The Antennas

also creates an oscillating electric field along the elements. These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving transverse electromagnetic field wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating currents in the antenna. Antennas may also include reflective or directive elements or surfaces not connected to the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements, parabolic reflectors or horns, which serve to direct the radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation pattern. Antennas can be designed to transmit or receive radio waves in all directions equally (omnidirectional antennas), or transmit them in a beam in a particular direction, and receive from that one direction only (directional or high gain antennas). The first antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments to prove the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reflectors for both transmitting and receiving. He published his work in Annalen der Physik und Chemie (vol. 36, 1889).

An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio [1] waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are used in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio, communications receivers,radar, cell phones, and satellite communications, as well as other devices such as garage door openers, wireless microphones, bluetooth enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags on merchandise. Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors (elements), electrically connected (often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. An oscillating current of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while the charge of the electrons

ears" television antenna found on broadcast television sets. The most common form of dipole is two straight rods or wires oriented end to end on the same axis, with the feedline connected to the two adjacent ends. This is the simplest type of antenna from a theoretical point of view. Dipoles are resonant antennas, meaning that the elements serve as resonators, with standing waves of radio current flowing back and forth between their ends. So the length of the dipole elements is determined by the wavelength of the radio [3] waves used. The most common form is the half-wave dipole, in which each of the two rod elements is approximately 1/4 wavelength long, so the whole antenna is a halfwavelength long. Several different variations of the dipole are also used, such as the folded dipole, short dipole, cage dipole, bow-tie, and batwing antenna. Dipoles may be used as standalone antennas themselves, but they are also employed as feed antennas (driven elements) in many more complex antenna types, such as the Yagi antenna, parabolic antenna, reflective array, turnstile antenna, log periodic antenna, and phased array. The dipole was the earliest type of antenna; it was invented by German physicist Heinrich Hertz around 1886 in his pioneering investigations of radio waves.

Common Types of Antennas.

Diplole Antenna.

In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used class of antenna. It consists of [4] two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods, which are usually bilaterally symmetrical. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or for receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the antenna. Each side of the feedline to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the conductors. This contrasts with a monopole antenna, which consists of a single rod or conductor with one side of the feedline connected to it, and the other side connected to some type of ground. A common example of a dipole is the "rabbit

Schematic of a (balanced) half-wave dipole antenna connected to an unbalanced coaxial cable.

Fractal Antenna.

A fractal antenna is an antenna that uses a fractal, self-similar design to maximize the length, or increase the perimeter (on inside sections or the outer structure), of material that can receive or transmit electromagnetic radiation within a given total surface area or volume. Such fractal antennas are also referred to as multilevel and space filling curves, but the key aspect lies in their repetition of a motif over two or more scale sizes, or "iterations". For this reason, fractal antennas are very compact, multiband or wideband, and have useful applications in cellular telephone and microwave communications. A good example of a fractal antenna as a spacefilling curve is in the form of a shrunken fractal helix. Here, each line of copper is just a small fraction of a wavelength. A fractal antenna's response differs markedly from traditional antenna designs, in that it is capable of operating with good-to-excellent performance at many different frequencies simultaneously. Normally standard antennas have to be "cut" for the frequency for which they are to be usedand thus the standard antennas only work well at that frequency. This makes the fractal antenna an excellent design for wideband and multiband applications. In addition the fractal nature of the antenna shrinks its size, without the use of any components, such as inductors or capacitors. A loop antenna is a radio

Loop Antenna

antenna consisting of a loop (or loops) of wire, tubing, its or ends other electrical connected to

conductor with

a balanced transmission line. Within this physical description there are two very distinct antenna designs: the small loop (or magnetic loop) with a size much smaller than a wavelength, and the resonant loop antenna with a circumference approximately equal to the wavelength.

Small loops have a poor efficiency and are mainly used as receiving antennas at low frequencies. Except for car radios, almost every AM broadcast receiver sold has such an antenna built inside it or directly attached to it. These antennas are also used for radio direction finding. In amateur radio, loop antennas are often used for low profile operating. Loop antennas are relatively easy to build. A technically small loop, also known as a magnetic loop, should have a circumference of one tenth of a wavelength or less. This is necessary to ensure a constant current distribution round the loop. As the frequency or the size are increased, a standing wave starts to develop in the current, and the antenna starts to have some of the characteristics of a folded dipole antenna or a self-resonant loop. Self-resonant loop antennas are larger. They are typically used at higher frequencies, especially VHF and UHF, where their size is manageable. They can be viewed as a form of folded dipole and have somewhat similar characteristics. The radiation efficiency is also high and similar to that of a dipole.

satellites, which transmit data transmissions or broadcasts, such as satellite television. In a single receiver residential installation there is a single coaxial cable running from the receiver set-top box in the building to the LNB on the dish. The DC electric power for the LNB is provided through the same coaxial cable conductors that carry the signal to the receiver. In addition, control signals are also transmitted from the receiver to the LNB through the cable. The receiver uses different power supply voltages (13/18V) to select antenna polarization, and pilot

tones (22 kHz) to instruct the LNB to select one of the two frequency bands. In larger installations each band and polarization is given its own cable, so there are 4 cables from the LNB to a switching matrix, which allows the connection of multiple receivers in a star topology using the same signalling method as in a single receiver installation. A satellite finder may aid in aiming.

Types
Motor-driven dish A dish that is mounted on a pole and driven by a stepper motor or a servo can be controlled and rotated to face any satellite position in the sky. Motor-driven dishes are popular with enthusiasts. There are three competing standards: DiSEqC, USALS, and 36v positioners. Many receivers support all of these standards. Multi-satellite Some designs enable simultaneous reception from multiple different satellite positions without re-positioning the dish. The vertical axis operates as an off-axis concave parabolic concave hyperbolic Cassegrain reflector, while the horizontal axis operates as a concave convex Cassegrain. The spot from the main dish wanders across the secondary, which corrects astigmatism by its varying curvature. The elliptic aperture of the primary is designed to fit the deformed illumination by the horns. Due to double spill-over, this makes more sense for a large dish.

Satellite dish.

A satellite dish is a dish-shaped type of parabolic antenna designed to receive microwaves from communications

VSAT A common type of dish is the very small aperture terminal (VSAT). This provides two way satellite internet communications for both consumers and private networks for organizations. Today most VSATs operate in Ku band; C band is restricted to less populated regions of the world. There is a move which started in 2005 towards new Ka band satellites operating at higher frequencies, offering greater performance at lower cost. These antennas vary from 74 to 120 cm (29 to 47 in) in most applications though C-band VSATs may be as large as 4 m (13 ft).

Others
Individual dishes serving one dwelling: Direct to Home (DTH). Collective dishes, shared by several dwellings: satellite master antenna television (SMATV) or communal antenna broadcast distribution (CABD). Automatic Tracking Satellite Dish Big ugly dish.

Schematics of reflection principles used in parabolic antennas.

 Television Antenna

the digital television (DTV) transmissions which are replacing them. Sellers often claim to supply a special "digital" or "high-definition television" (HDTV) antenna advised as a replacement for an existing analog television antenna, even if satisfactory: this is misinformation to generate sales of unneeded equipment.

A television antenna, or TV aerial, is an antenna specifically designed for the reception of over-theair broadcast television signals, which are transmitted at frequencies from about 41 to 250 MHz in the VHF band, and 470 to 960 MHz in the UHF band in different countries. Television antennas are manufactured in two different types; "indoor" antennas, to be located on top of or next to the television set, and "outdoor" antennas, mounted on a mast on top of the owner's house. The most common types of antennas [1] used are the dipole ("rabbit ears") and loop antennas, and for outdoor antennas the yagi and log periodic. To cover this range antennas generally consist of multiple conductors of different lengths which correspond to the wavelength range the antenna is intended to receive. The length of the elements of a TV antenna are usually half the wavelength of the signal they are intended to receive. The wavelength of a signal equals the speed of light (c) divided by the frequency. The design of a television broadcast receiving antenna is the same for the older analog transmissions and

Multiple Yagi tv aerials.

Characteristics of the Antennas

Antenna Efficiency:
In antenna theory, antenna efficiency is a loose term usually meaning radiation efficiency, often abbreviated to efficiency. It is a measure of the efficiency with which a radio antenna converts the radiofrequency power accepted at its terminals into radiated power.

 Antenna Equivalent Radius:

The equivalent an antenna conductor is defined as: radius of

where

denotes

the

conductor's circumference, of

is the length the

circumference, and are vectors locating points along the circumference, and and are differentials segments along it. The equivalent radius allows the use of analytical formulas or computational or experimental data derived for antennas constructed from small conductors with uniform, circular cross-sections to be applied in the analysis of antennas constructed from small conductors with uniform, noncircular cross-sections. Here "small" means the largest dimension of the cross-section is much less than the wavelength .

output case. It can be simply called power gain. In a broadside array, the array gain is almost exactly proportional to the length of the array. This is the case provided that the elements of the antenna are not spaced to a point at which large radiation side lobes form in other directions and that the array length exceeds one or two wavelengths. The power gain of a broadside array is nearly independent of the number of broadside elements as long as both of these conditions are met. The two main types of array gain when combining signals are average power of combined signals relative to the individual average power and the diversity gain related to the probability level of outage. The diversity gain is dependent on spatial correlation coefficients between antenna signals.

Antenna Factor:
In telecommunications, the antenna factor is defined as the ratio of the incident electromagnetic field strength to the voltage V (units: V or V) on the line connection of an antenna.

Directivity:

Antenna heigth considerations:

The Aspects for Antenna heights considerations are depending upon the wave range and economical reasons.

Array Gain:
In MIMO communication systems, arr ay gain means a power gain of transmitted signals that is achieved by using multiple-antennas at transmitter and/or receiver, with respect to single-input single-

Diagram showing directivity. In electromagnetics, directivity is a figure of merit for an antenna. It measures the power density the antenna radiates in the direction of its strongest emission, versus the power density radiated by an ideal isotropic

radiator (which emits uniformly in all directions) radiating the same total power. An antenna's directivity is a component of its gain; the other component is its

Gain:
In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of a circuit (often an amplifier) to increase the power or amplitude of

(electrical) efficiency. Directivity is an important measure because most emissions are intended to go in a particular direction or at least in a particular plane (horizontal or vertical); emissions in other directions or planes are wasteful (or worse). The directivity of an actual antenna can vary from 1.76 dBi for a short dipole, to as much as 50 dBi for a large dish antenna.

a signal from the input to the output, by adding energy to the signal converted from some power supply. It is usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal output of a system to the signal input of the same system. It is often expressed using the logarithmicdecibel (dB) units ("dB gain"). A gain greater than one (zero dB), that is, amplification, is the defining property of an active component or circuit, while

Electrical Lenght:
In telecommunications and electrical engineering, electrical length is the length of a transmission [1] medium or antenna element expressed as the number of wavelengths of the signalpropagating in the medium.

a passive circuit will have a gain of less than one. The term gain on its own is ambiguous, and can refer to the ratio of output to input voltage, gain), current (current gain) (voltage or electric

Friis transmission equation:

The Friis transmission equation is used in telecommunications engineering, and gives the power received by one antenna under idealized conditions given another antenna some distance away transmitting a known amount of power. The formula was derived in 1945 by Danish-American radio engineer Harald T. Friis at Bell Labs. Basic form of the equation: In its simplest form, the Friis transmission equation is as follows. Given two antennas, the ratio of power available at the input of the receiving antenna, , to output power to the transmitting antenna, , is given by:

power (power gain). In the field of audio and general purpose amplifiers,

especially operational amplifiers, the term usually refers to voltage gain, but in radio frequency amplifiers it usually refers to power gain. Furthermore, the term gain is also applied in systems such as sensors where the input and output have different units; in such cases the gain units must be specified, as in "5 microvolts per photon" for the responsivity of a photosensor. The "gain" of a bipolar transistor normally refers to forward current transfer ratio, either hFE ("Beta", the static ratio

of Ic divided by Ib at some operating point), or sometimes hfe(the small-signal current

gain, the slope of the graph of Ic against Ib at a point). The term gain has a slightly different meaning in antenna design; antenna gain is the ratio of power received by a directional antenna to power received by an isotropic antenna.

software, like HFSS can compute the near field.

also

Radiation Pattern:
In the field of antenna design the term radiation pattern (or antenna

pattern or far-field pattern) refers to the directional (angular) dependence of the strength of the radio

waves from the antenna or other source. Particularly in the fields of fiber

optics, lasers, and integrated optics, the term radiation pattern may also be used as a synonym for the nearfield pattern or Fresnel pattern. This refers to of the the Three dimensional antenna radiation patterns.The radial distance from the origin in any direction represents the strength of radiation emitted in that direction.The top shows the directive patterns of a horn antenna the bottom shows the onmidirectional pattern of dipole antenna. The far field radiation pattern may be represented graphically as a plot of one of a number of related variables, including; the field strength at a constant (large) radius (an amplitude pattern orfield pattern), the power per unit solid angle (power pattern) and the directive gain. Very often, only the relative amplitude is plotted, normalized either to the amplitude on the antenna boresight, or to the total radiated power. The plotted quantity may be shown on a linear scale, or in dB. The plot is typically represented as a three dimensional graph (as at right), or as separate graphs in the vertical

positional dependence

electromagnetic field in the nearfield, or Fresnel region of the source. The near-field pattern is most commonly defined over a plane placed in front of the source, or over a cylindrical or spherical surface enclosing it. The far-field pattern of an antenna may be determined experimentally at an antenna range, or alternatively, the near-field pattern may be found using a near-field scanner, and the radiation pattern deduced from it by computation. The far-field radiation pattern can also be calculated from the antenna shape by computer programs such as NEC. Other

plane and horizontal plane. This is often known as a polar diagram.

Radiation

Radiation Resistance:
that part of

another, or into various parts of the atmosphere. As a form ofelectromagnetic radiation, like light waves, radio waves are affected by the phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering. Radio propagation is affected by the daily changes of water vapor in the troposphere and ionization in the upper atmosphere, due to the Sun. Understanding the effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has many practical applications, from choosing frequencies for international shortwave broadcasters, to designing reliable mobile telephone systems, to radio navigation, to operation of radar systems. Radio propagation is also affected by several other factors determined by its path from point to point. This path can be a direct line of sight path or an over-the-horizon path aided by refractionin the ionosphere, which is a region between approximately 60 and 600 km. Factors influencing ionospheric radio signal propagation can include sporadic-E, spreadF, solar flares,geomagnetic storms, ionospheric layer tilts, and solar proton events.

resistance is

an antenna's feedpoint resistance that is caused by the radiation of electromagnetic waves from the antenna. The radiation resistance is determined by the geometry of the antenna, not by the materials of which it is made. It can be viewed as the equivalent resistance to a resistor in the same circuit. Radiation resistance is caused by the radiation reaction of the

conduction electrons in the antenna. When electrons are accelerated, as occurs when an AC electrical field is impressed on an antenna, they will radiate electromagnetic waves. These waves carry energy that is taken from the electrons. The loss of energy of the electrons appears as an effective resistance to the movement of the electrons, analogous to the ohmic resistance caused by scattering of the electrons in the crystal lattice of the metallic conductor. While the energy lost by ohmic resistance is converted to heat, the energy lost by radiation resistance is converted to electromagnetic radiation.

Radio Spectum:
Radio spectrum refers to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to radio frequencies that is, frequencies lower than around 300 GHz (or, equivalently, wavelengths longer than about 1 mm). Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range, called radio waves, are used for radio communication and various other applications, such as heating. The generation of radio waves is strictly regulated by the government in most countries, coordinated by an international standards body called the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). Different parts of the radio spectrum are allocated for different radio transmission technologies and applications. In some cases, parts of the radio spectrum is sold or licensed to operators of private radio transmission services (for example, cellular telephone

Radio Propagation:
Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves when they are transmitted, or propagated from one point on the Earth to

operators or broadcast television Ranges of allocated frequencies referred to by their provisioned example, cellular spectrum or spectrum).

stations). are often use (for television

The signal-to-noise ratio, the bandwidth, and the channel capacity of a communication

channel are connected by the Shannon Hartley theorem. Signal-to-noise ratio is sometimes used informally to refer to the ratio of useful information to false or irrelevant data in a conversation or exchange. For example, in online discussion forumsand other online communities, off-topic posts and spam are regarded as "noise" that interferes with the "signal" of appropriate discussion.

Spurious Emission:
A spurious emission is any radio frequency not deliberately created or transmitted, especially in a device which normally does create other frequencies. A harmonic or other signal outside atransmitter's assigned channel would be considered a spurious emission. From ITU, 1.145 Spurious emission: Emission on a frequency or frequencies which are outside the necessary bandwidth and the level of which may be reduced without affecting the corresponding transmission of information. Spurious emissions include harmonic emissions, parasitic emissions, intermodulation products and frequency conversion products but exclude out-of-band emissions.

Signal-to-noise ratio:
ratio (often

Signal-to-noise

abbreviated SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. It is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in decibels. A ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal (such as isotope levels in an ice core or biochemical signaling between cells).

 Microwave

frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study. Microwave technology is extensively used for point-to-point telecommunications (i.e., non broadcast uses). Microwaves are especially suitable for this use since they are more easily focused into narrower beams than radio waves, allowing frequency reuse; their comparatively higher frequencies allow broad bandwidth and high data transmission rates, and antenna sizes are smaller than at lower frequencies because antenna size is inversely proportional to transmitted frequency. Microwaves are used in spacecraft communication, and much of the world's data, TV, and telephone communications are transmitted long distances by microwaves between ground stations and communications satellites.

Microwaves are also employed in microwave ovens and in radar technology. A microwave telecomunications tower. Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300 MHz Beginning at about 40 GHz, the atmosphere becomes less transparent to microwaves, due at lower frequencies to absorption from water vapor and at higher frequencies from oxygen. A spectral band structure causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is in effectopaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges. The term microwave also technical has a more meaning

(0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz. This broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves), and various sources use different boundaries. In all cases, microwave includes the entire SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum, with RF engineering often putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the upper around 100 GHz (3 mm). The prefix "micro-" in "microwave" is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range. It indicates that microwaves are "small" compared to waves used in typical radio broadcasting, in that they have shorter wavelengths. The boundaries between radiation, far infrared light, terahertz microwaves, and ultra-high-

in electromagnetics and circuit theory. Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as "microwave" when the frequencies used are high enough that wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the equipment, so that lumped-element circuit theory is inaccurate. As a consequence, practical microwave technique tends to move away

from

the

discrete resistors, capacitors, with lower-

and inductors used

frequency radio waves. Instead, distributed circuit elements and transmission-line theory are more useful methods for design and analysis. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines used at lower frequencies are replaced by waveguides and stripline, and lumpedelement tuned circuits are replaced by cavity resonators or resonant lines. In turn, at even higher frequencies, where the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves becomes small in comparison to the size of the structures used to process them, microwave techniques become inadequate, and the methods of optics are used.

1950s, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to 5,400 telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio channels combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away. Wireless LAN protocols, such

as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications, microwaves in the also use band,

2.4 GHz ISM

although 802.11a uses ISM

band and U-

NII frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Internet Access services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the 3.54.0 GHz range. The FCC recentlycarved out spectrum for carriers that wish to offer services in this range in the U.S. with emphasis on 3.65 GHz. Dozens of service providers across the country are securing or have already received licenses from the FCC to operate in this band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be carried on the 3.65 GHz band will give business customers another option for connectivity. Metropolitan area network (MAN) protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) are based on standards such as IEEE 802.16, designed to operate between 2 to 11 GHz. Commercial implementations are in the 2.3 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz ranges.

The atmospheric attenuation of microwaves in dry airwith a precipitable water vapor levelof the 0.001mm.

Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) protocols based on standards specifications such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-

Uses:
Before the advent of fiber-optic transmission, most long-distance telephone calls were

SDMA (such as iBurst) operate between 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but with vastly greater spectral efficiency. Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, use the low-microwave/high-UHF frequencies around 1.8 and 1.9 GHz in the Americas and

carried via networks of microwave radio relay links run by carriers such as AT&T Long Lines. Starting in the early

elsewhere, DMB use

respectively. DVB-SH and S1.452 to 1.492 GHz, while radio in

proprietary/incompatible satellite

the U.S. uses around 2.3 GHz for DARS. Microwave radio is used

Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van. See broadcast auxiliary service (BAS), remote pickup unit (RPU), and studio/transmitter link (STL). Most satellite communications systems operate in the C, X, Ka, or Ku bands of the microwave spectrum. These frequencies allow large bandwidth while avoiding the crowded UHF frequencies and staying below the atmospheric absorption of EHF frequencies. Satellite TV either operates in the C band for the traditional large dish fixed satellite service or Ku band for directbroadcast satellite. Military communications run primarily over X or Ku-band links, with Kaband being used for Milstar.

in broadcasting and telecommunication tran smissions because, due to their short wavelength, highly directional antennas are smaller and therefore more practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used above 300 MHz.

*Rough plot of earths atmospheric transmitance(or opacity)to variuswavelengthsof eletromagnetic radiation.Microwaves are strongly absorbed at wavelengths shorter than about 1.5 cm (above 20GHz) by water and others molecules in the air.

We climbed the tower known channel 12 RF antennas In the tower are 5 100mts high directional antennas (parabolic) and 16 omnidirectional antennas (Butterfly) 2 satellite which are controllable by a motor from the station down. The antenna is divided, the first break is 40 meters, the second break is 90 meters, 10 meter mast are holding omnidirectional antennas.

When you feel up to the antenna that is super long, and that is going to fall .... Not proceeded with seatbelt.

Top feels a different pressure than the cold.

The antenna channel 12 climbs a ladder that has around a circular metal, it's for security. However there are other antennas such as Channel 4 that is pin has no security.

As a farewell on the last day we were, we decided to go down to the Boqueron. This is our experience

We decided to go down to the Boqueron, Kevin was afraid as we went down.

The Boqueron is small but is large and very easy to get lost And then ... We missed Here is a picture when we were lost, all wondering how to upload, it is very difficult as it is a great ravine Isaac and Ruben guided us down the road to climb as they were also the least tired and a little wild Kevin took him dragged all the way Arriving near the crater, everything looks like a jungle, however half of the volcano is pure dried lava and end a normal place field. As a bonus, it is said that an animal called DONKEYMONKEY (Burromono) lives in that area as it is an animal mutated by radiation, Kevin I look across the road and disappeared for a while ... who knows you found it: S. And that is all, THANKS