Text

LINEAR ACCELERATORS
General introduction
F. Gerigk (CERN/BE/RF)

OVERVIEW

Historical

developments, concepts, of accelerating cavities, accelerators

Fundamental

Characteristics

Electron/hadron

COCKROFT - WALTON (1932)

voltage multiplier + proton accelerator (< 1 MeV)

typically used up to 750 kV

crucial technology: voltage multiplier

the original machine (200 keV)

CERN Linac2 pre-injector until 1993 (750 keV)

VAN DER GRAAFF GENERATOR (1931) a DC voltage is connected to

the lower electrode (7),
charges

are transported (4) to the dome (1), where they are collected by the upper electrode (2) a spark equalises the potentials MV for 90 $!

until 1

(< 25 MV, tandem operation)

crucial technology: charge separation and accumulation

20 MeV accelerator in 1981 (NSF, Daresbury, UK)

5 MV generator in 1933 (MIT, Round Hill, USA)

one

sphere contains an ion source, the other one a target, through the air or later through vacuum,

beam

From DC to RF acceleration

THE WIDERE LINAC (1927)

energy gain: period length increases with velocity:

E-eld particles

crucial technology: RF oscillators & synchronism

the RF phase changes by 180 deg, while the particles travel from one tube to the next

The use of RF enables to have ground potential on both sides of the accelerator. This allows a limitless cascade of accelerating gaps!!

BUT:

the Widere linac was only efcient for low-energy heavy ions, higher frequencies (> 10 MHz) were not practical, because then the drift tubes would act more like antennas, when using low frequencies, the length of the drift tubes becomes prohibitive for high-energy protons:
3.5 3

e.g. 10 MHz proton acceleration

length of drift tubes [m]

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

10 proton energy [MeV]

15

20

THE ALVAREZ LINAC (1946)

after WW2 high-power high-frequency RF sources became available (radar technology): most old linacs operate at 200 MHz!
the RF eld was enclosed in a box: RF resonator

While the electric elds point in the wrong direction the crucial technology: high-freq. particles are shielded by the drift tubes. RF sources & RF resonators

inside a drift tube linac Linac2 at CERN, 50 MeV

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HADRON AND ELECTRON ACCELERATION

Newton:

Einstein:

relativistic factor:
1.6 1.4 1.2 1 v/c - electrons (Einstein) v/c - protons (Einstein) v/c - protons (Newton)

v/c

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 200 400 600 energy [MeV] 800 1000

rest energy: total energy:

PROTON VS. ELECTRON ACCELERATION

protons

change their velocity up to the GeV range (!=0.95 at W=2 GeV), !accelerating structures (distance between gaps) need to be adapted to the changing velocity,

electrons

are almost immediately relativistic (!=0.95 at W=1.1

MeV), !basically from the source onwards one can use the same accelerating structure (optimised for !=1.0) for the rest of the linac,

Example of a 2/3 !-mode travelling wave structure for electrons

synchronism condition:
- explanations on 2/3 !-mode in appendix

FUNDAMENTAL CAVITY CHARACTERISTICS

BASICS OF RF ACCELERATION I
energy gain of a particle with charge q:
RF phase

passing a gap with the electric eld E:

-L/2

gap -L/2

this can be written as:

average electric transit time eld on axis factor cavity or cell length

synchronous phase

BASICS OF RF ACCELERATION I
energy gain of a particle with charge q:
RF phase

passing a gap with the electric eld E:

-L/2

gap -L/2

this can be written as:

average electric transit time eld on axis factor cavity or cell length

synchronous phase

BASICS OF RF ACCELERATION I
energy gain of a particle with charge q:
RF phase

passing a gap with the electric eld E:

-L/2

gap -L/2

this can be written as:

average electric transit time eld on axis factor cavity or cell length

synchronous phase

BASICS OF RF ACCELERATION II
average electric eld:
transit time factor:

ignoring the velocity change in the cavity and assuming a constant eld between -g/2 and g/2, T simplies to: assuming:

FUNDAMENTAL CAVITY CHARACTERISTICS: SHUNT IMPEDANCE

shunt impedance (linac denition):

maximising ZT2: maximising energy gain per length for a given power loss be careful: shunt impedance (synchrotron denition):

FUNDAMENTAL CAVITY CHARACTERISTICS: (R/Q)

quality factor of a resonator: Q= f(surface resistance, geometry) acceleration efciency per unit stored energy: (r/Q)= f(geometry)
(independent of surface losses!)

surface losses

DESIGNERS OF NORMAL CONDUCTING CAVITIES ARE OPTIMISING FOR:

maximum

effective shunt impedance ZT2(high electric efciency), different structures are efcient for different particle velocities, elds below a certain threshold (avoid sparking and breakdowns), synchronism between the cells and the particles,

peak

maintain choose

a number of coupled cells so that: i) structure can still have a at eld (stabilisation), ii) power consumption is compatible with existing power sources, iii) there is enough space for transverse focusing (quadrupoles between multi-cell cavities)

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

 In

1965 the High-Energy Physics Lab (HEPL) at Stanford University accelerated electrons in a lead plated cavity. 1977 HEPL operated the rst superconducting linac (with niobium cavities), providing 50 MeV with a 27 m long linac. 1996, 246 metres of SC (Nb sputtered on Cu) cavities are used in LEP with an installed voltage (per turn) of 1320 MV (electrons). 2005 SNS commissions a SC proton linac providing 950 MeV in 230 m (incl. transverse focusing). DESY is constructing XFEL (electrons), which will provide 20 GeV of acceleration (electrons) within 1.6 km. Spallation Source (ESS) is funded and will be constructed in Lund (Sweden).

In

In

In

2010

European

SPALLATION NEUTRON SOURCE, OAKRIDGE

1 GeV, 1-1.4 MW on target, 60 Hz, linac pulse length 1 ms

WHEN ARE SC CAVITIES ATTRACTIVE?

Instead of Q values in the range of ~104, we can now reach 109 - 1010, which drastically reduces the surface losses (basically down to ~0) ! high gradients with low surface losses

However, due to the large stored energy, also the lling time for the cavity increases (often into the range of the beam pulse length): (only valid for SC cavities)

PULSED OPERATION & DUTY CYCLES FOR RF, CRYO, BEAM DYNAMICS
1.8 1.6 1.4 Vg

cavity voltage

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 1 2

Vsteady state Vdecay

beam duty cycle: covers only the beam-on time, RF duty cycle: RF system is on and needs power (modulators, klystrons) cryo-duty cycle: cryo-system needs to provide cooling (cryo-plant, cryomodules, RF coupler, RF loads)

3 l

beam duty cycle RF duty cycle cryogenics duty cycle

Depending on the electric gradient, beam current, particle velocity, and pulse rate, SC cavities can actually be less cost efcient than NC cavities! Nevertheless, one can generally get higher gradients (for high beta) than with NC standing-wave cavities! (E.g. XFEL cavities: ~23.6 MeV/m in a 9-cell 1300 MHz cavity, vs 3-4 MeV/m in traditional NC standing wave cavities.)

LEP Nb on Cu cavity

XFEL 9-cell cavity

ANL triple spoke cavity

THANK YOU!!

MATERIAL USED FROM:

M. Vretenar: Introduction to RF Linear Accelerators (CAS lecture 2008) T. Wangler: Principles of RF Linear Accelerators (Wiley & Sons) H. Braun: Particle Beams, Tools for Modern Science (5th PP Workshop, Islamabad) D.J. Warner: Fundamentals of Electron Linacs (CAS lecture 1994, Belgium, CERN 96-02) Padamsee, Knobloch, Hays: RF Superconductivity for Accelerators (Wiley-VCH). F. Gerigk: Formulae to Calculate the Power Consumption of the SPL SC Cavities, CERN-AB-2005-055.

APPENDIX:
Basics of Accelerating Cavities

WAVE PROPAGATION IN A CYLINDRICAL PIPE

Maxwells equations solved in cylindrical coordinates for the simplest mode with E-eld on axis: TM01

propagation constant: cut-off wave number:

wave number:

+ boundary conditions on a metallic cylindrical pipe: Etangential=0

cut-off wavelength in a cylindrical wave-guide (TM01 mode)

TM01 waves propagate for: the phase velocity is:

TM01 field configuration

!p

E-field B-field

dispersion relation

Brioullin diagram (dispersion relation) no waves propagate below the cut-off frequency, which depends on the radius of the cylinder, each frequency corresponds to a certain phase velocity, the phase velocity is always larger than c! (at "="c: kz=0 and vph=#), energy (and therefore information) travels at the group velocity vgr<c, synchronism with RF (necessary for acceleration) is impossible because a particle would have to travel at v=vph>c!

group velocity:

We need to slow down the phase velocity!

put some obstacles into the wave-guide: e.g: discs

h 2a L 2b

Dispersion relation for disc loaded travelling wave structures:

Brioullin diagram

disc loaded structure:

damping:

structure with: vph=c at kz= 2!/3 (SLAC/LEP injector)

Example of a 2/3 travelling wave structure

synchronism condition:

TRAVELLING WAVE STRUCTURES

The wave is damped along the structure and can be designed as constant-impedance structure or as constant-gradient structure. Travelling wave structures are very efcient for very short (us) pulses, and can reach high efciencies (close to 100% for CLIC), and high accelerating gradients (up to 100 MeV/m, CLIC). are used for electrons at $%1, cannot be used for ions with $<1: i) constant cell length does not allow for synchronism, ii) long structures do not allow for sufcient transverse focusing,

STANDING WAVE CAVITIES

Closing of the walls on both sides of the waveguide or disc-loaded structure yields multiple reections of the waves. After a certain time (the lling time of the cavity) a standing wave pattern is established. Due to the boundary conditions only certain modes with distinct frequencies are possible in this resonator: dispersion relation

Brioullin diagram

STANDING WAVE CAVITIES

for

n cells the fundamental pass-band has n modes from 0 to (n-1)"/(n-1), the frequency difference between 0 and "-mode is given by the cell-to-cell coupling k, the 0, "/2, or "mode is used for acceleration, cell length can be matched to any particle velocity!
usually the

mode names correspond to the phase difference from one cell to the next,

0-MODE CAVITIES: ALVAREZ DTL

common structure for protons and ions with !<0.3-0.4 (< 50 - 100 Quadrupoles MeV for protons),
Drift Tubes
most

Power coupler

gap per !#, optimum for gap/cell length $0.2 - 0.3, at higher energies the drift tubes become very long Pumping port and increase the losses,
one

Electrical efciency depends on the electric eld (P!E2) and beam current (50 MeV DTL with 3.2 MV/m, Pbeam $ Pcopper $ 4.7 MW %DTL $ 50%)