Copyright Faraz Hasan, FHNG, SKKU, 2014

Power Generation and Transmission

Week 3

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The commercially known methods of power generation can be classified into three broad categories.

Power Generation

Unconventional Methods
Generally not mechanical

Conventional Methods

Renewable Methods

Note that principle of conventional and renewable methods are the same. Unconventional methods have slightly different principles.
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Unconventional Generation
Magneto-hydro-dynamic (MHD) generation is a typical example of unconventional generation methods.
Principle: When a conductive fluid flows across a constant magnetic field, it is acted upon by a force which separates the negative and positive charges.

According to Lorentz Law, force

Where Q is the charge on the particles, v is the velocity of the fluid, B is the magnetic field and F is the applied force.

The force deflects the particles in opposite directions that are eventually collected at the electrodes.
Courtesy: Thermopedia.com

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Conventional Generation: Problems

The biggest concern associated with burning fuel to get electricity is that we will soon run short of fuel.
This would lead to a sudden pause in development.
Weve become highly dependent on energy.

The second major concern is the cost associated with burning the fuel.
Once the fuel is burnt it is irrecoverable. We need to invest repeatedly to keep things going!

Last (but not the least), burning fuel releases smog that is harmful for the environment.
A lot of interest has recently risen in controlling the carbon emissions.
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Renewable Methods
It is obvious that we need to find a way to generate electricity, without burning anything!
Using renewable energy is an attractive option.

Renewable energy is the natural force found in our environment.

This force may be mechanical (tides, wind, etc) or non-mechanical (solar energy, etc).

We focus on generating power using mechanical force of the renewable resources.

Basic principle of power generation is the same for conventional and unconventional resources.
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Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism was born when it was discovered that a magnetic needle responds to a current in a wire.
- A link between electricity and magnetism!

The direction of a magnet depends on the direction of the current in the wire. If the current is going into the board (denoted by X), the four needles placed around the wires orient themselves as shown:
N N

X
N N

The needle follows the tangent to the circle at different points.

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Electromagnetic Induction
Current I was made to flow through coil-1 using a source.
The current produced a magnetic field in coil-1.
The magnetic field of coil-1 did not affect coil-2.

However, when the switch was opened and closed, a current was observed in coil-2.
The first clue of electromagnetic induction.
A changing magnetic field in one coil induces an electromotive force (EMF or voltage) in the second coil. If the second coil provides a closed circuit, current starts flowing in it

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Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction: Changing magnetic field in one coil induces an EMF in another coil.
This is mutual induction.

The change in magnetic field is best defined in terms of the magnetic flux.
The magnetic field between opposite poles of a magnet is represented by imaginary lines.

The amount of magnetic field (represented by the magnetic lines of forces) passing through a certain surface area is termed as Magnetic Flux ().
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdomJQvxPZE&feature=related

Weak field

Strong field
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Faradays Law
The rate of change of flux experienced by a conductor with turns N induces a voltage V, which is known as the electromotive force (EMF).

A conductor can experience the rate of change of flux if it is somehow rotated in the magnetic field, as shown in the diagram. Hence a generator needs:
-Magnetic field -Conductor -Rotation

to produce power.
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Voltage in Electric Generator

The voltage induced in a conductor moving with velocity cutting flux/pole p:

U.A.Bakshi, V.U.Bakshi, Electrical Technology, Technical Pulications (Pune), 2009.

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Constructional Features
Rotor of a DC Machine, with windings and commutator segments. FIG 1 Rotor of a DC Machine surrounded by the permanent magnets. FIG 2

Carbon brushes pressed against the commutator segments. FIG 3

Complete setup FIG 4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RAc1RYilugI&feature=related

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Commutator Action
Output of a generator is DC because of commutator action.
Although the polarity of voltage induced in the wires is different under N and S poles, the carbon brushes have same polarity throughout.

Armature coil Commutator segment

Milton Gussow, Basic Electricity, Schaum's Outline Series, 1983.

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Brushless DC (BLDC) Generator

BLDC is actually the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG).
Discussed next week!

Recently, Permanent Magnets have grown cheaper.

reduced weight, decreased copper losses, higher energy, low maintenance.

S. Chakraborty, M. G. Simes and W. E. Kramer, Power Electronics for Renewable and Distributed Energy Systems, Springer, 2013.

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Voltage Magnitude
When a single-turn coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field, the average value of the induced EMF is given by:

P is the number of poles, p is the flux per pole, m is the angular velocity of the rotor. Problem: What should be the angular velocity of the rotor if a one-coil conductor needs to induce 200V? There are 4 poles in the machine and the flux per pole is 1.5wb.
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DC Microgrid
A set of small generation units feeding a small number of loads is collectively called a microgrid.
A small wind turbine placed on the roof top.

DC Microgrids are gaining momentum because:

- they have higher power quality - higher efficiency and reliability - controlling generated power is easier

Authors have proposed the use of wind energy, solar photovoltaic and fuel cells in a DC microgrid.
It has been shown that almost constant output voltage can be obtained in all conditions.
M. Kumar, S. N. Singh and S. C. Srivastava, Design and control of smart DC microgrid for integration of renewable energy sources, IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 2012.

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DC Microgrid

M. Kumar, S. N. Singh and S. C. Srivastava, Design and control of smart DC microgrid for integration of renewable energy sources, IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 2012.

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DC Microgrid: Constant Output Voltage

M. Kumar, S. N. Singh and S. C. Srivastava, Design and control of smart DC microgrid for integration of renewable energy sources, IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 2012.

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DC Generator & Renewable Sources

Large power stations typically use synchronous generators.
The voltage of such generators is regulated by controlling the speed of the turbine.
The output of fuel-based power plants can be controlled easily.

Wind power plants cannot control the speed of wind!

DC Generators come handy on a small scale.
Output voltage can be controlled using field current.

N. Milivojevic, M. Krishnamurthy, A. Emadi and I. Stamenkovic, Theory and Implementation of a Simple Digital Control Strategy for Brushless DC Generators, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, 2011.

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Types of DC Generator
Generators can be classified as self- and separately excited generators.
These generators use electromagnets instead of permanent magnets. DC Generator

For a Series Generator: At no load:

U.A.Bakshi, A.V.Baksh, Electrical Technology, Technical Publications (Pune), 2009.

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Voltage Regulation
The ability of a generator to provide a (nearly) constant voltage with varying load is voltage regulation.

Current flows when a load is applied, which leads to losses. Consequently, the voltage at the terminals is reduced.

Separately Excited DC Generators are best when a quick voltage regulation is required.
Small amount of current (1-2%) in the field can control large amount of current in the rotor.

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Voltage Regulation: Sep Ext DC Gen

The field current is independent of the armature current so controlling the field is easier.
Controlling the field also controls the output voltage.

However, like all DC Generators, the output voltage drops due to internal and external characteristics.

M. N. Bando, Electrical Machines: Theory and Practice, PHI Learning, 2007. S. W. Fardo, D. R. Patrick, Electrical Power Systems Technology, Fairmont Press, 2009.

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Speed Breaker for Power Generation

DC Generators are being examined for use in power generation using speed breakers on roads.
The kinetic energy of the roller is converted into rotational energy.

Battery is used as the load. Current towards the battery is used as the performance indicator.
C. K. Das, S. M. Hossain and M. S. Hossan, Introducing Speed Breaker as a Power Generation Unit for Minor Needs, International Conference on Informatics, Electronics and Vision, 2013.

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Speed Breaker for Power Generation

Same vehicle with different loadings was used to move over the speed breaker.
Output power is very low!
This much power may be useful in lighting up the road segments. This is an example where power is generated and used right there!
C. K. Das, S. M. Hossain and M. S. Hossan, Introducing Speed Breaker as a Power Generation Unit for Minor Needs, International Conference on Informatics, Electronics and Vision, 2013.

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DC Power Transmission
Significant interest has risen in exporting DC power. The first commercial DC transmission system was deployed in 1906 that ran 4km with voltage up to 125KV.

In 1954, another system was developed in Sweden with transmission length of 100km at 100KV.
16 years later it was upgraded to 150KV.

China developed a 1670km line at 800KV, another one at 1100KV is expected in 2014.

R. Liu, Long-Distance DC Electrical Power Transmission, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 2013.

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DC Power Transmission
The state of the art suggests that using superconducting material for DC transmission lines is better. As temperature is increased, the resistivity of a material decreases but it never touches zero.
Even at absolute zero (T=-273oC), resistivity is not zero.

Recently, new materials have been discovered that can be converted into superconductors.
Cooling them typically below -180oC!

Superconducting lines have smallest power loss over a distance of 1500km at 200KV.
Why?
R. Liu, Long-Distance DC Electrical Power Transmission, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 2013.

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DC Power Transmission: Types

The diagram shows DC transmission when AC power is being generated.
Power generated using DC generator can be directly sent without using rectifiers. Monopolar transmission uses ground as return wire. Bipolar uses two different wires.
Homopolar transmission also exists which uses multiple wires in one direction.

K. R. Padiyar, HVDC Power Transmission Systems: Technology and System Interactions, New Age International, 1990.

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AC Power Transmission
Interest in DC transmission has always been there.
Why most power transmission is AC in nature?
Because large scale generation and load runs on AC.

Due to the resistance of the line R, the power loss that takes place because of current flow is I2R.
Note that this power loss depends on line current I.

If we can some how reduce the amount of current on the line (without reducing overall power), we can reduce the transmission line loss! Transformers are machines that step up (and step down) voltage to reduce (and increase) the current.
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AC Power Transmission
A 4.62 KVA generator has terminal voltage 220V. The transmission line has a resistance of 0.1ohms. This leads to a current of I=S/V=21A. With this current, the power loss PL=I2R=212(0.1)=44.1W.

The terminal voltage of the generator remains the same, but we change the line voltage to 660V.
We step up the voltage from 220V to 660V. For this voltage, I=7A and PL=4.9W.

Hence if we increase the line voltage, we can reduce transmission losses!

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Power Transformer
The relationship between important parameters of a transformer are as follows: &

Note that a transformer steps up voltage at the cost of current. The total power remains the same! The obvious questions are:
- Is transformer an amplifier? - Why is it a machine if there is no energy conversion?

Bayliss and Colin, Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering, 4th Edition, Elsevier, 2012.

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Power Transformer
The basic principle of operation is mutual inductance.
A change in flux in one coil induces an emf in the other coil, which is proportional to the number of turns in both coils.

It follows, that if flux changes in one coil, two EMFs are induced. One is induced in the same coil (self inductance), and the other is induced in the neighboring coil(s) referred to as mutual inductance.

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Equivalent Circuit
Equivalent circuits are important because they help us evaluate different parameters (voltage, current, etc) inside a machine.

Bayliss and Colin, Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering, 4th Edition, Elsevier, 2012.

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AC versus DC Transmission
DC transmission system is often used to connect two AC systems operating at two different frequencies.
It is difficult (if not impossible) to connect a system at 50Hz with another operating at 60Hz. The cost of transmission line is lower if HVDC is used. However, the cost of terminal stations is higher!

Can we step up DC voltage using transformers?

D. M. Larruskain, I. Zamora, A.J. Mazon, O. Abarrategui and J. Monasterio, Transmission & Distribution Networks: AC versus DC, 9th Spanish-Port Congress, 2005.

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