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Telecommunication systems have now made it possible to communicate with virtually anyone at any time. Early telegraph and telephone system used copper wire to carry signal over the earth surface and across oceans and high frequency (HF) radio, also commonly called shortwave radio, made possible inter-continental telephone links. Every communication system has its own frequency range, system, capacity, application implementation cost [21]. On the basis of transmission there are two types of communication system Wired communication system Wireless communication system

2.2 Multiple Access Technique

A limited amount of bandwidth is allocated for wireless services. A wireless system is required to contain as many users as possible by effectively sharing the limited bandwidth. Therefore, in communication, the term multiple access cannot be defined as a means of allowing multiple users to simultaneously share the finite bandwidth with least possible degradation in the performance of the system [22]. There are four multiple access methods a) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) b) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) c) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) d) Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

2.2.1 Frequency Division Multiple Accesses (FDMA) FDMA is one of the oldest multiple access techniques for cellular systems when continuous transmission is required for analog services. In this bandwidth is divided into a number of channels and distributed among users with a finite portion of bandwidth for

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permanent use, as illustrated in figure 2.2. The channels are assigned only when there is a demand of the users. Therefore when a channel is not in use it results in a wasted resource [22].

Fig. 2.2 Channel Usage by FDMA FDMA channels have narrow bandwidth of about 30 KHz, and therefore they are usually implemented in narrow band system. Since the user has his portion of bandwidth all the time, FDMA does not require timing control, which makes it simple. Even though no two users use the same frequency band at the same time, guard bands are introduced between bands to minimize channel interference. Guard bands are unused frequency slots which separates neighboring channels. This leads to a wastage of bandwidth. In a non-continuous transmission bandwidth goes wasted since it is not being utilized for a portion of the time [20].

2.2.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) In digital systems, continuous transmission is not required as the users do not utilize the allotted bandwidth all the time. In such systems, TDMA is a approving technique compared to FDMA. Global Systems for Mobile communications i.e GSM uses the TDMA technique. In TDMA, bandwidth is available to the user but only for a finite period of time. In most cases bandwidth is divided into fewer channels compared to FDMA and the users are allotted time

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slots during which they have the entire channel bandwidth at their disposal. This is illustrated in figure 2.3 below [22].

Fig. 2.3 Channel Usages by TDMA

TDMA requires careful time synchronization since users share the bandwidth in the frequency domain. As the number of channel is less, channel interference is almost negligible, therefore the guard time between the channels is significantly smaller. Guard time is spacing time between the TDMA. In cellular communications, whenever a user moves from one cell to other there is a chance that user could experience a call loss if there are no free time slots. TDMA uses different time slots for transmission as well as reception [22].

2.2.3 Code Division Multiple Access In CDMA, all the users occupy the same bandwidth, though they are all assigned separate codes, which distinguish them from each other as shown in figure 2.4. CDMA systems utilize a spread spectrum technique in which a spreading signal, is uncorrelated to the signal and has a larger bandwidth, is used to spread the narrow band signal. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum i.e DS-SS is most commonly used for code division multiple excess [23]. In Direct sequence spread spectrum, the message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code, which has a noise like properties. Each user has its own code which is orthogonal to the code of every other users.
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In order to sense the user, the receiver is required to know the codeword used by the transmitter. contrasting TDMA, CDMA does not need time synchronization between the users [23].

Fig. 2.4 Channel Usages by CDMA

2.3 CDMA
2.3.1 History
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a new concept in wireless communications [23]. It has achieved widespread acceptance by cellular system operators, that will dramatically increase both their system capacity and the service quality. CDMA is a form of Spread-spectrum, that have been used in military applications for years. The principle of spread spectrum is the use of noise-like waves and, as the name implies bandwidths much larger than that required for simple point to point communication at the same data rate. Firstly there were two motivation: To resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, from time to time called low probability of intercept. It has a history that goes back to the early days of World War second [23]. Profitable applications became promising because of two evolutionary developments. One was the accessibility of very low cost, high density digital ICs, which reduce the size and cost of the subscriber stations to an adequately low value [23].
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Introduction to CDMA CDMA is a multiple access technique that allows multiple users to transmit independent information within the same bandwidth simultaneously. Each user is assigned a pseudo-random code that is either orthogonal to the codes of all the other users or the code possesses appropriate cross-correlation properties that minimize the multiple access interference (MAI). This code is superimposed on an information signal thus, making the signal emerges to be noise like to other users. Only the intended receiver has a replica of the same code and uses it to extract the information signal [22]. This then allows the sharing of the same spectrum by multiple users without causing excessive MAI. It also ensures message privacy, since only the intended user is able to decode the signal. This code is also known as a spreading code, since it spreads the bandwidth of the original data signal into a much higher bandwidth before transmission [22].

2.3.2 CDMA Classification Tree

Fig. 2.5 Classification Tree of the various types of CDMA Techniques [20].

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Advantages of CDMA One of the main advantages of CDMA is that call dropouts occur only when the phone is at least twice as far from the base station. It is used in the pastoral areas where GSM do not get to work properly. Another advantage is capacity means it has a very high spectral capacity so that it can accommodate more users [21]. Disadvantages of CDMA One major problem in CDMA technology is channel pollution, where signals from too different cell sites are present in the subscribers phone but none of them is foremost. When this situation arises the feature of the audio signal degrades. Another disadvantage is when compared to GSM it lacks international roaming capabilities [22].

2.4 Spread Spectrum

Spread spectrum are the methods in which energy generated at a single frequency is spread over a wide band of frequencies. The basic spread spectrum technique is shown in Figure 2.7. This is done to achieve transmission that is robust against the channel impairments, and to be able to resist natural interferences or jamming also to prevent hostile detection. These techniques were developed by military system [23]. The technique is said to be spread spectrum if transmission bandwidth is much greater than minimum bandwidth needed to transmit the information. The system achieves spread spectrum if it fulfills the following requirement [23]: a. Signal occupies bandwidth much larger of the minimum bandwidth necessary to send information. b. Spreading is done with the help of spreading code signal which is independent of the data.

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c. At the receiver, de-spreading is done by the correlation of the received spread signal with a synchronized replica of the spreading signal used to spread the information.

Spread signal bandwidth Undesired signal Data signal

FILTER

Recovered data

Spreading code signal

Spreading code signal Fig. 2.6 Model of Basic Spread Spectrum Technique

The main parameter in spread spectrum systems is the processing gain: Is the ratio of transmission and information bandwidth: Gp =
, which

is basically the spreading factor. The

processing gain calculates the number of users that can be allowed, the amount of multi-path effects and the difficulty to jam a signal [23]. Spread spectrum can be classified as follows a) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum b) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum c) Time Hopping Spread Spectrum

2.4.1 DS-CDMA
Direct Sequence is the best Spread Spectrum Technique. The DS-CDMA method provides a multiple of benefits in cellular systems including ease in designing frequency channels and protection against interference, such that a high process gain is used. In DS-CDMA each user has
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its own spreading code [21]. The selection of good code is important because auto-correlation properties and length of the code restricts system capacity. The code can be divided into two categoriesi) ii) Orthogonal codes (Walsh codes ) Non-orthogonal codes ( PN, Gold , Kasami codes )

The data signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. A PN code is a sequence of chips its range is -1 and 1 (polar) or 0 and 1 (non-polar). This results in low cross-correlation values among the codes and the difficulty to jam or detect a data message [21]. A usual way to create a PN code is by means of at least one shift register. The chip rate decides the rate at which spreading signals are transmitted. At the receiver end, spread signals are decoded with the help of correlation functions. Cross correlation de-spreads the received signals and retrieves the transmitted signal similar to the users original signal [21]. The spreading sequences can orthogonal means 0 cross correlation or random sequences with low crosscorrelation properties.

y(t) m(t) h(t)

C(t)

Cos (wt)

Fig. 2.7 Direct Sequence Spread - Spectrum Modulation System [21]

In the DS-CDMA technique, each bit of the users data are multiplied with a code in the transmitting end. The code sequence used in transmitting end performs the role of spreading
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code. The baseband model of a Direct Sequence CDMA system is shown in the fig 2.8. Let m(t) denotes a binary data sequence, c(t) denotes a code sequence. The waveforms m(t) and c(t) denote polar representations in terms of two levels as 1. By multiplying the information bits by the code, each information bit is divided into a small time increments that are called chips [21]. The baseband signal (t) is filtered to confine energy within the bandwidth, defined by the

code rate. The carrier modulation commonly used in spread spectrum is phase shift keying. Considering the figure we get [21]: (t)= m(t) C(t) (3.1) The baseband signal to yield y(t): y(t) = The band pass signal (t) is convoluted with the impulse response of the spectrum shaping filter (t) h(t), where * denotes convolution(3.2) (t) = [ (t) h(t)] cos t).. (3.3)

m(t)
Match Filter

Cos(wt)

h(t)

Clock

C(t)

Fig. 2.8 Matched Filter Spread-Spectrum Receiver [21].

The received Band pass signal

(t) is converted to an equivalent complex low pass signal A(t)

by mixing with a locally generated coherent carrier.

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The complex low pass signal A(t) = (t) cos t.. (3.4)

The de-spread signal B (t) = A(t) [C(t) h(t)] (3.5) The output of the matched filter D(T) = (3.6).

The receiver decodes the data : D(T) > 0 decode binary 1 otherwise decode binary 0 [21].

-1 users bit

1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1
spread signal

Communication Channel

1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1
De-spread signal

-1
Received bit

-1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1

-1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 1 1

spreading sequence

spreading sequence

Fig. 2.9 User Signal in DS-CDMA System [20]

Let us think the first bits of four users. By multiplying each bit with a PN code, users bits are represented by seven chips as shown above. User 1[1]: 1 User 2[1]: -1 User 3[1]: 1 User 4[1]: -1 C1: -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 C2: 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 C3: -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 C4: 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 => => => -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1

-1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1

=> -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 - 1 R[1]: -4 2 0 0 2 -2 2 ( received data)

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The received data consists of information of four users. To recover the original bits of users from the received data, the received data should multiplied with the code sequence in the receiver that is exactly same with that is used for spreading the original data in transmitter means (de-spreading). We assume that the receiver operates in perfect synchronism with the transmitter. As a last step, decision is made by comparing the results with a threshold value as shown below [20].

R[1] * C1= 4-2+2+2+2= 8 > 0 => 1 R[1] * C2= -4-2+2-2-2= -8 < 0 => -1 R[1] * C3= 4+2+2-2+2= 8 > 0 => 1 R[1] * C4= -4-2-2-2+2= -8 < 0 => -1

2.4.1.1 Advantages of DS-CDMA It has an interference rejection property; every user is identified with a specific code sequence which is almost orthogonal to the other user codes. The DS-CDMA also excludes the need of channel dividing thus all users use the entire channel bandwidth.

Moreover, it is rigid to multipath fading. Signals in DS-CDMA systems are identical

strength entire a wide bandwidth which can manipulate the multipath fading to modify the output.

2.4.1.2 Properties of DS-CDMA. Multiple Access - If multiple users use the channel at the same time, there will be multiple signals overlapping in time and frequency. At the receiver end coherent demodulation is used to remove the code modulation. This method concentrates the
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power of the desired user in the information bandwidth. If the cross-correlations between the code of the desired user and the codes of the interfering users are small, coherent detection will only put a small part of the power of the interfering signals into the information bandwidth [23]. Narrowband Interference - The coherent detection at the receiver involves a multiplication of the received signal with a locally generated code sequence [23]. However, as we see at the transmitter, multiplying a narrowband signal with a wideband code sequence spreads the spectrum of the narrowband signal so that its power in the information bandwidth decreases by a factor which is equal to the processing gain.

2.5 Problem Description

Main problem with DS-SS is the so called Near-Far effect. This is described by an example. In figure 2.12 this effect is present when an interfering transmitter TX(B) is closer to the receiver RX (A) than the intended TX(A)and , the correlation between the received signal from the interfering transmitter TX(B) and RX (A) can be higher than the correlation between the received signal from the intended transmitter TX(A) and RX(A). The result is that proper data detection is not possible [5].

Transmitter Tx(B)

Transmitter Tx(A)
Receiver Rx(A)

Rx(A)

Fig. 2.10 Near Far Effect

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Another problem is hidden and exposed terminal in wireless Ad-hoc network. Hidden terminal problem refers- The collision of packet at the receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that are not within the direct transmission range of the sender. Exposed terminal problem refers- The inability of a node which is blocked due to nearby transmitting node, to transmit another node [5]. For Example if both node S1 and S2 transmit to node R1 at same time their packets collide at node R1. This happens because both nodes S1 and S2 are hidden from each other as they are not within the direct transmission range of each other. This is hidden terminal problem. On the other hand if a transmission from node S1 to another node R1 is already in progress, node S3 cannot transmit to node R2, as it concludes that its neighbor node S1 is in transmitting node and hence it should not interface with the ongoing transmission. This problem reduces the throughput of network when traffic load is high [5].

Transmission range of node S1

Transmission range of node S2

Fig. 2.11 Hidden and Exposed Terminal Problems

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2.6 Proposed Work

The Basic motive of our project was to study and develop an Efficient Mac based DSCDMA protocol for solving near far problem. A CDMA communication system requires an efficient design and testing of its subsystems of PN sequence generator, a spectrum spreading and a de-spreading digital circuit and digital modulator and demodulator modules which give high throughput. Another issue is near far effect.

2.6.1 Reason for proposed protocol

The Near far effect is created in the uplink of DS-SS CDMA. When a combination of open and closed-loop power control which ensures that each terminal generates the same signal power at the base station. The base station monitors the power of received signal from each terminal and instructs distant terminals to increase their signal powers and nearby terminals to decrease theirs example below shows the power control alone is not enough to reduce the nearfar problem in DS SS CDMA ad-hoc Network. Example:- Let denote the distance between nodes k and n. suppose A wants to

communicate with B using a given code and C wants to communicate with D using a different code. Suppose that dAB dCD, dCB<< dAB, and dAD << dCD. Then, the MAI caused by C makes it impossible for B to receive A transmission. Similarly, the Multiple access interference caused by A makes it impossible for D to receive C transmission. It is important to note that the two transmissions cannot take place simultaneously, irrespective of what transmission powers are selected if an increase in power is made to combat the MAI at B, this increased power will destroy the reception at D.

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Fig. 2.12 Example shows the Power Control alone is not enough to reduce the NearFar problem in DS-SS CDMA Ad-hoc Network

The above Fig. unveils two types of problems -. 1. Medium access problem - The use of two different spreading codes to occur at the same time is not possible for two transmissions, this problem is referred to as medium access problem. 2. Power control problem - If the terminals adjust their signal powers then two transmissions can take place at the same time so that the interference caused by one transmission is not large enough to demolish packet reception at other terminals. This is referred as power control problem. So the key solution to the near far problem must have both elements: power control and medium access.

2.6.2 DESIGN GOAL FOR PROTOCOL [5] The Following are the specifications while designing a MAC protocol for Ad-hoc network: 1. The operation of the protocol should be widen and provide quality of service for real time traffic. 2. The protocol must be a non-synchronous, dispersed operation, as well as scalable for large networks. It must also involve minimal exchange of information and must be suitable for real time implementation. 3. The protocol must be scalable to large network. Protocol should minimize the effect of hidden and exposed terminal problem.

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4. The protocol should have means for adaptive data rate control and it should have power control mechanisms in order to efficiently manage the energy consumption of node. 5. The receiver circuitry should not be complex in the sense that it should not be required to monitor the whole code set. So we design the DS-SS CDMA system with MAC protocol using VHDL .

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