Physiology

Organ Different types of tissue join together and perform special function is called organ. E.g. lung, heart, kidney Physiology it is the science of function and phenomena of living things. Division of physiology - Viral physiology - Bacterial physiology - Cellular physiology - Plant physiology Human physiology Basic unit of human body is cell. About 60% of human body is fluid. 40% is intracellular fluid. 20% is extra cellular fluid. Total body fluid is 40-42 Cellular physiology Cell The structural and functional unit of the living organism is called cell. 1. Cell membrane 2. Protoplasm - Nucleus - Cytoplasm Cell membrane protein two type: Integral protein Peripheral protein Protein Any group of complex organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur. They serve as enzyme, structural element, hormones, immunoglobulin etc. and are other activities. Two different types: Structural protein Globular protein Nucleoprotein special type of protein (nucleus and cytoplasm) mainly acts as enzyme. Lipid Phospholipids, Cholesterol Other type neutral fat (Tryacylglycerol) Nucleus it is the control central of the cell. Nucleus consists of - Nuclear membrane - Nucleolus (contain RNA& protein) - Nucleoplasm - Chromatin material (DNA)

DNA (Deoxyribose nucleic Acid) DNA is the composition of chromosome that carries the genetic message and considered as the chemical basis of hereditary. Basic building block of DNA - Phosphoric acid - A sugar called deoxyribose - Four nitrogenous base

Nitrogen Base 1. Purine base Adenine, Guanine 2. Pyrimidine Thymine (Absence in RNA), Cytosine, Uracil (Absence in DNA)
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RNA (ribonucleic acid) It is nucleic acid principally found in the nucleus, microsome & mitochondria of cells. Three types of RNA 1. Messenger RNA 2. Transfer RNA 3. Ribosomal RNA Transcription It is the process of formation of m RNA & t RNA on the DNA strands by the enzyme RNA polymerase Translation It is the process of formation of protein molecule by m RNA on ribosome. System When different organ joins together and to perform a specific work. 1. Skeletal system 2. Digestive system 3. Respiratory system 4. Cardio Vascular System 5. Urinary system 6. Nervous ns system 7. Circulatory system 8. Lymphatic system 9. Limbic system 10. Reproductive system 11. Endocrine system 12. Muscular system Blood Blood Blood is the liquid specialized connective tissue composed of fluid protein (plasma) and cellular element (RBC, WBC, and platelets). It is the red thick & slightly alkaline. 1. pH range (7.1-7.4)Average- 7.4, 2. Reaction alkaline, 3. Volume (5-6) L (8% of total body weight), 4. Temperature 37c (average) - Plasma-55% - Blood cell-45% Arteriole blood Bright red (due to oxyhemoglobin) Venous blood Dark red (due to carboxy hemoglobin) @ Total amount of plasma protein is 6.4-8.4 gm/kg blood. RBC (Red blood corpuscle) or erythrocyte-------------Shape circular, bi-concave, non nucleated disk Life span 120 days Normal count Adult male (4.5-5.5) million/ L of blood (average 5.4) Adult female 4.0-5.5 million/L of blood (average4.8) @ Hemoglobin is conjugated protein. It is red pigment inside the re4d blood cell. It is chromo protein consisting Globin-46% Heam-4% WBC (white blood corpuscle) -------------It is nucleated colorless cell o0f the blood & is the mobile unit of the bodys protective system. Life span- few hours or few days Normal count- 4000-11000/L of blood Composition of WBC 1. Granulocyte - Neutrophil - Eosinophil
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- Basophil 2. Agranulocyte - Lymphocytes- 30% - Monocyte-5.3% Platelet (Thrombocyte) -------------Platelets are one of the formed elements of blood. Shape Oral or rounded (absent nucleus) Life span 8-12 day Normal count 2-4 lac/L of blood Coagulation Process of blood Hemostasis of blood Hemostasis means prevention of blood lost or arrest of bleeding. Mechanism Vascular spasm Formation of platelet plug

Eventual growth of Tissue into the blood clot to close the hole in the vessel permeability

Blood coagulation

Essential factors of blood clot - Fibrinogen - Prothrombin - Tissue thromboplastin - Calcium Bleeding time Bleeding time is the time required for the stoppage of bleeding. (1-6 min) Clotting time Time required for coagulation of blood (6-10min)

Endocrine System Endocrine glands Means ductless glands which directly poured their secretion into the blood Name of endocrine gland 1. Hypoththalamus (neuroendocrine gland) 2. Pituitary Gland a. Anterior pituitary gland b. Posterior pituitary glands Insulin Insulin is a small protein consisting of two polypeptide chains that are connected by disulfide bonds. Insulin is secreted from Pancreas. Hormone of pancreas Two functional parts Exocrine Endocrine (Pancreatic acini) (Islets of Langerhans)
Secretes Digestive enzyme Secretes 1. Insulin 2. Glucagon 3. Somatostatin 4. Pancreatic Polypeptide

-cell produce Glucagon -cell produce Insulin Biosynthesis of insulin - -cell synthesize Preproinsulin Proinsulin Insulin. Daily secretion 5mg Plasma concentration 0.6 ng/ml (after an overnight fast)
-

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Source of Insulin
Insulin is isolated from beef and pork pancreas. However, human insulin is replacing the animal hormone for therapy. Human insulin is produced by a special strain of Escherichia coli that has been genetically altered to contain the gene for human insulin. Pork insulin structure is closely related to human insulin, differing by only one amino acid. Name of the endocrine gland - hypothalamus (neuroendocrine gland) - pituitary gland (master gland) - parathyroid gland - thyroid gland - adrenal gland - pancrease (endocrine protein) - testes and ovary - placenta (during pregnancy) Diabetes A disorder causes excess sugar level in blood than the normal. It is metabolic disorder. Diabetes is a disorder caused by excessive urine excretion. Diabetogenic Which producing diabetes Diabetogenous Which is caused by diabetes. Types of diabetes 1. Diabetes mellitus Non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) Juvenile onset diabetes 2. Diabetes incipidus

Alimentary System Digestive system: part of alimentary tract Mouth Oropharynx Pharynx & Esophagus

Large intestine Caecum Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon Rectum Anal canal Necessary part of digestive system

Small intestine Duodenum Jejunum Ileum

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Teeth Salivary gland (parotid, submandibular, sublingual) Liver Pancrease Gall bladder Other digestive gland Alimentary Tract- (mouth- anus) Gastro-intestinal Tract- (stomach- anus)

Daily secretion of digestive juice (different digestive juice) Saliva- 1000ml/ day Gastric secretion- 1500ml/day Pancreatic secretion- 1000ml/day Bile- 1000ml/day Bile acid 1. Cholic acid 2. Deoxycholic acid 3. Chino deoxycholic acid 4. Lethocholic acid 5. Enolic acid Bile pigment 1. Bilirubin 2. Biliverdin Digestion It is the process by which complex food materials are converted into absorbable simple form by the action of different GI secretion. Digestive Basic mechanism R 1 +R 2 +H2O R 1 OH+R 2 H Enzyme Digestion of carbohydrate ---------1. In mouth Boiled starch Maltose ptyalin Amylodextrin Ptyalin Achrodextrin Erythrodextrin Ptyalin

Ptyalin

2. In the stomach In acidic media the function of ptyalin is lost. 3. in the duodenumPancreatic Starch & Dextrin Maltose Amylase 4. In the intestine Many carbohydrate splitting enzyme of small intestine (maltase, lactase, - dextrin, sucrase) are secretes. a. Maltose & other Glucose polymer b. Lactose or Disaccharide milk c. Sucrose maltase Glucose + Glucose lactase Glucose + Fructose

sucrase Glucose +Fructose

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Cane Sugar Digestion of protein ---------1. In the mouth No digestion of protein in the mouth 2. In the stomach Pepsin Proteases Protein Peptone Hcl Polypeptide Stomach providing only 10-20% of total protein digestion 3. In the duodenum Proteases Trypsin Peptone Polypeptide Chymotrypsin 4. Polypeptide amino acid

Polypeptide Amino Acid Polypeptidase Amino acid

Composition of dietary fat 1. Tryacylglycerol (neutral fat) 2. Phospholipids 3. Cholesterol ester Digestion of fat ---------1. In Mouth no digestion 2. In the Stomach small amount of digestion by Gastric Lipase 3. In the Intestine In the intestine the processes of digestion are Emulsification of fat by bile salts Hydrolysis of emulsified fat by pancreatic lipase Pepsin and gastric lipase release from the stomach Emulsification The breakdown of large fat globules in the intestine to smaller uniformly distributed particles by bile salts is called emulsification. Example of fat digestion: Fatty acid Monoglyceride Absorption Absorption is the process by which the end product of digestion enters into the blood stream through epithelium of the gut. Mastication When food is taken in the mouth it is ground under the teeth by a process called mastication. Swallowing It is the process by which food bolus is propelled backwards towards the stomach. It takes 9-12 sec. voluntary stage / pharyngeal/ /esophageal. Metabolism Metabolism means all physical & chemical change in the organism & making it possible to continue living. Two type Anabolism & Catabolism Anabolism The synthetic reactions that build up substance. (Build up process) Catabolism It involves breakdown of complex substance into simple substance with the liberation of energy. Breaking down process Glycogenesis: Process of formation of glucose. Glycogenolysis: Breakdown of glycogen to glucose. Glycolysis: Oxidation of glucose or glycogen to pyruvate or lactate. T.C.A cycle (final common pathway for the oxidation of carbohydrate, protein and fat) Hexosmonophosphate shunt: alternative route for the oxidation of glucose.
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Gluconeogenesis: formation of glucose non carbohydrate source especially from protein and fat.

Nervous system The nervous system is a network of cells specialized for the rapid transfer and integration of information. Component of nervous tissue: - Neurons - Supporting cells NEUROGLIA - Blood vessels Neuralgia Non excitable supporting connective tissue. Classification - Microglia - Macroglia Neuron The structural and functional unit of the nervous system is called neuron. Part of neuron: - Cell body of soma - Process Two types Axon Covered by myelin sheath Dendrites Short branching process, it receive impulses from other neurons. Function of neuron - Receive information from external & internal environment. - Processing the information - Transmit signals to other neurons and effectors organ. - Regulation of homeostasis. Classification of nervous system Nervous system

Central nervous system

Peripheral nervous system

Efferent Division Afferent Division

Brain Spinal cord - For Brain - Mid Brain - Hind Brain

Autonomic

Somatic

Parasympathetic

Sympathetic

Efferent whose neurons carry signals away from the brain & spinal cord to the peripheral tissue, Afferent whose neurons bring information from the periphery to the CNS, Classification of neurons Unipolar / Bipolar / Multipolar / Pseudo polar Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) It is clear colorless, watery fluid formed by the choroids plexus of the lateral & third ventricle of the brain. It is simply an ultra filtration of plasma and actively secreted.
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Function of CSF Controlling the ionic environment / Regulates respiration & pH / Controls H 2 O balance @ Respiratory gases (O 2 , CO 2 ) / H 2 O / Fat soluble Drug (L-dopa) / Na + , K + , Cl , glucose all are permeable to cross Blood Brain Barrier. Composition of CSF Fluid The fluid contained in the central canal of the spinal cord, sub arachnoids space & cerebral vertical is known cerebro spinal fluid. A. Water 99.13% B. Solid - .87% - Protein 20-30 mg - Glucose 50-80 mg - Chloride 700-750 mg - Cholesterol .06-.22 mg - Cells (Leukocyte) 5 micro litter - Electrolytes Na. K, Ca, Mg, HNo3, Urea, Creatinine Synapse Synapse is a functional contact between two neurons Part of synapse - Pre-synaptic element - Synaptic cleft - Postsynaptic element Types of synapse 1. Axo-somatic (axon + soma) 2. Axo-dendritic (axon + dendrite) 3. Axo-axonic (axon + axon) Neurotransmitter Substance that is released when the axon terminal of a Pre-synaptic neuron is exited, and act on the target cell to either inhibit or excite it. Types of neurotransmitter Excitatory Acetylcholine Catecholamine Glutamate Substance - P Inhibitory Dopamine -Amino butyric acid Glycin Serotonin Excitatory & Inhibitory Enkephalins 5 Hydroxy triptamine

Receptor The receptor is a specialized cell or a part of neurons which can be excited by stimulus Types of receptor Mechanoreceptor / Thermo receptor / Chemoreceptor / Electromagnetic receptor or photoreceptors Hypothalamus - Base of the diencephalons - It is a neuroendocrine structure - Hypothalamus is the head ganglia of the autonomic nervous system - Controls vegetative & endocrine function. - Part of the hypothalamus are Anterior / Middle / Posterior Hypothalamus 1. Periventicular zone 2. Intermediate zone 3. lateral zone
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Function of hypothalamus - Regulates body temperature. - Controls anterior pituitary function. - Regulation of eater balance by o Thirst mechanism o ADH mechanism - Regulation of sleep. - Regulation of sexual behavior. - Controls autonomic function. - Regulation of Cardio Vascular System activity.

Cardio Vascular system Circulation it is the process of blood and lymph flow through a close system of vessels, called circulation. Types of circulation 1. Systemic circulation Passage of blood from left ventricle to the tissue to right atrium is called systemic circulation. 2. Pulmonary circulation Passage of blood from right ventricle to the lungs & from the lungs to the left atrium is called pulmonary circulation 3. Portal circulation Blood from heart generally passes through one set of capillaries before draining into the heart. But in certain organ where the blood passes through two sets of capillaries or sinusoids before draining into the heart. The resulting system is called portal circulation It has two types a) Arterial portal system e.g. renal circulation. b) Venous portal system I. Hepatic portal system II. Hypophyseal portal system Importance of circulation - To supply the O 2 , nutrition, vitamins to the tissue - To carry away different metabolic waste and CO 2 from tissue for elimination - To prevent intravascular coagulation of blood. - Maintain optimum environment for cellular function. Anatomical classification of Blood vessels - Artery Vessels which carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery) is called artery. These are Large arteries : Aorta and its branches Medium sized arteries: Brachial, Radial, Popleteal. Small arteries: Arterioles, terminal arterioles Capillaries or sinusoids - Veins vessels which carries deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein) is called vein. These are Large veins: Superior and inferior venacava and their large tributeries Medium sized vein: Brachial vein, Tibial vein etc. Small veins, Venules etc. @ Approximately 84% of the total blood volume of the body is in the systemic circulation, with 64% in the vein, 15% in the arteries and 5% in the capillaries. @ The heart contains 7% of blood and pulmonary vessels contain 9%. Heart Heart is a central pumping organ. It receives and pumps out blood to the whole body. Size 12cm from base to apex Opening of Heart
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a. b. c. d.

Right atrioventricular opening Left atrioventricular opening Pulmonary opening Aortic opening

Valves of Heart a. Right atrioventricular valve b. Left atrioventricular valve c. Semilunar valves Junctional tissue of Heart a. The sinus node (Sino-atrial or SA node) b. The internodal atrial pathway c. The AV node (atrio ventricular node) d. The bundle of his and its branches e. Purkinje system @ Pace maker means regulation of motion, SA node is called pace maker of heart. Cardiac cycle The beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next heart cycle are called the cardiac cycle. Cardiac cycle time The time taken for one complete cardiac cycle to occur with a normal heart rate If the normal heart rate = 75 60 The cardiac cycle time will be = sec 75 = 0.8sec Systole The period of contraction of heart beat is called cardiac systole or systole. Diastole The period of relaxation of heart is called cardiac diastole or diastole. Event of cardiac cycle In atria - Atrial systole: 0.1sec - Atrial diastole: 0.7sec In Ventricle - Ventricular systole: 0.3sec - Ventricular diastole: 0.5sec Pulse range 60-90 / min Average 72 / min Cardiac out put The amount of blood that eject by each ventricle per minute is called Cardiac out put. Normal range 5-6 litter / min, for woman this volume is (10-20) % less. Blood pressure It is the lateral pressure exerted by the moving Column of blood on the vessel wall by its contained blood while following through it. Blood Pressure = Cardiac out put Peripheral resistance Hypertension Hypertension is a clinical condition characterized by persistence rise of blood. Pressure above the normal range

Respiratory system Division of respiratory tract 1. Upper respiratory tract From nose to the vocal fold. It consist of Nose Nasopharynx
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 Oropharynx Larynx upto vocal fold 2. Lower respiratory tract From vocal folds to the alveoli of the lungs. It consist of Larynx below the vocal folds Trachea Two bronchi Bronchioles Terminal Bronchioles Respiratory bronchioles Alveolar duct Atria Air sac Alveoli Pleura The lungs are invested by pleura which has two layers, parietal and visceral Blood volume of the lungs The blood volume of the lungs is about 450 milliliters, about 9 % of the total blood volume of the circulatory system. Respiration Respiration is the physiological process which means the transport of O 2 form atmosphere to the body cell for oxidation of the ingested food materials and elimination of CO 2 and other volatile metabolic end products from the cell to the atmosphere. Phages of Respiration Respiration has two phases 1. Inspiration (active process) It means intake of air into lungs. Its duration is about 2 sec. 2. Expiration (passive process) It means output of air from lungs. Its duration is about 3 sec. Types of Respiration 1. External respiration In take O 2 and removal of CO 2 from the body is called external respiration. It includes four steps: a. Pulmonary ventilation It means in flow and outflow of air between alveoli and atmosphere. b. Diffusion of O 2 and CO 2 to between alveoli and bloods. c. Transport of O 2 to the cells and CO 2 from the cells to the lungs. d. Regulation of respiration. 2. Internal respiration The utilization of O 2 and production of CO 2 by cells and the gaseous exchange between the cells and their fluid medium. Normal rate of respiration At birth 14-60 per minute Adult male 10-18 per minute

Mechanism of respiration The basic mechanism of respiration is expansion and contraction of lungs which can be achieved in two ways 1. By upward and downward movement of the diaphragm to lengthen or shorten the vertical diameter of chest cavity. 2. By elevation and depression of ribs to increase or decrease the antero-posterior diameter of chest cavity During Inspiration Signal from respiration center Contraction of respiratory muscle
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Contraction of diaphragm
Vertical diameter of the chest

Chest wall expand

Negative intra pleural pressure

This pulls upon the visceral pleura causing enlargement of lungs Respiratory air passage During Expiration Signal from respiratory nerve Due to elasticity of lungs diaphragm relaxes & goes up wards
Vertical diameter

Lungs contracts Air way pressure become positive Expiration occurs Transport of O 2 Diffusion of O 2 from alveolar air into pulmonary capillary. Transport of O 2 in the arterial blood Diffusion of O 2 from blood to tissue interstitial fluid Diffusion of O 2 from interstitial fluid into cells Transport of CO 2 Diffusion of CO 2 Diffusion of CO 2 Transport of CO 2 Diffusion of CO 2

from cell into interstitial fluid. from interstitial fluid to blood in the venus blood from blood to alveoli of lungs

Hypoxia Hypoxia means decreased O 2 at the tissue level Classification 1. Hypoxic hypoxia 2. Anaemic hypoxia 3. Stagnant of ischemic hypoxia 4. Histotoxic hypoxia
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Cyanosis Cyanosis is a clinical condition characterized by bluish coloration of skin and mucous membrane due to excess amount of deoxygenated heamoglobin in the peripheral tissue capillaries. @ Minimum 5 gm/dl of deoxygenated Hb is necessary for cyanosis. Emphysema Excess air in the lungs. But in chronic situation Emphysema is a complex destructive process of lungs. It is caused by tobacco smoking. Pneumonia Any inflammatory condition of lungs in which the alveoli are usually filled with fluid and blood cells @ It caused by bacteria Pneumococci Effects of Pneumonia Reduction of the total surface area of respiratory membrane Decrease ventilation perfusion ration Reduced diffusing capacity Atlectasis Means collapse of the alveoli, either in the localized area of in an entire lung. Asthma Contraction of the bronchioles which causes extremely difficult breathing. Tuberculosis Hypercapnia Excess amount of carbon dioxide in the body fluid

Urinary system @ The two kidney lie on the posterior wall of the abdomen that outside the peritoneal cavity, each kidney of the adult man weight about 150 grams @ Peritoneum means The serous membrane reflected over the viscera and lining the abdominal cavity @ Viscera means - Internal organ enclosed within cavity Parts of urinary system 1. A pair of kidney Form urine 2. A pair of ureters - Convey urine from kidney to bladder 3. A urinary bladder Temporary reserviour of urine 4. Urethra Excrete blood from bladder to exterior

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