Homogenisers

The technology behind disruption of fat globules

Homogenisation has become a standard industrial process, universally practised as a means of stabilising the fat emulsion against gravity separation. Gaulin, who invented the process in 1899, described it in French as fixer la composition des liquides. Homogenisation primarily causes disruption of fat globules into much smaller ones (Figure 6.3.1). Consequently, it diminishes creaming and may also diminish the tendency of globules to clump or coalesce. Essentially, all homogenised milk is produced by mechanical means. Milk is forced through a small passage at high velocity. The disintegration of the original fat globules is achieved by a combination of contributing factors such as turbulence and cavitation. The homogenisation reduces fat globule size from an average of 3,5 m in diameter to below 1 m. This is accompanied by a four- to six-fold increase in the fat/plasma interfacial surface area. The newly created fat globules are no longer completely covered with the original membrane material. Instead, they are surfaced with a mixture of proteins adsorbed from the plasma phase. Fox et al.1) studied a fat-protein complex produced by the homogenisation of milk. They showed that casein was the protein half of the complex and that it was probably associated with the fat fraction through polar bonding forces. They postulated further that the casein micelle was activated at the moment it passed through the valve of the homogeniser, predisposing it to interaction with the lipid phase.

Fig. 6.3.1 Homogenisation causes disruption of fat globules into much smaller ones.

Process requirements
The physical state and concentration of the fat phase at the time of homogenisation contribute materially to the size and dispersion of the ensuing fat globules. Homogenisation of cold milk, in which the fat is essentially solidified, is virtually ineffective. Processing at temperatures conducive to the partial solidification of milk fat (i.e. below 40 C) results in incomplete dispersion of the fat phase. Products of high fat content are more difficult to homogenise and also more likely to show evidence of fat clumping, because the concentration of serum proteins is low in relation to the fat content. Usually, cream with higher fat content than 20 % cannot be homogenised at high pressure, because clusters are formed as a result of lack of membrane material (casein). Increasing the homogenisation temperature decreases the visocity of milk and improves the transport of membrane material to the fat globules. Homogenisation temperatures normally applied are 55 80 C, and homogenisation pressure is between 10 and 25 MPa (100 250 bar), depending on the product.
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1) Fox, K.K., Holsinger, Virginia, Caha, Jeanne and Pallasch, M.J., J. Dairy Sci, 43, 1396 (1960).

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Flow characteristics
When the liquid passes the narrow gap, the flow velocity increases (Figure 6.3.2). The speed will increase until the static pressure is so low that the liquid starts to boil. The maximum speed depends mainly on the inlet (homogenisation) pressure. When the liquid leaves the gap, the speed decreases and the pressure increases again. The liquid stops boiling and the steam bubbles implode.

Homogenisation theories
Forcer Homogenised product Seat

Homogenised product Gap 0,1 mm

Fig. 6.3.2 At homogenisation, the milk is forced through a narrow gap where the fat globules are split.

Many theories of the mechanism of high pressure homogenisation have been presented over the years. For an oil-in-water dispersion like milk, where most of the droplets are less than one m (106 m) in diameter, two theories have survived. Together, they give a good Unhomogenised explanation of the influence of different parameters on product the homogenising effect. The theory of globule disruption by turbulent eddies (micro whirls) is based on the fact that a lot of small eddies are created in a liquid travelling at a high velocity. Higher velocity gives smaller eddies. If an eddy hits an oil droplet of its own size, the droplet will break up. This theory predicts how the homogenising effect varies with the homogenising pressure. This relation has been shown in many investigations. The cavitation theory, on the other hand, claims that the shock waves created when the steam bubbles implode disrupt the fat droplets. According to this theory, homogenisation takes place when the liquid is leaving the gap, so the back pressure which is important to control the cavitation is important to homogenisation. This has also been shown in practice. However, it is possible to homogenise without cavitation, but it is less efficient.

Single-stage and two-stage homogenisation

Homogenisers may be equipped with one homogenising device or two connected in series, hence the names single-stage homogenisation and two-stage homogenisation. The two-stage system is illustrated in Figure 6.3.5. In both single-stage homogenisation and two-stage homogenisation, the whole homogenisation pressure (P1) is used over the first device. In singlestage homogenisation, the back pressure (P2) is created by the process. In two-stage homogenisation the back pressure (P2) is created by the second stage. In this case the back pressure can be chosen to achieve optimal homogenisation efficiency. Using modern devices, the best results are obtained when the relation P2/P1 is about 0,2. The second stage also reduces noise and vibrations in the outlet pipe. Single-stage homogenisation may be used for homogenisation of products with high fat content demanding a high viscosity (certain cluster formation). Two-stage homogenisation is used primarily to reach optimal homogenisation results and to break up fat clusters in products with a high fat content. The formation and break-up of clusters in the second stage is illustrated in Figure 6.3.3.

2
Fig. 6.3.3 Disruption of fat globules in first and second stages of homogenisation. 1 After first stage 2 After second stage

Effect of homogenisation
The effect of homogenisation on the physical structure of milk has many advantages: Smaller fat globules leading to less cream-line formation Whiter and more appetizing colour Reduced sensitivity to fat oxidation More full-bodied flavour, and better mouthfeel Better stability of cultured milk products

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However, homogenisation also has certain disadvantages: Somewhat increased sensitivity to light sunlight and fluorescent tubes can result in sunlight flavour (see also Chapter 8, Pasteurised milk products). The milk might be less suitable for production of semi-hard or hard cheeses because the coagulum will be too soft and difficult to dewater.

The homogeniser
A high-pressure homogeniser is a pump with a homogenisation device. A homogeniser is generally needed when high-efficiency homogenisation is required. The product enters the pump block and is pressurised by the piston pump. The pressure that is achieved is determined by the back-pressure given by the distance between the forcer and seat in the homogenisation device. This pressure P1 (Figure 6.3.8) is always designated the homogenisation pressure. P2 is the back-pressure to the first stage.

The high-pressure pump

In Figure 6.3.4, the piston pump is driven by a powerful electric motor (1), via belts (2) and pulleys through a gearbox (3) to the crankshaft (10) and connecting-rod transmission, which converts the rotary motion of the motor to the reciprocating motion of the pump pistons (9).

1 10 2 3 9
Fig. 6.3.4 The homogeniser is a large high-pressure pump with a homogenising device. 1 Main drive motor 2 V-belt transmission 3 Gearbox 4 Damper 5 Hydraulic pressure setting system 6 Homogenising device, second stage 7 Homogenising device, first stage 8 Solid stainless steel pump block 9 Pistons 10 Crankcase

4 8 5

6 7

A piston pump is a positive pump and its capacity can only be adjusted by changing the speed of the motor or changing the size of the pulleys. To handle higher pressures, pistons with smaller diameter are installed. This will reduce the maximum capacity, as each machine size has a maximum crankshaft speed. A larger machine has a longer stroke length and/or more pistons. In many cases these pistons also have a larger diameter. A high-pressure pump has normally three to five pistons (9), running in cylinders in a high-pressure block (8). They are made of highly resistant materials. The machine is fitted with double piston-seals. Water is supplied

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Fig.6.3.5 The components of a twostage homogenisation device. 1 First stage forcer 2 Second stage forcer 3 Seat 4 Gap 5 Hydraulic actuator

2 4 3

3 1 5 4

to the space between the seals to lubricate the pistons. A mixture of hot condensate and steam can also be supplied to prevent reinfection when the homogeniser is placed downstream in aseptic processes. A pistonpump will always generate a pulsating flow. The acceleration and decelerationof the liquid will create a pulsating pressure in the suction pipe. To avoid cavitation in the pump, there is always a damper on the suction pipe to reduce the pulsation. On the outlet side, the pulsation might create vibrations and noise, why the outlet pipe is also equipped with a damper. As it is a positive pump, a piston pump should not operate in a series of other positive pumps, unless there is a bypass otherwise the result can be extreme pressure variations and damaged equipment. If the flow can be stopped downstream of a high-pressure pump, a safety device must be installed that opens before the pipe bursts.

The homogenisation device

Figure 6.3.5 shows the homogenisation and hydraulic system. The piston pump boosts the pressure of the milk from about 300 kPa (3 bar) at the inlet to a homogenisation pressure of 10 25 MPa (100 250 bar), depending on the product. The pressure to the first stage before the device (the homogenisation pressure) is automatically kept constant. The oil pressure on the hydraulic piston and the homogenisation pressure on the forcer balance each other. The hydraulic unit can supply both first and second stage with an individually set pressure. The homogenisation pressure is set by adjusting the oil pressure. Actual homogenisation pressure can be read on a pressure gauge. Homogenisation always takes place in the first stage. The second stage basically serves two purposes: Supplying a constant and controlled back-pressure to the first stage, giving best possible conditions for homogenisation Breaking up clusters formed directly after homogenisation as shown in Figure 6.3.3. The parts in the homogenisation device are precision-ground. Its seat is at an angle that makes the product accelerate in a controlled way, thereby reducing the rapid wear and tear that would otherwise occur.

Note that the homogenisation pressure is the pressure before the first stage, not the pressure drop.

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Milk is supplied at high pressure to the space between the seat and forcer. The distance between the seat and the forcer is approximately 0,1 mm or 100 times the size of the fat globules in homogenised milk. The velocity of the liquid is normally 100 400 m/s in the narrow annular gap. The higher the homogenisation pressure, the higher the speed. Homogenisation takes 10 15 microseconds. During this time, all the pressure energy delivered by the piston pump is converted into kinetic energy. Part of this energy is converted back to pressure again after the device. The other part is released as heat; every 40 bar in pressure drop over the device gives a temperature rise of 1 C. Less than 1 % of the energy is utilised for homogenisation, but nevertheless, high-pressure homogenisation is the most efficient method available.

Homogenisation efficiency
The purpose of homogenisation varies with the application. Consequently the methods of measuring efficiency also vary. According to Stokes Law, the rising velocity of a particle is given by: vg = velocity g = force of gravity p = particle size hp= density of the liquid lp = density of the particle t = viscosity in the formula: p2 x (hp lp) 18 x t

vg = or

xg

vg = constant x p2

It can be seen that reducing the particle size is an efficient way of reducing the rising velocity. Therefore, reducing the size of fat globules in milk reduces the creaming rate.

Analytical methods
Studies of creaming rate

Laser light

Analytical methods for determining homogenisation efficiency can be divided into two groups:

The straight forward way of determining the creaming rate is to take a package, store it at the recommended storage temperature until the last day of consumption, open it and check if the cream layer is acceptable or not. The USPH method is based on this. A sample of, say, 1 000 ml is stored for 48 hours, after which the fat content of the top 100 ml is determined, as well as the fat content of the rest. Homogenisation is reckoned to be sufficient if 0,9 times the top fat content is less than the bottom fat content. The NIZO method is based on the same principle, but with this method, a sample of 25 ml is centrifuged for 30 minutes at 1 000 rpm, 40 C and a radius of 250 mm. The fat content of the 20 ml at the bottom is divided by the fat content of the whole sample, and the ratio is multiplied by 100. The resulting index is called the NIZO value. The NIZO value of pasteurised milk is normally 50 80 %.

Sample Scattered light

Sensors

Fig. 6.3.6 Particles analysis by laser diffraction.

Size distribution analysis

The size distribution of the particles or droplets in a sample can be determined in a well defined way by using a laser diffraction unit (Figure 6.3.6), which sends a laser beam through a sample in a cuvette. The light

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Volume distribution of fat, % Homogenised at 250 bar Homogenised at 100 bar Unhomogenised milk

Fig. 6.3.7 Size distribution curves.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Globule size, microns

will be scattered, depending on the size and numbers of particles in the sample. The result is presented as size distribution curves. The percentage of the volume (fat) is given as a function of the particle size (fat globule size). Three typical size distribution curves for milk are shown in Figure 6.3.7. It can be seen that the curve shifts to the left as a higher homogenisation pressure is used. Note that fat globules can aggregate during storage and that this can increase the creaming rate.

Energy consumption and influence on temperature

Flow l/h Qin 10 000 Temp C Tin 65 Pressure bar Pin 2 Electric effect kW E 68 Pressure bar P1 200 Pressure bar P2 40 Pressure bar Pout 4 Temp C Tout 70

Piston pump

1st
homogenisation stage

2nd
homogenisation stage

Fig. 6.3.8 Energy, temperature and pressure in a homogenisation example.

The electrical power input needed for homogenisation is expressed by the formula: Example: E = Electrical effect, kW = Feed capacity, l/h 10 000 Qin P1 = Homogenisation pressure, bar 200 (20 MPa) = Pressure to the pump, bar 2 (200 kPa) Pin pump = Efficiency coefficient of the pump 0,85 el. motor= Efficiency coefficient of the electrical motor 0,95 Qin x (P1 Pin) 36 000 x pump x el. motor

E =

kW

The efficiency coefficients are typical values. From the figures for feed capacity and pressures given on the right above, the electric power demand will be 68 kW. Of this, 55 kW is used for pumping and converted to

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heat in the homogenisation device, and 13 kW is released as heat to the cooling water and to the air. As was mentioned above, part of the pressure energy supplied is released as heat. Given the temperature of the feed, Tin, the homogenisation pressure, P1, the pressure after homogenisation, Pout, and that every 4 MPa (40 bar) in pressure drop raises the temperature by 1 C, the following formula is applicable:

Tout =

P1 Pout 40

+ Tin

The energy consumption, temperature increase and pressure decrease are illustrated in Figure 6.3.8. Tin = 65 C P1 = 200 bar (20 MPa) Pout = 4 bar (400 kPa) resulting in Tout = 70 C

The homogeniser in a processing line

In general, the homogeniser is placed upstream, i.e. before the final heating section in a heat exchanger. In most pasteurisation plants for market milk production, the homogeniser is usually placed after the first regenerative section. In production of UHT milk, the homogeniser is generally placed upstream in indirect systems but always downstream in direct systems, i.e. on the aseptic side after UHT treatment. In the latter case, the homogeniser is of aseptic design with special piston seals, sterile steam condenser and special aseptic dampers. However, downstream location of the homogeniser is recommended for indirect UHT systems when milk products with a fat content higher than 6 10 % and/or with increased protein content are going to be processed. The reason is that with increased fat and protein contents, fat clusters and/ or agglomerates (protein) form at the very high heat treatment temperatures. These clusters/agglomerates are broken up by the aseptic homogeniser located downstream.

Split homogenisation
An aseptic homogeniser is more expensive to operate. In some cases it is sufficient if just the second stage is placed downstream. This arrangement is called split homogenisation. Note that the whole section, including the heat exchanger, between the first and the second stage in the homogeniser, has to withstand a fairly high pressure.

Full stream homogenisation

Full stream or total homogenisation is the most commonly used form of homogenisation of UHT milk and milk intended for cultured milk products. The fat content of the milk is standardised prior to homogenisation, as is the solids-non-fat content in certain circumstances, e.g. in yoghurt production.

Partial homogenisation
Partial stream homogenisation means that the main body of skim milk is not homogenised, but only the cream together with a small proportion of skim milk. This form of homogenisation is mainly applied to pasteurised market milk. The basic reason is to reduce operating costs. Total power

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Raw milk, 4 % fat Cream, 35 % fat Skim milk, 0,05 % fat Cream, 18 % fat

Standardised milk, 3,5 % fat Cooling media Heating media

Fig. 6.3.9 Product flow at partial stream homogenisation. 1 Heat exchanger 2 Centrifugal separator 3 Automatic fat standardisation device 4 Homogeniser

The formulae for the calculations are: Qp x (fcs frm) fcs fsm Qsm x fsm fch

1.

Qsm =

2.

Qh =

consumption is cut by some 80 % because of the smaller volume passing through the homogeniser. As sufficiently good homogenisation can be reached when the product contains at least 0,2 g casein per g fat, a maximum cream fat content of 18 % is recommended. The hourly capacity of a homogeniser used for partial homogenisation can be dimensioned according to the following example. Example: 10 000 Qp = Plant input capacity, l/h Qsm = Output of standardised milk, l/h Qh = Homogeniser capacity, l/h frm = Fat content of raw milk, % 4,0 3,5 fsm = Fat content of standardised milk, % fcs = Fat content of cream from separator, % 35 fch = Fat content of cream to be homogenised, % 18 The hourly output of pasteurised standardised milk, Qsm, will be approx. 9 840 l. Inserted into Formula 2, this gives an hourly homogeniser capacity of approx. 1 915 l, i.e. about one-fifth of the output capacity. The flow pattern in a plant for partially homogenised milk is illustrated in Figure 6.3.9.

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