EEB326 Electrical Machines I

Lectures Weeks 6-7

Tap changing in transformers

Tap changing is used to change the turns ratio of a transformer so as to compensate for the voltage regulation. i.e. if the voltage regulation is positive the turns are adjusted so that the output voltage increases and vice versa. The output voltage of a transformer may therefore be kept constant by changing the taps. The tap changing range may be of the order of 10% of the nominal/rated voltage 32 steps of (5/8)% i.e. 32 steps in total. Note that taps may be changed off-load and on-load. In the former the transformer is taken off supply and the tap changed to the required value. This avoids the arcing that is associated with opening an inductive circuit on load. Special arrangements are needed to change the taps on load.

Tap changing without bridging arrangement a) Tap change is initiated. Load current being supplied. b) Arc is drawn by moving contact. Load current being supplied, through arc. c) Arc is extinguished. No load current flows, which is unacceptable. d) Contact makes at next tap. Load current flows.

Tap transition/change with bridging arrangement that does not limit circulating current. Load current supplied during transition.

Explanation of tap changing sequence a) Tap change initiated. b) Transition initiated.. c) Contact made with next tap position. High circulating current. Load current being supplied through the two tap positions. d) Contact with old position broken. Load current supplied from new tap position. e) Transition completed. Load current supplied from new tap position.

Tap changing sequence with bringing arrangement and current limiting resistors
a)

d)

e)

f) b) g) c)

Explanation of tap changing sequence. a) LTC on tap T. All Load current via B. b) C breaks; no current in C so no arcing. All load in B. c) B breaks. Arcing occurs as load current transfers to A. Secondary voltage drops amount ILOADR. High power dissipation in RA. d) C makes on tap T1. Arcing occurs. Load current shared by A and C. Current circulates between T and T1, driven by tap voltage, limited by 2R. High power in RA and RC. e) A breaks with attendant arcing. All load current carried by C. High power dissipation in RC. f) B makes, shunting current away from C, with arcing. g) A makes; tap change is complete.

The tap changing mechanism is usually located in a separate compartment to allow for the cleaning of the oil in the tap changer, which gets dirty with arcing products. However the tap changing can also be in the main windings tank

The tap changing winding is at the neutral end of the star connected high voltage winding. This is because of insulation and arcing considerations.

On load tap changing (tap changing under load): A requirement is that the load is not interrupted during the tap changing operation. Therefore the next tap must make before the previous tap breaks make before break. A problem that arises when taps are to be changed on load is that if windings are shorted during the tap changing operation they will circulate a large current, which could damage the windings. An on load tap changer therefore uses transitional impedances, either reactors or resistors, to limit the current circulating in the windings that are shorted.

The sequence of operation is as shown in changing taps. a) The tap selector change is initiated the current is carried by one tap. b) The tap selector is moving to the next tap position. c) The tap selector is on the next tap position. d) The diverter switch makes with the nearest transition resistor, before breaking with the main contact. e) The switch makes with both transition resistors and the load is shared between them. f) The load is carried by the second transition resistor. switch makes with the main contact, before breaking with the nearest transition resistor. g) The switch makes with the main contact before breaking with the second transition resistor. The tap change is complete after the contact with the transition resistor is broken. Note that the sequence of operation in raising or lowering taps is the same, provided the terms leading and trailing resistor are interchanged.

The tap selector and diverter switch are combined in low power transformers

The sequence of operation is as shown in changing taps. a) The main contact carries the current. Tap change is initiated. b) The leading transition resistor makes before the main contact breaks. c) The trailing transition resistor makes and the load current is shared between the two resistors. d) The trailing resistor breaks contact and the current is carried by the leading resistor alone. e) The main contact makes before the leading resistor breaks. After the resistor breaks the tap change is complete. Note that the sequence of operation in raising or lowering taps is the same, provided the terms leading and trailing resistor are interchanged.

Resistive switching: Sequence of operations involved in tap changers using resistive switching. The selector switches are the top most switches. The arcing switches are closed when a diagonal (shorting) line is present and open otherwise. The switches are usually of the vacuum type. The operating sequence is as follows: -

1) Step 1 of the figure above shows the steady state of the TC just before the switching operation. The load current is flowing through the contact #1 and the selector #1. Let us call that position tap #2. 2) At step 2, the non-conducting selector has moved 2 steps down, from position 1 to position 3. The current is still flowing in contact #1 and the selector #1. 3) At step 3, the contact #1 opens and the current flows through resistor #1 and selector #1. 4) At step 4, the contact #3 closes and the current splits between the 2 resistors and the 2 selectors. There is also a circulating current flowing into the loop limited by the 2 resistors and the reactance of the loop.

5) At step 5, the contact #2 opens, breaking the current in the resistor and selector #1. It is at that moment that arcing occurs, The arc remains on until the current crosses the zero line. At worst, it can last one half cycle which, at 60 Hz, is 8 msec. The average arcing time is around 5 to 6 msec. 6) At step #6, the contact #4 closes and the load current bypasses the resistor #2 and goes directly to the selector #2. The TC has reached the steady state for tap position #3.

Reactive switching: The tap changer has two selectors, two reactors (actually one reactor with 2 windings), two by-pass switches (#1 and #2) and an arcing switch (#3).

Switching sequence: 1) In step 1 of the figure above, the tap-changer is in the steady state mode on tap position #2. The load current flows in the 2 selectors, the 2 reactors and the by-pass switches. Although the arcing switch is closed, no current flows through it. 2) In step 2, the by-pass switch opens. The current flows through the switch #1, and then splits up between the 2 reactors and the 2 selectors. 3) In step 3, the arcing switch opens. All current flows through the reactor 1 and the selector 1. Arcing occurs at that step because the current in the reactor is interrupted.

4) In step 4, the right selector moves one step to the right, while it carries no current. 5) In step 5, the arcing switch closes, causing current to flow again in the reactor #2 and in selector #2. Note that the two selectors are on different taps. This causes a circulating current to flow into the loop. 6) In step 6, the by-pass switch #2 closes and a steady state condition is reached, which is in this case tap position #1. Because the 2 ends of the reactors are on 2 different taps, they are in series between the 2 taps. The voltage at their mid point is halfway between the 2 taps. This state is called the bridging position, where the reactors bridge between 2 taps.

Auto transformer
Single-phase tapped autotransformer with output voltage range of 40%115% of input

Applyingampere turn balance principle I1 ( N1 N 2 ) ( I 2 I1 ) N 2 I1 N1 I1 N 2 I 2 N 2 I1 N 2 I1 N1 I 2 N 2

Savings of auto transformer Let total kVA for auto transformer be S auto S auto (V1 - V2 )I1 V2 (I 2 - I1 ) (N1 - N 2 ) N2 I 2 - I1 (V1 - V2 ) I 1 V2 (N1 - N 2 ) N2 (V1 - V2 ) V2 I 1 N 1 I 1 N 2 I 2 N 2 I 1 N 2 (N1 - N 2 ) N2 (V1 - V2 ) I 1 N 1 I 1 N 2 I 2 N 2 I 1 N 2 (N1 - N 2 ) since (V1 - V2 ) V2 (N1 - N 2 ) N 2

S auto k 2 I 1 N 1 2 I 1 N 2 since I 1 N 1 I 2 N 2

Let total kVA for normal two winding transformer be S 2w S 2w N1 N 2 V1 I 1 N 1 I 2 N 2 V1 I 1 V2 I 2 N1 N 2 N1 k 2 I 1 N 1 since I 1 N 1 I 2 N 2 Ratio of sizes auto transformer to two winding transformer

S auto k 2 I 1 N 1 2 I 1 N 2 N2 V2 1 1 S 2w k 2 I 1 N 1 N1 V1

savings due to using less copper in the auto transformer In practice there are minimal savings for voltage ratios greater 3/1. Some applications are in variacs .

Autotransformer

Instrument transformers
Instrument transformers (ITs) are designed to transform voltage or current from the high values in the transmission and distribution systems to the low values that can be utilized by low voltage metering devices. There are three primary applications for which ITs are used: metering (for energy billing and transaction purposes); protection control (for system protection and protective relaying purposes); and load survey (for economic management of industrial loads)

A. The current transformer is designed to connect in series with the line to transform the line current to the standard 5 amperes suitable for the meter or relay. The voltage transformer is designed to connect in parallel with the line to transform the line voltage to 115 or 120 volts suitable for the meter or relay. To keep the voltage at the meters and relays at a safe value, the secondary circuit must be grounded. B. The polarity markers indicate the relative instantaneous directions of current in the windings. The polarity, or instantaneous direction of current, is of no significant difference for current-operated or voltage-operated devices. Correct operation of current-current, voltage-voltage, or current-voltage devices usually depends on the relative instantaneous directions.