Chapter 5

Small-Scale Fading
and Multipath
School of Information Science
and Engineering, SDU
Outline
l Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
l Impulse Response Model of a Multipath
Channel
l Small-Scale Multipath Measurements
l Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
l Types of Small-Scale Fading
l Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions
l Statistical Models for Multipath Fading
Channels
Small Scale Fading
l Describes rapid fluctuations of the amplitude,
phase of multipath delays of a radio signal
over short period of time or travel distance
l Caused by interference between two or more
versions of the transmitted signal which arrive
at the receiver at slightly different times.
l These waves are called multipath waves and
combine at the receiver antenna to give a
resultant signal which can vary widely in
amplitude and phase.
Small Scale Multipath Propagation
l Effects of multipath
l Rapid changes in the signal strength
Over small travel distances, or
Over small time intervals
l Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler
shifts on different multiples signals
l Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation
delays
l Multipath occurs because of
l Reflections
l Scattering
Multipath
l At a receiver point
l Radio waves generated from the same transmitted signal
may come
l from different directions
l with different propagation delays
l with (possibly) different amplitudes (random)
l with (possibly) different phases (random)
l with different angles of arrival (random).
l These multipath components combine vectorially at the
receiver antenna and cause the total signal
to fade
to distort
Multipath Components
Component 2
Component 1
Component N
Radio Signals Arriving from different directions to receiver
Receiver may be stationary or mobile.
Mobility
l Other Objects in the radio channels may be
mobile or stationary
l If other objects are stationary
l Motion is only due to mobile
l Fading is purely a spatial phenomenon (occurs only
when the mobile receiver moves)
l The spatial variations as the mobile moves will be
perceived as temporal variations
t = d/v
l Fading may cause disruptions in the
communication
Factors Influencing Small Scale
Fading
l Multipath propagation
l Presence of reflecting objects and scatterers cause
multiple versions of the signal to arrive at the receiver
With different amplitudes and time delays
Causes the total signal at receiver to fade or distort
l Speed of mobile
l Cause Doppler shift at each multipath component
l Causes random frequency modulation
l Speed of surrounding objects
l Causes time-varying Doppler shift on the multipath
components
Factors Influencing Small Scale
Fading
l Transmission bandwidth of the channel
l The transmitted radio signal bandwidth and
bandwidth of the multipath channel affect the
received signal properties:
If amplitude fluctuates or not
If the signal is distorted or not
Doppler Effect
l Whe a transmitter or receiver is moving, the
frequency of the received signal changes, i.e. t is
different than the frequency of transmissin. This is
called Doppler Effect.
l The change in frequency is called Doppler Shift.
l It depends on
l The relative velocity of the receiver with respect to
transmitter
l The frequenct (or wavelenth) of transmission
l The direction of traveling with respect to the direction of the
arriving signal.
Doppler Shift Transmitter is
moving
The frequency of the signal
that is received in front of the
transmitter will be bigger
The frequency of the signal
that is received behind the
transmitter will be smaller
Doppler Shift Recever is
moving
v
X Y
l
d
S

cos
2
1
cos
2
2
cos
cos
v
t
f
t v l
t v l
d SY SX l
XY d
d

: frequency) in change apparent (The shift Doppler

: signal received the in change phase The
A mobile receiver is traveling from point X to point Y
Doppler Shift
l The Dopper shift is positive
l If the mobile is moving toward the direction of
arrival of the wave.
l The Doppler shift is negative
l If the mobile is moving away from the direction of
arrival of the wave.
Impulse Response Model of a
Multipath Channel
l The wireless channel charcteristics can be
expressed by impulse response function
l The channel is time varying channel when the
receiver is moving.
l Lets assume first that time variation due strictly to
the receiver motion (t = d/v)
l Since at any distance d = vt, the received power will
be combination of different incoming signals, the
channel charactesitics or the impulse response
funcion depends on the distance d between
trandmitter and receiver.
Multipath Channel
Modeling
Impulse Response Model of a
Multipath Wireless Channel
Impulse Response Model of a
Multipath Channel
l The wireless channel characteristics can be
expressed by impulse response function
l The channel is time varying channel when the
receiver is moving.
l Lets assume first that time variation due strictly to
the receiver motion (t = d/v)
l Since at any distance d = vt, the received power will
ve combination of different incoming signals, the
channel charactesitics or the impulse response
funcion depends on the distance d between
trandmitter and receiver
Impulse Response Model of a
Multipath Channel
v
d
d = vt
A receiver is moving along the ground at some constant velocity v.
The multipath components that are received at the receiver will have different
propagation delays depending on d: distance between transmitter and receiver.
Hence the channel impulse response depends on d.
Lets x(t) represents the transmitter signal
y(d,t) represents the received signal at position d.
h(d,t) represents the channel impulse response which is dependent on d
(hence time-varying d=vt).
Multipath Channel Model
B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
Building
B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
Multipath
Channel
Multipath
Channel
Mobile 1
Mobile 2
Base
Station
1
st
MC
2
nd
MC
3
rd
MC
(Multipath Component)
4
th
MC
1
st
MC
2
nd
MC
Impulse Response Model of a
Multipath Channel

hence ; for system, causal a For

<

t
d t d h x t d y
t h(d,t)
d t d h x t d h t x t d y


) , ( ) ( ) , (
0 0
) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) , (
Wireless Multipath Channel
h(d,t)
x(t)
y(t)
The channel is linear time-varying channel, where the channel characteristics
changes with distance (hence time, t = d/v)
Impulse Response Model
) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) ( t h t x d t h x t y

We assume v is constant over short time.
x(t): transmitted waveform
y(t): received waveform
h(t,): impulse response of the channel. Depends on d (and therefore t=d/v)
and also to the multiple delay for the channel for a fixed value of t.
is the multipath delay of the channel for a fixed value of t.
assume v is constant over time
( , ) ( ) ( , )
( ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , )
t
t
d vt
y vt t x h vt t d
y t x h vt t d x t h vt t x t h d t

...Continue with
Multipath Channel
Impulse Response
Model
Impulse Response Model
{ }
t j
b
c
e t h t h

) , ( Re ) , (
{ }
) , ( ) ( ) (
) ( Re ) (

t h t x t y
e t r t y
t j
c

) , (
2
1
) ( ) ( t h t c t r
b

x(t)
y(t)
) , (
2
1
t h
b
c(t)
r(t)
Bandpass Channel Impulse Response Model
Baseband Equivalent Channel Impulse Response Model
{ }
t j
c
e t c t x

) ( Re ) (
Impulse Response Model
{ }
{ }
t f j
c c
t f j
b
c
c
e t r t y
f e t c t x
t h t c t r

2
2
) ( Re ) (
2 ) ( Re ) (
) , (
2
1
) ( ) (

c(t) is the complex envelope representation of the transmitted signal
r(t) is the complex envelope representation of the received signal
h
b
(t,) is the complex baseband impulse response
Discrete-time Impulse Response Model of
Multipath Channel

2

i

0

N-1

N-1
= (N-1)

i
= (i)

o
= 0

1
=
(excess delay)
Amplitude of
Multipath Component
Excess delay: relative delay of the ith multipath componentas compared to the
first arriving component

i
: Excesss delay of i
th
multipath component, N: Maximum excess delay
There are N multipath components (0..N-1)
Excess
Delay
Bin
Multipath Components arriving to
a Receiver

(relative delay
of multipath
Comnponent)
1
2 N
th
Component N-1 N-2

1

3

2

1
.......

0
0
Each component will have different Amplitude (a
i
) and Phase (
i
)
Ignore the fact that multipath components arrive with different angles, and
assume that they arriving with the same angle in 3D.
Baseband impulse response of
the Channel


:
:
function. impulse unit :
: with it represent Simply component. ith the of n propagatio space free
to due shift phase represents that term Phase :
t. time at component multipath th the of delay excess
t. time at component multipath th the of amplitude real the
) (
) , (
) , ( ) ( 2
) (
) , (
)) ( ( ) , ( ) , (
1
0
)) , ( ) ( 2 (

T t
i
t t f
t
t a
t e t a t h
i i c
i
i
i
i
N
i
i
t t f j
i b
i i c
Discrete-Time Impulse Response
Model for a Multipath Channel

o
1

2

3

4

5

6

N-2

N-1
(t
0
)
(t
1
)
(t
2
)
(t
3
)
t
0
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
h
b
(t,)
Time-Invariance Assumption

1
0
) ( ) (
N
i
i
j
i b
i
e a h

If the channel impulse response is assumed to be time-invariant over
small-scale time or distance interval, then the channel impulse response
can be simplified as:
When measuring or predicting h
b
(), a probing pulse p(t) which approximates
the unit impulse function is used at the transmitter. That is:
) ( ) ( t t p
This is called sounding the channel to determine impulse response.
Complex Baseband Impulse
Response
Baseband impulse response h
b
() is a complex number
and therefore has a magnitude (amplitude) a
i
and
a phase
i
.

i
a
i
h
b
()
h
b
() = a
i
e
j
h
b
() = a
i
(cos
i
+jsin
i
)
|h
b
()| = a
i
you can think of it also as a vector
that starts at origin.
Amplitudes and Phases of
Multipath Components

i
=2f
c

i
0

1
st
Arriving Multipath Component
(Say 0
th
Component)
i
th
Multipath Component

0
=0
2a
0
2a
i

i
is expressed in radians
f
c
f
c
Two components emerge from the same source at the
same time. They belong to the same transmitter signal.
But they travel different paths. They arrive at the
same receiver with time difference equal to
i
.
(phase)
Components arriving at the same
time
What happens if two or more multipath components are with the
same access delay bin (arrive at the same time)?
Then the received signal is the vectorial addition of two multipath signals.

1
a
1
a
2

2
a
3

3
Example:
Lets assume two signals S1 and S2 arrive at
the same time at the receiver:
3
3 2 1
2 1
2 2 1 1
2 1
2 1


j j j
j j
e a e a e a
S S R
e a S e a S
+
+

S1
S2
R
R is the combined receiver signal.
Components arriving at the same
time
The amplitude and phase of the combined signal (R) depends
on the amplitudes and phases of the two components.
Depending on the values of the phases of the components, the combined
affect may weaken or strengthen the amplitude of the combined signal.
It is possible that the two signals may totally cancel each other depending on
their relative phases on their amplitudes.
Example 1 Addition of Two
Signals
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-10 -5 0 5 10
cos(x+pi/16)
cos(x+pi)
cos(x+pi/16)+cos(x+pi)
1
st
MC
2
st
MC
MC: Multipath Component
Combined
Signal

a
1
/a
2
=1

1
/16
Example 2 Addition of Two
Signals
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-10 -5 0 5 10
cos(x+pi/16)
3*cos(x+pi)
cos(x+pi/16)+3*cos(x+pi)
1
st
MC
2
st
MC
Combined
Signal

a
1
/a
2
=1/3

1
/16
For small-scale fading, the power delay profile of the channel is found by
taking the spatial average of over a local area (small-scale area).
If p(t) has a time duration much smaller than the impulse response of the
multipath channel, the received power delay profile in a local area is given by:
Power Delay Profile
2
) ; ( t h
b
2
) ; ( ) ( t h k P
b

Gain k relates the transmitter power in the probing pulse p(t) to the total
received power in a multipath delay profile.
The bar represents the average over the local area of
2
) ; ( t h
b
Example power delay profile
Taken from Dimitrios Mavrakis Homepage:http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/D.Mavrakis/
Relationship between Bandwidth
and Receiver Power
l What happens when two different signals with
different bandwidths are sent through the channel?
l What is the receiver power characteristics for both signals?
l We mean the bandwith of the baseband signal
l The bandwidth of the baseband is signal is inversely
related with its symbol rate.
One symbol
Bandwidth of Baseband
Signals
Highbandwidth
(Wideband)
Signal
Lowbandwidth
(Narrowband)
Signal
Continuous
Wave (CW)
Signal
t
A pulsed probing signal
(wideband)
T
REP
T
bb
p(t)
Transmitter
x(t): transmitted signal
) 2 cos( ) ( } ) ( Re{ ) (
:
2
max max
t f t p e t p t x
T
c
t f j
REP
c

>> ) ( delay excess measured maximum
Multipath
Wireless Channel
x(t)
y(t)
Multipath
Wireless Channel
p(t)
r(t)
Bandpass signals Baseband signals
Received Power of Wideband
Sgnals
) (
2
1
) (
1
0
i
N
i
j
i
t p e a t r
i

Multipath
Wireless Channel
p(t)
r(t)
The output r(t) will approximate the channel impulse response since
p(t) approximates unit impulses.
Assume the multipath components have random amplitudes and phases at
time t.
] [ ] [
1
0
2
1
0
2
, , WB
N
i
i
N
i
j
i a WB a
P E a e a E P E
i

1
]
1

Received Power of Wideband
Sgnals
This shows that if all the multipath components of a transmitted signal is
resolved at the receiver then:
The average small scale received power is simply the sum of
received powers in each multipath component.
In practice, the amplitudes of individual multipath components do not
fluctuate widely in a local area (for distance in the order of wavelength or
fraction of wavelength).
This means the average received power of a wideband signal
do not fluctuate significantly when the receiver is moving in a local area.
Received Power of Narrowband
Sgnals
2 ) ( t c

1
0
) , (
) (
N
i
t j
i
i
e a t r

c(t)
Transmitter
x(t): transmitted signal
A CW Signal
Assume now A CW signal transmitted into the same channel.
Let comlex envelope will be:
2
1
0
) , (
2
) (

N
i
t j
i
i
e a t r

The instantaneous power will be:
The instantaneous complex envelope
of the received signal will be:
Received Power of Narrowband
Sgnals
Over a local area (over small distance wavelengths), the amplitude a
multipath component may not change signicantly, but the phase may change a lot.
For example:
- if receiver moves meters then phase change is 2.
In this case the component may add up posively to the total sum .
- if receiver moves /4 meters then phase change is /2 (90 degrees) .
In this case the component may add up negatively to the total sum , hence
the instantaneous receiver power.
Therefore for a CW (continues wave, narrowband) signal, the small
movements may cause large fluctuations on the instantenous
receiver power, which typifies small scale fading for CW signals.
Wideband versus Narrowband
Baseband Signals
However, the average received power for a CW signal over a local area
is equivalent to the average received power for a wideband signal on the
local area.
This occurs because the phases of multipath components at
different locations over the small-scale region are independently distributed
(IID uniform) over [0,2].
In summary:
1. Received power for CW signals undergoes rapid fades over small distances
2. Received power for wideband signals changes very little of small distances.
3. However, the local area average of both signals are nearly identical.
Small-Scale Multipath
Measurements
l Several Methods
l Direct RF Pulse System
l Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel
Sounding
l Frequency Domain Channel Sounding
l These techniques are also called channel
sounding techniques
Direct RF Pulse System
Pulse Generator
BPF
Detector
Digital
Oscilloscope
RF Link
f
c
Tx
Rx
Parameters of Mobile Multipath
Channels
l Time Dispersion Parameters
l Grossly quantifies the multipath channel
l Determined from Power Delay Profile
l Parameters include
Mean Access Delay
RMS Delay Spread
Excess Delay Spread (X dB)
l Coherence Bandwidth
l Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
Measuring PDPs
l Power Delay Profiles
l Are measured by channel sounding techniques
l Plots of relative received power as a function of
excess delay
l They are found by averaging intantenous power
delay measurements over a local area
Local area: no greater than 6m outdoor
Local area: no greater than 2m indoor
Samples taken at /4 meters approximately
For 450MHz 6 GHz frequency range.
Timer Dispersion Parameters

( )

k
k
k
k k
k
k
k
k k
P
P
a
a
) (
) )( (
2
2
2 2
2
2
2

Determined from a power delay profile.

Mean excess delay( ):
Rms delay spread (

):

k
k
k
k k
k
k
k
k k
P
P
a
a
) (
) )( (
2
2

Timer Dispersion Parameters

Maximum Excess Delay (X dB):
Defined as the time delay value after which the multipath energy
falls to X dB below the maximum multipath energy (not necesarily belonging
to the first arriving component).
It is also called excess delay spread.
RMS Delay Spread
PDP Outdoor
PDP Indoor
Noise Threshold
l The values of time dispersion parameters
also depend on the noise threshold (the level
of power below which the signal is
considered as noise).
l If noise threshold is set too low, then the
noise will be processed as multipath and thus
causing the parameters to be higher.
Coherence Bandwidth (B
C
)
l Range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered flat (i.e. channel passes all spectral
components with equal gain and linear phase).
It is a definition that depends on RMS Delay Spread.
l Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than B
c
are affected quite differently by the channel.
Receiver
f
1
f
2
Multipath Channel
Frequency Separation: |f
1
-f
2
|
Coherence Bandwidth
50
1

C
B
Frequency correlation between two sinusoids: 0 <= C
r1, r2
<= 1.
If we define Coherence Bandwidth (B
C
) as the range of frequencies over which
the frequency correlation is above 0.9, then
If we define Coherence Bandwidth as the range of frequencies over which
the frequency correlation is above 0.5, then
5
1

C
B
is rms delay spread.
This is called 50% coherence bandwidth.
Coherence Bandwidth
l Example:
l For a multipath channel, is given as 1.37s.
l The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5 =
146kHz.
This means that, for a good transmission from a transmitter
to a receiver, the range of transmission frequency (channel
bandwidth) should not exceed 146kHz, so that all
frequencies in this band experience the same channel
characteristics.
Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission
frequencies that are separated larger than this value.
This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS channel
(30kHz band needed for a channel), but is not enough for a
GSM channel (200kHz needed per channel).
Coherence Time
l Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth
describe the time dispersive nature of the
channel in a local area.
l They don!t offer information about the time varying
nature of the channel caused by relative motion of
transmitter and receiver.
l Doppler Spread and Coherence time are
parameters which describe the time varying
nature of the channel in a small-scale region.
Doppler Spread
l Measure of spectral broadening caused by
motion
l We know how to compute Doppler shift: f
d
l Doppler spread, B
D
, is defined as the
maximum Doppler shift: f
m
= v/
l If the baseband signal bandwidth is much
greater than B
D
then effect of Doppler spread
is negligible at the receiver.
Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse response
is essentially invariant.
If the symbol period of the baseband signal (reciprocal of the baseband signal
bandwidth) is greater the coherence time, than the signal will distort, since
channel will change during the transmission of the signal .
Coherence Time
m
f
C
T
1

Coherence time (T
C
) is defined as:
T
S
T
C
t=t
2
- t
1 t
1
t
2
f
1
f
2
Coherence Time
Coherence time is also defined as:
m
f
C
f
T
m
423 . 0
2
16
9

Coherence time definition implies that two signals arriving with a time
separation greater than T
C
are affected differently by the channel.
Types of Small-scale Fading
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Multipath Tme Delay Spread)
Flat Fading
1. BW Signal < BW of Channel
2. Delay Spread < Symbol Period
Frequency Selective Fading
1. BW Signal > Bw of Channel
2. Delay Spread > Symbol Period
Small-scale Fading
(Based on Doppler Spread)
Fast Fading
1. High Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time < Symbol Period
3. Channel variations faster than baseband
signal variations
Slow Fading
1. Low Doppler Spread
2. Coherence Time > Symbol Period
3. Channel variations smaller than baseband
signal variations
Flat Fading
l Occurs when the amplitude of the received
signal changes with time
l For example according to Rayleigh Distribution
l Occurs when symbol period of the
transmitted signal is much larger than the
Delay Spread of the channel
Bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow.
l May cause deep fades.
Increase the transmit power to combat this situation.
Flat Fading
h(t,)
s(t)
r(t)
0
T
S
0 0 T
S
+
<< T
S
Occurs when:
B
S
<< B
C
and
T
S
>>

B
C
: Coherence bandwidth
B
S
: Signal bandwidth
T
S
: Symbol period

: Delay Spread
Frequency Selective Fading
l Occurs when channel multipath delay spread
is greater than the symbol period.
l Symbols face time dispersion
l Channel induces Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
l Bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the
channel impulse response.
Frequency Selective Fading
h(t,)
s(t)
r(t)
0 T
S
0

0
T
S
+
>> T
S
T
S
Causes distortion of the received baseband signal
Causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Occurs when:
B
S
> B
C
and
T
S
<

As a rule of thumb: T
S
<

Fast Fading
l Due to Doppler Spread
l Rate of change of the channel characteristics
is larger than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
l The channel changes during a symbol period.
l The channel changes because of receiver motion.
l Coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol
period of the transmitter signal
Occurs when:
B
S
< B
D
and
T
S
> T
C
B
S
: Bandwidth of the signal
B
D
: Doppler Spread
T
S
: Symbol Period
T
C
: Coherence Bandwidth
Slow Fading
l Due to Doppler Spread
l Rate of change of the channel characteristics
is much smaller than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
Occurs when:
B
S
>> B
D
and
T
S
<< T
C
B
S
: Bandwidth of the signal
B
D
: Doppler Spread
T
S
: Symbol Period
T
C
: Coherence Bandwidth
Different Types of Fading
Transmitted Symbol Period
Symbol Period of
Transmitting Signal
T
S
T
S
T
C

Flat Slow
Fading
Flat Fast
Fading
Frequency Selective
Slow Fading
Frequency Selective
Fast Fading
With Respect To SYMBOL PERIOD
Different Types of Fading
Transmitted Baseband Signal Bandwidth
B
S
B
D
Flat Fast
Fading
Frequency Selective
Slow Fading
Frequency Selective
Fast Fading
B
S
Transmitted
Baseband
Signal Bandwidth
Flat Slow
Fading
B
C
With Respect To BASEBAND SIGNAL BANDWIDTH
Fading Distributions
l Describes how the received signal amplitude
changes with time.
l Remember that the received signal is combination of
multiple signals arriving from different directions, phases
and amplitudes.
l With the received signal we mean the baseband signal,
namely the envelope of the received signal (i.e. r(t)).
l Its is a statistical characterization of the multipath
fading.
l Two distributions
Rayleigh Fading
Ricean Fading
Rayleigh and Ricean
Distributions
l Describes the received signal envelope
distribution for channels, where all the
components are non-LOS:
l i.e. there is no line-ofsight (LOS) component.
l Describes the received signal envelope
distribution for channels where one of the
multipath components is LOS component.
l i.e. there is one LOS component.
Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh

'

<

,
_

) (
) (
0 0
0
) (
2
2
2
2
r
r e
r
r p
r

Rayleigh distribution has the probability density function (PDF) given by:

2
is the time average power of the received signal before envelope detection.
is the rms value of the received voltage signal before envelope detection
Remember:
2
rms
V P power) (average
(see end of slides 5)
Rayleigh

R
R
r
e dr r p R r P R P
0
2
2
2
1 ) ( ) ( ) (

The probability that the envelope of the received signal does not exceed a
specified value of R is given by the CDF:

2
) (
2
1
177 . 1
2533 . 1
2
) ( ] [
0
0

rms
r
median
mean
r
dr r p r
dr r rp r E r
median
solving by found
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 1 2 3 4 5

Rayleigh PDF
2 3 4
5
0.6065/
mean = 1.2533
median = 1.177
variance = 0.4292
2
l When there is a stationary (non-fading) LOS
signal present, then the envelope distribution
is Ricean.
l The Ricean distribution degenerates to
Rayleigh when the dominant component
fades away.
Ricean Distribution
Level Crossing Rate (LCR)
Threshold (R)
LCR is defined as the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading
envelope, normalized to the local rms signal level, crosses a specified
threshold level R in a positive going direction positive going direction. It is given by:
second per crossings
rms) to normalized value envelope (specfied
where


:
/
2
2
R
rms
m R
N
r R
e f N

Average Fade Duration
Defined as the average period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level R.
For Rayleigh distributed fading signal, it is given by:
( )
rms
m
R R
r
R
f
e
e
N
R r
N

,
2
1
1
1
] Pr[
1
2
2
Statistical Models for Multipath
Fading Channels
l Clarke's Model for Flat Fading
l Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model
l Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Statistical
Model
l SIRCIM and SMRCIM Indoor and Outdoor
Statistical Models
Fading Model
Gilbert-Elliot Model
Fade Period
Time t
Signal
Amplitude
Threshold
Good
(Non-fade)
Bad
(Fade)
Gilbert-Elliot Model
Good
(Non-fade)
Bad
(Fade)
1/ANFD
1/AFD
The channel is modeled as a Two-State Markov Chain.
Each state duration is memory-less and exponentially distributed.
The rate going from Good to Bad state is: 1/AFD (AFD: Avg Fade Duration)
The rate going from Bad to Good state is: 1/ANFD (ANFD: Avg Non-Fade
Duration)