Convection Heat Transfer

Heat transfer:
Heat transfer (or heat) is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference. According
to the 2
nd
law of thermodynamics heat is transferred from a higher temperature body to a
lower temperature body.
Modes of heat transfer:
(i) Conduction: Mechanism of heat transfer through a solid or fluid in the absence of any
fluid motion.
(ii) Convection: Mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bul fluid
motion.
(iii) !adiation: "he energy of the radiation field is transported by electromagnetic waves
#or alternatively$ photons%. !adiation heat transfer does not re&uire material medium.
Types of convection heat transfer:
Convection heat transfer depends on how the fluid motion is initiated.
(i) 'atural or free convection(
(ii) )orced convection(
Natural or free convection:
*n natural convection$ any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy
effect$ which manifests itself as the rise of warmer fluid and the fall of cooler fluid.
Forced convection:
*n forced convection$ the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by e+ternal means
such as a pump$ blower$ or a fan.
Newtons law of cooling:
*t states that the rate of heat flow, heat transfer from a solid surface of area A$ at a
temperature "
w
to a fluid at a temperature "
s
is
Q
convection
= hA (T
s
-T

).
Convection heat transfer coefficient (h): "he rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and
a fluid per unit surface area and per unit temperature difference is called convection heat
transfer coefficient (h).
Q
convection
= hA (T
s
-T

)
-here$ h . convection heat transfer coefficient$ -,m
2
.
%
C
Convection heat transfer coefficient strongly deends on the follo!ing fluid roerties:
(i) /y decreasing dynamic viscosity$ convection heat transfer coefficient can be
increased.
(ii) /y increasing thermal conduction$ 0 convection heat transfer coefficient can be
increased.
(iii) /y increasing specific heat$ Cp convection heat transfer coefficient can be increased.
(iv) /y increasing fluid velocity$ 1 convection heat transfer coefficient can be increased.
Convection heat transfer coefficient also deends on:
(v) 2urface geometry(
(vi) 2urface roughness(
(vii) "ype of fluid flow.
Laminar and Turbulent flows:
An essential first step in the treatment of any convection problem is to determine whether the
boundary layer is laminar or turbulent. 2urface friction and the convection transfer rates
depend strongly on which of these conditions e+ists.
"a#inar flo!:
*n the laminar flow$ fluid motion is highly ordered and it is possible to identify streamlines
along which particles move.
)luid motion along a streamline is characteri3ed by velocity components in both the + and y
directions.
Tur$ulent flo!: )luid motion in the turbulent flow is highly irregular and is characteri3ed by
velocity fluctuations. "hese fluctuations enhance the transfer of momentum$ energy and
species$ and hence increase surface friction as well as convection transfer rates.
)luid mi+ing resulting from the fluctuations maes turbulent boundary layer thicness larger
and boundary layer profiles (velocity$ temperature) flatter than in laminar flow.
Transition flo!: "ransition flow occurs between laminar and turbulent flow. "he transition
from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly( rather$ it occurs over some region in
which the flow hesitates between laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully
turbulent.
Transition fro# la#inar to tur$ulent deends on:
(i) 2urface geometry
(ii) 2urface roughness
(iii) )ree stream velocity
(iv) 2urface temperature
(v) "ype of fluid.
"he velocity profile is appro+imately parabolic in laminar flow and becomes flatter in the
turbulent flow with a sharp drop near the surface.
Effect of turbulence:
(i) *ntense mi+ing of the fluid.
(ii) 4nhance heat and momentum transfer between fluid particles.
(iii) *ncrease conduction heat transfer rate.
Types of flow:
(i) *nternal flow: "he fluid is completely confined by the inner surfaces of the tube
and there is limit on how much the boundary layer grows.
(ii) 4+ternal flow: "he fluid has a free surface and thus the boundary layer over the
surface is free to grow indefinitely.

%elocity &oundary layer:
"he region of flow that develops from the leading edge of the plate in which the effects of
viscosity are observed is called the boundary layer. 2ome arbitrary point is used to designate
the y position where the boundary layer ends( this point is usually chosen as the y coordinate
where the velocity becomes ## percent of the free stream velocity.
)luid velocity at the surface of the plate is 3ero (because of no5slip condition)$ and gradually
increases with distance from the plate. At a sufficiently large distance from the plate$ the fluid
velocity becomes e&ual to the 6free stream velocity7 1. "he region above the plate surface
within which this change of velocity from 3ero to the free stream value occurs is called the
boundary layer (velocity boundary layer) also called the hydrodynamic boundary layer. "he
thicness of this region is called the boundary layer thicness and is denoted by . "he
boundary layer thicness increases with the distance + from the leading edge of the plate$ i.e.
. (+).
*nitially$ the boundary5layer development is laminar$ but at some critical distance from the
leading edge$ depending on the flow field and fluid properties$ small disturbances in the flow
begin to become amplified$ and a transition process taes place until the flow becomes
turbulent. "he turbulent5flow region may be pictured as a random churning action with
chuns of fluid moving to and fro in all directions.
"he transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs when
8
9% 8 >

x u x u
-here$

u
free stream velocity$ m , sec

x
. distance from leading edge$ m

0inematic viscosity$ m
2
,sec
'roerty variation !ith ti#e in a tur$ulent $oundary layer:
The ther#al $oundary layer:
A velocity boundary layer develops when there is fluid flow over a surface( a thermal
boundary layer must develop if the fluid free stream and surface temperatures differ.
Consider flow over an isothermal flat plate. At the leading edge the temperature profile is
uniform$ with "(y) . "
:
. However$ fluid particles that come into contact with the plate
achieve thermal e&uilibrium at the plate7s surface temperature. *n turn$ these particles
e+change energy with those in the ad;oining fluid layer$ and temperature gradients develop in
the fluid. "he region of the fluid in which these temperature gradients e+ist is the thermal
boundary layer$ and its thicness is defined as
t

. -ith increasing distance from the leading

edge$ the effects of heat transfer penetrate further into the free stream and the thermal
boundary layer grows.
(ignificance of the $oundary layers:
"he velocity boundary layer is of e+tent
( ) x
and is characteri3ed by the presence of
velocity gradient and shear stresses. "he thermal boundary is of e+tent
t

(+) and is
characteri3ed by temperature gradients and heat transfer. "he principle manifestations of the
two boundary layers are$ respectively$ surface friction$ convection heat transfer. "he ey
boundary layer parameters are then the friction coefficient C
f
and the heat transfer convection
coefficient h$ respectively.
)or flow over any surface$ there will always e+ist a velocity boundary layer$ and hence
surface friction. However$ a thermal boundary$ and hence convection heat transfer$ e+ists
only if the surface and free stream temperatures differ.
The #ean velocity:
"he velocity various over

the cross section and there is no well5defined free stream$ it is
necessary to wor with a mean velocity
m
u
when dealing with internal flows. "his velocity
is defined such that$ when multiplied by the fluid density

and the cross sectional area of

the tube Ac$ it provides the rate of mass flow through the tube. Hence
c m
A u m
.
Flow in tubes:
"he fluid velocity in a tube changes from 3ero at the surface to a ma+imum velocity at the
tube centre. A boundary layer develops at the entrance. 4ventually the boundary layer fills
the entire tube$ and the flow is said to be fully developed. *f the flow is laminar$ a parabolic
velocity profile is e+perienced. -hen the flow is turbulent$ a blunter profile is observed. *n a
tube$ the !eynolds number is again used as a criterion for laminar and turbulent flow.
)or
. 2<%% !e >

d u
m
d
"he flow is usually observed to be turbulent and where d is the tube
diameter.
Again$ a range of !eynolds numbers for transition may be observed$ depending on the
surface roughness and smoothness of the flow. "he generally accepted range for transition is
. =%%% !e 2%%% < <
d
)nergy $alance for flo! in a tu$e:
"he flow in a tube is completely enclosed$ an energy balance may be applied to determine
how the mean temperature
( ) x T
m
various with position along the tube and how the total
convection heat transfer
conv
q
is related to the difference in temperature at the tube inlet and
outlet.
"he rate of convection heat transfer to the fluid must e&ual the rate at which the fluid thermal
energy increases plus the net rate at which wor is done in moving the fluid through the
control volume.
'ressure gradient and Friction factor in fully develoed flo!:
"he pressure drop needed to sustain an internal flow because this parameter determines the
pump$ blower or fan power re&uirements. "o determine the pressure drop$ it is convenient to
m
8%>a
wor with the Moody (or ?arcy) friction factor$ which is a dimensionless parameter defined
as
2
2
m
u
D
dx
dp
f

,
_

. -here f is the friction factor.

*esistance to fluid flo!+ the ressure dro in the flo! direction:
<8 >a
The fanning
friction
factor:
"he fanning
friction factor
is called the
friction
coefficient$
which is
defined as
2
2
m
s
f
u
C

-here f
C
is
the friction
coefficient or drag coefficient$ whose value in most cases is determined e+perimentally$ and

is the density of the fluid. "he friction coefficient$ in general$ will vary with location
along the surface.
The #ean or &ul, Fluid te#erature:
"he mean or bul temperature of the fluid at a given cross section is defined in terms of the
thermal energy transported by the fluid as it moves past the cross section. "he rate at which
this transport occurs$ $ t
E

may be obtained by integrating

the product of the mass flu+
( ) u
and the internal energy per unit mass
( ) T c
p over the cross section. "hat is$

c
c
A
c p t
A d T c u E

Hence if a mean temperature is defined such that m p t

T c m E

. -here p
C
is the specific
heat of the fluid and m
is the mass flow rate. "he product m p
T C m
A" any cross section
along the tube represents the energy flow with the fluid at that cross section. *n the absence of
any wor interactions (such as electric resistance heating) $ "he conservation of energy
e&uation for the steady flow of a fluid in a tube can be e+pressed as
( )
i e p
T T C m Q

.-here
i
T
and
e
T
are the mean fluid temperature at the inlet and e+it of the tube$
respectively$ and
Q

is the rate of heat transfer to or from the fluid.

@"."s5"m.&
s
,h
&
"
"i
"e
"m
"s
4ntry region
)ully developed region
After all$ the bul temperature is the representative of the total energy of the flow at any
particular location. "he bul temperature is used for overall energy balances on systems.
The ther#al conditions:
"he thermal conditions at the surface of a tube can usually be appro+imated with reasonable
accuracy to be constant surface temperature ("s . constant) or constant surface heat flu+
( ). tant cons q
s

)or e+ample$ the constant surface temperature condition is reali3ed when a
phase change process such as boiling or condensation occurs at the outer surface of a tube.
"he constant surface heat flu+ condition is reali3ed when the tube is sub;ected to radiation or
electric resistance heating uniformly from all directions. "he convection heat flu+ at any
location on the tube can be e+pressed as
( )
m s
T T h q
$ where h is the local heat transfer
coefficient and s
T
and m
T
are the surface and the mean fluid temperatures at that location.
"herefore$ where h . constant$ the surface temperature "
s
must change when

s
q
constant$
and the surface heat flu+
s
q
must change when
s
T
. constant. "hus we may have either
s
T
. constant or

s
q
constant at the surface of a tube$ but not both.
Constant surface heat flu- (

s
q
constant):
*n the case of

s
q
constant$ the rate of heat transfer can also be e+pressed as
( )
i e p s
T T C m A q Q

"hen the mean fluid temperature at the tube e+it becomes

p
s
i e
C m
A q
T T

+
.
%ariation of the tu$e surface and the #ean fluid te#erature along the tu$e for the case of
constant surface heat flu-:
Constant surface te#erature (Ts = constant):
*n the case of "s . constant$ the rate of heat transfer is e+pressed as
@"."s5"m.&
s
,h
&
"
@"."s5"m
&
"
"i
A
"s.costant
"s.costant
"i
"s
ln
T hA Q

where
i
e
i e
i s
e s
i e
T
T
Ln
T T
T T
T T
Ln
T T
T

ln
is the logarithmic mean
temperature difference. Here
i s i
T T T
and
e s e
T T T
are the temperature differences between the surface and the fluid at the
inlet and the e+it of the tube$ respectively. "hen the mean fluid temperature at the tube e+it in
this case can be determined from
( )
p
C m
A h
i s s e
e T T T T

.
The variation of the #ean fluid te#erature along the tu$e for the case of constant surface
Te#erature:
@"."s5"m
&
"
.ydrodyna#ic entry region+ length and hydrodyna#ically develoed region:
"he region from the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the
centerline is called the hydrodynamic entry region$ and the length of this region is called the
hydrodynamic entry length. "he region beyond the hydrodynamic entry region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged is called the hydrodynamically
developed region.
.ydrodyna#ic entry lengths
A
h
%.%8 !e
d
Aaminar flow

A
h
9% d "urbulent flow
%elocity rofile in the fully develoed region:
Ther#al entry region+ length and ther#ally develoed region:
"he region of flow over which the thermal boundary layer develops and reaches the tube
centre is called the thermal entry region and the length of this region is called the thermal
entry length. "he region beyond the thermal entry region in which the dimensionless
temperature profile remains unchanged is called thermally developed region.
"he region in which the flow is both hydrodynamically and thermally developed is called the
fully developed flow.
Ther#al entry lengths
A
t
%.%8 re. >r d laminar flow
A
t
9% d "urbulent flow
)or >r BB 9 and A
h
C A
t
Aaminar flow.
!"ial #ariation of the convection heat transfer coefficient for flow in a
tube:
#iscous$energy dissipation function:
"he energy e&uation in the rectangular co5ordinate system for a elemental control volume for
steady$ two dimensional (+$ y) flow of an incompressible$ constant5property fluid when
consider for convection energy$ conduction energy and viscous energy is determined as
+

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
2
y
T
x
T
K
y
T
v
x
T
u C
p
-here

is the viscous5energy dissipation function and is defined as

2 2
2
2

,
_

+
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
,
_

y
u
x
v
y
v
x
u

"he left hand side represents the net energy transfer due to mass transfer( on the right hand
side the first term represent the conductive heat transfer$ and the last term on the right hand
side is the viscous5energy dissipation in the fluid due to internal fluid friction.
%hysical significance of the dimensionless parameters:
"he dimensionless parameters such as the !eynolds number$ 'usselt number and >randtl
numbers are introduced and the physical significance of these dimensionless parameters in
the interpretation of the conditions associated with fluid flow or heat transfer is discussed.

The *eynolds nu#$er:
"he !eynolds number represents the ratio of the inertia to viscous force. "his result implies
that viscous forces are dominant for small !eynolds numbers and inertia forces are dominant
for large !eynolds numbers. "he !eynolds number is used as the criterion to determine
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. As the !eynolds number is increased$ the inertia
forces become dominant and small disturbances in the fluid may be amplified to cause the
transition from laminar to turbulent.
where:
v
s
5 mean fluid velocity$
L 5 characteristic length (e&ual to diameter (2r) if a cross5section is circular)$
D 5 (absolute) dynamic fluid viscosity$
E 5 inematic fluid viscosity: E . D , F$
F 5 fluid density.
Nusselt nu#$er:
"he 'usselt number is a dimensionless number that measures the enhancement of heat
transfer from a surface that occurs in a real situation$ compared to the heat transferred if ;ust
conduction occurred. "ypically it is used to measure the enhancement of heat transfer when
convection taes place.
where
L . characteristic length$ which is simply 1olume of the body divided by the Area of
the body (useful for more comple+ shapes)
k
f
. thermal conductivity of the GfluidG
h . convection heat transfer coefficient
"hus the 'usselt number may be interpreted as the ratio of heat transfer by convection to
conduction across the fluid layer of thicness A. /ased on this interpretation$ the value of the
'usselt number e&ual to unity implies that there is no convection5the heat transfer is by pure
conduction. A large value of the 'usselt number implies enhanced heat transfer by
convection.
The 'randtl nu#$er:
"he >randtl number is a dimensionless number appro+imating the ratio of momentum
diffusivity and thermal diffusivity. "he >randtl number provides a measure of the relative
effectiveness of momentum and energy transport by diffusion in the velocity and thermal
boundary layers$ respectively.
where:
E is the inematic viscosity$ . , .
H is the thermal diffusivity$ ! . , ( c
p
).
*n heat transfer problems$ the >randtl number controls the relative thicness of the
momentum and thermal boundary layers.
The (tanton nu#$er:
"he &tanton number is a dimensionless number which measures the ratio of heat transferred
into a fluid to the thermal capacity of fluid. *t is used to characteri3e heat transfer in forced
convection flows.
where'
h . convection heat transfer coefficient
F . density of the fluid
c
p
. specific heat of the fluid
" . velocity of the fluid
*t can also be represented in terms of the fluidIs 'usselt$ !eynolds$ and >randtl numbers:
where(
#u is the 'usselt number
$e is the !eynolds number
%r is the >randtl number
Heat transfer enhancement:
2everal options are available for enhancing heat transfer associated with internal flows.
4nhancement may be achieved by increasing the convection coefficient and,or by increasing
the convection surface area. )or e+ample$ h may be increased by introducing surface
roughness to enhance turbulence$ as$ for e+ample$ through machining or insertion of a coil5
spring wire. "he wire insert provides a helical roughness element in contact with the tube
inner surface. Alternatively$ the convection coefficient may be increased by inducing swirl
through insertion of a twisted tape. "he insert consists of a thin strip that is periodically
twisted through <J%
%
. *ntroduction of a tangential velocity component increases the speed of
the flow$ particularly near the tube wall. "he heat transfer area may be increased by attaching
longitudinal fins to the inner surface$ while both the convection coefficient and area may be
increased by using spiral fins or ribs. *n evaluating any heat transfer enhancement scheme$
attention must also be given to the attendant increase in pressure drop and hence fan or pump
power re&uirements(