IGCSE Music Revision Notes Area of Study 3 Popular Music in Context

All Blues Miles Davis Miles Davis (1926 - 1991) was an American jazz trumpeter, composer and band leader. He was one of the most important figures on the jazz scene and played a large part in introducing several new jazz styles. He studied at the Julliard School of Music in New York but dropped out to play be-bop professionally. He later joined other musicians to play in a more laid back style which became known as cool jazz. During the 1950s, he turned to another new style of jazz which was based on modes rather than chords. This became known as modal jazz. In the 1960s he introduced electric bass and electric piano into his band and played in a new style which fused rock and jazz. Kind of Blue is one of the most widely acclaimed jazz albums. It is played by a sextet (six players) comprising: Miles Davis (trumpet) Julian 'Cannonball' Adderley (alto saxophone) John Coltrane (tenor saxophone) Bill Evans (piano) Paul Chambers (bass) Jimmy Cobb (drums)

'All Blues'
One of the tracks on 'Kind of Blue' is called 'All Blues'. It's said that not long before the recording took place, Miles Davis gave the players a brief outline of the scales and melodies they would improvise on. The album was recorded with hardly any rehearsal and 'All blues' was recorded on the second take. 'All blues' is related to the blues - a style of early American black music originally performed by one singer accompanied on guitar or banjo. The blues influence can be heard in the 12bar blues chord structure and the use of blue notes.

Blue notes
Compared with the major scale, some notes, known as blue notes may be flattened by a semitone or 'bent' by a smaller interval. Blue notes are often found on the third, fifth or seventh degree of the scale. In 'All blues' the seventh note is flattened. Although the key note is G, all the Fs are F naturals (rather than the F sharps found in G major). The music is in the Mixolydian mode (the white notes on the piano from G to G). 'All blues' is sometimes described as modal jazz.

12-bar form
The 12-bar blues form has three four-bar phrases. The most common chord structure uses three chords - the tonic (chord I), the subdominant (chord IV) and the dominant (chord V).

In the key of G this would be

G (I) C (IV) D (V)

G (I)

G (I)

G (I) G (I) G (I)

C (IV) G (I) C (IV) G (I)

This pattern can vary in the blues. In 'All Blues' minor sevenths are added to most of the chords. Some chords are changed more radically. Two G minor seven chords are used at the beginning of the second phrase (using the blue note flattened third). The third phrase uses chromatic chords and more chord changes. Chromatic harmony uses notes from outside the key to colour the chords. The final chord is an added sixth chord (formed of the triad with an added sixth: G B D E) - a chord which is often found in jazz music of this period. Here is the chord pattern used in 'All Blues'.

G7 (I7)

G7 (I7)

G7 (I7) G7 (I7)

G7 (I7) G7 (I7)

Gm7 (I7) Gm7 (I7) D7 (V7)

E flat7 (flat VI7) F (flat VII) F (flat VII) D7 (V7) G (I) G6 (I6)

Rhythm in 'All blues'

When 'All Blues' was recorded the musicians did not read the notes from a score. The piece has been transcribed by listening to the music and then notating it (writing it down). This transcription uses a time signature of 6/4 so that the chord sequence falls into 12 bars. 6/4 has two beats per bar with each beat dividing into three smaller beats. The three beat division gives the music a waltz-like feel. A waltz is a dance with three beats in a bar. The first bar is marked 'swing quavers'. This means that the pairs of quavers should be played with the first one slightly longer than the second. Swung rhythms are often used in jazz.

Structure
'All Blues' uses a head arrangement, a structure often found in jazz. A head arrangement is a chord progression which is memorised (in the head) by the players. The head arrangement in 'All Blues' is the 12-bar chord progression. Jazz players refer to chord progressions as 'changes'. Each repetition of the 12-bar progression is known as a chorus.

In 'All Blues' each of the soloists improvises in the choruses - like a set of variations. The piece opens with an intro and ends with a coda. Each of the main sections is introduced by a 4-bar riff. A riff is a short repeated pattern. 4- bar intro (rhythm section) 4-bar riff (saxes and rhythm section) Head 1 (a 12 bar head with muted trumpet playing melody) Riff and head repeated Four 12-bar choruses for trumpet Four choruses for alto sax Four choruses for tenor sax Two choruses for piano One chorus (all instruments with trumpet now muted) Head repeated Coda (solo muted trumpet)

Sounds
Intro and riff
Look at the opening bar of the intro. This bar is repeated several times. Notice the instruction for the snare drum to be played with wire brushes swept across the drumhead.

After four bars of intro the 4-bar riff is introduced. The piano, drums and bass continue their ostinati and saxophones are added.

Listen to part of the opening of 'All Blues'. You can hear part of the intro (piano, bass and drums) and then the riff begins on the saxophones.

Head 1
Head 1 follows the riff with the muted trumpet playing the melody. Miles Davis uses a Harmon mute. Look at the opening bars of the trumpet part. The trumpet plays legato, mainly in its middle register.

Trumpet solo 2
There are four trumpet choruses where Miles Davis improvises on the original idea. Look at the opening bars of trumpet solo 2. Notice the increase in the pitch range and the dynamic range. There is also more use made of grace notes and of syncopation.

Listen to trumpet solo 2. The Harmon mute has now been taken out. Notice the difference this makes to the sound. The mood though remains laid back and restrained.

Other instrument solos

The trumpet solos are followed by four choruses for alto saxophone. The style changes with the sax playing rapid scales and arpeggios, and focusing on the higher register of the instrument. The alto sax solo is followed by four choruses for tenor saxophone. Again there are fast scales and arpeggios, this time across the range of the instrument. The following piano solos are calmer in mood with more use of long melody notes. The final coda is played by Miles Davis. Much of the opening is based on the tonic note (G) with grace notes played on the dominant (D). The last four bars of 'All blues' use the same legato long notes we heard at the end of the original head.

Jeff Buckley - Grace

'Rock music' is a general term that covers many different genres of music which have developed since rock n roll in the 1950s. There have been many stylistic changes in this period. Jeff Buckleys song Grace has several features that are commonly found in rock music such as four beats in a bar, the use of verse and chorus form and the instrumental line-up. The singer-songwriter Jeff Buckley was born in California in 1966. He was the son of the talented singer Tim Buckley. Both father and son possessed powerful voices with great emotional depth. Tim Buckley died of a heroin overdose at the age of 29. Jeff Buckley died in a swimming accident at the age of 30. The song 'Grace' is taken from the album with the same name. Grace (1994) was the only studio album Jeff Buckley completed. Jeff Buckley co-wrote the song 'Grace' with the guitarist Gary Lucas. 'Grace' is scored for two guitars, bass guitar, drums and synthesiser. 'Grace' could be described as a rock ballad. Ballads are slow love songs and are found in many styles of pop music. The lyrics of 'Grace' seem to anticipate Buckleys own death.

Structure
The song is in verse and chorus form with three verses and two choruses. Each of the verses has an introduction. There is a bridge after chorus 2. The song ends with a climactic coda based on the chorus.

Guitar

In verse and chorus form, the chorus: sets the refrain of the lyrics and often contains the title words usually returns several times, always with the same words The verse usually has different words with each repetition. A bridge is a contrasting passage. A coda is a section which comes at the end of a song.

Introduction
The song opens with an introduction. The first two bars are for synthesiser and guitar. Drums and bass guitar enter in the third bar. Look at the first two bars of the introduction. Notice the use of accidentals alongside the key signature of E minor.

Although it is in E minor the song opens with two chords not normally found in this key (F minor7 and G minor7). Both chords have an added minor seventh. This gives an ambiguous feel to the tonality it is hard to tell what key it is in.

Verse 1
Verse 1 uses chromatic harmony. Chromatic harmony uses notes from outside the key to colour the chords. The first half of the verse uses the chord sequence:

E minor F E minor E flat These are parallel chords formed by moving the same finger shape up and down the fingerboard of the guitar. Look at the voice line for the first half of verse 1. It is mainly in Buckleys lower register. The movement is mainly stepwise. The voice slides down at the end of the phrases.

Opening of verse 1

There are several examples of word-painting in the song. Word-painting is where the meaning of the words is reflected in the music. In the second half of verse 1 Buckley: moves to his higher register on the words my fading voice emphasises the word love by using melisma uses cross-rhythms between the bass guitar and his voice on the words 'clicking of time Melisma is where there is more than one note per syllable. A cross-rhythm is the effect produced when two conflicting rhythms are heard together.

Opening of chorus

Look at the chorus. It is all built on the words Wait in the fire. Notice the long melisma on the final word 'fire'.

The bridge
The bridge presents some contrasting material. The first four bars uses chords which move in parallel motion. The voice part is a vocalisation (wordless singing). The vocalisation opens in two parts producing a rich texture.

The coda
The coda provides the climax of the song. It is based on repetitions of the chord sequence F, E minor, E flat7 (taken from the chorus). The highest notes are sung falsetto. Voices and instruments improvise elaborately creating a rich and full texture. A flange effect is used on the guitar (an electronic effect producing a sweeping sound). Moby - Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad

Moby is a DJ, singer-songwriter and performer from New York. He was born in the USA in 1965. He plays keyboard, guitar, bass guitar and drums. He has written popular dance music tracks which sample music from other songs.

Moby

Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad? was a single from Moby's dance music album Play(1999). Play has sold over 9 million copies. Other Moby albums include Hotel and Last Night. Dance music is technology-based with the DJ playing an important role in mixing and presenting tracks. It is characterised by: extensive use of samples and loops links to the club scene layered textures The tracks on Play were written and played by Moby and then recorded and mixed at his home studio. The equipment used includes synthesisers, a sampler and drum machine (Roland TR909). A synthesiser is a device which generates sounds electronically. A sampler is a device that can take any sound that is put into it, process it and play it back. The Roland TR drum machine was one of the first to have programmable rhythms.

Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad? uses two samples of 1950s gospel music.

Gospel choir on Never Mind the Buzzcocks

Both are taken from a song called King Jesus Will Roll All Burdens Away. The surface noise of the samples has not been removed. Moby did not want the music to sound sterile. The first sample is a male singer and uses the words Why does my heart feel so bad? The second sample is a female singer and uses the words These open doors. Both samples are looped. A sample is a digitally recorded fragment of sound - it could be a guitar riff, a line from a song chorus, or the sound of running water. Looping is where a short sample is repeated over and over again.

Song structure
Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad? is based on two eight-bar themes, A and B. There are two versions of theme B (Bx and By). The percussion part uses rhythms from the Roland TR909 drum machine plus a sampled hip-hop breakbeat (drum solo).

Theme A
Theme A is based on the following chord sequence

A minor E minor G D

Listen to Theme A. Notice the simple chordal piano accompaniment.

Theme B
B themes are of two types, Bx and By. Each B theme is also eight bars long, made by looping a 2 bar phrase. They have the following chord sequences (each chord repeated for 2 bars):

Bx C A minor C A minor By F C F C

Listen to Theme Bx. Notice the repeated (looped) two bar phrase. Theme By uses major chords. When you hear the full song listen to the difference this makes. Theme By sounds more positive and uplifting after we have heard theme Bx.

Structure of the song

Here is the overall structure. All the sections are eight bars long. It could be seen as verse and chorus with the A sections as the verse and the B sections as the chorus.

Theme Description A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 Bx1 By1 A6 A7 Intro piano only Male singer Percussion Bass and string synthesiser Syncopated piano chords Female singer New chord sequence Male singer and second vocal line A6 repeated One bar pause with fading echoes Bx2 By2 By3 A8 Female singer, no piano or percussion Piano and percussion return By2 repeated Male singer, no piano or percussion

The themes are varied throughout the song. Techniques include: changing the texture - adding and taking away instruments and voices adding a synthesiser countermelody in A3

adding electronic effects e.g. delay and heavy EQ in A6, reverb in Bx2 Delay refers to any type of effect that adds a delayed version of the original signal, to create effects such as reverb or echo. EQ is short for equalisation. It is the lessening or boosting of different frequencies.

Area of Study 1 Western Classics Handel And the Glory of the Lord

Choral music

Ladysmith Black Mambazo

Different types of choirs include mixed choirs (usually with parts for SATB - soprano, alto, tenor and bass), male voice choirs, female choirs, and a cappella ensembles. A cappella ensembles are unaccompanied choruses. Ladysmith Black Mambazo are an a cappella Zulu male voice choir from South Africa. African songs are usually either strophic (split up into verses) or in call-and-response form. In call-and-response form, the leader sings a line (the call) and is answered by a chorus (the response). The chorus usually stays the same while the soloist improvises. There is often overlapping between the leader and the chorus. The chorus part is usually homophonic (in block chords). Listen to the call and response used in The Star and the Wiseman sung by Ladysmith Black Mambazo. Notice the homophonic response parts. And the Glory of the Lord is a chorus taken from Handels oratorio Messiah (1741) written for SATB choir and orchestra. An oratorio is a setting of religious words for solo singers, chorus and orchestra.

A choir singing

Handel was born in Germany and worked as the court conductor for the Elector of Hanover. He visited England and eventually settled there. His most famous works include: operas e.g. Julius Caesar music for royal occasions e.g. Water Music more than 20 oratorios - Messiah is the most famous The first performance of Messiah took place in a newly opened concert hall in Dublin. Now it is often performed in concert halls and churches and is popular with amateurs. Messiah has as its theme the central message of Christianity - the birth, life and death of Jesus Christ (the Messiah). The words are taken from the prophecies in the Old Testament about the coming of the Messiah. The words were selected by Charles Jennens. The whole work takes about three hours to perform, amazingly Handel only took just over three weeks to compose it. Messiah was written during the Baroque period. And the Glory of the Lord is the fourth movement of Messiah. It is the first time in the work that the choir sing. The movement opens with a short orchestral introduction. For the first performance, the small orchestra included strings, two trumpets, timpani, organ and harpsichord continuo. Handel added more instruments (oboes and bassoons) for later performances. The first entry is by altos singing the melody of the orchestral introduction. The words tell of the coming of the Lord (the promised Messiah): "And the glory of the Lord shall be revealed" "And all flesh shall see it together" "For the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it" It is a joyous movement which is reflected in the bright key of A major, the allegro tempo and the lilting rhythms. The whole of And the Glory of the Lord is built around four main motives. A motive (or motif) is a short distinctive melodic or rhythmic idea and is used as the basis of longer passages of music. Listen to the opening of the movement. The orchestral introduction is followed by Motive 1 (first sung by the altos) and then is joined by Motive 2 (first sung by the tenors, followed by the basses).

Motive 1

Notice how it outlines the chord of A major the tonic chord and moves up the last three notes of the scale. This helps to establish the key. The word-setting is syllabic one word to a syllable.

Motive 2

Notice the use of sequence the second full bar is a repeat of the first full bar but a tone lower. The word revealed has several notes per syllable it is melismatic.

Motive 3
Listen to the first appearance of Motive 3 (first heard in the altos). This is followed by the first appearance of Motive 4 (first heard in the tenors and basses).

Notice how the same five-note figured is repeated.

Motive 4

Notice the use of long notes, mostly at the same pitch. This helps to emphasise the words.

Combinations
The four motives are heard in combination with each other motives 1 and 2 are often paired together as are 3 and 4. The movement uses contrasting textures- a mixture of contrapuntal and homophonic passages. Sometimes all four voices are heard together, sometimes there are only one, two or three parts. The melody is heard in different parts. Entries are often staggered - the different parts come in one after another rather than together. Much use is made of imitation. Imitation is where a melody in one part is repeated a few notes later in a different part overlapping the melody in the first part which continues. The orchestra often doubles the choral parts. The last four bars: are preceded by a general pause (GP) where everyone stops singing or playing

are marked Adagio (slow) the movement comes to a close with a plagal cadence a plagal cadence uses chords IV I, in this case D major - A major) sounding like Amen the passage is in block chords (homophonic) Listen to the closing bars of And the Glory of the Lord. Notice the GP, the change of tempo and the plagal cadence. Mozart Symphony No.40 in G Minor Movement 1

The symphony

BBC Symphony Orchestra

The symphony was a very important form during the Classical and Romantic periods. A symphony is a large-scale orchestral work intended to be played in the concert hall. It is usually in four movements. The standard Classical form is: 1st movement: Allegro (fast) in sonata form 2nd movement: Slow 3rd movement: Minuet (a dance with three beats in a bar) 4th movement: Allegro Notice that the first movement is in sonata form. Sonata form has three main sections: exposition, development and recapitulation. Learn more about sonata form.

Sonata form
Most of the musical ideas come from two contrasting themes heard in the exposition. In the exposition the material is 'exposed', presented for the first time. There are two main melodies known as the first and second subject. The first subject is in the tonic key. The second subject is in a different key, usually the dominant or the relative minor, and has a different character. The two subjects are connected by a transition or bridge passage. In the development section the material from the exposition is transformed. The music goes through several modulations (key changes). In the recapitulation the material from the exposition is repeated (recapped) in a slightly different and shorter form. The first and second subjects are now both heard in the tonic key.

Symphony No.40 in G minor K.550

K.550 is the number of this symphony in the catalogue of Mozarts works. It is known as a Kchel number because the catalogue was compiled by Ludwig Kchel. Mozarts Symphony No.40 was completed in 1788. It is not known whether it was performed during Mozarts lifetime. It has the standard four movements and is scored for: woodwind flute, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons brass two horns strings - 1st violins, 2nd violins, cellos and double basses There are no trumpets or timpani (kettledrums).

Mozart - Symphony No. 40: movement 1

In the following pages we will look at the first movement of Symphony No. 40 in more detail. Remember this movement is in sonata form, so it has three sections: exposition, development and recapitulation.

Exposition
The symphony opens with the first subject played on violins accompanied by the violas, cellos and double basses.

First subject

Look at the first subject. Notice the: tempo marking molto allegro (very fast) 4/4 time signature key signature of G minor (two flats) dynamic marking p melody starting on the fourth beat, a weak beat of the bar this is known as an anacrusis shape of the melody and its use of two quavers followed by a crotchet - a falling semitone motive (or motif) question and answer phrasing a four-bar phrase answered by another four-bar phrase dark intense mood A motive (or motif) is a short distinctive melodic or rhythmic idea and is used as the basis of longer passages of music. Listen to the opening. Notice how the second four-bar phrase ends with a perfect cadence. Notice the use of the tonic pedal in the first six bars and the repeated quaver accompaniment. The word 'pedal' is used here to mean a repeated note (in this case G) played against changing harmonies.

A perfect cadence sounds final and uses chord V (the dominant, in this case D) followed by chord I (the tonic, in this case G minor). A transition or bridge passage leads to the second subject.

Second subject

Look at the second subject. Notice the way that it contrasts with the first subject. The second subject: is in a different key B flat major this also has two flats and is known as the relative major mainly uses longer note values starts on the first beat of the bar has a melody shared between strings and woodwind (clarinets and bassoons) has a more lyrical and relaxed mood Like the first subject it uses: semitones falling phrases Listen to the section opening with the second subject. It is made up of two four-bar phrases, the first ending with an imperfect cadence and the second phrase ending with a perfect cadence. Notice the major key and the simple chordal accompaniment.

Development and recapitulation

Development
In the sonata form the exposition that began the first movement is followed by the development. Several different techniques are used in this section to transform the material of the exposition. These include: altered melodies rapid modulations from one key to the next contrapuntal textures use of imitation much use of the falling semitone motive Imitation is where a melody in one part is repeated a few notes later in a different part overlapping the melody in the first part.

Recapitulation

The recapitulation follows the development. Here the material from the exposition is repeated in a slightly different and shorter form. The recapitulation returns to the tonic key of G minor and opens with the first subject. The second subject is now also heard in G minor. The movement ends with a coda. The final bars close the movement with repeated perfect cadences played by full orchestra (tutti). A coda is a short section which comes at the end of a movement.

Chopin Prelude in D Flat Major Op 28

Chopin prelude in D Flat bars 14

The piece opens in D flat major. Look at the melody of the four opening bars. Notice the: time signature of 4/4 (C refers to common time) key signature of D flat major melodic line which falls and then rises in a long curve septuplet in the final bar where 7 semi-quavers are played in the time of 4 (the septuplet is preceded by a grace note a single note ornament) The melody is supported by broken chords so the texture is homophonic. Most of the opening is based on chords 1 and V the tonic and dominant, which in this case are D flat and A flat. The first chord is the tonic. Repeated A flat quavers (the raindrops) are used from the beginning these act as a pedal throughout the piece. Dont confuse this with the piano pedal. The word 'pedal' is used here to mean a repeated note played against changing harmonies. A flat is the dominant of D flat major, so this is a dominant pedal. Listen to the opening of the prelude. Notice the long melodic line and the repeated quavers of the pedal. The A section ends with an imperfect cadence leading into the second section. An imperfect cadence ends on the dominant chord (in this case a chord of A flat).

Opening of a section B

Look at the opening bar of Section B. Notice the: 1. new key signature of C sharp minor this uses an enharmonic modulation 2. sotto voce marking 3. repeated quavers in the treble clef (right hand) 4. long melody in the bass clef (left hand), mostly in crotchets If you look at the piano you will see that the note D flat is the same note as C sharp it is the enharmonic equivalent. A modulation is a change of key. Listen to the opening of the middle section with the melody in the bass. Notice how the mood is darker and more dramatic with the minor key. It uses some rich, dissonant harmony and a lot of dynamic shading including huge crescendos.

Return of section A - final section

The key has now returned to D flat major. This section is much shorter than the opening A section. The opening four bars are very similar to the opening of the piece but this time the septuplet is replaced with 10 semi-quavers. The next phrase is cut short; the pedal stops briefly and is followed by an eight-bar coda. The coda opens an unaccompanied melody when there is only one line, this is known as a monophonic texture. The prelude ends pp (very quietly) with a perfect cadence. A perfect cadence uses chord V (the dominant, in this case A flat) followed by chord I (the tonic, in this case D flat). Perfect cadences sound final so are often used at the end of compositions.

Area of Study 4 World Music Capercaillie Skye Waulking Song Capercaillie are a Scottish band who combine traditional Gaelic folk music and elements of rock music. Their sound is a fusion of the two styles and could be described as Celtic rock. 'Chuir mathair mise dhan taigh charraideach' translates into English as 'My father sent me to the house of sorrow'. The Skye Waulking Song: Has a 12/8 time signature Is mostly based around three chords C, E minor and G Has eight verses and an instrumental section Opens with an intro and fades out with an outro Is from a collection of Gaelic folk songs compiled by the folklorist Alexander Carmichael A Waulking song is a work song, sung by women workers processing cloth.

Capercaillie Sound
The song combines folk and rock instruments. The (amplified) instruments associated with rock music are: Synthesiser Wurlitzer piano Bass Drum kit The (acoustic) instruments associated with folk music are: Violin (fiddle) Accordion Pipes Bouzouki The Wurlitzer piano is a keyboard instrument without strings. The sound is produced by a combination of steel reeds, hammer action and an electrostatic pickup system. The bouzouki is a Greek long neck lute played with a plectrum. In recent years it has been used in traditional Scottish and Irish music.

Gaelic music

Capercaille performing on stage

Other Gaelic influences include: the compound time signature the pentatonic vocal line the use of a refrain refrains are included after each line of a couplet (a pair of lines of verse) the use of nonsense words in refrains the narrative element the song tells a story the use of a Scotch snap rhythm (a short accented note before a longer one) on the words 'O hi a bho ro hu o ho'