CHAPTER

ESL Writing Approaches Continued

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Define the approaches in teaching writing in an ESL classroom; 2. Identify the strategies and processes involved in writing and revising; and 3. Recognize the differences between cohesion and coherence in seeking to discover the bases for underlying organization and comprehension in academic prose.

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

INTRODUCTION
The field of ESL writing research has expanded significantly during the past decade. Some researchers have focused on writing processes, in particular composing and revising strategies, while others have concentrated on the developmental processes of student writers. Studies in discourse analysis (the investigation of chunks of language, oral and written, that are greater than a single sentence) have sought to discover writing problem specific to ESL students and solutions to those problems.

3.1

COMPOSING AND REVISING PROCESSES

Many researchers of ESL composing and revision strategies have used a case study or descriptive approach (that is, ethnographic) rather than large-scale empirical studies (statistically based research) (see Hall, 1991; Johnson, 1985a; Jones and Tetroe, 1987; Raimes, 1987b; St. John, 1987; Zamel, 1983). Studies of such nature include JoAnne Liebman-Kleine, who examined composing strategies among her ESL freshman composition students (1986) and then organized a similar class ethnographically, asking her students to observe and interview each other concerning their composing processes (1987). Steve Ross et al. (1988) examined several techniques used in the process classroom, among them journal writing; results demonstrated that although increased opportunities for the practice of writing in a low-anxiety context may result in positive attitudinal changes, the results in the improvement of writing quality were mixed, with greater fluency evident only in narrative writing, not in more expository forms of writing. Tony Silva (1990, 1992) and Ana Frankenberg-Garcia (1990) studied the composing processes of both Native English Students (NESs) and ESL students; they found that although the students had some composing strategies in common, there were important differences between them. Alexandra Krapels (1990) surveyed second language writing process studies and described the recurrent motifs and issues involved in case study research with second language writers. Other studies of composing processes focus on cognitive load and language proficiency. One innovative study of composing processes, reported by Alexander Friedlander (1990), asked Chinese students to generate ideas and compose essays in both their native language and in English on two topics: The first essay, about a Chinese holiday, involved student knowledge and background experience acquired primarily in their native language; The second, about the U.S. university they attended, involved student knowledge and background experience acquired primarily in English.

Friedlander (ibid.) found that for these students, the composing processes differed: they made many fewer notes when writing about a topic they had learned about in the language in which they were composing; that is, they used fewer overt planning processes when writing about Chinese holidays in Chinese or about computers in English. Another researcher, Alister Cumming, in a series of highly controlled, empirical studies, investigated the relationship between writing expertise (experienced, average, and basic writers) and second language proficiency (intermediate and advanced levels). He found that second
1

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

language proficiency proved to be only an additive factor, enhancing the overall quantity of writing produced (1986:81), which suggests that second language proficiency and writing expertise are cognitively different. In addition, Cumming (1989) investigated the correlations between composing strategies, second language proficiency, and writing expertise. He found that composing strategies were related to writing expertise, but that second language proficiency was not directly related. The importance of teaching and researching the revision processes of ESL writers has grown from the Audi-Lingual Method (ALM) objective of correcting all errors to the study of error as a necessary developmental process. Current research indicates that second language error is neither deviant nor random; instead, errors are often both systematic and reasoned (Kroll, 1991; Lennon, 1991; Scovel, 1988). Revision studies report on the ability of students to monitor, to identify weaknesses and strengthen writing during revision and editing processes (Gaskill; 1986; Mittan, 1988, 1989; Wong, 1984). Chris Hall (1987, 1990), for instance, investigated student revision procedures in the ESL composition classroom; he found that writing students with advanced language proficiency apply revision strategies used in their native languages. Others have looked at the response of teachers and students to error (Chappell, 1982; Davies and Omberg, 1987; G. Jacobs, 1989; T. Kobayashi, 1992; Nickel, 1985; Sheorey, 1986; Zamel, 1985). Raymond Devenny (1989) reported that, in a study of how ESL teachers and peers evaluated and responded to student writing, the dichotomy between teachers and students was not as strong as previous research had indicated. Instead of forming distinct evaluative or interpretive communities, the reader responses of teachers and students tended to be based on other factors such as content and overall readability.

3.2

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS/ERROR ANALYSIS

Early contrastive analysis research was essentially language-focused: linguists examined features of a native language (for example, English) that contrasted with features of a foreign language (for example, Spanish or Arabic) to determine what areas of second language learning would be most likely to cause difficulty for the students. Called transfer error, these areas of second language learning often became the focus of the early grammar/writing classroom as teachers sought to anticipate errors before they occurred and to alert students to them. By the early 70s, contrastive analysis research had been extended to include error analysis, which examined the actual language performance of learners in order to determine whether the source of errors was first language interference or developmental. In other words, researchers investigated the reasons that students made the errors: whether, for example: An error was a natural by-product of student risk-taking; An overgeneralization of rules, the transfer of a rule from the students first language; or The level of difficulty of implementing the English language rule.

Although error analysis studies have decreased in the last decade, early research results concerning the impact of native language interference or developmental error on ESL writing continue to influence the literature (Abunowara, 1983; Corder, 1981; Lee, 1976-77; Lowenburg, 1982; Nickel, 1989; Picus, 1983; Scott and Tucker, 1974; Thompson-Panos and Thomas-Ruzic, 1983).

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

Another research area links error identification to the revision process: error gravity studies view errors from the perspective of the academic reader. Researchers investigate the irritation or acceptance levels of native speakers usually university non-ESL faculty to specific second language errors. That is, researchers study the second language errors that interfere most with NES comprehension in order to help teachers and students edit more successfully. Such studies have shown that some discourse errors are more grievous than others (Janopoulos, 1992a; Johnson, 1985b; Neuman, 1977; Santos, 1988; Vann et al., 1992). For example, Roberta Van and her colleagues (1984) investigated the responses of 164 faculty members to twelve typical ESL errors. They found that most respondents did not judge all errors as equally severe; incorrect word order was considered the most serious, and spelling errors the least severe. The data also suggested that the age and academic discipline of responding faculty members were important factors in their responses to the gravity of ESL errors; younger faculty members were more tolerant of error than older faculty, and faculty in the Social Sciences, Education, and Humanities were more tolerant of error than faculty in the Physical and Mathematical Sciences.

3.3

COHESION AND COHERENCE

From the seminal work of Michael Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan (1976) to the present, researchers of both NES and ESL writing have studied the differences between cohesion and coherence, seeking to discover the bases for underlying organization and comprehension in academic prose (Carrell, 1982; Connor and Lauer, 1985; Johns, 1980, 1986; Koch, 1983; Scarcella, 1984b). An awareness of cohesion and coherence in all texts is a very important skill for students to develop. 3.3.1 COHESION

Q: What does cohesion mean? You might think of cohesion as a means of establishing connections within a text at all sorts of different levels, e.g., section, paragraphs, sentences and even phrases. Cohesion has been defined as the more limited term: specific words and phrases (transitions, pronouns, repetition of key words and phrases) that tie prose together and direct the reader (Connor and Johns, 1990). Cohesion can be thought of as all the grammatical and lexical links that link one part of a text to another. Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together (Kilborn, J. and Kriei, N. 1999). In other words, if a paper is cohesive, the ideas tie together and are linked smoothly and clearly from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. In order to establish the links that readers need and to achieve cohesion that links one sentence to the next, one can consider using the following methods and techniques as listed in the following:

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

http://www.roe30.k12.il.us/ISAT%20Writing/ Cohesion%20and%20Coherence.doc

(a) Repetition of Key Words or Phrases

We can tie sentences or paragraphs together by repeating certain key words from one sentence to the next or from one paragraph to the next. This repetition of key words also helps to emphasize the main idea of a piece of writing and helps to focus your ideas and to keep your reader on track (see Example1).

Example 1: The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most people. Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer wondering what she is looking at.

In the following paragraph, notice how many times the words owned and ownership are repeated: Example 2: Nobody owned any part of the land. Sotopo's father owned many cattle, and if the cows continued to produce calves, he might as well become the next chief. Old Grandmother owned the beautifully tanned animal skins she used as coverlets in winter. And Sotopo owned his polished hard-wood assegais. But the land belonged to the spirits who governed life; it existed forever, for everyone, and was apportioned temporarily according to the dictates of the tribal chief and senior headman. Sotopo's father occupied the hillside for the time being, and when he died the older son could inherit the loan -- land, but no person or family every acquired ownership. From The Covenant by James Michener By repeating the words owned and ownership throughout the paragraph, as in Example 2, the writer has tied each sentence to each other and has clearly indicated what the main idea of the paragraph is (Kilborn et al., 1999). In this case, the main idea is ownership of something. And what exactly is being (or not being) owned? By repeating the word land, the author shows us that the entire main idea is ownership of land (ibid.).

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

(b) Synonyms

Synonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning, and they provide some variety in your word choices, helping the reader to stay focused on the idea being discussed. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This strategy is called 'elegant variation' (see Example 3). Example 3: Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the people who tell them. The repetition of words or synonyms in a paragraph assists the reader to see the connection between the sentences.

Example 4: Markets coordinate individual decisions through price adjustments. To see how, think about your local market for hamburgers. Suppose that too few hamburgers are available so that people who want to buy hamburgers are not able to do so. To make the choices of buyers and sellers compatible, buyers must scale down their appetites or more hamburgers must be offered for sale (or both must happen). A rise in the price of hamburgers produces this outcome. A higher price encourages producers to offer more hamburgers for sale. It also curbs the appetite for hamburgers and changes some lunch plans. Fewer people buy hamburgers, and more buy hot dogs. (McTaggart et al., 1999:2.10).

In Example 4, there are many words that have to do with buying and selling: market, buy, sell, sale, buyers, sellers, and price. There is also another string of related words that have to do with decisions, choice and plans. In addition, there is a third string that connects with food: hamburgers, appetite, lunch, hot dogs (McTaggart, D. Findlay, C. and Parkin, M., 1999).
(c) Use of Reference Words

Kilborn et al. (1999) suggest that another way of tying sentences and paragraphs together involves using reference words that point back to an idea mentioned previously. They indicated that among the many reference words that can be used to tie one sentence to another or one paragraph to another are words like this, these, those, such, that, the, another, the other, the others, and some. Comparative expressions can also act as reference expressions (McTaggart et al. 1999). The reference words should not be used by themselves but should be combined with the important words and phrases from previous sentences or paragraphs. The following paragraphs in Example 5 and 6 suggest how reference words are used not only to tie sentences and paragraphs together, but also to emphasize the main idea (see Kilborn et al. 1999).
5

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

Example 5: Writing a paper is often difficult and many times rewarding. First, I don't always know what to write about, so I often need to research, talk to people, and think about what I know before I come up with a strong topic. In addition, writing a paper takes time and energy. Time is needed to select and narrow a topic, to generate information and structure ideas, to knock out draft after draft, and to edit for my usual typos and mechanical errors. Besides the time involved, energy (and lots of food to produce it) is needed so I can produce my best work. Although writing a paper is sometimes difficult, it can be very rewarding. I enjoy seeing words which say exactly what I want them to. l also feel proud when everything "clicks." Finally, knowing that I've done my best work and earned a good grade too are strong personal rewards.

Example 6: A feature of the labour market for young workers is a system of minimum wage rates that have to be paid. These rates are an example of a minimum price law. The minimum wage rate system is a consequence of government intervention in the labour market. In other cases, instead of setting the price, governments fix a quantity. Even more frequently, governments impose taxes. In yet other cases, governments try to ban markets. Those for drugs like heroin are obvious examples.

Reference words are very useful cohesive devices. Care should be taken to ensure that their reference is clear (McTaggart et al., 1999:7.2).
(d) Pronouns

This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they and we are useful pronouns for referring back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear.

Example 7: When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until some other scientist tries them again. Those that work out better the second time around are the ones that promise the most rewards.

(e) Transitional Words and Phrases

Cohesive devices certainly include transitional words and phrases that help readers connect the ideas in a piece of writing. Transitions introduce a sentence and indicate its relationship to the previous sentence. It shows how pieces of your text fit together. Often all you will need is a word or phrase to lead readers through your text (see Examples 7 and 8).

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

Example 8: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes to put on and days when I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from the windshield of my car.

Example 9: The opportunity cost of producing an additional tape is the number of bottles of cola we must forgo. Similarly, the opportunity cost of producing an additional bottle of cola is the quantity of tapes we must forgo (McTaggart et al., 1999:3.3).

There are many different transition signals in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences which consequently join those sentences together. Examples of these transition signals or cues are as follows (see Kilborn, J. and Kriei, N. 1999): Types of Cues Lead readers forward from information they have already read to new information Purpose Meaning Signals Additionally, In addition, Again, Also, And, Actually, Besides, Equally Important, Further, Furthermore, First, Second, Third, etc, Finally, Incidentally, Indeed, In fact, Lastly, Moreover, Not only this, But this as well, What's more

To move Addition readers into additional information or further development of your ideas To move Examples readers into specific examples

As an illustration, Especially, For example, For instance, Including, In particular, Namely, Notably, Particularly, Specifically, To demonstrate, To illustrate After a few hours, Afterwards, At last, At the same time, Before, Before this, Currently, During, Eventually, Finally, First, Second, Third, etc., First of all, Formerly, Immediately before, Immediately following, Initially, In the end, In the future, In the meantime, In the meanwhile, Last, Last but not least, Lastly, Later, Meanwhile, Next, Soon after, Previously, Simultaneously, Subsequently, Then Adjacent, Alongside, At the side, Here/There, In the back, In the background, In the distance, In
7

Lead readers To move Time through a readers from sequence one timeframe to another

To readers'

draw Place

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

attention to a particular location or place To let readers know that a digression is about to begin or end Digression (back to) / resumption (begin)

the front, In the foreground, Nearby

Anyhow, Anyway, As I was saying, At any rate, By the way, Incidentally, To change the subject, To get back to the point, To return to the subject, To resume As, Because of, For, Since, Because, Due to, For the simple reason that As a result, Because of this, For this reason, Consequently, So, So that, Therefore, Thus For fear that, In the hope that, In order to, So, So that, With this in mind

Draw readers' To emphasize Cause/ attention to a cause or Reason cause and effect reason relationships To stress a Effect/result result or an effect To clarify the Purpose purpose of something Make readers stop and compare what they have just read to what they are about to read Lead readers into statements that clarify or emphasize

Comparison/ Although/Although this is true, And yet, At the contrast same time, But, Conversely, For all that, In comparison, In contrast, In the same manner/way, However, Likewise, Meanwhile, Nevertheless, Nonetheless, Nothwithstanding, On the contrary, On the other hand, Similarly, Still, While this is true, When in fact, Whereas To clarify a Clarification point that readers have just read To emphasize Emphasis a point that readers are about to read In other words, In this case, I mean, Put another way, That is to say, Under certain circumstances, Up to a point As a matter of fact, In any case, In any event, Indeed, In fact, Obviously That is, Undoubtedly

Lead readers into concessions, reservations, dismissals, or conditions

To concede a Conclusion/ point that concessions readers are likely to think of To clarify for Reservation readers the writer's

Accordingly, As a result, Consequently, Finally, Hence, In brief, In conclusion, In short, In summary, On the whole, So, Therefore, Thus, To conclude Admittedly, As a matter of fact, Even so, Even though, Despite this, Indeed, Nevertheless, Notwithstanding, Regardless

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends
reservations To dismiss a Dismissal point that readers are likely to think of To establish a Condition condition or conditions affecting the subject

..........................

All the same, At any rate, Either way, In any case/event, In either case, In either event, Whatever happens, Whichever happens

Although, But, However, Nevertheless, Although this is true, Even though, In spite of, Since

Lead readers To repeat a Repetition into a summary point you have or conclusion already made To summarize Summary what you've already said

As I have noted, As indicated above/earlier, As I stated, As mentioned, As noted earlier, In brief, In short, In summary, On the whole All in all, All together, As I mentioned, As I stated, Briefly, By and large, Finally, Given these facts, In brief, In conclusion, Since, So, Summing up, Then, Therefore, To conclude, In short, In summary, On the whole, Overall, To put it briefly, To summarize Accordingly, As a result, Consequently, Finally, Hence, In brief, In conclusion, In short, In summary, On the whole, So, Therefore, Thus, To conclude

To introduce Conclusion readers to a conclusion or conclusions

For additional information on lists and strategies of transition signals and their meanings which enable readers to connect the ideas in a piece of writing, see the following site:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_tra nsition.html

Good transitions can connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole. Instead of treating paragraphs as separate ideas, transitions can help readers understand how paragraphs work together, reference one another, and build to a larger point. The key to producing good transitions is highlighting connections between corresponding paragraphs. By referencing in one paragraph the relevant material from previous ones, writers can develop important points for their readers:

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

See Purdue Owl: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/01/

It is a good idea to continue one paragraph where another leaves off (instances where this is especially challenging may suggest that the paragraphs don't belong together at all.) Picking up key phrases from the previous paragraph and highlighting them in the next can create an obvious progression for readers. Many times, it only takes a few words to draw these connections. Instead of writing transitions that could connect any paragraph to any other paragraph, write a transition that could only connect one specific paragraph to another specific paragraph (ibid.). Transitions are not enough to make writing cohesive. As such, be careful in your use of transition signals. A good piece of writing, like a well-constructed freeway, should not need many signal/signposts to keep the reader on the right track. Furthermore, if you use the wrong signal or signpost the result can be disastrous. At all costs you need to avoid sending the readers comprehension off in the wrong direction (McTaggart et al., 1999).
(f) Sentence Patterns

Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow along and keep ideas tied together.

Example 10: And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country (from a speech by President John F. Kennedy).

(g) Summary Words

This also involves transition from old information to new, but instead of beginning the next sentence with the same or a similar word to the one with which the previous sentence ended, you begin the new sentence with a word that summarises several words in the previous sentence or the whole idea. The summary word is usually used together with a reference word such as this or these.

10

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

Example 11: At any one point in time, there is a fixed amount of labour, land, capital, and entrepreneurship. These resources can be used to produce goods and services (McTaggart et al., 1999:2.4).

(h) Thematic Consistency

The theme of a sentence is the word or phrase that begins the sentence. If the sentence beginnings all relate to the main idea of the paragraph it is easier for the reader to focus on that idea.

Example 12: Scarcity is not poverty. The poor and the rich both face scarcity. A child wants a 75 cent can of soft drink and a 50 cent chocolate bar but has only $1 in her pocket. She experiences scarcity. Faced with scarcity, we must choose among the available alternatives (McTaggart et al., 1999:1.4).

In this passage there are two related themes: One that relates to scarcity; and One that relates to the people who experience it.

(i) Parallel Constructions

If sentences in which the ideas are connected have similar patterns it is easier for the reader to see the relationship between the sentences.

Example 13: In ordinary speech, the word market means a place where people buy and sell goods such as fish, meat, fruits, and vegetables. In economics, a market has a more general meaning (McTaggart et al., 1999:2.9).

11

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

3.3.2

COHERENCE

Q: How is cohesion different from coherence? It is difficult to separate the two. However, think of coherence as the text making sense as a whole at an ideas level, and cohesion as rather more mechanical links at a language level. You can imagine that it is possible for a piece of writing to contain plenty of cohesion yet little coherence. It can be thought of as how meanings and sequences of ideas relate to each other. Typical examples would be: General vs particular; Statement vs example; Problem vs solution; Question vs answer; and Claim vs counter-claim.

Reid (1993:37) refers to coherence as the broader-based concept: it is the underlying organizational structure that makes the words and sentences in discourse unified and significant for the reader (Tannen, 1984a). This expected logical flow of ideas provides ease in reader comprehension (Halliday and Hasan, 1976). According to Kies (2008), coherence is product of many different factors, which combine to make every paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is much more difficult to sustain than coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them if their message is clear or not. McTaggart et al. (1999) refer to coherence as the overall connectedness of the ideas in a piece of writing. When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along easily, and the writing is coherent. Therefore, writers must make their patterns of coherence much more explicit and much more carefully planned. Coherence itself is the product of two factors - paragraph unity and sentence cohesion (Kies, 2008).
(a) Paragraph Unity

To achieve paragraph unity, a writer must ensure two things only. First, the paragraph must have a single generalization that serves as the focus of attention, that is, a topic sentence. Secondly, a writer must control the content of every other sentence in the paragraph's body such that: It contains more specific information than the topic sentence; and It maintains the same focus of attention as the topic sentence.

This generalization about paragraph structure holds true for the essay in particular (Kies, 2008). Further, Kies states that the two major exceptions to this formula for paragraph unity are found in fiction (where paragraph boundaries serve other functions, such as indicating when a new speaker is talking in a story) and in journalism (where paragraphs are especially short to promote 'visual' ease by creating white space).
12

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

(b) Sentence Cohesion

Apart from paragraph unity, another product of coherence is sentence cohesion. Kies (2008) stipulates that in order to achieve cohesion, i.e. the link of one sentence to the next, one has to consider the following techniques: 1. Repetition 2. Synonymy 3. Antonymy In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from sentence A. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since in language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning than you might imagine. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit reference back to a form mentioned earlier. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect one sentence to another. Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between ideas. This system has many advantages: (a) It can link ideas that are otherwise completely unconnected, (b) It looks formal and distinctive, and (c) It promotes a second method of sentence cohesion, discussed in (7) below. 7. Parallelism Repeat a sentence structure. This technique is the oldest, most overlooked, but probably the most elegant method of creating cohesion. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with particular logical relationships. (a) Identity: Indicates sameness. that is, that is to say, in other words, ... (b) Opposition: Indicates a contrast. but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although, whereas, in contrast, rather, ... (c) Addition: Indicates continuation and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same, ... (d) Cause and effect
13

4. Pro-forms 5. Collocation 6. Enumeration

8. Transitions

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it follows that, because, since, for, ... (e) Indefinites: Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type. in fact, indeed, now, ... (f) Concession: Indicates a willingness to consider the other side admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that, once it was believed, there are those who would say, ... (g) Exemplification: Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific or concrete idea. for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly, ...

Studies of coherence and the use of cohesion devices in ESL writing indicate that ESL writers of English use coherence and cohesion conventions differently than native-speakers do (Conor, 1984; Connor and Farmer, 1990; Gumperz et al., 1984; Hinds, 1987). Dean Brodkey (1983) and Kristie Fleckenstein (1992), for example, investigated the presence of coherence in written prose by using an expectancy exercise with their students: Starting with a single sentence or paragraph, they asked students to predict what the following text would be, then examined why those predictions were or were not correct. Ann Johns (1990) has maintained that the defined coherence or incoherence of a text is established through the fit between the knowledge and background experience of the reader, and the organization, content, and argument of the text. In a study of Japanese, Korean, Chinese, and Thai writing, Hinds (1990:98) found that the samples he examined had a delayed i ntroductions of purpose and a quasi-inductive style that has the undesirable effect of making the essay appear incoherent to the English-speaking reader. Swales (1990b) studied the organization and use of coherence devices in the introductions to research papers and found that teaching ESL graduate students global coherence strategies helped them compensate for difficulties at the local level. Knowledge of the audiences attitudes, beliefs, and expectations by the writer is essential for coherent communication.

Further reading on Cohesion and Coherence: http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~faigley/work/coherence. pdf

14

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

3.4

PRODUCT-PROCESS APPROACH

Recent examination of the process approach and of academic expectations (Constantinides and hall, 1981; Hamp-Lyons, 1986; Horowitz and McKee, 1984; Johns, 1985; Swales and Najar, 19887) suggests that the pendulum toward expressive and personal writing may have swung too far, particularly for ESL students who are neither familiar nor comfortable with the conventions and expectations of narrative and/or expressive writing. Researchers have investigated the parameters of specific assignments given by non-ESL academic faculty (Bridgeman and Carlson, 1984; Kroll, 1979). Horowitz (1986c), in his survey of university writing requirements, found that: (a) Academic writing assignments are usually carefully controlled, both in topic selection and in rhetorical organization, by the instructor; (b) They rarely deal with personal or expressive writing; and (c) They often call for some kind of research activity. Horowitz (1986a, 1986b) and Horowitz and Stein (1990) recommended the teaching of specific writing skills such as the synthesis of multiple sources, the connection of theory and data, the summary of and reaction to readings, and the report on a participatory experience. The other surveys of non-ESL faculty, Canesco and Byrd (1989) investigated the writing demands of business graduate student courses, and West and Byrd (1982) looked at the technical writing assignments required of graduate engineering students. Both studies found that the production of written products is a major part of the requirements for graduate students, and both studies advocate instruction that focuses on interpreting and responding to topics provided by instructors (Canesco and Byrd, 1989:314). Braine (1989) analyzed assignments from ten undergraduate courses and concluded that all the assignments in the sample were highly controlled, and that science and technology majors in particular needed special composition sections to emphasize the skills of paraphrase and summary and to practice identifying audience expectations. In other studies of graduate and undergraduate student writing, Swales (9187) examined the use of secondary sources in research papers and described the problems that ESL writers have with those sources. Other (Jordon, 1989; Santos, 1992) have studied the differing perspectives of ESL student writers and academic readers of their academic essays and examinations. Johns (1991) studied one student who had difficulty passing a university exit examination; she found that while he could write acceptable papers in his major field, the more personal, culturally bound topics of the essay exam required language, content, and rhetorical formats with which he was unfamiliar. As a result of such investigations, both researchers and teachers are turning more toward writing assignments and class objectives that consider the future academic writing needs of their students (Budd, 1989; Swales and Najar, 1987). None of this research precludes process writing; rather, Canesco and Byrd (1989:311) suggest that the process approach to writing can occur within the context of the preparation of a rigorously defined academic product if process is taken to mean that the writer goes through a process of thinking, selection of evidence, writing, and revision.

15

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

3.5

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

The communicative approach to language teaching, first developed in Britain during the 1970s (Munby, 1978; Widdowson, 1978; Wilkins, 1976), holds four fundamental beliefs:

1. Materials in the language classroom should be authentic or as authentic as possible because the language of the real world is necessary for good language learning.

2. Activities in the language classroom should be real and purposeful: With respect to teaching methodology, it is crucial that classroom activities reflectthose communication activities that the learner is most likely to engage in (Canale and Swain, 1980:33).

3. Language materials should be contextualized: instead of extracting or creating discrete pieces of language, materials must be presented in a meaningful context (Bench, 1988; Schachter, 1990).

4. Individual learner needs are paramount in the language classroom; materials and activities should reflect those needs (Clarke, 1989; Shaw, 1992).

Although much of the research in communicative competence has focused on oral skills (Johnson and Morrow, 1981; Savignon, 1983; Schleppegrell, 1991) and to a lesser extent on reading (Clarke, 1989; Grellet, 1981), communicative teaching is certainly occurring in ESL writing classrooms. These communicative approaches stress the purpose of a piece of writing and the audience for it: authentic audience(s) and purpose(s). In specific ways, communicative writing classes employ:

16

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

1. The use of student writing samples in textbooks and of peer review of essays that allow fellow students to read, evaluate, and learn from authentic responses to academic assignments (Schenk, 1988)

2. The use of the ESL writing classroom to work on writing assignments from real academic classes, making the writing purposeful.

3. The integrating of skill-based classes in intensive language programs that allows students to write about what they speak and read about; this integration of skills gives students an authentic, shared context for writing (Purves and Purves, 1986).

4. The focus on individual student needs by teachers who encourage discovery writing and student-chosen writing topics.

ESL writing textbooks for academic purposes that genuinely reflect the communicative approach have as their goals: To assist students in the generation of ideas and strategies for identifying the purpose(s) of their written text; To help students in developing strategies for the identification of audience expectations; and To provide materials and activities for the consequent preparation and polishing of students written texts to meet academic expectations.

Leki (1989) employs communicative approaches through the use of authentic professional and student essays where students analyze the readings and apply the information to the writing assignment, which is purpose-based, not modality-based, and is directed toward an authentic audience. Leki (ibid.:vii) claims that the communicative approach in ESL writing classes strives to achieve a balance between process and product. Students are taken through the writing process and given the opportunity to discover for themselves what kinds of approaches to writing are most useful to them. Students explore their ideas through journal writing, practice a variety of
17

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

techniques for generating text, and learn how to elicit feedback on their writing from their classmates and how to respond to such feedback. Students are introduced to the rhetorical expectations of English-speaking readers on organization and development of written ideas, and they learn how to accommodate these expectations. Finally, students turn their attention to form, learning how to focus on technical and grammatical accuracy for writing situations that require such attention.

http://isdo.nbu.bg/download.php?d=articles&p=2956&id= 2956&name=CAN%20WRITING%20ACTIVITIES%20IMP ROVE%20L2%20SPEAKING.doc

3.6

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL)

Although the use of CALL has stirred some controversy concerning cost effectiveness, the quality of existing software programs, and student and teacher resistance (Gueye, 1989; Hirvela, 1988), many teachers and researchers are firm proponents of the value of computer use with well-designed software in the ESL language classroom (Bickes and Scott, 1989; Clutterbuck, 1988; Cook, 1988; Cunningham, 1987; Rivers, 1990). CALL in current ESL writing classes involves much more than word processing programs and language drills; software programs, which are often designed or adapted for use by ESL writers, prompt students to improve their composing and revision skills. Dalgish (1984, 1985) and Hsien Chin Liou (1991), for example, have designed software specifically for use in ESL writing classes, some of which track errors by student language background and help students monitor their own errors. Networking programs allow students to view each others texts on their own screens and to communicate about those texts through their computers (Esling, 1991; Rinkerman and Moody, 1992). There are also computer text-analysis programs that can quantify text features such as word frequency and sentence length, and then offer writers suggestions for improvement of their prose (Hull, 1987; Kiefer and Smith, 1984; Reid, 1987). The advent of user-friendly course-authoring systems, coupled with continued teacher-training in the use of CALL, will make computers an active part of the learning process in future ESL classes. Research in the use of computers in ESL composition is limited, but the results have paralleled NES research. Students react positively to CALL use; they find revision easier, they enjoy working with the computers, and they believe that the use of work processors, invention programs, and revision aids helps to improve their writing (Brownfield, 1984; Hanson-Smith, 1990; Kaufman, 1987; New and Scarcella, 1991; Parkhurst, 1984; Ried, Lindstorm, McCaffrey, and Larsen, 1983; Stall, 1988). Studies of student use of learning strategies of CALL indicate that ESL writing students use specific coping strategies in computer assisted instruction, but that the strategies are in many ways inadequate (Chapelle and Jamieson, 1986; Chapelle and Mizuno, 1989; Jamieson and Capelle, 1987, 1988). One solution to this problem is, of course, teaching appropriate strategies for using computers in an ESL class. Another, demonstrated by Brent (1991), indicates that teachers must not leave intervention solely to the computer programs; teacher feedback remains the most important part of the ESL writing class. Computer use in ESL writing classes will no doubt burgeon during the next decade as teachers develop computer skills and greater understanding of the machine, and as they discover uses of
18

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

the medium they could not have envisioned in their early encounters with the computer (Dunkel, 1991:26). Networked computer classrooms currently offer the most promise for enhancing collaborative and student-centered classroom learning. Continued research that examines the social and intellectual effects of CALL on language learning and, in particular, in the ESL writing classroom, as well as the development of better and more user friendly programs and intensive training of both teachers and students for computer use will be essential.

3.7

PROFICIENCY TESTING

The testing of ESL writing has undergone a radical change in the last decade. Previously, most student writing evaluated on basis of indirect discrete point grammar tests; however, the development of direct tests of writing in which students write in response to essay prompts (topics) has prove to be more effective means of testing Essay prompts, scoring guides, and holistic scoring for NES writing tests have gradually begun to replace multiple choice tests for ESL students (Peyton et al., 1990). In particular, the development of Test of Written English (TWE) by the Educational Testing Service has influenced the teaching as well as the testing of ESL writing. The TWE began experimentally in 1986 (Kroll, 1990b; Stanfield, 1986), following rigorous reliability testing (Bridgeman and Carlson, 1984). It is now past the experimental stage, and is offered as an integral part of the TOEFL examination several times a year at TOEFL test centers throughout the world. The TWE is a separately scored and reported direct test of writing; students write 30-minute essays on a single given topic, and the resulting essay are scored holistically. That is, readers who have been trained to a carefully developed scoring guide read and then rate each essay as a whole, without marking errors or counting essay traits. Each TWE essay is scored twice; each is assigned a score on a 1 to 6 scale, with 6 being the highest score. Like many large-scale writing tests, the TOEFL test of written English has prompted some criticism directly related to the environmental conditions of the test: a 30-minute time constraint, a single topic, and an unauthentic testing situation. Other perceived problems are commonly associated with most large-scale direct testing: the use of generalized prompts, the lack of comparability of prompts, and the reliability of holistic scoring (Greenberg, 1986; Hamp-Lyons, 1990; Raimes, 1990). Research continues in the areas of rater training and scoring (Cooper and Hamp-Lyons, 1988; Janopoulos, 1986; Robinson 1985b; Vaughn, 1992) and topic development (Hamp-Lyons, 1992; Hirokawa and Swales, 1986; Horowitz, 1986b; Tedick, 1990). Alternative large-scale writing tests to the TOEFL have been and are being developed. Other large-scale direct tests of ESL writing include:

Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (MELAB) A 30-minute impromptu essay, given as a part of the English for academic purposes (EAP) battery of language proficiency tests that is designed to measure proficiency at advanced levels. Students choose between two assigned topics. Two trained readers at the University of Michigan holistically score each essay on a 10-point categorical scale (English Language Institute, 1989).

19

Current Trends

CHAPTER 3

English Language Testing Service (ELTS) A test designed and administrated by the British council, primarily for postgraduate students applying for scholarships to British universities. The writing test section, introduced in 1980, consists of two [discipline-specific] compulsory questions, each based on an input text which the candidate has previously read in another part of the test (Hamp-Lyons, 1990:79). The essays are scored on a 9point scale by one reader only; there are five separate scoring traits, and the grading is carried out by large groups of well-trained readers without discussion.

Australian Second Language Proficiency Ratings (ASLPR) Designed for overseas students entering postgraduate and vocational training courses and used by the English Preparatory Centre in Sydney, The essay and report components require a response in terms of focus and style from generalized stimulus questions typical of university and technical course exams (Williams, 1990:61). Essays are scored on a 9-point scale by two readers who have been trained to a carefully developed scoring guide that characterizes performance at each level.

In an ESL writing class or program, testing can have various functions: Admission (or proficiency): These tests measure that test-takers overall writing proficiency in English along a wide continuum. Proficiency tests like the TOEFL Test of Written English are generally independent of any instructional program and are highly standardized; universities usually set cut-off scores on the TWE as an admission criterion. Placement: The results of such tests determine the level of instruction for which a student is ready. The writing test, often developed and standardized in house, should test the same types of knowledge or skills that are taught in the class in which the student is placed (such as use of verb tense or ability to develop ideas). Diagnosis: These tests are designed to measure specific aspects of writing ability (such as sentence structure, use of cohesion devices, or levels of specific support) (Brown, 1990). An effective diagnostic test enables the evaluator to identify strengths and weaknesses in writing and, most important, to be able to give students feedback about those findings.

20

CHAPTER 3

Current Trends

..........................

Achievement (or progress): These writing tests measure a students success in learning some specific instructional content after teaching has taken place (Alderson et al., 1987). An effective test covers what has been taught (for instance, organization of material, overall coherence in a piece of writing) and can serve to evaluate teaching as well as learning.

http://lc.ust.hk/~centre/conf2001/proceed/zhanj. pdf

21