MEASUREMENT ERROR

TOPIC 1: MEASUREMENT AND ERROR
EE101(MEASUREMENT) Page 1-1

TOPIC 1
MEASUREMENT AND ERROR

1.1 Understand Measurement
1.1.1 Define The Measurement

Measurement is the process of determining the amount, degree or capacity by
comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units
being used. Direct is the unknown quantity is measured directly such as measurement
of current by an ammeter, voltage by voltmeter, resistance by ohmmeter, power by
wattmeter etc. Indirect the unknown quantity is determined by measuring other
functionally related quantities and calculating desired quantity rather than measuring
it directly with an instrument such as resistance of a conductor may be determined
by measuring voltage across the conductor, V and current flowing through the
conductor, I and then calculating it by Ohms Law : R = V /I.

The measuring instrument can defined as a device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable.

1.1.2 Illustrate The Measurement Process

Any instrument or a measuring system can be described in general with the
help of a block diagram. While describing the general form of a measuring system, it
is not necessary to go into the details of the physical aspects of a specific
instrument. The block diagram indicates the necessary elements and their functions
in a general measuring system. The entire operation of an instrument can be studied
in terms of these functional elements. The figure 1.1 shows the block diagram
showing the functional elements of an instrument.
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Figure 1.1: Block diagram of the functional elements for an instrument.

1.1.3 Describe The Following Elements Of Measurement System

The operation of a measurement system can be explained in terms of the
functional elements of the system. Every instrument and measurement system is
composed of one or more of these functional elements and each functional element is
made of a distinct components or groups of components which perform required and
definite steps in measurement.
The various elements can be grouped as,
1. Primary sensing element
2. Variable Manipulation element
3. Data presentation element

Each element is made up of number of distinct components which perform a
particular function in the measurement procedure. In the block diagram, the function
of each element is important rather than the construction of the element.
Data
Presentation
Element

Data
Storage /
Playback
Element
Primary
Sensing
Element
Variable
Manipulation
Element
Variable
Conversion
Element
Data
Transmission
Element
Measured
Medium

Observer
Data
Measured
Quantity


a. Primary Sensing Element : The quantity under measurement makes its first
contact with the primary sensing element of a measurement system.
b. Variable Manipulation Element : It converts the output of the primary sensing
element into suitable form to preserve the information content of the original
signal.
c. Data Presentation Element : The information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the
system for monitoring, control or analysis purpose.

1.2 Understand Error In Measurement
Error in measurement may be represented by the actual amount of error, or by
a ratio comparing the error to the size of the measurement.

1.2.1 Define The Error In Measurement

Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an
accepted standard quality. The degree to which a measurement nears the expected
value is expressed in terms of the error of measurement. Error is the deviation of
reading or set of readings from the expected value of the measured variable.

Error may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage of error. Absolute
error may be defined as the difference between the expected value of the variable
and the measured value of the variable.
n n
X Y e
Where e = absolute error
Y
n
= expected value
X
n
= measured value


Therefore 100 %
n
Y
e
Error
Therefore 100 %
n
n n
Y
X Y
Error

1.2.2 Compare The Following Type Of Errors

There are various types of error in measurement:

a. Gross Error

These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using
instruments or errors in recording observations. Errors may also occur due to
incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational mistakes. These errors
cannot be treated mathematically. The complete elimination of gross errors is not
possible, but one can minimize them. Some errors are easily detected while others
may be elusive. One of the basic gross errors that occur frequently is the
improper use of an instrument. The error can be minimized by taking proper care
in reading and recording the measurement parameter.

b. Systematic Error

A characteristic feature of all systematic errors is that they produce
errors which are consistently on the same side of the true value, i.e. either all the
errors are positive or they are all negative. Systematic errors arise from many
causes. These include system disturbance due to measurement, environmental
changes such as modifying inputs and drift in instrument characteristics. Large
errors due to instrument characteristic drift are avoided by recalibrating
instruments at suitable intervals. Environmental errors are due to conditions


external to the measuring device, including conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument, such as the effects of change in temperature, humidity or
electrostatic fields. These errors can be avoid by using air conditioning,
hermetically sealing certain component in the instrument and using magnetic
shields.

A systematic error results from an uncalibrated device, or a measuring
technique which always makes the measured value either larger or smaller than
the true value, for example, using a steel ruler at liquid nitrogen temperatures to
measure the length of a rod. At low temperatures the ruler will contract, and you
will overestimate the true length. Careful experimental design will eliminate or to
correct for systematic errors.

The accuracy of a measurement is how close the measurement is to the
true value of the quantity being measured. The accuracy of measurements is
often reduced by systematic errors, which are difficult to detect even for
experienced research workers.

c. Random Error

Random errors, present even when all systematic errors are eliminated,
occur in a measured value due to the irreproducibility in making replicate
measurements. These errors result from biases introduced by instrumental
method, or human factors. Deviations due to random errors can be dealt with
statistics.



Random errors are in many ways easier to deal with because they consist
generally of small perturbations of the measurement either side of the correct
value, i.e. positive errors and negative errors occur in approximately equal
numbers for a series of measurements made of the same quantity. Therefore,
random errors can be largely eliminated by averaging a few measurements of the
same quantity. Unfortunately, averaging a number of measurements cannot be
guaranteed to produce a value close to the true one because random errors
occasionally cause large perturbations from the true value. Thus, it is necessary
to describe measurements subject to random errors in probabilistic terms,
typically that there is a 95% probability that the measurement error is within
boundaries of 1% from the true value.

The examples of causes of random errors are electronic noise in the circuit
of an electrical instrument or irregular changes in the heat loss rate from a solar
collector due to changes in the wind. The precision of a measurement is how close
a number of measurements of the same quantity agree with each other. The
precision is limited by the random errors. It may usually be determined by
repeating the measurements.

d. Absolute Error

The absolute error is the difference between the measured value and the
actual value. (The absolute error will have the same unit label as the measured
quantity). Absolute error is simply the amount of physical error in a
measurement.

For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004 m is an


absolute error. Absolute error is positive.

e. Relative Error

Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the
accepted measurement. The relative error expresses the "relative size of the
error" of the measurement in relation to the measurement itself.
When the accepted or true measurement is known, the relative error is
found using which is considered to be a measure of accuracy.

Should the accepted or true measurement NOT be known, the relative
error is found using the measured value, which is considered to be a measure of
precision.



1.2.3 Determine Absolute Error In Measurement

Example 1:
The measured value of a resistance is 10.25, where as its value is 10.22.
Determine the absolute error of measurement.
Solution: Measured value, = 10.25
True value = 10.22
Absolute error = Measured value True value
= 10.25 10.22 = 0.03

1.2.4 Determine Relative Error In Measurement

Example 2:
The measured value of capacitor is 205.3F, where as its true value is 201.4F.
Determine the relative error.
Solution: Measured value, = 205.3F
True value = 201.4F
Absolute error = Measured value True value
= 205.3F 201.4F
= 3.9F
Relative error =
=
= 0.0194



1.2.5 Describe The Following Characteristics Of Measurement

a. Accuracy
The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the
expected (desired) value.

b. Precision
A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements.

c. Resolution
The resolution means the smallest change in a measured value that the
instrument can detect. It may be expressed as an actual value or as a
fraction or percentage of the full scale value. Resolution is also known as
sensitivity.

d. Significant Figure (angka bererti)
An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained from the
number of significant figures in which result is expressed. Significant
figures convey actual information regarding the magnitude and the
measurement precision of a quantity.

More the significant figures, greater the precision of measurement.

Example :
The significant figure of 0.0005 is 4 and the significant figure for 0.05 is 2.
So 0.0005 is more precise than 0.05 since it has more significant figures.



1.3 Understand The Standards Used In Measurement
1.3.1 Describe The Following Level Of Standards

There are different types of standards of measurement on the basis of their
function and applications such as:

a. International Standards
The International Standards are defined by international agreement and
they represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible accuracy that
production and measurement technology allow. These standards are periodically
evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of the fundamental units.
Such standards are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
and are not available to the ordinary users of measuring instruments for the purpose
of comparison or calibration.

b. Primary Standards
The primary Standards are maintained by National Standard Laboratories
in different parts of the world. These standards represent the fundamental units
and some of the derived mechanical and electrical units. These are calibrated
independently by absolute measurements at each of the National Laboratories. The
results of such measurements are compared against each other, leading to a world
average figure for the primary standards. Primary standards are not available for use
outside the national laboratories. Main function of primary standards is the
verification and calibration of secondary standards.

c. Secondary Standards
Secondary Standards are the basic reference standards used in industrial
measurement laboratories. These standards are maintained by the particular involved


industry and are checked locally against reference standards. Secondary standards
available in the area are maintained as its calibration is checked by that particular
industrial laboratory.

Such standards are calibrated and compared against the primary standards
in national standard laboratories on a periodic basis. These laboratories issue a
certificate of their measured value in terms of the primary standards.

d. Working Standards
Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory.
These are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for accuracy
and performance or to perform comparison measurements in industrial applications.



Related formula:

Error = Expected value Measured value
Absolute Error = Expected value Measured value
e = Y
n
- X
n

Y
n
= expected value
X
n
= measured value
% error = Absolute value
Expected value
= e / Y
n
x 100
= ( Y
n
- X
n
) / Yn x 100
Relative error :
Y
n
-X
n

Y
n

% accuracy :
a = 100 % - % error
a = A x 100%

X 100
A =
TOPIC 2: DC METER


TOPIC 2
DC METER

2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF ANALOG METER

A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quantity
in a form readable by a human being. In the analysis and testing of circuits, there are
meters designed to accurately measure the basic quantities of voltage, current, and
resistance.

The action of all analogue meters (ammeters and voltmeters) depends upon a
deflecting torque produced by an electric current. In an ammeter, the torque is
produced by the current to be measured or by a definite fraction of it. In a voltmeter,
it is produced by a current that is proportional to the voltage to be measured.
Ammeters and voltmeters are essentially current measuring devices.

2.1.1 Construction Of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)

The PMMC instrument is the most accurate types and can be used for DC
measurement only. The action of most commonly DC meter is based on the fundamental
principle of the motor. The motor action is produced by the flow of a small current
through a moving coil which is positioned in the field of a permanent magnet.

The basic moving coil system is often called the DArsonval galvanometer.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


Figure 2.1: DArsonval Principle

2.1.2 Principle Operation Of PMMC

A coil suspended in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet in the shape of a
horse-shoe. The coil is suspended so that it can rotate freely in the magnetic field.
When current flows in the coil, the developed (electromagnetic) torque causes the coil
to rotate. The electromagnetic torque is counterbalanced by a mechanical torque of
control springs attached to the movable coil. The balance of torques, and therefore the
angular position of the movable coil is indicated by a pointer against a fixed reference
called a scale.

2.1.3 Deflection Torque

The deflection for developed torque:

Deflection Torque, = N A B I

where = torque, Newton-meter (Nm)
N = number of turns of wire of the coil
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A = effective coil area, meter square (m
2
)

B = flux density in the air gap, Weber per meter square (Wb/m
2
)
I = current in the movable coil, amperes (A)

2.1.4 Damping Curve

Figure 2.2: Damping Curve

2.1.5 Damping Curve And The Relationship To Moving Coil Needle
a) Over damp
- the pointer will move slowly to final value.
- the measure value will less than expected value.
- measurement not accurate.
b) Under damp
- the pointer will oscillate in long time before it stop.
- the user difficult to read the measure value accurately.
c) Critical damp
- the pointer will stop at absolute value in short time without resonant.
- accurate and fast.
Time, s
Fix
Value
Actual
Value
Under damp
Over damp
Critical damp
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2.1.6 Compare Common Damping System In Indicating Instrument
The following methods are used to produce torque.

a. Air friction damping

The arrangement consists of a light aluminum piston which is attached to the
moving system as shown in the figure below.

Figure 2.3: Air friction damping

The piston moves in a fixed air chamber. It is closed to one end. The clearance
between piston and wall chambers is uniform and small. The piston reciprocates (move
backwards and forwards) in the chamber when there are oscillations. When piston moves
into the chamber, air inside is compressed and pressure of air developed due to friction
opposes the motion of pointer. There is also opposition (resisting) to motion of moving
system when piston moves out of the chamber. Thus the oscillations and the overshoot
gets reduced due to and fro motion of the piston in the chamber, providing necessary
damping torque. This helps in settling down the pointer to its final steady position very
quickly.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


b. Liquid damping / Fluid Friction Damping

Liquid friction damping may be used in some instruments. The method is similar to
air friction damping, only air is replaced by working fluid. The friction between the disc
and liquid is used for resisting motion. Damping force due to fluids is greater than that
of air due to more viscosity (kelikatan). The disc also called vane.

The arrangement is shown in the figure below. It consists of a vane attached to
the spindle which is completely dipped in the oil. The frictional force between oil and
the vane is used to produce the damping torque, which resists the oscillating behavior of
the pointer.

The advantages of this method are :
1. Due to more viscosity of fluid, more damping is provided.
2. The oil can also be used for insulation purposes.
3. Due to up thrust of oil, the load on the bearings is reduced, thus reducing
the frictional errors.

Figure 2.4: Liquid damping
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The disadvantages of this method are ;
1. This can be only used for the instruments which are in vertical position.
2. Due to oil leakage, the instruments cannot be kept clean.

c. Eddy current damping

In this method, an aluminium disc is connected to the spindle. The arrangement of
disc is connected to the spindle. The arrangement of disc is such that when it rotates,
its cuts the magnetic flux lines of a permanent magnet. The arrangement is shown in
the figure below.

Figure 2.5: Eddy current damping

When the pointer oscillates, aluminium disc rotates under the influence of
magnetic field of damping magnet. So disc cuts the flux which causes an induced e.m.f in
the disc. The disc is a closed path hence induced e.m.f circulates current through the
disc called eddy current. The direction of such eddy current is so as oppose the cause
producing it. The cause is relative motion between disc and field. Thus it produces an
opposing torque so as to reduce the oscillations of pointer. This brings pointer to rest
quickly. This is most effective and efficient method of damping.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.2 DC VOLTMETER

A dc voltmeter is using for measures the potential difference between two points
in a dc circuit or a circuit component. The basic meter movement becomes a dc
instrument measuring dc voltage by adding a multiplier resistance forming a
milivoltmeter, voltmeter or kilovoltmeter.

2.2.1 DC Voltmeter Circuit

To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or circuit
component, a dc voltmeter is always connected across them with proper polarity.

Figure 2.6 : Basic dc meter

2.2.2 Equation For Multiplier Resistor Value In Single Range

The function of the multiplier is to limit the current through the movement so
that the current does not exceed the full scale deflection value.
I
m
= full scale deflection current of the movement (I
fsd
)
R
m
= internal resistance of movement
R
s
= multiplier resistance
V = full range voltage of the instrument
R
m

I
m

V

Multiplier

R
s
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From the circuit,
V = I
m
( R
s
+ R
m
)

Therefore R
s
=

The multiplier limits the current through the movement, so as to not exceed the
value of the full scale deflection I
fsd.

The above equation is also used to further extend the range in DC voltmeter.

2.2.3 Calculate Multiplier Resistor Value In Single Range

Example 1 :

A basic DArsonval movement with a full scale deflection of 50A and internal resistance
of 500 is used as a voltmeter. Determine the value of the multiplier resistance needed
to measure a voltage range of 0-10V.

Solution:
R
s
= =
=( 0.2 x 10
6
) 500 = 200k -500
= 199.5k

V _ R
m

I
m

V _ R
m

I
m

10 _ 500
50
TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.2.4 Equation For Multiplier Resistor Value In Two Range Dc Voltmeter

The range of the dc voltmeter can be extended by using number of multipliers
and selector switch. Such a meter called multirange voltmeter and is shown in the
figure below.

Figure 2.7: Multirange Voltmeter

The R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, R
4
are the four series multipliers. When connected in series with
the meter, they can give four different voltage ranges as V
1 ,
V
2
, V
3
,V
4.
The selector
switch S is multiposition switch by which the required multiplier can be selected in the
circuit. Thus,

TOPIC 2: DC METER


More practical arrangement for multiplier resistance are shown in figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8 : Arrangement for multiplier resistance

In position V
4,
the multiplier is R
4
only. The total resistance of the circuit is R
T .

..(1)

In the position V
3
, the multiplier is R
3
+R
4

.(2)

In the position V
2
2
+ R
3
+R
4

.(3)

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In the position V
1
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+R
4

..(4)

2.2.5 Calculate Multiplier Resistor Value In Two Range Dc Voltmeter

Example 2 :

A basic DArsonal movement with an internal resistance 50 and full scale deflection
current of 2mA is to be used as a multirange voltmeter. Design the series string of
multipliers to obtain the voltage range of 0-10V, 0-50V, 0-100V, 0-500V.
Solution :

The arrangement of voltmeter as below.

Figure 2.9: Multirange voltmeter

For a meter, R
m
= 50 and I
m
= 2mA
TOPIC 2: DC METER


For position V
4
= 10V
,
series multiplier is R
4

= 4.95k

In the position V
3
=50V, series multiplier is R
3
+R
4

= 20k

In the position V
2
=100V, series multiplier is R
2
+ R
3
+R
4

= 25k

In the position V
1
= 500V, multiplier is R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+R
4

Thus R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, R
4
forms a series string of multipliers.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


Sensitivity of Voltmeter

The sensitivity of the voltmeter is defined as,

/V or k/V

Internal resistance of voltmeter = Maximum voltage (range) x Sensitivity in /V

Consider the practical multirange voltmeter circuit below by using sensitivity method of
calculating the multiplier resistance.

Figure 2.10: Multirange voltmeter

Let S = sensitivity rating in /V
R
m
= internal resistance of basic meter or coil

Then the multiplier resistance can be obtained as,

R
1
= S V
1
- ( R
m
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4
)
R
2
= S V
2
- ( R
m
+ R
3
+ R
4
)
TOPIC 2: DC METER


R
3
= S V
3
- ( R
m
+ R
4
)
R
4
= S V
4
- R
m

Where V
1
, V
2
, V
3
and V
4
are the required voltage ranges.

Example 3 :
Solve the Example 2 by using sensitivity method.

Solution :
The basic meter has R
m
= 50 and I
m
= 2mA

Now = 500/V

While V
1
=500V, V
2
=100V, V
3
= 50V, V
4
= 10V

R
4
= S V
4
- R
m

= ( 500 x 10 ) 50 = 4.95k

R
3
= S V
3
- ( R
m
+ R
4
)
= ( 500 x 50 )- (50 + 4.95k) = 20k

R
2
= S V
2
- ( R
m
+ R
3
+ R
4
)
= ( 500 x 100 ) ( 50 + 20k + 4.95k ) = 25k

R
1
= S V
1
- ( R
m
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4
)
= ( 500 x 500 ) ( 50 + 25k + 20k + 4.95k )= 200k
TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.2.6 Accomplish Voltage Measurement In A Simple Circuit Using Two Range Dc
Voltmeter

1. The range of a voltmeter can be extended to measured high voltages, by using a
high voltage probe or by using an external multiplier resistor as shown in figure
2.11.

Figure 2.11: Extending voltage range

2. In most meters the basic movement is used on the lowest current range.
3. Values for multipliers can be determined using the procedure above.
4. The basic meter movement can be used to measure very low voltages.

2.2.7 LOADING EFFECT IN DC VOLTMETER

1. When selecting a meter for a certain voltage measurement, it is important to
consider the sensitivity of a dc voltmeter.
2. A low sensitivity meter may give an accurate reading when a measure voltage in a low
resistance circuit, but will produce inaccurate reading in high resistance circuit.
3. The voltmeter is always connected across two points between which the potential
difference is to be measured.
4. If it is connected across a low resistance then as voltmeter resistance is high, most
of the current will pass through a low resistance and produce the voltage drop, the
accurate reading will obtain.
Meter Set
to Lowest
Current
Range
External
multiplier
Test
Leads
TOPIC 2: DC METER


5. But if the voltmeter is connected across the high resistance then due to two high
resistances in parallel, the device will almost divide equally through the two paths.
Thus the meter will record the voltage drop across the high resistance which will be
much lower than the true reading.
6. Thus the low sensitivity instrument when used in high resistance circuit gives a lower
reading than the true reading. This is called loading effect of the voltmeters. It is
mainly caused due to low sensitivity instruments.

2.2.8 Investigate Loading Effect In Voltage Measurement By Connecting Dc
Voltmeter To Difference Load

Example 4 :

The figure 2.12 show a simple series circuit of R
1
and R
2
connected to a 250V dc source.
If the voltage across R
2
is to be measured by the voltmeters having
i. A sensitivity of 500 /V
ii. A sensitivity of 10000 /V
Find which voltmeter will read more accurately. Both the meters are used on the 150V
range.

Figure 2.12
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Solution :
By the voltage divider rule, the voltage across R
2
is,

= 138.88V

This is the true voltage across R
2
.

Case i) S = 500/V

The voltmeter resistance will be,
R
v
= S x V
= 500 x 150
= 75k

R
eq
= R
2
|| R
v

= 18.75 k

Hence, the voltage across R
eq
is,

= 120.97 V

Thus first voltmeter will read 120.97 V.
TOPIC 2: DC METER


Case ii) S = 10000 /V

The voltmeter resistance will be
R
v
= S V
= 10000 x 150 as voltage range 150V
= 1.5 M

R
eq
= R
2
|| R
v

=
= 24.59k

Hence the voltage across R
eq
is,
V =

= 137.87 V

Thus the second voltmeter read more accurately. Thus the high sensitivity voltmeter
gives more accurate reading, though the voltage range for both the meters is same.
TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.3 DC AMMETER
2.3.1 Basic DC ammeter circuit (Single Range)

R
m
= internal resistance of coil
R
sh
= shunt resistance
I
m
= full scale deflection current
I
sh
= shunt current
Figure 2.13

2.3.2 Derive Equation For Shunt Resistor In Single Range DC Ammeter

From the circuit above,
I = total current
I = I
m
+ I
sh
As the two resistances R
m
and R
sh
are in parallel, the voltage drop across them is same.
I
sh
R
sh
= I
m
R
m

R
sh
=
But I
sh
= I- I
m

R
sh
=
R
sh
= where m =
m is called multiplying power of shunt and defined as the ratio of total current to the
current through the coil. It can be expressed as,
m = = 1 +
Figure 2.3.1

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.3.3 Calculate Shunt Resistor in Single Range DC Ammeter

Example 1 :
A 2mA meter with an internal resistance of 100 is to be converted to 0-150mA
ammeter. Calculate the value of shunt resistance required.

Solution:
Given value are,
R
m
= 100, I
m
= 2 mA, I=150mA
R
sh
=
R
sh
=
= 1.351

2.3.4 Derive Equation For Shunt Resistor In Two Range DC Ammeter

The range of the basic dc ammeter can be extended by using number of shunts
and a selector switch. Such a meter is called multirange ammeter and is shown in the
figure 2.14.

R
1
, R
2
, R3 and R4 are four shunts and
connected in parallel with meter.
They can give four different ranges I
1,
I
2
, I
3

and I
4.
Figure 2.14: Multirange ammeter

TOPIC 2: DC METER


The mathematical analysis of basic dc ammeter is equally appliacable to such
multirange ammeter. Thus,

R
1
= =
R
2
= =
R
3
= =
R
4
= =

Where are the shunt multiplying powers for the current I
1 ,
I
2
, I
3
,I
4.

2.3.5 Calculate Shunt Resistor in Two Range DC Ammeter

Example 2 :
Design a multirange dc miliammeter with a basic meter having resistance 75 and full
scale deflection for the current of 2mA. The required ranges are 0-10mA, 0-50 mA and
0-100mA.

Solution :
The first range is 0-10mA,
I
1
= 10mA
While I
m
= 2 mA and R
m
= 75
R
1
= =
= 18.75

TOPIC 2: DC METER


The second range is 0- 50mA,
I
2
= 50mA
R
1
= =
= 3.125

The third range is 0- 100mA,
I
3
= 100mA
R
1
= =
= 1.53

The designed multirange ammeter with a selector switch is shown in the figure below.

Figure 2.15
TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.4 OHMMETER

An ohmmeter is an instrument used to measure resistance and check the
continuity of electrical circuit and components. This resistance reading is indicated
through a meter movement. The ohmmeter must then have an internal source of voltage
to create the necessary current to operate the movement, and also have appropriate
ranging resistors to allow desired current to flow through the movement at any given
resistance.

Two types of schemes used to design an ohmmeter :
i. Series type measuring relatively high values of resistances
ii. Shunt type measuring low value of the resistances

2.4.1 Draw basic series type ohmmeter circuit

Figure shows the basic circuit of the series type ohmmeter.

Figure 2.16: Series Type Ohmmeter
TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.4.2 Explain function of current limiting resistance (series resistance), zero adjust
resistance, meter resistance and unknown resistance in series type ohmmeter.

R
1
= current limiting resistor
R
2
= zero adjust resistor
Rx = unknown resistor
R
m
= internal resistor
E = internal battery voltage
A and B = the output terminals of the ohmmeter across an unknown resistor
When terminals A and B are shorted (short circuit), R
x
= 0 (maximum current
flows in the circuit), R
2
is adjusted to get full scale current through the movement. Then
I=I
fsd
. The pointer will be deflected to its maximum position on the scale. Therefore the
full scale current reading is marked 0 ohms.

When terminals A and B are open (open circuit), R
x
= (no current flows in the
circuit and there is no deflection of the pointer), I = 0. The pointer will read zero.
Therefore the zero current reading is marked ohms.

2.4.3 Derive equation for shunt resistor in series type ohmmeter.

Values of R
1
and R
2
can be determined from the value of R
x
which gives half the
full scale deflection.

where R
h
= half of full scale deflection resistance

TOPIC 2: DC METER


The total resistance presented to the battery equals to 2R
h
and the battery
current required to supply the half-full scale deflection, I
h
;

For full scale deflection, the battery current will be doubled:

The current through shunt resistance, R
2
:
The voltage across shunt V
sh
is equal to the voltage across the meter.
Therefore ,
Therefore

But

But

Therefore

Therefore

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.4.4 Calculation Of Limiting Resistor In Series Type Ohmmeter

Apply equation in 2.4.3 to calculate limiting resistor:

Therefore

Hence

Therefore

Hence, R
1
and R
2
can be determined.

Example 1 :

Figure 2.17
In the circuit above, a 1mA meter movement with an internal of 50 is to be used. The
battery voltage is 3V. Half scale deflection should be for 2500.
a. Calculate the values of R
1
and R
2
.
b. Find the change in the value of R
2
if the battery voltage reduces by 10%
c. What is the half scale deflection if battery voltage reduces by 10%?
TOPIC 2: DC METER


Solution:
(a) = = 250

= 2458.33

(b) E = 3 - 0.3 = 2.7V
= = 625

R
2
should be changed from 250 to 625 to compensate for this reduction in battery
voltage.

(c) R
h
= R
1
+ = 2458.33 + = 2504.63

Half scale deflection now corresponds to 2504.63 instead of 2500.

Example 2:
A 100 basic movement is to be as an ohmmeter requiring a full deflection of 1mA and
internal battery voltage of 3V. A half scale deflection marking of 2k is desired.
Calculate:
i. value of R
1
and R
2

ii. the maximum value of R
2
to compensate for a 5% drop in battery voltage.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


Solution
(i) Using the equations for R
1
and R
2
:

And

(ii) The internal battery voltage is 3V, therefore 5% of 3V is 0.15V. The battery
voltage with 5% drop is 3V 0.15V = 2.85V.

2.4.5 Draw basic shunt type ohmmeter circuit.

Figure 2.18: Basic Shunt Type Ohmmeter
TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.4.6 Explain function of shunt resistance, zero adjust resistance, meter
resistance and unknown resistance in shunt type ohmmeter.

Figure 2.18 shows the basic circuit of shunt type ohmmeter where movement mechanism
is connected parallel to the unknown resistance. In this circuit it is necessary to use a
switch; otherwise current will always flow in the movement mechanism. Resistor R
sh
is
used to bypass excess current.

R
1
= zero adjust resistance
V = battery
R
m
= meter resistance (DArsonval movement)
R
x
= unknown resistance (connected in parallel with the meter):

In this circuit it is necessary to have ON/OFF switch to disconnect the battery from
the circuit when the instrument is not used.

Let the switch be closed;

When terminals A and B are shorted (short circuit), R
x
= 0 (maximum current flows in
the circuit), the pointer reads zero because full current flows through R
x
and no current
flows through the meter and R
sh.
Therefore zero current reading is marked 0 ohms.

When terminals A and B are open (open circuit), R
x
= , no current flows through R
x
and
there is no deflection of the pointer. Resistor R
1
is adjusted so that full scale current
flow through the meter. Therefore, maximum current reading is marked ohms.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.4.7 Derive equation for limiting resistor in shunt type ohmmeter.

Half scale deflection of the movement,
Voltage across movement,
Current through unknown resistance:

The total battery current,
Voltage drop across limiting resistor,
Limiting resistor:

2.4.8 Apply equation in 2.4.7 to calculate shunt resistor in shunt type ohmmeter.

Example 3:
A shunt type ohmmeter has a DArsonval movement of resistance 2. Its full deflection
current is 10mA, and the battery voltage is 3 volts. Determine the value of current
limiting resistor so that the meter indicates 0.5 at the mid point of its scale.

Solution:
Battery voltage,
Meter resistance,
Full scale deflection meter current,
Half scale deflection resistance,
Half scale deflection of the movement,
Voltage across movement,
TOPIC 2: DC METER


Current through unknown resistance:

The total battery current,
Voltage drop across limiting resistor,
Limiting resistor:

Example 4 :

In the circuit of figure below, a 1mA meter movement with internal resistance of 50
is to be used. The battery voltage is 3V. Half scale deflection should be for 0.5.
Calculate the value of R
1
and R
sh.

Figure 2.19
Solution :

For half scale def lection , I
m
= I
fsd
/ 2 = 0.5 mA

= 0.5 x 10
-3
= 45mA

TOPIC 2: DC METER


Therefore, = 0.5 x =

= 2 x 0.5 x 10
-3
x = 100mA

=

= 29.75

We can thus see that shunt type ohmmeter can measure low values of resistance.

2.4.8 Design basic series and shunt type ohmmeter for resistance measurement.

Figure 2.20: Ohmmeter scales (a) series scale (b) shunt scale

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.4.9 Differentiate typical scale in series and shunt type ohmmeter.

Series Ohmmeter Shunt Ohmmeter
Scale

The Series Type Ohmmeter has a zero mark
at the right side of the scale and an mark at
the left side of the scale, corresponding to
full scale deflection current.
The Shunt Type Ohmmeter has a zero
mark at the left side of the scale and an
mark at the right side of the scale,
corresponding to full scale deflection
current.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.5 ANALOGUE MULTIMETER

A multimeter is basically a PMMC meter. A multimeter consists of an ammeter,
voltmeter and ohmmeter combined, with a function switch to connect the appropriate
circuit to the DArsonval movement is often called a volt-ohm-miliammeter (VOM).

2.5.1 Analogue Multimeter Consisting Of Ammeter, Voltmeter And Ohmmeter
Combination.

Figure 2.21 shows a meter consisting of a dc miliammeter, a dc voltmeter, an ac
voltmeter, a microammeter and an ohmmeter.

Figure 2.21: Diagram of Analogue Multimeter

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.5.2 Identify Ammeter, Voltmeter And Ohmmeter Section In Analogue Multimeter
i. Microammeter

Figure 2.22: Microammeter section of a Multimeter

ii. DC Ammeter

Figure 2.23: DC Ammeter section of a Multimeter

iii. DC Voltmeter

Figure 4: DC Voltmeter section of a Multimeter
TOPIC 2: DC METER


iv. AC Voltmeter

Figure 2.25 shows an ac voltmeter section of a multimeter. Two diodes D
1
and D
2

are employed in this circuit, forming a full-wave rectifier with the meter so connected
that it receives only half of the rectified current. Diode D
1
conducts during positive
half cycle of the input waveform and makes the meter to deflect according to the
average value of this half cycle. Across the meter, the other diode D
2
serves as
protection. In the absence of diode D
2
, the negative half cycle of the input voltage
would apply a reverse voltage across diode D
1
resulting in a small leakage current in the
reverse direction. The average value of the complete cycle would thus be lower than it
should be for half wave rectification. But when diode D
2
is connected, as shown in the
figure, it conducts heavily and current bypasses the meter in reverse direction.

Figure 2.25: AC Voltmeter section of a Multimeter

v. Ohmmeter
Referring to Figure 6 which shows the ohmmeter section of a multimeter, in the 10k
range the 102 resistance is connected in parallel with the total circuit resistance and
in the 1M range the 102 resistance is totally disconnected from the circuit.
TOPIC 2: DC METER


Figure 2.26: Ohmmeter section of a Multimeter

Therefore, on the 1M ranges the half scale deflection is 10k. Since on the 10k
range, the 102 resistance is connected across the total resistance, therefore, in this
range, the half scale deflection is 100. The measurement of resistance is done by applying a
small voltage installed within the meter. For the 1 M range, the internal resistance is 10k,
i.e. value at midscale, as shown in Figure 7. And for the 10k range, the internal resistance is
100, i.e. value at mid-scale as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 2.27: Equivalent
Resistance on 1M Range
Figure 2.28: half Scale
Deflection is 100
on 10k Range

TOPIC 2: DC METER


The range of an ohmmeter can be changed by connecting the switch to a suitable
shunt resistance. By using different values of shunt resistance, different ranges can be
obtained. By increasing the battery voltage and using a suitable shunt, the maximum
values which the ohmmeter reads can be changed.

2.5.3 Differentiate The Scale Of Ohm, Volt And Ampere In Analogue Multimeter
Typical ranges for analogue multimeters like the one illustrated:
(the voltage and current values given are the maximum reading on each range)
DC Voltage: 0.5V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
AC Voltage: 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V.
DC Current: 50A, 2.5mA, 25mA, 250mA.
A high current range is often missing from this type of meter.
AC Current: None. (You are unlikely to need to measure this).
Resistance: 20 , 200 , 2k , 20k , 200k .
These resistance values are in the middle of the scale for each range.
2.5.4 Sensitivity Of Meter

Multimeters must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V otherwise their
resistance on DC voltage ranges may be too low to avoid upsetting the circuit under test
and giving an incorrect reading. To obtain valid readings the meter resistance should be
at least 10 times the circuit resistance (take this to be the highest resistor value near
where the meter is connected). You can increase the meter resistance by selecting a
higher voltage range, but this may give a reading which is too small to read accurately!

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.5.5 State That Analogue Meter Resistance = Sensitivity Maximum Reading Of
Range
On any DC voltage range:
Analogue Meter Resistance = Sensitivity Max. reading of range

e.g. a meter with 20k /V sensitivity on its 10V range has a resistance of 20k /V 10V
= 200k .

2.5.6 Determine The Step To Do Voltage, Current And Resistance Measurements
Using Multimeter
a) Measuring voltage and current with a multimeter
1. Select a range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading to be.
2. Connect the meter, making sure the leads are the correct way round.
Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an analogue meter may be
damaged.
3. If the reading goes off the scale: immediately disconnect and select a higher
range.
Multimeters are easily damaged by careless use so please take these precautions:
1. Always disconnect the multimeter before adjusting the range switch.
2. Always check the setting of the range switch before you connect to a circuit.
3. Never leave a multimeter set to a current range (except when actually taking a
reading).
The greatest risk of damage is on the current ranges because the meter has a low
resistance.
TOPIC 2: DC METER


Measuring voltage at a point

Figure 2.29: Measuring voltage at a point.
1. Connect the black (negative -) lead to 0V, normally the negative terminal of the
battery or power supply.
2. Connect the red (positive +) lead to the point you where you need to measure the
voltage.
3. The black lead can be left permanently connected to 0V while you use the red
lead as a probe to measure voltages at various points.
4. You may wish to fit a crocodile clip to the black lead of your multimeter to hold it
in place while doing testing like this.

Voltage at a point really means the voltage difference between that point and 0V (zero
volts) which is normally the negative terminal of the battery or power supply. Usually 0V
will be labeled on the circuit diagram as a reminder.

Reading analogue scales
TOPIC 2: DC METER


Figure 2.30: Analogue Multimeter Scales
These can appear daunting at first but remember
that you only need to read one scale at a time!
The top scale is used when measuring resistance.

Check the setting of the range switch and choose an appropriate scale. For some
ranges you may need to multiply or divide by 10 or 100 as shown in the sample readings
below. For AC voltage ranges use the red markings because the calibration of the scale
is slightly different.
Sample readings on the scales shown:
DC 10V range: 4.4V (read 0-10 scale directly)
DC 50V range: 22V (read 0-50 scale directly)
DC 25mA range: 11mA (read 0-250 and divide by 10)
AC 10V range: 4.45V (use the red scale, reading 0-10)
If you are not familiar with reading analogue scales generally you may wish to see the
analogue display section on the general meters page.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


b) Measuring resistance with an ANALOGUE multimeter
The resistance scale on an analogue meter is normally at the top, it is an unusual scale
because it reads backwards and is not linear (evenly spaced). This is unfortunate, but it
is due to the way the meter works.
1. Set the meter to a suitable resistance range.
Choose a range so that the resistance you expect will be near the middle of the
scale. For example: with the scale shown below and an expected resistance of
about 50k choose the 1k range.
2. Hold the meter probes together and adjust the control on the front of the
meter which is usually labelled "0 ADJ" until the pointer reads zero (on the
RIGHT remember!).
If you can't adjust it to read zero, the battery inside the meter needs replacing.
3. Put the probes across the component.
4. Reading analogue resistance scales
5. For resistance use the upper scale, noting that it reads backwards.
6. Check the setting of the range switch so that you know by how much to multiply
the reading.
7. Sample readings on the scales shown: 10 range: 260
1k range: 26k
8. If you are not familiar with reading analogue scales generally you may wish to see
the analogue display section on the general meters page.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.5.10 Multimeter Safety Precaution

As with other meters, the incorrect use of a multimeter could cause injury or damage.
The following safety precautions for using a multimeter.
1. Reenergize and discharge the circuit completely before connecting or
disconnecting a multimeter.
2. Never apply power to the circuit while measuring resistance with a multimeter,
the voltage across the resistance may damage the meter.
3. Connect the multimeter in series with the circuit for current measurements, and
in parallel for voltage measurements.
4. Verify the circuit polarity before making test, particularly when measuring dc
current or voltages.
5. To prevent meter overloading and possible damage when checking voltage or
current, start with the highest range of the instrument and move down the range
successively.
6. For higher accuracy, the range selected should be such that the deflection falls
in the upper half on the meter scale. Select a final range that allows a reading
near the middle of the scale.
7. Take extra precaution when checking high voltages and checking current in high
voltage circuits.
8. Adjust the "0 ohms" reading after changing resistance ranges and before making
a resistance measurement.
9. Be certain the multimeter is switched to ac before attempting to measure ac
circuits.
10. Be certain to read ac measurements on the ac scale of a multimeter.
TOPIC 2: DC METER


11. When you are finished with a multimeter, switch it to the OFF position, if
available. If there is no OFF position, switch the multimeter to the highest ac
voltage position.
12. Observe the general safety precautions for electrical and electronic devices.
13. Renew ohmmeter batteries frequently to insure accuracy of the resistance scale.
14. Recalibrate the instrument at frequent intervals.
15. Protect the instrument from dust, moisture, fumes and heat.

2.5.11 Calibrate The Multimeter

a) Multimeters come with a red lead and a black lead. There will be slots on
the Multimeter. One slot will read volt/ohm, one will read (A) or amps and
the other will be the Ground (GND) slot. You will want to take the red lead
and insert it into the volt/ohm slot.
b) Take the black lead and insert it into the ground slot.
c) Turn on the Multimeter.
d) Turn or select the Ohms function on the meter.
e) Touch the leads together. The reading will change from infinite ohms to
zero. This is the reading of a properly calibrated multimeter.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


2.5.12 Use Multimeter To Measure Voltage, Current And Resistance

i. Measuring voltage
A

B

Figure A is basic circuit and Figure B is show an ammeter connection to measure
current. The circuit must be broken to allow the ammeter to be connected in series.
Ammeters must have a LOW resistance.

ii. Measuring Current
A

C

Figure A is basic circuit and Figure C is show a voltmeter connection to measure
potential difference (voltage). The circuit is not changed which the voltmeter is
connected in parallel.
Voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance.

TOPIC 2: DC METER


iii. Measuring Resistance
A

D

Figure A is basic circuit and Figure D is an ohmmeter connection to measure resistance.
The component must be removed from the circuit altogether.
Ohmmeters work by passing a current through the component being tested.

TOPIC 3: OSCILLOSCOPE AND SIGNAL GENERATOR


TOPIC 3
OSCILLOSCOPE AND SIGNAL GENERATOR

3.1 Introduction to Oscilloscope
3.1.1 Define of Oscilloscopes

Oscilloscope is a device that allows the amplitude of electrical signals, whether they be
voltage, current, power, etc., to be displayed primarily as a function of time ( the basic
instrument for the study all types of waveforms).

3.1.2 Explain the functions of Oscilloscope.
The main functions of oscilloscope are:
i. Measure the voltage (AC or DC)
ii. Measure the time and frequency
iii. Measure the phase differential between two waveforms

3.1.3 Classify types of Oscilloscope (analog and digital).

Oscilloscopes can be classified into two categories:

i. Analog Works with continuously variable voltages.
Works by directly applying a voltage being measured to an electron
beam moving across the oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the
beam up and down proportionally, tracing the waveform on the screen.
This gives an immediate picture of the waveform.



ii. Digital Works with discrete binary numbers that represent voltage samples.
Samples the waveform and uses an analog-to digital converter (or
ADC) to convert the voltage being measured into digital information.
It then uses this digital information to reconstruct the waveform on
the screen.

3.1.4 Draw block diagram of an analog oscilloscope.

Figure 3.1: An analog oscilloscope block diagram



3.1.5 Draw block diagram of a digital oscilloscope.

Figure 3.2: A digital oscilloscope block diagram

3.1.6 Explain the basic functional block diagram of an analog and digital
oscilloscope
Basic functional block diagram of an analog oscilloscope
i. When you connect an oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the voltage signal travels
through the probe to the vertical system of the oscilloscope. Figure 2 is a
simple block diagram that shows how an analog oscilloscope displays a measured
signal.
ii. Depending on how you set the vertical scale (volts/div control), an attenuator
reduces the signal voltage or an amplifier increases the signal voltage.
iii. Next, the signal travels directly to the vertical deflection plates of the cathode
ray tube (CRT). Voltage applied to these deflection plates causes a glowing dot to
move. (An electron beam hitting phosphor inside the CRT creates the glowing
dot.) A positive voltage causes the dot to move up while a negative voltage causes
the dot to move down.


iv. The signal also travels to the trigger system to start or trigger a "horizontal
sweep." Horizontal sweep is a term referring to the action of the horizontal
system causing the glowing dot to move across the screen. Triggering the
horizontal system causes the horizontal time base to move the glowing dot
across the screen from left to right within a specific time interval. Many
sweeps in rapid sequence cause the movement of the glowing dot to blend into a
solid line. At higher speeds, the dot may sweep across the screen up to 500,000
times each second.
v. Together, the horizontal sweeping action and the vertical deflection action
trace a graph of the signal on the screen. The trigger is necessary to
stabilize a repeating signal. It ensures that the sweep begins at the same
point of a repeating signal.

Basic functional block diagram of a digital oscilloscope

i. Some of the systems that make up digital oscilloscopes are the same as those in
analog oscilloscopes; however, digital oscilloscopes contain additional data processing
systems. (See Figure 3.) With the added systems, the digital oscilloscope
collects data for the entire waveform and then displays it.
ii. When you attach a digital oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the vertical system
adjusts the amplitude of the signal, just as in the analog oscilloscope.
iii. Next, the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in the acquisition system samples
the signal at discrete points in time and converts the signals voltage at these
points to digital values called sample points. The horizontal systems sample clock
determines how often the ADC takes a sample. The rate at which the clock
"ticks" is called the sample rate and is measured in samples per second.
iv. The sample points from the ADC are stored in memory as waveform points.
More than one sample point may make up one waveform point.


v. Together, the waveform points make up one waveform record. The number of
waveform points used to make a waveform record is called the record length.
The trigger system determines the start and stop points of the record. The
display receives these record points after being stored in memory.

3.1.7 Compare advantages and disadvantages digital Oscilloscope with analog
Oscilloscope in term of accuracy.

a. Digital Oscilloscope
Advantages
Disadvantages
High-accuracy measurements Can be more costly
Display storage Can be less intuitive to operate
because
they typically have more
features)
Bright, well-focused display at
virtually sweep speed

Pre-trigger viewing capability

Peak/glitch detection

Automatic measurements

Computer, printer/plotter
connectivity

Waveform processing capability
including waveform math functions

Display modes like averaging and
infinite persistence

Self calibration



b. Analog Oscilloscope
Advantages Disadvantages
Familiar controls Low accuracy
Instantaneous display updating for
real- adjustments
Display flicker and/or dim display
Direct, dedicated controls for
often used
No pre-trigger viewing capability
Adjustments like vertical
sensitivity, time base speed, trace
position and trigger level low cost.

Limited bandwidth
Higher cost of ownership
Limited measurement capability

3.2 Understand the basic control functions of Oscilloscope
3.2.1 Explain function of Display Controls.
1) POWER SWITCH ON/OFF
Main power switches of the instrument. When this switch is turned on, the
LED above the switch is also turned ON

2) POWER LAMP
This LED lamp lights when power is turned ON

3) INTENSITY KNOB
It can control the brightness of the spot or trace.

4) FOCUS KNOB
After obtaining appropriate brightness with intensity, adjust focus for clearest
line


5) TRACE ROTATION KNOB
This knob is used to correct the horizontal trace when it becomes slanted
with respect to the horizontal scale, due to the effect of magnetic fields

6) SCALEILLUM KNOB
This is used to adjust scale brightness. If this knob is turned clockwise,
brightness is increased. This feature is useful for operation in dark places,
or when taking pictures

7) CAL 0.5V TERMINAL
Outputs a 0.5V p-p 1 KHz rectangular wave for calibrating probes

8) GND TERMINAL
This is a grounding terminal

3.2.2 Explain function of Vertical Controls.
1) CH1 INPUT CONNECTOR
This is a BNC connector used for vertical input CH1. The signal applied to this
connector when in the X-Y mode becomes the X-axis signal

2) CH2 INPUT CONNECTOR
This is a BNC connector used or vertical input CH2. The signal applied to this
connector when in the X-Y me ie becomes the Y-axis signal

3) AC-GND-DC SWITCH
Select following input coupling options for CHI and CH2
AC: blocks dc signal component allowing only AC signal to pass into attenuator


GND: input signal is switch off and attenuator is grounded
DC: dc coupling, all signal are directly connected to attenuator

4) VOLTS/DIV SELECTOR SWITCH
This is a step attenuator switch adjusting the vertical deflection sensitivity.
Set to the position which displays the input signal at the most convenient height
on the CRT

5) VARIABLE KNOB
The fine adjustment is used for varying the vertical-axis deflection sensitivity
continuously. If this knob is completely counterclockwise the vertical sensitivity
is reduced to less than 1/2.5 of VOLTS/DIV switch setting. This knob is used
for comparing two waveform and rise time measurement. However this knob is
normally in the locking position.

PULL X5 MAG
When the pull x5 Mag is pulled out, the vertical axis gain is magnified 5 times,
the maximum sensitivity becomes 1mV/div

6) 20MHz BANDWIDTH
The frequency bandwidth of vertical axis is limited to 20MHz. This knob can be
used when you cannot synchronize the signal by high frequency noise or expanded
trace

7) ALT/CHOP


When the vertical mode is in dual, this button can display ALT and CHOP mode. ALT
mode is a sequential display mode with one cycle of signal between CHI and CH2.
CHOP mode is a sequential display mode with a frequency step of approximately
220MHz between CHI and CH2

8) POSITION
Used to move the CHI or CH2 trace up or down on the CRT screen

9) INVERT SWITCH
When the invert push button is pressed, the polarity of the input signal applied
to CH2 is inverted. This function is convenient when 2 waveforms of difference
are compared, or for displaying the CHI and CH2 difference waveform using ADD

10) MODE SELECTOR SWITCH
Selects vertical axis operating mode
CHI: only the signal applied to CH1 is displayed on the screen
CH2: only the signal applied to CH2 is displayed on the screen
DUAL: when both CH1 and CH2 buttons are pushed in the signals applied to CH1
and CH2 input are displayed on the screen
ADD: display the algebraic sum of the CHI and CH2 input voltage

3.2.3 Explain function of Horizontal Controls.


1) A TIME/DIV
Selects sweep speed from 0.05s/div to 0.2s/div in 21 calibrated steps

2) HORIZONTAL POSITION
The trace can be moved in a horizontal direction. Tuning this knob clockwise moves
the trace towards the right, turning the knob is counterclockwise moves the trace
towards the left
PULL X10 MAG
When pulled out, the trace will be magnified by a factor of 10 times. The sweep
time becomes 1/10 of the indicated on-the time/div switch, (eg. 100s/div
becomes 10s/div for X10 MAG). To magnify a portion of a waveform: Move the
waveform of interest to the center gratitude on the horizontal scale

3) A, B, ALT (H DISPLAY)
This switch selects the sweep method of A, B. When both A and B buttons
are pushed in, it was display B sweep which was duplicated by A sweep and 2
trace of B sweep simultaneously.

4) X-Y
Displays the CH1 and CH2 input signal as an X, Y graph. The vertical deflection
signal is applied to the CH1 input and the horizontal deflection signal is
applied to the CH2 input. The CH2 Vertical position control is used for the
positioning the X, Y display on the vertical axis the horizontal position
control positions the X, Y display on horizontal axis of CRT.

5) TRACE SEPERATION


This trace separation controls the vertical position interval of A sweep
and B sweep at the sweep mode is A ALT B.

6) DLY POS
Adjusts to starting with B sweep during the A sweep periods.

7) VARIABLE
When this knob is turned all the way clockwise (cal) the sweep is indicated
by the A time/diy switch, if the knob is turned all the way
counterclockwise the sweep is less than .5 of the A time/div setting.
During normal operation, this knob is turned to the CAL position.

3.2.4 Explain function of Trigger Controls.
1) B TRIS'D
This knob selects between continuous delay and triggered delay. For
continuous delay (normal state), the B sweep starts immediately after the
sweep delay time determined by A time/div switch (19) and delay pos (25).
For triggered delay (the knob is pushed), the sweep starts with B trigger
signal after the continuous delay time.

2) TRIGGER SOURCE SELECTOR SWITCH
Selects sweep trigger signal source.
INT: The input signal applied to CH1 or CH2 becomes the trigger signal
CH2: The input signal applied to CH2 becomes the trigger signal
LINE: The power line frequency becomes the trigger signal source
EXT: The external signal applied to EXT input becomes the trigger signal.
This is used when the trigger signal is external the vertical input
signal


3) TRIG LEVEL KNOB
This control sets the amplitude point on the trigger waveform that will start
the sweep.
Pull Slope knob
Selects the polarity of the slope the trigger source waveform will start the sweep.
(+) Slope is selected when the pull slope knob is in normal position
(-)Slope is selected when the pull slope knob is pulled out.
4) TRIG-MODE SWITCH
Auto: Sweep continuously runs in the auto sweep mode. A trace will be displayed
even when there is no input signal or when the input waveform is not triggered. A
stationary waveform will be displayed when the input waveform is properly
triggered.
Norm: A trace will be displayed only when the input waveform is present and is
properly triggered. There will be no trace displayed on the CRT if there is no
input signal or if the input signal is not synchronized. Normal sweep is used when
the input signal's frequency is less than 2LHz.
TV-H: Effective when trig mode is set to TV, and is used when the horizontal
of the TV signal is to be synchronized.
TV-V: Effective only when trig mode is set to TV, and is used when the vertical
of the TV signal is to be synchronized.
*Both TV-V and TV-H are synchronized only when the trigger signal is (-).

6) HOLD OFF
By the operation of Hold Off, complicated repetitive signals can be captured.
3.3 Understand the Oscilloscope Probes
3.3.1 Define of Oscilloscope Probes.


A probe is more than a cable with a clip-on tip. It is a high-quality connector,
carefully designed not to pick up stray radio and power line noise. Probes are designed
not to influence the behavior of the circuit you are testing. However, no measurement
device can act as a perfectly invisible observer.

3.3.2 Classify types of Oscilloscope Probes.

Figure 3.3: Classify types of Oscilloscope Probes

3.4 Understand the application of Oscilloscope
3.4.1 Prepare procedure for calibrate Oscilloscope.
1. Turn on oscilloscope. Allow it to warm up for approximately 10 minutes. Letting the
oscilloscope warm up prevents damage to its cathode ray tube.
2. A green light is show on the CRT screen when the oscilloscope is ready. The green
light should run across the screen horizontally and should be in the center of the
screen. Adjust the position knob on the oscilloscope by and turn it clockwise or
counter clockwise until this line is at the center of the screen. If the line
shows up as a green dot moving across the screen, adjust the time/div knob until
the dot appear as a line and then center it.
3. Usually an oscilloscope has two channels CH1 and CH2. Connect your oscilloscope


probe to CH1.
4. Find the voltage selector switch and set it to AC volts.
5. Find CAL connector. It looks like a small enclosed hook, similar to the eye of a
needle.
6. Attach the oscilloscope probe to CAL connector. Ground the ground wire. A peak
to peak square wave one volt above the center division and one volt below the center
division. This means the oscilloscope is correctly calibrated at 2 Vpp.

3.4.2 Construct connection between Signal Generator and Oscilloscope for signal
measurement.

Figure 3.4: Construct connection between Signal
Generator and Oscilloscope



3.4.3 Use the Oscilloscope to measure voltage, frequency, time and phase angle in
sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waveform from signal generator.

Figure 3.5: Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waveform

a. Voltage,V (V) :
= No. vertical division X volt/div X probe { x1 or x10 }

b. Period, T (s) :
= No. Horizontal division X time/div

c. Frequency measurement, f(Hz):
= 1 / period





3.4.4 Construct connection between simple circuits to Oscilloscope for
in circuit waveform measurement.

Figure 3.6: Simple Circuit


3.4.5 Evaluate the specification of analog Oscilloscope
To use an analogue oscilloscope, three basic setting accommodate an incoming
signal:

a. The attenuation or amplification of the signal
Use the volt/div control to adjust the amplitude of the signal before it is
applied to the vertical deflection plates.
b. The time base
The time/div control to set amount of time per division represented
horizontally across the screen.
c. The trigger of the oscilloscope
Use the trigger level to stabilize a repeating signal, as well as triggering on
a single event.
Also adjust the focus and intensity controls to create a sharp and visible
display.

3.5 Introduction to signal generator
Define of signal generator.

A signal generator is a test device which generates an alternating voltage
signal suitable for test purposes. It is, in effect, a small radio transmitter generating
a signal of any desired frequency. The signal may be either modulated or
unmodulated and is used for the following checks or tests:
a. Alignment of tuned circuits, sensitivity measurements, and
approximate frequency measurements.
b. For frequency measurements, its use is limited because it is not a
frequency meter and cannot be used as a frequency standard.


The signal generator is used primarily in the alignment of tuned circuits. A
signal generator is classified according to its frequency and is one of two types:
audio frequency or radio frequency.
a. Audio frequency generators produce signals with a frequency range
from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
b. Radio-frequency generators produce signals covering a range of
frequencies from 10 kHz to 10 GHz. Many radio-frequency generators
have audio outputs separately available through front panel jacks.
These outputs are normally 100 Hz and 400 Hz.

When using the generator, the output test signal is coupled into the circuit
being tested, and its progress through the equipment is traced by the use of high-
impedance indicating devices such as vacuum-tube voltmeters or scopes. In many
signal generators, calibrated networks of resistors, called attenuators, are provided.
These are used to regulate the voltage of the output signal and also provide correct
impedance values for matching the input impedance of the circuit under testing.
Accurately calibrated attenuators are used, because the signal strength must be
regulated to avoid overloading the circuit receiving the signal.

3.5.1 Classify types of signal generator.

There are many types of signal generators. They may be classified roughly by
frequency into audio signal generators, video signal generators, radio frequency
generators, frequency-modul ated RF generators, and special types which
combine all of these frequency ranges.
http://www.tpub.com/content/armycomsystems/ss06026/ss060260064.htm
3.5.1.1 Audio signal generators.


a. Audio signal generators produce stable audio-frequency signals used
for testing audio equipment. Video signal generators produce signals
which include the audio range and extend considerably further into the
RF range. These generators are used in testing video amplifiers and
other wideband circuits.
b. In both audio and video generators, the major components include a
power supply, an oscillator, one or more amplifiers, and an output
control. Voltage regulation circuits are necessary to ensure stability
of the oscillator in the generators which derive power from 115-volt AC
sources. In portable generators, battery power supplies are usually
used, and these require no voltage regulation.
c. In the audio and video generators of the beat-frequency type, the
output frequency is produced by mixing the signals of two radio
frequency oscillators, one of which is fixed in frequency and the other
variable. The difference in frequency of the two is equal to the desired
audio or video frequency.
(1) Audio signal generators often include RC oscillators in which the
audio frequency is directly produced. In these a resistance-
capacitance circuit is the frequency-determining part of the
oscillator. The frequency varies when either the resistance or
the capacitance is changed in value.
(2) In commercial generators, however, the capacitance alone is often
chosen as the variable element. The change in frequency which
can be produced by this method is limited, and it is usually
necessary to cover the entire range of the generator in steps.
This is accomplished by providing several RC circuits, each
corresponding to a portion of the entire range of frequency


values. The circuits in the oscillator are switched one at a time
to give the desired portion of the audio range.
d. The amplifier section of the block diagram (fig 3-2) usually consists of
a voltage amplifier and one or two power amplifiers. These are
coupled by means of RC networks, and the output of the final power
amplifier is often coupled to the attenuator, or output control, by means
of an output transformer.

Figure 3-2: Block diagram of audio or video signal generator

e. The output control section provides a means of matching the output
signal to the input of the equipment under test and regulating the
amplitude of the signal.

3.5.2 Classify types of signal generator.
i. Video signal generator : a device which outputs predetermined video
and/or television waveform and other signals used to stimulate faults in,
or aid in parametric measurements of television and video systems.
ii. Pitch generator: a types of signal generator optimized for use in audio and
acoustics applications. Sophisticated pitch generators will also include


sweep generators a function which varies the output frequency over a
range. Pitch generators are typically used in conjunction with sound level
meters, when measuring the acoustics of a room or a sound reproduction
system, and/or with oscilloscopes or specialized audio analyzers.
iii. Arbitrary waveform generators (AWG): Sophisticated signal generators
which allow the user to generate arbitrary waveforms, within published
limits of frequency range, accuracy and output level. Unlike function
generators, which are limited to a simple set of waveforms; an AWG allows
the user to specify a source waveform in a variety of different ways.

3.5.3 Explain Standard Signal Generators.
Produces known and controllable voltages
Used as power source for measurement of gain, signal to noise ratio,
bandwidth, standing wave ratio, and other properties.
Extensively used in testing of radio receiver and transmitter
The output signal can be Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency
Modulated (FM)

3.5.4 Explain function generators
Produce different waveforms of adjustable frequency
Common output waveform are sine, square, triangular and sawtooth
The frequency may be adjusted, from a fraction of a hertz to several
hundred kHz

3.5.5 The front panel of a signal generator


Figure 3.7: The front
panel of a
signal
generator

3.5.6 Describe the function of the following items located on the panel of a signal
generator :

a. Frequency Selection Group
- Range switch: Provide seven fixed decades of frequency
- Multiplier: Variable potentiometer allowing frequency setting between fixed
range.

b. Sweep Group
- The sweep group can frequency sweep any of its function outputs. It could be
swept up or down in frequency using linear or log sweeps. Unlike function
generators, there are no annoying discontinuities or band-switching artifacts
when sweeping through certain frequencies. Two sweep marker frequencies can
be specified. When the sweep crosses either of the marker frequencies, a TTL
transition is generated at the rear-panel output to allow synchronization of
external devices.


c. Amplitude Modulation Group
- To provide 20dB of attenuation of the output waveform selected by function
switch.

d. DC offset Group
- To allow the DC level of the output waveform to be set as desire.

e. Function or Waveform group
- To provide selection of desired output waveform. (Square, triangle and sine
waveforms are provided)

f. Output Group
- Used to adjust the amplitude of the generators out signal. The group consists
of the amplitude control knob, the three attenuation buttons and the fused
50 BNC connector.

3.5.7 Construct simple circuit and see signal generator as signal source to the
circuit

Figure 3.8: Simple circuit construction of signal generator
TOPIC 4: DC BRIDGE


TOPIC 4
DC BRIDGE

4.1 Fundamental Concept of Bridge Circuit
4.1.1 Basic Schematic Diagram of Standard Bridge Circuit

Figure 4.1: Basic Schematic Diagram of Standard Bridge Circuit

4.1.2 Concept of Standard Bridge Circuit

A bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of a network of four resistance
arms forming a closed circuit. A source of current is applied to two opposite
junctions. The current detector is connected to other two junctions.

4.1.3 Bridges in Null Condition
The bridge is balanced when the voltage between 1 and 2 is exactly zero. This NULL
condition can be measured using a sensitive voltmeter (galvanometer).

4.2 Principle of DC Bridge
4.2.1 Types of DC Bridges
The two types of dc bridges are:
i. Wheatstone Bridge
ii. Kelvin Bridge
TOPIC 4: DC BRIDGE


The basic dc bridge is the Wheatstone bridge used for the measurement of dc
resistance and the Kelvin bridge used for the measurement of low resistance.

4.2.2 Wheatstone Bridge Schematic Diagram
The bridge consists of four resistive arms together with a source of e.m.f. and a null
detector. The galvanometer is used as a null detector.

Figure 4.2: Wheatstone bridge

The arms consisting the resistances R
1
and R
2
are called ratio arms. The arm
consisting the standard known resistance R
3
is called standard arm. The resistance R
4

is the unknown resistance to be measured. The battery is connected between A and C
while galvanometer is connected between B and D.

4.2.3 Derive General Bridge Balance Equation for Wheatsone Bridge
When the bridge is balanced, the galvanometer carries zero current and it
does not show any deflection. Thus bridge works on the principle of null deflection or
null indication.
TOPIC 4: DC BRIDGE


To have zero current through galvanometer, the points B and D must be at the
same potential. Thus potential across arm AB must be same as the potential across
arm AD.
Thus .(1)
As galvanometer current is zero,
.(2)
Considering the battery path under balanced condition,

and

Using (3) and (4) in (1),

4.2.4 Calculate Unknown Resistance in Bridge Balance Using Equation in 4.2.3

Example:
Calculate the value of unknown resistance at the
Wheatstone bridge in Figure 3, assuming the
bridge to be in balanced condition.

Solution:
R
1
= 2k, R
2
= 10k, R
3
= 5k, and R
4
= R
x

.(3)
.(4)
Figure 4.3
TOPIC 4: DC BRIDGE


Under balanced condition,

4.2.5 Kelvin Bridge Schematic Diagram

Figure 4.4: Kelvins bridge

Kelvins bridge is a modification of Wheatstones bridge and is usesd to
measure values of resistance below 1. In low resistance measurement, the
resistance of the leads connecting the unknown resistance to the terminal of the
bridge circuit may affect the measurement.

4.2.6 Derive Bridge Balance Equation for Kelvin Bridge
R
y
represent the resistance of the connecting leads from R
3
to R
x
(unknown
resistance). The galvanometer can be connected either to point c or to point a. When
it is connected to point a, the resistance R
y
, of the connecting lead is added to the
indication for R
x
. When the connection is made to point c, R
y
is added to the bridge
arm R
3
and resulting measurement of R
x
is lower than the actual value, because now
the actual value of R
3
is higher than its nominal value by the resistance R
y
. If the
.(1)
TOPIC 4: DC BRIDGE


galvanometer is connected to point b, in between points c and a, in such a way that
the ratio of the resistance from c to b and that from a to b equals the ratio of
resistances R
1
and R
2
, then

and the usual balance equations for the bridge give the relationship

but

Therefore

Substituting for R
ab
and R
cb
in Eq. (2), we have

.(2)
TOPIC 4: DC BRIDGE


4.2.7 Calculate Unknown Resistance in Bridge Balance Using Equation in 4.2.7
Example:
If in Figure 5 the ratio of R
a
to R
b
is 1000, R
1
is 5
and R
1
= 0.5R
2
. What is the value of R
x
.
Solution:

EE 101 MEASUREMENT

4.1 Fundamental Concept of Bridges Circuit

In DC measurement circuits, the circuit configuration known as a
way to measure unknown values of resistance.

To review, the bridge circuit works as a pair of two
across the same source voltage, with a
them to indicate a condition of "balance" at zero volts:

Figure 4.1 : Basic schematic diagram of standard bridges

Any one of the four resistors in the above bridge can be the resistor of unknown value, and
its value can be determined by a ratio o
resistances are known to a precise degree. When the bridge is in a balanced condition (zero
voltage as indicated by the null detector), the ratio works out to be this:

or R

One of the advantages of using a bridge circuit to measure resistance is that the voltage of
the power source is irrelevant. Practically speaking, the higher the supply voltage, the easier
it is to detect a condition of imbalance between the four resistors
thus the more sensitive it will be. A greater supply voltage leads to the possibility of
increased measurement precision. However, there will be no fundamental error introduced
as a result of a lesser or greater power supply vo
measurement schemes.

4.2 Principle of DC Bridges

4.2.1 Type of DC Bridges
1. Wheatstone Bridges
2. Kelvin Bridges

TOPIC 4 : DC BRIDGES

Fundamental Concept of Bridges Circuit
In DC measurement circuits, the circuit configuration known as a bridge can be a very useful
way to measure unknown values of resistance.
To review, the bridge circuit works as a pair of two-component voltage dividers connected
across the same source voltage, with a null-detector meter movement connected between
icate a condition of "balance" at zero volts:

its value can be determined by a ratio of the other three, which are "calibrated," or whose
voltage as indicated by the null detector), the ratio works out to be this:
or R1R4 = R3R2
it is to detect a condition of imbalance between the four resistors with the null detector, and
as a result of a lesser or greater power supply voltage unlike other types of resistance
Principle of DC Bridges
Type of DC Bridges
Wheatstone Bridges

DC Bridges / 1
can be a very useful
component voltage dividers connected
meter movement connected between
f the other three, which are "calibrated," or whose
with the null detector, and
ltage unlike other types of resistance
EE 101 MEASUREMENT

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The best-known bridge circuit, the
resistance. It is constructed from fou
(Rx), one of which is variable (R
connected as the sides of a square. Two opposite corners of the square are connected
to a source of electric current, such as a battery. A
the other two opposite corners.

The variable resistor is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. When the
voltage between point C and the negative side of the battery is equal to the voltage
between point B and the negative side of the battery, the null det
zero and the bridge is said to be "balanced." It is then known that the ratio between
the variable resistor and its neig
resistor and its neighbour, and this enables the value of the unknown
calculated.

Figure 4.2 : Wheatstone bridge schematic diagram

From Figure 4.2 :

Rx = unknown value of
R1 , R3 = Fixed resistor
R2 = Variable resistor
V= Galvanometer with high sensitivity
E = Source

The bridge is balance when no current through the galvanometer (I

VAB = VAC or
VAB = V
RX X E = R
RX + R3 R2

RX (R1+ R2) = R

R1 RX + RX R2 = R1

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
known bridge circuit, the Wheatstone bridge and is used for measuring
. It is constructed from four resistors, one of which has an unknown value
), one of which is variable (R2), and two of which are fixed and equal (R
to a source of electric current, such as a battery. A galvanometer is connected across
er two opposite corners.
between point B and the negative side of the battery, the null det
the variable resistor and its neigbour is equal to the ratio between the unknown
resistor and its neighbour, and this enables the value of the unknown

R1 RX

R2 R3
Figure 4.2 : Wheatstone bridge schematic diagram
Rx = unknown value of resistor
= Fixed resistor
= Variable resistor
V= Galvanometer with high sensitivity
The bridge is balance when no current through the galvanometer (I
or VBD = VCD
= VAC
= R1 X E
2 + R1
) = R1 (RX + R3)
1 RX + R1 R3
Bridges balance equation :
DC Bridges / 2
and is used for measuring
r resistors, one of which has an unknown value
), and two of which are fixed and equal (R1 and R3),
is connected across
between point B and the negative side of the battery, the null detector will indicate
r is equal to the ratio between the unknown
resistor and its neighbour, and this enables the value of the unknown resistor to be

The bridge is balance when no current through the galvanometer (Ig = 0) ;
Bridges balance equation :
EE 101 MEASUREMENT

RX R2 = R1 R3
RX = (R1 R3)
EXAMPLE 1
Given value R1 = 2K, R
balance condition.
Solution:
The bridges in balance condition when:

( The bridges is in balance condition)

EXAMPLE 2
Refer figure 4.1, calculate the R

Solution:

RX = (R1 R3) / R2

RX = (800)(750) / (200)
RX = 3 Kohm

KELVIN BRIDGE

A Kelvin bridge
Thomson bridge) is a
Baron Kelvin. It is used to
an ohm)

Its operation is similar to the
resistors. These additional low value resistors and the internal configuration of the
bridge are arranged to substantially reduce measurement errors introduced by
voltage drops in the high current (low r

) / R2

, R2 = 1K, R3 = 1.5K dan Rx = 3K. Prove the bridges in
The bridges in balance condition when:

( The bridges is in balance condition)
4.1, calculate the Rx when the bridges balance.

200)
Kelvin bridge (also called a Kelvin double bridge and some countries
) is a measuring instrument invented by William Thomson, 1st
. It is used to measuring very low resistances (typically less than 1/10 of
Its operation is similar to the Wheatstone bridge except for the presence of additional
voltage drops in the high current (low resistance) arm of the bridge.
750ohm
800ohm
200ohm
DC Bridges / 3
. Prove the bridges in
and some countries
William Thomson, 1st
measuring very low resistances (typically less than 1/10 of
except for the presence of additional
esistance) arm of the bridge.
EE 101 MEASUREMENT

Figure 4.3 : Kelvin bridge schematic diagram

The low-value resistors are represented by thick
connecting them to the voltage source (carrying high current) are likewise drawn
thickly in the schematic. This oddly
beginning with a standard Wheatstone bridge set up for measuring low resistance,
and evolving it step-
problems encountered in
If we were to use a standard Wheatstone bridge to measure low resistance, it would
look something like this:
When the null detector indicates zero voltage, we know
and that the ratios R
Knowing the values of R
to solve for Rx . . . almost.

We have a problem, in that the connec
possess resistance as well, and this stray resistance may be substantial compared to
the low resistances of R
given the high current through them,
indication and thus the balance of the bridge:

value resistors are represented by thick-line symbols, and the wires
chematic. This oddly-configured bridge is perhaps best understood by
-by-step into its final form in an effort to overcome certain
problems encountered in the standard Wheatstone configuration.
look something like this:

When the null detector indicates zero voltage, we know that the bridge is balanced
and that the ratios Ra/Rx and RM/RN are mathematically equal to each other.
Knowing the values of Ra, RM, and RN therefore provides us with the necessary data
. . . almost.
We have a problem, in that the connections and connecting wires between R
the low resistances of Ra and Rx. These stray resistances will drop substantial voltage,
given the high current through them, and thus will affect the null detector's
indication and thus the balance of the bridge:
DC Bridges / 4
line symbols, and the wires
configured bridge is perhaps best understood by
step into its final form in an effort to overcome certain

that the bridge is balanced
are mathematically equal to each other.
therefore provides us with the necessary data
tions and connecting wires between Ra and Rx
. These stray resistances will drop substantial voltage,
and thus will affect the null detector's
EE 101 MEASUREMENT DC Bridges / 5

Since we don't want to measure these stray wire and connection resistances, but only
measure Rx, we must find some way to connect the null detector so that it won't be
influenced by voltage dropped across them. If we connect the null detector and
RM/RN ratio arms directly across the ends of Ra and Rx, this gets us closer to a
practical solution:

Now the top two Ewire voltage drops are of no effect to the null detector, and do not
influence the accuracy of Rx's resistance measurement. However, the two remaining
Ewire voltage drops will cause problems, as the wire connecting the lower end of Ra
with the top end of Rx is now shunting across those two voltage drops, and will
conduct substantial current, introducing stray voltage drops along its own length as
well.
Knowing that the left side of the null detector must connect to the two near ends of
Ra and Rx in order to avoid introducing those Ewire voltage drops into the null
detector's loop, and that any direct wire connecting those ends of Ra and Rx will itself
carry substantial current and create more stray.

voltage drops, the only way out of this predicament is to make the connecting path
between the lower end of Ra and the upper end of Rx substantially resistive:
EE 101 MEASUREMENT

We can manage the stray voltage drops between R
resistors so that their ratio from upper to lower is the same ratio as t
arms on the other side of the null detector. This is why these resistors were labeled
Rm and Rn in the original Kelvin Double bridge schematic: to signify their
proportionality with R
With ratio Rm/Rn set equal to ratio R
the null detector indicates balance, and then we can say that R
or simply find Rx by the following equation:

The actual balance equation of the Kelvin Double bridge is as follows (R
resistance of the thick, connecting wire between the low
the test resistance Rx):

We can manage the stray voltage drops between Ra and Rx by sizing the two new
resistors so that their ratio from upper to lower is the same ratio as t
in the original Kelvin Double bridge schematic: to signify their
proportionality with RM and RN:

set equal to ratio RM/RN, rheostat arm resistor R
the null detector indicates balance, and then we can say that Ra/Rx
by the following equation:
The actual balance equation of the Kelvin Double bridge is as follows (R
resistance of the thick, connecting wire between the low-resistance standard R
):
DC Bridges / 6
by sizing the two new
resistors so that their ratio from upper to lower is the same ratio as the two ratio
in the original Kelvin Double bridge schematic: to signify their
rheostat arm resistor Ra is adjusted until
is equal to RM/RN,
The actual balance equation of the Kelvin Double bridge is as follows (Rwire is the
resistance standard Ra and
EE 101 MEASUREMENT

So long as the ratio between R
balance equation is no more complex than that of a r
Rx/Ra equal to RN/RM
the effects of all resistances except R
In many Kelvin Double bridge circuits, R
resistances of Rm and R
less resistance in series with it. Increased detector sensitivity is good, because it
allows smaller imbalances to be detected, and thus a finer degree of bridge balance
be attained. Therefore, some high
values as low as 1/100 of their ratio arm counterparts (R
Unfortunately, though, the lower the values of R
carry, which will increase the effect of any junction resistances present where R
Rn connect to the ends of R
demands that all error
that can be achieved is a compromise minimizing two or more different kinds of
errors.

REVIEW:
Bridge circuits rely on sensitive null
equality.

A Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure resistance by comparing unknown
resistor against precision resistors of known value, much like a laboratory scale
measures an unknown weight by comparing it against known standard weights.

A Kelvin Double bridge
low resistances. Its additional complexity over the basic Wheatstone design is
necessary for avoiding errors otherwise incurred by stray resistances along the
current path between the low

So long as the ratio between RM and RN is equal to the ratio between R
balance equation is no more complex than that of a regular Wheatstone bridge, with
M, because the last term in the equation will be zero, canceling
the effects of all resistances except Rx, Ra, RM, and RN.
In many Kelvin Double bridge circuits, RM=Rm and RN=Rn. However, the lower the
and Rn, the more sensitive the null detector will be, because there is
allows smaller imbalances to be detected, and thus a finer degree of bridge balance
be attained. Therefore, some high-precision Kelvin Double bridges use R
values as low as 1/100 of their ratio arm counterparts (RM and R
Unfortunately, though, the lower the values of Rm and Rn, the more current they will
which will increase the effect of any junction resistances present where R
connect to the ends of Ra and Rx. As you can see, high instrument accuracy
error-producing factors be taken into account, and often the best
hieved is a compromise minimizing two or more different kinds of
Bridge circuits rely on sensitive null-voltage meters to compare two voltages for
can be used to measure resistance by comparing unknown
istor against precision resistors of known value, much like a laboratory scale
is a variant of the Wheatstone bridge used for measuring very
current path between the low-resistance standard and the resistance being measured.
DC Bridges / 7

is equal to the ratio between Rm and Rn, the
egular Wheatstone bridge, with
, because the last term in the equation will be zero, canceling
. However, the lower the
, the more sensitive the null detector will be, because there is
allows smaller imbalances to be detected, and thus a finer degree of bridge balance to
precision Kelvin Double bridges use Rm and Rn
and RN, respectively).
, the more current they will
which will increase the effect of any junction resistances present where Rm and
. As you can see, high instrument accuracy
producing factors be taken into account, and often the best
hieved is a compromise minimizing two or more different kinds of
voltage meters to compare two voltages for
can be used to measure resistance by comparing unknown
istor against precision resistors of known value, much like a laboratory scale
is a variant of the Wheatstone bridge used for measuring very
tance standard and the resistance being measured.
TOPIC 5: POWER METERS


TOPIC 5
POWER METERS

5.1 Introduction

Power meter may refer to:
Electricity meter - measures electrical energy (electrical power supplied to a
residence, business or machine over time)
Wattmeter - measures the electrical power circulating in any electric circuit
Optical power meter - measures energy in an optical signal
Google PowerMeter - is a tool to track a household's energy usage
A cycling power meter - measures the power output of a bicycle rider

5.2 Analogue Wattmeter
Electric power is measured by means of a wattmeter.

5.2.1 Symbol of Wattmeter

Figure 5.1 : Wattmeter symbol

5.2.2 Basic Principle of Analogue Wattmeter

Figure 5.2 (a) A simplified wattmeter circuit Figure 5.2 (b) Analogue Wattmeter


5.2.3 Wattmeter consist of Voltage Coil and Current Coil
It consists of a pair of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil
known as the potential (voltage) coil. (See Diagram 5.2 (a))
The fixed coils are made up of a few turns of a comparatively large conductor.
The potential coil consists of many turns of fine wire. It is mounted on a shaft,
carried in jeweled bearings, so that it may turn inside the stationary coils.
The movable coil carries a needle which moves over a suitably marked scale.
Spiral coil springs hold the needle to a zero position.
The current coil (stationary coil) of the wattmeter is connected in series with
the circuit (load), and the potential coil (movable coil) is connected across the
line.
When line current flows through the current coil of a wattmeter, a field is set
up around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current
and in phase with it.
The potential coil of the wattmeter generally has a high-resistance resistor
connected in series with it. This is for the purpose of making the potential-coil
circuit of the meter as purely resistive as possible.
As a result, current in the potential circuit is practically in phase with line
voltage. Therefore, when voltage is applied to the potential circuit, current is
proportional to and in phase with the line voltage.
The actuating force of a wattmeter comes from the field of its current coil
and the field of its potential coil. The force acting on the movable coil at any
instant (tending to turn it) is proportional to the instantaneous values of line
current and voltage.
The wattmeter consists of two circuits, either of which will be damaged if too
much current is passed through them. This fact is to be especially emphasized
in the case of wattmeters, because the reading of the instrument does not
serve to tell the user that the coils are being overheated. If an ammeter or
voltmeter is overloaded, the pointer will be indicating beyond the upper limit
of its scale.
In the wattmeter, both the current and potential circuits may be carrying such
an overload that their insulation is burning, and yet the pointer may be only


part way up the scale. This is because the position of the pointer depends upon
the power factor of the circuit as well as upon the voltage and current.
Thus, a low power- factor circuit will give a very low reading on the wattmeter
even when the current and potential circuits are loaded to the maximum safe
limit.
This safe rating is generally given on the face of the instrument. A wattmeter
is always distinctly rated, not in watts but in volts and amperes.

5.2.4 Wattmeter connection for power measurement

Figure 5.3: Various type of wattmeter connection

5.3 KWH Meter
The watt-hour meter is an instrument for measuring energy.

5.3.1 Basic Principles of analogue KWH meter
Since energy is the product of power and time, the watt-hour meter must take into
consideration both of these factors. In principle, the watt-hour meter is a small
motor whose instantaneous speed is proportional to the POWER passing through it.
The total revolutions in a given time are proportional to the total ENERGY, or watt-
hours, consumed during that time.


5.3.2 Construction of KWH meter

Figure 5.4: KWH Meter Construction

5.3.3 KWH meter connection for power measurement

The following directions should be followed when reading the dials of a watt-
hour meter. The meter, in this case, is a four-dial type . The pointer on the right-
hand dial (fig 5.3) registers 1 kilowatt-hour, or 1,000 watt-hours, for each division of
the dial. A complete revolution of the hand on this dial will move the hand of the
second dial one division and register 10 kilowatt-hours, or 10,000 watt-hours. A
complete revolution of the hand of the second dial will move the third hand one
division and register 100 kilowatt-hours or 100,000 watt-hours, and so on.
Accordingly, you must read the hands from left to right, and add three zeros to the
reading of the lowest dial to obtain the reading of the meter in watt-hours. The dial
hands should always be read as indicating the figure which they have LAST PASSED,
and not the one they are approaching.

5.4 Clamp meter
An electrical meter with integral current clamp is known as a clamp meter. The
clamp measures the current and other circuitry the voltage . The true power is the
product of the instantaneous voltage and current integrated over a cycle.


5.4.1 Basic Principles of Analogue Clamp Meter

Figure 5.5 : Clamp Meter
In order to use a clamp meter, only one conductor is normally passed through
the probe; if more than one conductor were to be passed through then the
measurement would be a vector sum of the currents flowing in the conductors and
could be very misleading depending on the phase relationship of the currents. In
particular if the clamp is closed around a 2-conductor cable carrying power to
equipment the same current flows down one conductor and up the other, with a net
current of zero. The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can
be increased by winding the conductor around the clamp several times; the meter
reading divided by the number of turns is the current, with some loss of accuracy
due to inductive effects.
Clamp meters are used by electricians, sometimes with the clamp incorporated
into a general purpose multimeter.
It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the
appropriate current transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few
milliamps) with a current transformer clamp is more difficult.

5.4.2 Clamp meter construction for alternating current
When the load is connected (switched on), the leakage current measured
includes leakage in load equipment. If the leakage is acceptably low with the load
connected, then circuit wiring leakage is even lower. If circuit wiring leakage alone is
required, disconnect (switch off) the load.


Figure 5.6: Measurement of Leakage Current to Ground
Test single-phase circuits by clamping the phase and neutral conductor. The
measured value will be any current flowing to ground.

Figure 5.7:
Test three-phase circuits by clamping around all three-phase conductors. If a
neutral is present, it should be clamped along with the phase conductors. The
measured value will be any current flowing to ground.

Figure 5.8: Measuring leakage current through the ground conductor
To measure the total leakage flowing to the intended ground connection, place
the clamp around the ground conductor.


Figure 5.9: Measuring leakage current to ground via unintentional paths to ground.
Clamping phase/neutral/ground together identifies imbalance current that
represents leakage at an outlet or electrical panel via unintentional paths to ground
(such as the panel sitting on a concrete base). If other electrical bonding connections
exist (such as a connection to a water pipe), a similar imbalance may result.

Figure 5.10: Tracing the source of leakage current
This series of measurements identifies the overall leakage and the source. The
first measurement can be made on the main conductor to the panel. Measurements 2,
3, 4 and 5 are made subsequently to identify circuits carrying the larger amounts of
leakage current. j k l m n


Figure 5.11

Leakage current can be an indicator of the effectiveness of insulation on conductors.
High levels of leakage current may be present in circuits where electronic equipment
with filters is used, and can cause voltages that disrupt normal operation of
equipment. It is possible to locate the source of leakage current by using a low
current leakage current clamp to take methodical measurements as described above.
If necessary, this enables you to re-distribute loads around the installation in a more
balanced way.

5.4.3 Instructions to use clamp meter
1. Step 1
Turn on the clamp meter and set the function for measuring current. There
will also be a selection knob or button to select whether you're measuring
alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) flow. Most household electric
devices use household voltage from an outlet, which will be AC current.



2. Step 2
Clamp the meter onto the power cord. The ends of the clamp meter arms,
which resemble pincers, will have a recessed area through which the power
cord should be placed. Ensure that the clamp meter arms are stable with the
cord between them.

3. Step 3
Read the current flow on the clamp meter display. Most clamp meters have
automatic range finders, but if yours does not, increase the range of the
meter until you get a reading. Write down the reading, which will be numbers
that represent the amount of amperes, or amps, flowing through the cable.

4. Step 4
Measure the amount of current flow through an appliance such as a washing
machine by turning the appliance on and having it perform its functions. The
current flow will be much higher when the washing machine motor is turning.
The same applies for a dishwasher. For a refrigerator, turn down the
thermostat to turn on the cooling action, which will increase current flow.

5. Step 5
Adjust the position of the clamp meter to ensure you're getting accurate
current flow readings.

6. Step 6
Remove the clamp meter from the power cord.


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