Port injection model Property and composition model Dual fuel model Injection system models

189 189 189 190 190 191 192 192

5.3 5.4

Contributions of the Present work Recommendations for Future Work

REFERENCES

194

APPENDICES

A B

Coefficients for the HydEnPro Simulation Package Numerical Methods in HydEnPro B.1 B.2 Newton-Raphson solution for the nonlinear set LU decomposition method

214 217 217 220 222 222 225 227 228 229 231 234

Derivations of Engine Sub-models C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 PIFL formula Residual gas fraction Intake end state Compression and expansion Combustion

D E

Inputs and Parameters of HydEnPro and HydEnMod List of Publications

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LIST OF TABLES Table No. 2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Hydrogen properties compared with methane and gasoline properties Low temperature combustion products Relationships between equilibrium variables Gas constituents in H2ICE Molecular weights of the chemical constituents Engine Models Values of the constants in Woschni's correlation Eq. (3.65) Standard enthalpies of formation for combustion chemical constituents Typical test data for engine oil viscosity Valve train designs Constants for valvetrain friction in Eq. (3.124) DI Engine specifications Temperature of the main engine parts Parameters used in the exhaust environment Specifications of the Yamaha single cylinder PI engine Conditions and constants in the port injection model Specifications and operating conditions of the considered engines Calibration parameters for premium matching Engine parameters of literature (Ferguson and Kirkpatrick, 2001) Comparison for the FMEP predictions between present study (HydEnMod) and previous study (Ferguson and Patrick, 2001) Specifications of the engine of Mohammadi et al. (2007) Calibration parameters setting for the dual fuel model Key engine parameters used in friction model Page 13 38 41 42 45 55 62 69 80 81 82 87 89 90 100 102 115 115 117 118

4.5 4.6 4.7

119 122 147

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure No. 1.1 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 Roadmap for the hydrogen energy for Malaysia Flammability ranges of comparative fuels at atmospheric temperature Minimum ignition energies in relation to The models of the present work Structure of the composition and property model Flow chart for calculation procedure at atmospheric pressure Page 8 14 14 34 35 49 56 59 81 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 99 101 104 105 106 107

Kinematic of the crankshaft drive Valve geometry Various valvetrain designs Intake system model Powertrain model Exhaust system model CR Hydrogen injection System Model setup for the hydrogen CRIS Common rail configuration Geometry of the flow-split Yamaha FZ150i GT-POWER model Pudding model Schematic diagram of the engine Test engine connected to the eddy current dynamometer Schematic diagram of the Yamaha FZ150i modified cooling system Test rig instrumentation

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4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

for combustion products. Variations in enthalpy of the chemical constituents Variation of entropy of combustion products. Variation of enthalpy of low temperature combustion products Adiabatic flame temperature as a function of fuel/air equivalence ratio Validation of the simulated pressure trace with Lee et al. (1995) Validation of the simulated pressure trace with Verhelst and Sierens (2007) Comparison between FMEP Components predictions of HydEnMod and Ferguson and Kirkpatrick (2001) Models of the considered engines Brake efficiency comparison between present model and previous experimental results (Mohammadi et al., 2007) Volumetric efficiency comparison between present model and previous experimental results (Mohammadi et al., 2007) Brake power comparison between present model and previous experimental results (Adlan and A-Aziz (2009) Validation with the current experimental work Validation of the dual and blended fuelled engine model Mole fraction as a function of Mole fraction as a function of calculated from NASA and Chemkin calculated by eqp_9 and eqp_4

110 111 111 112 113

4.6 4.7

116 116

4.8

118

4.9 4.10

120 121

4.11

121

4.12

122

4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22

123 124 125 126 127 129 130 131 132 135

Mole fractions of equilibrium products as a function of Variations of ( ) with temperature for combustion products

Variations of enthalpy and entropy with temperature Variation of M, Cp and of burned gas with

Temperature, work and heat transfer variation with crank angle Pressure trends with different operating conditions

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4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35

Temperature trends with different operating conditions Cumulative work trends with different operating conditions Cumulative heat transfer trends with different operating conditions Cumulative heat release trends with different operating conditions p-V diagrams at different compression ratios Cumulative heat release during combustion process Crankshaft friction behaviour with engine speed Piston friction behaviour with engine speed Valvetrain friction behaviour with engine speed Pumping losses behaviour with engine speed Engine friction components behaviour with engine speed Contribution of friction components to total engine friction power Variation of friction power with engine throttle for different engine speeds Variation of power with engine speed Variations of mean effective pressure with engine speed Variations of efficiencies with engine speed Variations of and with engine speed

136 138 140 142 144 145 146 147 148 149 149 150 150

4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45

151 151 152 153 154 154 155 155 157 158

Variations of power with fuel/air equivalence ratio Variations of IMEP, BMEP and FMEP with equivalence ratio Variations of specific fuel consumption Variations of efficiencies with equivalence ratio Variation of BMEP with AFR at different engine speeds Variation of brake thermal efficiency with AFR at different engine speeds

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4.46 4.47

Variation of BSFC with AFR at different engine speeds Variation of maximum cylinder temperature with AFR at various engine speeds Variations of volumetric efficiency with engine speed for various AFR Variations of power output with engine speed for various AFR Variations of ISFC with IT for various AFR Variations of ISFC with IT at different AFR Variations of power output with IT for various AFR Variations of indicated efficiency with IT for different engine speeds Variations of ISFC with IT for various engine speeds Variation of power with IT for various engine speeds Trends of common rail system parameters with engine speed Wave propagation mechanism Trends of common rail system parameters with hole diameter Trends of BMEP with fuel/air equivalence ratio and engine speed Trends of brake power with fuel/air equivalence ratio and engine speed Trends of peak cylinder pressure with equivalence ratio and engine speed Trends of peak cylinder temperature with equivalence ratio and speed BMEP variations with engine speed and fuel/air equivalence ratio Brake power variations with engine speed and fuel/air equivalence ratio Peak cylinder pressure vs. engine speed and equivalence ratio Peak cylinder temperature vs. engine speed and equivalence ratio

159 160

4.48

161

4.49 4.50 4.51 4.52 4.53 4.54 4.55 4.56 4.57 4.58 4.59 4.60

162 163 164 165 166 167 168 170 171 174 176 178

4.61

180

4.62 4.63 4.64

182 183 185

4.65 4.66

186 187

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Increased energy use is the universal driver for raising the quality of life in all societies, from developing to developed countries. However, the present reliance on the energy from fossil fuels produces unwanted side effects. These effects include the environmental pollution which threatens human health, carbon dioxide emissions which accelerate global warming, and geo-political tensions arising from the non-uniform distribution of fossil resources throughout the world. The challenge is to find highly efficient ways to produce, deliver, and use energy that enhance quality of life, but do not threaten the environment and climate or strain geo-political relations. The energy carrier hydrogen is an alternative to fossil fuels and has the potential to achieve these goals (Dresselhaus et al., 2003; Crabtree et al., 2004). Certainly, the equation: hydrogen + air = electricity + drinking water is fascinating. However, hydrogen energy carrier as a replacement for fossil fuels will not appear overnight and transform this charming equation into reality. Extensive research and development (R&D) is required before hydrogen can supply energy in quantities and at costs competitive with fossil fuels. Moreover, making hydrogen fuel available commercially will itself require developing the proper economic infrastructure. Each of these steps takes time (Ogden, 2002); however greater global investment in R&D will most likely increase the pace of economic change. Although it is impossible to predict when the fossil fuel supply may fall short of demand or when global warming might

become acute, the present trend of yearly increases in fossil fuel use narrows our window of opportunity for a managed transition to alternative energy resources.

1.2

HYDROGEN AS A FUEL

The interest in energy systems based on hydrogen is growing rapidly. More than 20 countries are engaged in hydrogen R&D. Japan is one of the most ambitious countries when it comes to their hydrogen program. The USA has launched an extensive research and development strategy to develop hydrogen vehicles and a hydrogen infrastructure. The largest global effort so far was the International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy (IPHE). It was launched in 2003 and aimed at harmonising progress towards a global hydrogen infrastructure (IPHE, 2006). The IPHE partners are Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, the European Commission, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Italy, Japan, Norway, Russia, South Korea, UK and USA.

1.2.1

Hydrogen Production

Unlike coal or oil, hydrogen is not a primary source of energy. Hydrogen cannot be collected by mining or harvesting. Instead, it has to be manufactured usually either by electrolysis or by steam reforming of natural gas. At present, most of the world's hydrogen is produced from natural gas via steam reforming. However, producing hydrogen from fossil fuels would rob the hydrogen economy of much of its power. Steam reforming does not reduce the use of fossil fuels, but rather shifts them from end use to an earlier production step and whats more, still releases carbon to the environment in the form of CO2. Thus, to achieve the benefits of the hydrogen economy, hydrogen must be ultimately produced from renewable non-fossil fuel sources, such as water (by electrolysis). In electrolysis, electrical energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. This process is well-understood and the energy conversion efficiency is approximately 65-75% based on the lower heating value (LHV) of the hydrogen (IEA, 2004). Any source of electricity can be used, though electricity from renewable or nuclear sources is preferable. Considerable effort is being put into developing new and environmentally-attractive ways to make hydrogen. The aim of approaches like photo-biological, photo-electrochemical and photo-chemical

processes is to create hydrogen from sunlight and water more directly than is possible from a combination of solar cells and electrolysis. At the moment such processes are in their infancy and much more research is required before commercial products can be developed.

1.2.2

Hydrogen Storage and Infrastructure

Storage of hydrogen is another important issue and is a crucial part of any hydrogen-based energy system. Hydrogen has a high energy density; a kilogram of hydrogen contains more than three times as much energy as a kilogram of gasoline or natural gas. On a volume basis, however, hydrogen has only about one-third of the energy content of natural gas. This makes it difficult to store hydrogen cost-effectively in small quantities (Larsen et al., 2004). Existing technology for hydrogen storage is limited to compressed gas and liquefaction; both of which are used in demonstration vehicles. Compressed gas, even at the highest practical pressure of 700 bar (DYNETEK, 2010), is still a bulky way to store hydrogen that requires a significant fraction of the trunk space in a small car to enable a 500 km driving range. Liquid hydrogen takes up slightly more than half the volume of 700 bar compressed gas, but it loses 3040% of its energy in liquefaction. Although gas and liquid storage are useful as temporary options in a provisional hydrogen economy, more compact and efficient storage media are needed for a mature hydrogen economy. The most promising hydrogen storage routes are in solid materials that chemically bind or physically adsorb hydrogen at volume densities greater than that of liquid hydrogen. The challenge is to find a storage material that satisfies three competing requirements: high hydrogen density, reversibility of 70100C to be compatible with the present generation of fuel cells and fast release/charge kinetics with minimum energy barriers to hydrogen release and charge (Satyapal et al., 2007). The first requires strong chemical bonds and close atomic packing; the second requires weak bonds that are breakable at moderate temperature; and the third requires loose atomic packing to facilitate fast diffusion of hydrogen between the bulk and the surface, as well as adequate thermal conductivity to prevent decomposition by the heat released upon hydrating. Although several materials have been found that satisfy one or more of the requirements, none have been proven to satisfy all three. In addition to these basic

technical criteria, viable storage media must satisfy cost, weight, lifetime, and safety requirements as well. Hydrogen infrastructure refers to the physical links between sites where hydrogen is produced and where it is consumed. Infrastructure includes long-distance pipelines, transport by road, rail and water, large hydrogen storage facilities and filling stations (Stephens-Romero and Samuelsen, 2009). The transport and distribution of hydrogen is an important issue that does not always get the attention it deserves. The use of large amounts of hydrogen worldwide will require a comprehensive and very costly infrastructure, which can only be developed in the long term. To keep costs at a reasonable level, this infrastructure will have to be used at close to full capacity, making the smooth transition to hydrogen an important challenge for society and industry (Weber and Perrin, 2008). However, a hydrogen infrastructure would have several advantages. Working alongside the existing grids for electricity, natural gas and district heating, a hydrogen grid could act as a fourth backbone that would link the other three energy sources as well as providing energy in its own right (Ball and Wietschel, 2009). Hydrogen could be distributed locally, regionally or nationally, and could even be carried by the existing natural gas grid, with some modifications. Alternatively, a proportion of hydrogen could simply be blended with the supply of natural gas.

1.2.3

Incentives toward Hydrogen

Hydrogen is easy to use because of its versatility, in terms of both manufacturing and end-use. Hydrogen could provide the link between renewable energy and the transport sector, transforming biomass, solar and wind energy into transport fuel and reducing dependence on oil. A hydrogen economy is expected to substantially improve the security of energy supply for the transport sector. At the point of use, burning hydrogen as a fuel has very little impact on the environment. There is neither emission of greenhouse gases, nor of most other pollutants. If air is used as the oxygen source, nitrous oxide will be present in the exhaust gases and may need to be controlled, as with any other combustion technology. The total environmental impact of hydrogen therefore depends almost entirely on the way the hydrogen is produced. Hydrogen energy systems based on renewable energy

sources, such as wind or solar power, are among the most environmentally-benign systems known today. Besides its potential as a fuel or energy transport medium in the transport and power generation sectors, hydrogen could have an important role as a way to store surplus energy (Bossel, 2004). Fuel cells normally used to produce electricity from hydrogen can be designed to switch into reverse and produce hydrogen from electricity. At periods when electricity is cheap when the wind is blowing strongly, for instance, so that wind farms are producing more power than the grid requires this surplus electricity can be used to make hydrogen, which is then stored for future use. This buffer principle could be used on all scales, from centralised power stations right down to small fuel cells in private cars.

1.2.4

Barriers and Challenges

The overall efficiency from primary energy to end use has to be considered carefully, especially with regard to complex energy systems. Considerable drawbacks are identified for a hydrogen system, because of its long energy conversion chain. When hydrogen is produced from electricity and then reversed back into electricity again, there are great losses and therefore additional advantages and added values should be observed to justify such a system from an energy-efficient point of view. One of the most important advantages of hydrogen is its potential to replace gasoline and diesel as transport fuels, and thus to eliminate air pollution directly from vehicles. However it is produced, hydrogen cannot at present compete with conventional transport fuels in purely economic terms. Nevertheless, within 10-20 years the supply of oil is expected to peak, while demand will probably continue to grow, thus in the medium to long term the price of oil is expected to increase. In view of this, the introduction of a hydrogen system has to be seen as a long-term option. Although hydrogen will become cheaper as technology improves and demand increases, hydrogen is not expected to become cost-competitive as a transport fuel for another 10-30 years. Even if the development of a hydrogen infrastructure is given high priority in terms of costs and political willingness, it cannot be expected to be in place before 20-40 years from now (Crabtree et al., 2004).

1.3

HYDROGEN ECONOMY

The vision of hydrogen economy is to unite economic growth and environmental concerns (Kato et al., 2005). There is no universally accepted definition of the hydrogen economy, but it is generally viewed as the replacement for the vast majority of petroleum fuels used by transportation vehicles of all kinds (automobiles, trucks, trains, and aircraft) with hydrogen that is burned in internal combustion (IC) engines or preferably used in fuel cells to more efficiently generate power for transportation (Uhrig and Capehart, 2007). A hydrogen economy, the long term goal of many nations, can potentially confer energy security, along with economic and environmental benefits (Tseng et al., 2005). As a result, hydrogen economy has enormous societal and technical appeal. The ultimate success of a hydrogen economy depends on how the market reacts: does emerging hydrogen technology provide more value than today's fossil fuels? (Balat, 2008). Although the market will ultimately drive the hydrogen economy, governments play a key role in the move from fossil fuel to hydrogen technology (Midilli and Dincer, 2008). The public acceptance of hydrogen depends not only on its practical and commercial appeal, but also on its record of safety in widespread use. Key to public acceptance of hydrogen is the development of safety standards and practices that are widely known and routinely used, like those for self-service gasoline stations or plug-in electrical appliances. The technical and educational components of this aspect of the hydrogen economy need careful attention (Ricci et al., 2008). Historical precedents suggest that hydrogen economy can succeed. New energy sources and carriers have flourished when coupled with new energy converters. Coal became a crucial fuel for steam engines which powered the industrial revolution; it transformed the face of land transportation from horse and buggy to rail and sea, from sailboat to steamship. Oil fuelled the internal combustion engine (ICE) to provide automobiles and trucks which crisscross continents, and later the jet engine, allowing planes to cruise the skies.

1.4

MALAYSIAN HYDROGEN ENERGY ROADMAP

Malaysia has been taking steps to prepare itself for eventual diffusion of hydrogen energy to developing countries (Wan Daud, 2006). The condition of

Malaysian energy resources would help to attain such an objective. Malaysia is currently a significant net exporter of oil and the second largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) in the world behind Qatar (EIA, 2009). Natural gas is currently the main source for producing hydrogen. In 2002, Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia (MOSTI) launched a project for hydrogen production and storage for five years with a RM 7 million (2.2 USD million) budget (Sopian, 2008). Malaysia will soon be a net oil importer. Therefore, it is inevitable that Malaysia should begin venturing sources of energy like hydrogen to address this grave concern. Currently, Malaysia has also been developing a hydrogen road map (Saidi, 2005), in which milestones are defined over a planned period. The Malaysian roadmap for hydrogen energy (Figure 1.1) provides guidelines for future directions and action programs for R&D tailored to future energy business scenarios. Thus, it presents an extensive scrutiny by energy stakeholders on the initiatives that have been carried out in recent renewable energy technologies. It also examines the benefits and sustainability of these technologies on future society and businesses (Sopian, 2008).

1.5

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Climatologists have attached blame for the climate disruption firmly to fossil fuel emissions. Terrible natural disasters are caused by the disruption of the Earth's climate, such as tornados, hurricanes, typhoons, storms, draughts and floods (Veziroglue, 1998). In addition, there is increasing concerns with energy security issues (Ricci et al., 2008). Hydrogen fuel was considered as a renewable and sustainable solution for both issues (Midilli and Dincer, 2008). The major automobile manufacturers, such as GM, Ford, Chrysler, Diamler-Benz, BMW, Toyota, Honda and Mazda among others had announced that they would begin to market hydrogen fuelled cars in the first decade of the 21st century (Veziroglue, 1998). Nevertheless, this promise has not been kept with the first decade of the 21st century having come and gone. Moreover, these ambitions are not expected to be achieved in the near future. It can be concluded that vast challenges are still in this route and the dawn of hydrogen fuel demands more and more efforts and sacrifices to be observed.

Renewable hydroGlobal supplier of First hydrogen gen refueling syshydrogen based fuel refueling system operational Technology cost tem using off- Enhancement of H2 development propeak electricity hydrogen techno- reduced by 50% ject completed operational First hydrogen logy Projects on Start demo fuel boiler Hydrogen techcentralized H2 projects on operational nology reduced by facilities completed COE established hydrogen Fuel 30% H2 distribution Scale up of VPV vehicles Infrastructure for systems and infrastruc- Wind 5 kW ture for local network hydrogen Hydrogen production and are fully developed Production delivery fully Demonstration H2 ICE conversion developed for System kit available in the global hydrogen based fuel market market Completion Advanced storage of 1 kW Solar technology 5 Hydrogen pro- 2nd H2 refuelling PV hydrogen developed (carduction demonsystem using NG production stration plants reforming opera- bon nanostrucsystem tures) commissioned tional Feasibility studies completed Join International Working Group for Standard Development

Figure 1.1: Roadmap for the hydrogen energy for Malaysia

Source: (Sopian, 2008)

The current study attempts to formulate and develop models for calculating composition and properties of H2ICE and for simulating the processes and phenomena in PIH2ICE. The injection characteristics will also intended to be analysed and optimised under different operating conditions. In addition, hydrogen fuel is introduced as dual fuel. Adding hydrogen fuel as supplementary fuel to gasoline and methane is then investigated.

1.6

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study are as follows:

(1) To develop a set of simulation codes for the composition and properties of the multi-component gases. (2) To develop a model for the complete thermodynamic cycle in hydrogen fuelled engine with port injection feeding system (PIH2ICE).

(3) To optimise the injection characteristics for hydrogen fuelled engine with direct injection (PIH2ICE) and common rail (CR) port injection feeding system. (4) To assess the performance of an engine with hydrogen as a dual fuel and a blended fuel by developing and validating a model for this engine.

1.7

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This thesis attempts to develop a set of simulation models and codes suitable for optimisation and parameter studies. Several points are declared herein to present clarified scope. These include:

i. ii.

The models and codes are developed for spark ignited (SI) ICEs. The optimization is seen from the performance viewpoint solely; the emission concerns are not considered in the current scope.

iii.

When modelling the composition and properties of gases, only the constituents that can exist in H2ICE are considered; this does not account for hydrocarbons and other fuels.

iv.

The developed engine simulation code is suited only for normal engine operation; no abnormal combustion phenomena are considered such as knock, pre-ignition or backfire.

v.

The main goal of the DIH2ICE model is to track the optimum IT and its trends with engine speed and AFR. The attention is then devoted to observe and analyse engine performance trends.

vi.

The validation of the dual fuel engine model is accomplished with experimental observations completed within this work for gasoline fuelled engine and with previous experimental studies.

1.8

OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

In chapter 2, a summary of the most important findings of the works related to the objectives of the present study is given. The aim is to be aware of the key achievements and clarify some contradictory claims as well as providing an inclusive

10

overview for the reviewed topics. Chapter 3 is devoted to present the development of four simulation tools. The focus in the first part is on developing a model for the composition and properties of the gases in the different parts and processes of the H2ICE. Another model is developed for a complete cycle in a PIH2ICE. Following this, the development of one dimensional gas-dynamic model for simulating DIH2ICE and PIH2ICE with CR is described. In the last part, a one dimensional gas-dynamic model is developed for ICE that can work with hydrogen, gasoline or methane fuels; or with their blends. This model is dedicated for comparison analysis between the fuels and exploring the effects of adding hydrogen as blended fuel. The validation set-up and experimental tests are presented therein. Chapter 4 is dedicated to presenting the calibrations and validations of the developed simulation models. The results are presented and analysed in this chapter. Finally, Chapter 5 summarises the findings and make recommendations for future developments.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

INTRODUCTION

The literature on H2ICEs is surprisingly voluminous. This chapter offers a comprehensive overview of H2ICE topics which specifically relate to the objectives of the present work. Chronological landmarks in hydrogen fuel age and the desirable and undesirable combustion properties are described first. The major authorities on H2ICE research and their achievements are then presented. Combustion anomalies as well as the strategies of hydrogen feeding to the combustion chamber are demonstrated. The attractive features and drawbacks of the available equilibrium and property models are declared before a final description of the progress that has been achieved with regards to H2ICE modelling.

2.2

HISTORICAL MILESTONES

The classification of hydrogen as a fuel had can be dated back almost 200 years, when Cecil (1822) used hydrogen fuel for his engine. Similarly, the potential of hydrogen as a fuel for ICE has been realised and predicted by Jules Verne, the visionary science-fiction writer, who said in 1874 " I believe that water will one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and light, of an intensity of which coal is not capable" (NHA, 2008). However, the first publication found on hydrogen internal combustion engines dates back to the 1920s, when Ricardo (1924) investigated the

12

effect of equivalence ratio on knock-limited engine operation. Abnormal combustion phenomena (such as pre-ignition and backfiring) led him to the assumption that hydrogen was inapplicable for most uses. In 1928, the first attempts at converting the ICEs of buses, trucks, and submarines to use hydrogen fuel or hydrogen blends were successfully completed. Additional success was achieved by Erren and Campbell (1933) when they published results from an experiment involving several engines being operated with low-pressure direct cylinder injection of hydrogen. An improvement of the mixture formation process was achieved and combustion anomalies were reduced using cylinder injection of hydrogen. The momentum towards hydrogen fuel development had, however, lost its power and decayed, when the fossil fuels arose. This situation remained stagnant until the early 1970s. More specifically, in 1973 after the oil embargo, expectations regarding energy supply changed dramatically resulting in the energy crisis. Consequently, intense programs on the investigation of alternative fuels, in particular hydrogen, were launched within the following decades and obtained a considerable place within the governmental strategic plans for sustainable energy systems.

2.3

HYDROGEN COMBUSTION PROPERTIES

Combustion properties of hydrogen must be carefully studied before planning any large-scale utilisation of hydrogen fuel in the industrial, residential and transportation sector (Das, 1996). The properties of hydrogen differ significantly when compared to other traditional fuels. Table 2.1 summarises the most important physical and combustion related properties of different fuels. Hydrogen is the lightest and simplest of all elements. It is a fairly but not exceptionally reactive gas. It enters into chemical combination with most of the elements and forms more compounds than any other element. Hydrogen gas is colourless, non-poisonous odourless and tasteless. Contrary to most other gases, the inversion temperature of hydrogen lies below ambient temperature. Liquid hydrogen is a colourless, very mobile liquid with low viscosity and surface tension. Solid hydrogen is a colourless, and crystallises in the hexagonal closest packed structure. The most important properties, which contribute to its use as a fuel, are analysed in the following subsections.

13

Table 2.1: Hydrogen properties compared with methane and gasoline properties

Property
Molecular weight (g/mole) Density (kg/m3) Mass diffusivity in air (cm2/s) Kinematic volume fraction (mm2/s) Stoichiometric volume fraction (in air) Minimum ignition energy (MJ) Auto-ignition temperature (K) Adiabatic flame temperature (K) Normalized flame emissivity (200 K, 1 atm) Flammability limits is air (%vol.) Quenching distance (mm) Lower heating value (MJ/kg) Higher heating value (MJ/kg)

Hydrogen Methane
2.016 0.08 0.61 110 29.5 0.02 858 2390 1 4 75 0.64 120 142 16.043 0.65 0.16 17.2 9.5 0.28 813 2225 1.7 5 15 2.03 50 55

Gasoline
~ 107 ~ 750 0.05 1.18 1.65 0.25 ~ 500 750 ~ 2275 1.7 1.0 7.6 ~ 2.0 45 48

Source: (Glassman, 1987; Perry and Green, 1997)

2.3.1

Wide Range of Flammability

Hydrogen has a wide flammability range in comparison with all other fuels. As a result, hydrogen can be combusted in an ICE over a wide range of hydrogen-air mixtures: from as lean as air/fuel relative ratio (0.1 < fuel/air equivalence ratio = 10 to as rich as = 0.14

< 7.1). This allows a wide range of engine power

output through changes in the mixture fuel/air equivalence ratio. The flammability limits of comparative fuels are illustrated in Figure 2.1. These flammability limits widen when increasing temperature. The lower flammability limit drops to 2% volume at 300C (equivalent to = 20) (Verhelst and Wallner, 2009). The upper flammability

limit has a fairly complex behaviour in terms of pressure dependence but this is of less importance to engines (Schroeder and Holtappels, 2005). A significant advantage of this is that hydrogen can run on a lean mixture. This is why it is fairly easy to get an engine to start on hydrogen (Padiyar, 1985). Generally, fuel economy is greater and the combustion reaction is more complete and stable when a vehicle is run on a lean mixture (Kiesgen et al., 2006; Ganesh et al., 2008). The final combustion temperature is lower, reducing the amount of pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides, which are emitted in the exhaust (Shioji et al., 2004a).

14

Figure 2.1: Flammability ranges of comparative fuels at atmospheric temperature

Source: (Lanz, 2001)

2.3.2

Low Ignition Energy

Hydrogen-air mixture has very low ignition energy (Abdel-Aal et al., 2005). Figure 2.2 shows the minimum ignition energies for hydrogen air, propaneair and heptaneair mixtures at atmospheric pressure. The energy at atmospheric condition (0.017 MJ) for hydrogen concentrations of (22-26%) ( methane-air and gasoline-air mixtures (Ono et al., 2007). Minimum ignition energy, MJ = 0.67-0.83) is lower than

Equivalence Ratio Figure 2.2: Minimum ignition energies in relation to at atmospheric pressure

Source: (White et al., 2006)

15

2.3.3

Small Quenching Gap The quenching gap describes the flame extinguishing properties of a fuel when

used in an ICE. Specifically, the quenching gap is the distance from the cylinder wall when the flame extinguishes due to heat loss. Since the quenching distance for hydrogen fuel is smaller than other fuels (Shudo and Nabetani, 2001), the flame front can escape the combustion chamber through the intake valve more easily, resulting in a backfire (Halmari, 2005). It is minimal for mixtures around stoichiometry and decreases with increasing pressure and temperature. As can be seen in Table 2.1, it is about onethird that for methane and gasoline. Hence, the cooling losses are high and the thermal efficiency of H2ICE is lower than that of conventionally fuelled engines (Shudo, 2007). The quenching distance can be experimentally derived from the relation between the minimum ignition energy and the spark gap size (Potter et al., 1960; Hong et al., 2003).

2.3.4

High Auto-Ignition Temperature Hydrogen has a relatively high auto-ignition temperature. This has important

implications when a hydrogen-air mixture is compressed. In fact, the auto-ignition temperature is an important factor for determining the proper compression ratio, since the compression ratio is specified according to the limit permitted by the auto-ignition temperature. There is some ambiguity concerning the auto-ignition temperature of fuels in general and hydrogen in particular as established by Verhelst and Wallner (2009). For methane, values have been found ranging from 810 K to 868 K. However, for hydrogen, values were found from 773 K to 858 K (US Department of Energy, 2010). Some sources list the auto-ignition temperature for hydrogen as lower than that for methane. Other sources list the opposite (Martel, 2000). This ambiguity can be at least partly explained by the sensitivity of auto-ignition temperatures to the experimental apparatus, the experimental procedure and the criterion used for defining the value.

2.4

HYDROGEN FUEL RESEARCH PARTIES

As stated, research on hydrogen technology is truly enormous and miscellaneous. Some car manufacturers, research centres and academic institutions have

16

accomplished considerable progress in this field. It will be appropriate to draw attention to these parties. The following section presents a brief description on their achievements.

2.4.1

BMW Car Manufacturer Research Group, Germany

In 1978, BMW (Bavarian Motor Works) began their research on hydrogen engines and presented several prototype vehicles within the following years. A naturally aspirated 6-litre 12-cylinder engine, equipped with sequential external mixture formation drove the BMW Hydrogen 7-Series. This engine model was a dual fuel engine and equipped with a 3-way-catalyst in order to reduce NOx in stoichiometric operation. Leaner-than-stoichiometric operation was limited to loads, which result in combustion temperatures below the formation temperatures of NOx. Due to the airdisplacement effect, the overall power output of this engine was limited to 161 kW. A modified mono-fuel version of this engine has been employed in the hydrogen record car (H2R). Following this, the power output was increased to 210 kW (Kiesgen et al., 2006). In addition to the hydrogen engine series development research, the efforts were also undertaken to improve the combustion process by means of alternative mixture formation strategies, e.g. cryogenic port fuel injection, high-pressure direct-injection and supercharged spark ignited hydrogen engines (Berckmller et al., 2003). Those investigations were carried out on a one-cylinder research engine with a typical displacement of 0.5 litre, a bore of 84 mm and an adjustable compression ratios range between 9 and 13.5. Combustion with anomalies was observed with cryogenic port fuel injection, while engine performance was significantly increased (Heller and Ellgas, 2006). 2.4.2 MAN Car Manufacturer Research, Germany

MAN Group has investigated four stroke spark ignited hydrogen fuelled engines as propulsion systems for city buses. These engines were 6-cylinder in-line engines with a bore of 128 mm and an overall displacement of approximately 12.8 litre. A turbocharger has been equipped with these engines. The target power output was

17

200 kW for lean operation (

2), engine speed of 2000 rpm and a compression ratio

of 11. A homogeneous mixture formation was achieved by low pressure DI with IT set at the beginning of compression stroke. These engines were designed to conform to emission standards (EU5) without after-treatment (Prmm, 2006).

2.4.3

Ford Motor Company Research, USA

At Ford Motor Company, a 6.8 litre V-10-cylinder hydrogen fuelled engine was used for the propulsion of a series of light weight shuttle busses. It was equipped with a twin-screw compressor resulting in a maximum power output of 175 kW at an engine speed of 4000 rpm. Mixture preparation was accomplished by sequential PI. These engines were operated at homogenous mixtures in lean mode without after-treatment (Zanardelli, 2006). In addition, investigations on small-scale passenger car engines were conducted in the Ford Scientific Research Laboratories as well as at the University of California at Riverside. These comprehensive studies were carried out on a 2-liter, 4- cylinder, port injection H2ICE (Tang et al., 2002; Heffel, 2003). Several operation strategies have been considered with respect to an increase in engine efficiency and a reduction in NOx emissions using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).

2.4.4

Technical University of Graz, Austria

Several fundamental researches were carried out on single-cylinder engines at Graz Technical University. In addition, an engine that features optical access through a quartz-glass liner and a window in the piston has been used for research. For this engine, the hydrogen/air mixture formation process and the propagation of the flame front during combustion were explored by applying the method of Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence (PLIF). The investigations on hydrogen injection strategy and injector nozzle-geometry were performed for both PI and DI systems (Kirchweger et al., 2006). Moreover, in order to perform global prediction of heat release, engine cycle simulations have been accomplished (Wimmer et al., 2006). The detailed threedimensional computations of the mixture formation and combustion using the commercial CFD solver FLUENT was carried out by (Messner et al., 2006).

18

2.4.5

Argonne and Sandia National Laboratories, USA

At Argonne National Laboratories, several experimental studies on hydrogen engines were conducted in close collaboration with Ford Motor Company. The influence of injection timing as well as the different nozzle geometries of directinjection engines were analysed (Wallner et al., 2006) by means of OHchemiluminescence (the emission of light by a chemical reaction, which can be measured to detect product formation) through UV-endoscopic investigations. The main advantage of the endoscopic technique is that two-dimensional results are provided while the engine operation range is not restricted by pressure limitations. In addition, the details regarding in-homogeneities of the engine combustion process can be recognised. It was observed that for significantly lean AFR equivalence ratios ( the OH-intensity is too weak to be detected by the endoscope. At Sandia National Laboratories, investigations on a transparent hydrogen research engine were performed in order to analyse the influence of injection variations on the mixture formation process. Prior to combustion, the mixture distribution is visualised by means of Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence (PLIF), using acetone as a tracer. During combustion, OH-chemiluminescence is employed to evaluate the mixture distribution. The results confirmed that the pressure and timing of injection as well as the nozzle geometry and location of the injector are important parameters for the mixing process (White et al., 2006). ),

2.4.6

University of Ghent, Belgium

Investigations at the University of Ghent covered experimental operation and analytic research of hydrogen internal combustion engines. Examinations on external mixture formation were conducted on a 7.4 litre V-8-cylinder engine with a compression ratio of 8.5 and a Cooperative Fuel Research engine (CFR) with adjustable compression ratio. Variations on IT, injector inlet geometries and ST were studied (Verhelst, 2005). The experimental results were also used in order to validate engine cycle simulations. In addition, essential work was provided in the determination of hydrogen laminar burning velocities by combustion bomb measurements (Vehelst and Sheppard, 2009).

19

2.5

ABNORMAL COMBUSTION

Normal combustion can be defined as a combustion process in which the combustion event is initiated solely by a controlled spark event, the flame front propagates completely across the combustion chamber and the flame propagation is relatively uniform and consistent. Abnormal combustion refers to a variety of situations in which one or more of the above definitions does not hold. The same properties that make hydrogen such a desirable fuel for internal combustion engines also bear responsibility for abnormal combustion events associated with hydrogen. In particular, the wide flammability limits, low required ignition energy and high flame speeds can result in undesired combustion phenomena, generally summarised as combustion anomalies. These anomalies include surface ignition and backfiring as well as auto-ignition or knock (Ringler et al., 2004).

2.5.1

Pre-Ignition and Backfire

Numerous studies and experiments, aimed at understanding and solving the problem of pre-ignition and backfire, have been conducted over the past 70 years (Heffel, 2003). There was consensus in the literature about the definitions of preignition and backfire. Pre-ignition (sometimes called premature ignition or surface ignition) is a condition where a sudden ignition of fresh charge occurs after the intake valve closure and before the spark plug fires. Backfire (sometimes called back flash) occurs when hydrogen is ignited before the intake valve closes (during the intake cycle). There is ambiguity concerning the source of the ignition. The wide range of the stated justifications is summarised in the following:

1.

Hot spots in combustion chambers: the surfaces of the exhaust valve (Sierens and Verhelst, 2003); and spark plugs (Fiene et al., 2002).

2. 3.

Hot particles (or particulates): (Verhelst et al., 2006; Das, 1996). Metal asperities: such as edges of head cavities or piston bowls (Tang et al., 2002).

4.

The inert dust: in the intake air (Das, 1996).

20

5.

Residual gases: (Watson and Milkins, 1978; Li and Karim, 2006; Boretti et al., 2007).

6.

The overlap: the opening between the intake and exhaust valves (He, 2001; Fiene et al., 2002).

7.

The pyrolysis: (chemical decomposition brought out by heat) of oil suspended in the combustion chamber or in the crevices just above the top piston ring (Stockhausen et al., 2002; Boretti et al., 2007).

8.

The intense high voltage: induced from the set of spark leads in the adjacent one (Verhelst et al. 2006).

9.

The residual energy: in the ignition circuit (Kim et al. 2006).

According to these findings, the pre-ignition and backfire limits are engine specifics and that the exact heat source of the initial pre-ignition is unclear and may have several sources depending on operating conditions (Swain et al.,1988).

2.6

HYDROGEN INDUCTION MECHANISMS

Hydrogen induction techniques play a very dominant and sensitive role in determining the performance characteristics of the H2ICE (Das, 1990;

Suwanchotchoung, 2003). Mixture formation strategies can be classified based on the location of the hydrogen dosing devices. External mixture formation refers to concepts in which hydrogen and air are mixed outside the combustion chamber, whereas internal mixture formation refers to concepts with hydrogen being introduced directly into the combustion chamber. Some researchers have also proposed new concepts with a combination of external and internal mixture formation (Yi et al. 2000; Rottengrber et al., 2004; Wakayama et al., 2006). Generally, hydrogen injection systems for external mixture formation are operated at lower injection pressures (2-8 bar) compared to systems for direct injection (5-250 bar) (Verhelst and Wallner, 2009). However, White et al. (2006) reported contradictory range for the lower pressure in the direct injection engines. The pressure was defined by White et al. (2006) as greater than 80 bar to ensure sonic injection velocities and high enough mass flow rates for start of injection throughout the compression stroke. The exposure of injectors to in cylinder temperatures and pressures

21

in combination with increased injection pressures systems still requires further injector development to reach production standards in terms of durability (Welch et al., 2008). Several studies were also carried out on external mixture formation concepts with cryogenic hydrogen (Hallmannsegger and Fickel, 2004; Heller and Ellgas, 2006; DErrico, 2008; Boretti and Watson, 2009). This technique poses challenges to the injection system due to the extremely low temperatures (boiling temperature of hydrogen is approximately 253C). There is considerable risk on living tissues when subjected to this extremely low temperature. The main formation strategies for hydrogen engines are port injection, which is used in engine research as well as vehicle demonstrations, and direct injection.

2.6.1

Port Injection Fuel Systems

Port injection system injects hydrogen directly into the intake port, rather than the carburettor. Typically, hydrogen is injected after the beginning of the intake stroke. Hydrogen can be introduced in the intake ports either by continuous or timed injection. The former method produces undesirable combustion problems, is less flexible and uncontrollable (Das et al., 2000a; Suwanchotchoung, 2003). The second method is strongly preferred. Extensive studies have indicated the ability of its adoption (Kabat and Heffel, 2002). The trends of NOx emissions with (or ) play vital role in the developed

strategies for port injection. Eichlseder et al. (2003) examined these trends in a port injection hydrogen fuelled engine. Their findings revealed that combustion of lean hydrogen-air mixtures with fuel/air equivalence ratios less than 0.5 ( ) produces

extremely low NOx emissions. Due to the excess air available in the combustion chamber, combustion temperatures do not exceed the NOx critical value of approximately 1800 K. For more comprehensive analysis, Verhelst and Wallner (2009) proposed the critical equivalence ratio term which indicates the value of after which

NOx emissions increases exponentially. Salimi et al. (2009) confirmed this concept in their quasi-dimensional model for H2ICE. They also showed that NOx emissions peak around a fuel/air equivalence ratio of 0.75 ( 1.3). At stoichiometric conditions, the

NOx emissions are at around 1/3 of the peak value. The highest burned gas temperatures in hydrogen operation occur around a fuel/air equivalence ratio near 1.1. At this

22

equivalence ratio, oxygen concentration is low, so the NOx concentration does not peak there. As the mixture gets leaner, increasing oxygen concentrations initially offset the falling gas temperatures and NOx emissions peak around a fuel/air equivalence ratio of 0.75 ( = 1.3). One of the proposed strategies, which are based on the NOxrelationship, is

converting gasoline-fuelled engines to hydrogen engines and running it at a lean constant AFR. Using a conventional throttle and replacing the gasoline fuel system with hydrogen injectors, it is possible to implement this strategy (Olavson et al., 1984; Davidson et al., 1986; Knorr et al., 1996). Fuel ratio is set as high as possible to achieve acceptable power output while still meeting the emissions targets. Hence, the advantage of this strategy is that selecting an equivalence ratio below the NOx emissions critical limit of 0.5 ( 2) results in extremely low emissions signatures even without using

any after-treatment system. The drawback of the constant air-fuel ratio strategy is the considerable loss in power density. Assuming a constant fuel/air equivalence ratio of 0.5 ( =2) results in a theoretical maximum power output of the hydrogen engine that is only about 50% of a regular gasoline engine in stoichiometric operation. Thus, researchers have investigated the potential of using supercharging in combination with constant lean AFR operation to mitigate the significant power loss (Verhelst et al., 2009). The theoretical maximum power output, based on a comparison of calculated mixture calorific values as a function of AFR assuming constant efficiencies, is in the range of about 80% compared to the naturally aspirated gasoline counterpart. An operating strategy using a variable equivalence ratio as a function of engine load was also evaluated for both of the naturally aspirated engines as well as supercharged engines and vehicles. Implementation of this variable equivalence ratio strategy in a range from 0.2 < < 0.5 (2 < < 5) on a GM 454 spark-ignited PFI engine

(commonly known as the Chevrolet Big Block) showed a more than 20% increase in engine power compared to a carburetted version without increasing the danger of back firing (Vehelst and Sierens, 2001b). This study concluded that because of the wide range of applied mixture composition, the range of ignition timings is wide. The injection timing shows significant influence in the low load and speed region, but it is not critical in the high load and speed region.

23

2.6.2

Direct Injection Fuel Systems

The main attractive features of direct injection strategy are the higher power density and the potential for prohibiting combustion anomalies. The available time for the injection process is quite limited. The maximum available time ranges from approximately 20-4 ms across the speed range of 1000-5000 rpm, respectively (White et al., 2006). In spite of this limited duration, it is still possible to classify the injection process as an advanced and retarded injection. This classification is stated according to the period between IT and ST. However, no clear threshold between these two categories has been defined (Verhelst and Wallner, 2009). Injection timing has a decisive role to play with regard to engine performance and emissions. It governs the available time for the mixing process between the injected hydrogen and the air dwelling in the combustion chamber. Mixing time is accountable on hydrogen-air mixing process inside the combustion chamber. It can produce homogeneous or heterogeneous (stratified) mixture (Kovac et al., 2005; Kaiser and White, 2008). In DIH2ICEs, the higher calorific values for the pure hydrogen results in higher power compared with engine with PI feeding system (Eichlseder et al., 2003). Eichlseder et al. (2003) have shown that at low loads (low equivalence ratio), indicated thermal efficiency increases with retarding of injection timing due to a decrease in the compression work caused by differences in mixture gas properties and charge mass. At high loads, they found that efficiency first increases and then decreases with the retard of injection timing. The reversing trend is assumed to be a consequence of an unfavourable mixture formation. However, Lee et al. (2002) reported results contradictory to Eichlseder et al. (2003), finding that for both low and high load, thermal efficiency decreases monotonically with retarding the injection timing. These contradictory findings may be a result of differences in mixture formation (White et al., 2006). According to Shudo et al. (2003), charge stratification leads to a reduction in the heat losses. The local mixture fraction in the near-wall region is expected to be lean compared to the bulk mixture. Cooling losses can be decreased significantly and thermal efficiency is then increased. Adlan and A-Aziz (2009) have investigated the performance characteristics of a single cylinder hydrogen fuelled engine. This engine was optimised originally to work with CNG. Their main finding is the superiority of

24

hydrogen performance compared with CNG at low engine speeds (lower than 2000 rpm). However, at higher speeds the situation was inverted due to the retarded injection timing required to suppress pre-ignition. Developing a suitable injector for the DIH2ICEs is a very vital and difficult objective. This is because such an injector has to overcome the high cylinder pressure at injection instant and inject high flow rates at high pressure. This high pressure was defined by White et al. (2006) as greater than 80 bar and by Verhelst and Wallner (2009) as up to 300 bar. Likewise, the temperature of the injector tip heats up to temperatures of 300-4000C. In addition, the need for rapid mixing necessitates the use of critical flow injectors. The short time duration with late injection requires high mass flow rates. The development of high pressure injectors has been reported by Green and Glasson (1992) and Jorach et al. (1997). The development of hydrogen injectors for injection pressures lower than 80 bar have been reported by (Homan et al., 1983; Varde and Frame, 1985).

2.7

EQUILIBRIUM AND PROPERTY SIMULATIONS

Several equilibrium codes for specifying the chemical constituents of combustion products and calculating their thermodynamic properties were developed and used among researchers in the combustion community. Some equilibrium codes are available for open use. The most well-known codes are Villars-Cruise-Smith (VCS), an algorithm developed and modified by Villars (1959), Cruise (1964), and Smith and Missen (1968); STANJAN, a code developed by Olikara and Borman (1975); and the NASA-Lewis code developed by Gordon and McBride (1976). Even though VCS code is developed for analysing military gun propellants, it was applied to a wide variety of problems. This code was dimensioned to include as many as 700 constituents in a calculation. Furthermore, different models for the gaseous mixture were used in the code. The gaseous products can be assumed as a mixture of perfect gases, an ideal mixture of imperfect gases or a non-ideal mixture of imperfect gases, which is the most general mode1 for a gas mixture. However, for the present application, such computationally intensive and time consuming code are not required. For more details, the interested reader may refer to literature (Villars, 1959; Cruise, 1964; Smith and Missen, 1968).