BIOFUELS FOR AVIATION

Introduction In 2007, the US Air Force released the final test report covering successful flight trials of a service B-52H o! er flo"n over a #ear using s#nthetic aviation $erosene produced fro! coal% &his "as the first !ove in a long-ter! US strateg# directed at "eaning its !ilitar# off i!ported petroleu! products% &he ulti!ate ai! eing the replace!ent of crude oil ased fuels "ith products !ade fro! natural gas and coal% S#nthetic fuel !anufacture, "as ased on '(20s )er!an Fischer-&ropsch technolog#% *uring the Second +orld +ar )er!an# "hich had li!ited access to natural crude oil uilt ,uite a fe" s#nthetic fuel plants to po"er its fuel gu--ling ar!our thrusts% Alternative fuel is the general ter! to descri e an# alternative to petroleu!- ased fuels, including li,uid fuel produced fro! natural gas, li,uid fuel fro! coal and iofuels% In Ha"aii, in !id 20'2, the US .av# de!onstrated its /)reen Stri$e )roup0 as part of the 20'2 1i! of the 2acific 34ercise 51I62A78, the "orld0s largest international !ariti!e "arfare e4ercise that included surface ships, su !arines and aircraft fro! 22 different nations% 1I62A7 20'2 egan on 9une 2( and concluded on 0: August 20'2% &he US nav# fielded its .i!it--class aircraft carrier, guided !issile cruiser, t"o destro#ers, a fleet replenish!ent oiler, 6H-;0 helicopters, F<A-'= fighter >ets, and 3-2 earl# "arning aircraft% &he /)reen Stri$e )roup0 po"ered # iofuel lends "as a step to"ard the US .av#0s goal of a full deplo#!ent of such a fleet in 20';% 3arlier on '7 9ul#20'2, in preparation for the 1I62A7, US 6ilitar# Sealift 7o!!and fleet replenish!ent oiler, US.S Henr# 9% ?aiser delivered 700,000 gallons of h#drotreated rene"a le diesel fuel, or H1*7;, to three ships of the stri$e group% ?aiser also delivered 200,000 gallons of h#dro-treated rene"a le aviation fuel, or H195, to the aircraft carrier USS .i!it-% Both fuels "ere a 50-50 lend of petroleu!- ased fuel and iofuel, "hich co!prised of a !i4 of "aste coo$ing oil and algae oil% &hese events highlight the $e# aspects regarding alternative fuels, particularl# iofuels to the transport sector and specificall# to the !ilitar#% *efence esta lish!ents influenced # national and energ# securit# concerns have courted alternative fuels since the use of !otor transport% Second the characteristics, issues0 and options relating to alternative fuels var# "idel# as there e4ists a variet# of feedstoc$s and different production technologies% @astl#, iofuels are fast !oving a"a# fro! edi le feedstoc$ and attaining cost parit# "ith the petroleu!, including aviation fuel%

Biofuels &heoreticall#, iofuels can e produced fro! an# rene"a le iological car on !aterial, although the !ost co!!on sources are plants that a sor car on dio4ide 57A28 and use sunlight to gro"% )lo all#, iofuels are !ost co!!onl# used for transport% &he t"o !ost co!!on feedstoc$ sources for !a$ing iofuels are plants rich in sugars and ioderived oils% 7rops that are rich in sugars 5such as sugar cane8 or starch 5such as corn8 can e processed to release their sugar content% &his is fer!ented to !a$e ethanol, "hich can e used directl# as a petroleu! su stitute or additive% &hese fuels, $no"n as first-generation iofuels 5Bo4-'8, are t#picall# not suita le for use in aircraft, as the# do not have the necessar# perfor!ance and safet# attri utes% &he technical re,uire!ents for aviation iofuels are that the# should directl# su stitute traditional >et fuel, "ithstand the peculiar aviation operational conditions of te!perature, pressure ect and not co!pro!ise on perfor!ance and safet#% Bo4-'B 7lassification of Biofuels

SourceB *ragone- 20'0

Bio-derived oil co!!onl# sourced fro! plants such as corn, so# eans, algae, >atropha, haloph#tes and ca!elina, after processing can either e urned directl# or converted # che!ical processes to !a$e high-,ualit# >et and diesel fuels% &he ?e# advantages that accrue fro! the use of second-generation iofuels for aviation are one, "hen sustaina l# produced iofuels result in a reduction in 7A2 e!issions across their

lifec#cle% &"o, offer a via le alternative to fossil fuels and three, result in a !ore diverse geographical fuel suppl# through non-food crop sources% Biofuels, speciall# those for use in aviation and !ariti!e transports have their share of challenges% Biodiesel "hen stored for long periods of ti!e is !ore li$el# to o4idi-e, especiall# at lo" te!peratures, causing it to gel restricting its flo"% So!e additives i!prove the cold "eather tolerance of iodiesel, ut onl# # a fe" degrees% .itrileased ru er !aterials e4pand in the presence of aro!atic co!pounds found in petroleu!% 2ure iofuels that have not een lended "ith petroleu! and donCt contain paraffin- ased additives !a# cause ru er seals and hoses to shrin$ leading to !alfunction% 6anufacturers are starting to use a s#nthetic ru er su stitute called Diton "hich is not affected # iofuels for seals and hoses% Drivers Darious factors, econo!ic, environ!ental and even political have contri uted in !a$ing Biofuels attractive for direct use and as an alternative to fossil- ased fuels% Ho"ever fro! the point of vie" of the aviation sector and use # the !ilitar#, t"o factors are relevantE national securit# for the !ilitar# and cli!ate change for the aviation% +ith the nations i!porting ever increasing a!ounts of petroleu!, national securit# is a $e# driver for developing ho!e-gro"n sustaina le fuel supplies% &he *efense esta lish!ents respond # po"ering their aircrafts "ith do!esticall# produced alternatives to petroleu! fuels% 7oncerns a out cli!ate change, "hich i!pacts the co!!ercial aviation sector, are driving de!ands for lo"er car on alternatives% Aviation contri utes a s!all, ut gro"ing share of car on dio4ide e!issions F esti!ated at t"o to three percent "orld"ide% +hile aviation leaders have !ade significant strides in reducing fuel use and e!issions per passenger !ile F designing significantl# cleaner planes and increasing efficienc# of operations F industr# leaders have identified lo"er-car on iofuels fuels as a $e# !easure to !eet its cli!ate goals% &o understand the utilit# of iofuels to aviation in particular !ilitar# aviation it "ould e necessar# to e ac,uainted "ith t"o definitionsB AS&6 standards and drop-in fuels% AS&6 International, originall# $no"n as the A!erican Societ# for &esting and 6aterials, is an international standards organisation "hich develops and pu lishes voluntar# consensus technical standards for a "ide range of !aterials, products, s#ste!s, and services% Its standard for aviation $erosene is called AS&6 * ';55% Aircrafts can use onl# those fuels for "hich the# have een certified% Use of an# other fuel "ould re,uire re-certification of the aircraft% In practice that !eans that an# iofuel or iofuel lend has to e certified as eing e,uivalent to AS&6 * ';55 $erosene in order to ,ualif# for use in the e4isting aircraft fleet% Such iofuels or iofuel lends are referred to as Gdrop-in fuelsH% *rop-in-fuel i!plies that once the fuel !eets the AS&6 specification, it can e lended up to a certain volu!e percentage and the final lend "ill have identical

properties to those of AS&6 ';55%Further as *rop-in fuels are che!icall# indistinguisha le fro! conventional >et fuel, esides the aircraft or engine fuel s#ste!s no changes "ould e re,uired in, distri ution infrastructure or storage facilit# resulting in significant logistical and cost advantage% Aviation Biofuels &he current "orld"ide consu!ption # the aviation sector is a out 200 !illion tonnes $erosene per annu!% AviationCs share of the greenhouse gas e!issions is poised to gro", as air travel increases and ground vehicles use !ore alternative fuels li$e ethanol and iodiesel% 7urrentl# aviation represents 2I of glo al e!issions, ut is e4pected to gro" to :I # 2050%&he !ain driver for aviation to use alternative fuels is reducing )H) e!issions and allo" aviation suppl# to !eet de!and gro"th "hile at the sa!e ti!e the sector diversifies fuel suppl#% Sustaina ilit# of the iofuels is therefore a $e# prere,uisite% Safet# and perfor!ance are also essential design criteria for aviation fuels% A!ong the different ,ualities of iofuels, at present three t#pes are favoured to e used in aviation >et engines lended "ith $eroseneB S#nthetic Fischer-&ropsch 5F&8 ased $erosene produced through high te!perature io!ass gasification, H#drogenated Degeta le Ails 5HDA8 and H#drogenated 2#rol#sis Ails 5H2A8 produced fro! lignocellulosic io!ass% Fro! a direct cost perspective it can e e4pected that all iofuels, capa le of !eeting aviation fuel ,ualit# standards, "ill e significantl# !ore e4pensive than fossil $erosene for the aviation industr# until 2020% H#drogenated Degeta le oils 5HDA8 have een co!!ercialised # .3S&3 of Finland% &he technolog# is feedstoc$ fle4i le and can use a varia le !i4 of different vegeta le oils and ani!al fats as its ra" !aterial, including algae and !icro ial oils% &he current !ain feedstoc$s for HDA production are pal! oil and ani!al fat% In order to e a le to suppl# aviation sector "ith iofuels, these feedstoc$ shall have to e certified to !eet the sustaina ilit# criteria%UA2, a Hone#"ell 7o!pan#, has also co!!ercialised a feedstoc$-fle4i le HDA technolog#, oth for the production of green diesel and green >et fuel% Algae based Biofuels A,uatic !icroalgae are a!ong the fastest gro"ing photos#nthetic organis!s% &he# have car on fi4ation rates in an order of !agnitude higher than those of land gro"n plants and can e continuall# harvested, "ith harvesting c#cles ranging et"een one and ten da#s% &he# produce oils that can e converted into aviation fuels via HDA "hile the io!ass residue can e used for further energ# production 5in co! ined heat and po"er applications or s#nthetic iofuels via gasification and p#rol#sis8% *evelop!ent of algae as a iofuel, reigns supre!e a!ong drop-in fuels% Algae iodiesel >et fuel represents the est potential ans"er for the sustaina ilit# of the aviation industr#%

US 6ilitar# and Alternative Fuels *riven # their /e4peditionar#0 strateg# US !ilitar# is faced "ith the re,uire!ent of large ,uantities of aviation fuel at ho!e and in their theatre of operations% &his operational i!perative has !otivated the US !ilitar# to spearhead oth the develop!ent and use of iofuels including those certified for the aviation use% &he guidelines laid do"n # the US *epart!ent of *efence for an# alternative fuels to e considered for operational use state that the fuel !ust e drop-in, that is, re,uiring no !odification to e4isting engines% It !ust e cost-co!petitive "ith conventional petroleu! fuels, e derived fro! a nonfood crop feedstoc$ and have lifec#cle greenhouse gas e!issions less than or e,ual to conventional petroleu! fuels% 3ach US !ilitar# service has pursued different alternative fuel goals% &he Air Force goals are to test and certif# all aircraft and s#ste!s on a 50B50 alternative fuel lend # 20'2, and to e prepared to ac,uire 50I of the Air Force0s do!estic aviation fuel as an alternative fuel lend # 20';% &he .av#0s goals, esides the G)reat )reen FleetH stri$e group to !eet 50I of the .av#Cs total energ# consu!ption fro! alternative sources # 2020% &o !eet this goal for its ships, the .av# "ould need to replace appro4i!atel# = !illion arrels of petroleu! used in its ships "ith un lended alternative fuels # 2020% &he Ar!# has the road ai! of increasing the use of rene"a le energ#, ut has not adopted an# specific alternative fuel goals% &he US Air Force has certified F& fuel lends for use in its !anned and un!anned fleets% &esting has een co!pleted on iofuels, such as the H3FA fuels descri ed a ove, and fleet-"ide certification is e4pected shortl#% &he Air Force has also egun testing alcohol-to->et fuels, "ith the inaugural flight of an A-'0 &hunder olt II >et on an A&9-conventional fuel lend on 9une 2=, 20'2% &he US .av# in April 20'0 fle" the G)reen HornetH F<A-'= as the first .av# >et to fl# on a iofuel lend% &he .av# has also tested H3FA 50B50 iofuel lends for use in all !anned and un!anned aircraft% &he .av# anticipates certification for all H3FA fuels in earl# 20':% &esting and certification of F& fuels is e4pected to e co!pleted # the end of 20':% &esting of other alternative fuels, such as alcohol-to->et, p#rol#sis oils, and direct sugar to h#drocar on, "ill continue in the future% &he .av# and Air Force have oth "or$ed "ith iofuel suppliers to conduct tests and certif# that iofuels !eet e4acting re,uire!ents for perfor!ance and cost% For instance, Sola-#!e F a 7alifornia algae oil producer Fdelivered to the .av# 20,000 gallons of >et and diesel fro! algae, the largest a!ount of advanced iofuel ever produced% And Sustaina le Ails F a rene"a le fuel producer in 6ontana F supplied ca!elina- ased io->et fuel for a 20'0 test flight at supersonic speeds of the U%S% .av#0s F<A-'= G)reen HornetH aircraft% US .av# has flo"n drones using a 50-50 !i4 of iofuel and >et fuel% &he

un!anned drones used # the US .av# to o! its ene!ies "ithout ris$ing its pilots have een tested using a 50-50 !i4 of iofuel and regular >et fuel% US Biofuels 2rogra!!e &he United States Ar!ed Forces, "hich currentl# fuels 77 percent of its !achiner# "ith petroleu!- ased fuel, has announced an aggressive goal, to e petroleu! free # 20J0% A 20'' 2e" 7harita le &rusts report, KFro! Barrac$s to the BattlefieldB 7lean 3nerg# Innovation and A!ericaCs Ar!ed ForcesK reported that *epart!ent of *efense &a le 'B Alternative Fuel 2urchases # US 6ilitar# 2007-20'2%

Source: CRS Report-2012

clean energ# invest!ents increased :00 percent et"een 200; and 200( - fro! LJ00 !illion to L'%2 illion - and are pro>ected at L'0 illion annuall# # 20:0, adding that that # 20'5, the 2entagon "ill e spending L2%25 illion each #ear to harness clean energ# technologies for air, land and sea vehicles5 &a le-'8% &he !ilitar# re,uires access to ade,uate fuel supplies in strategic locations, and io-refineries producing advanced iofuels fro! !ultiple feedstoc$s represent perhaps the est option for !eeting this !ilitar# need% &he US Aviation iofuels progra!!e is eing !onitored # *A12A and see$s to develop rene"a le >et fuel 592-=8 for !ilitar# aviation that !eets or e4ceeds 92-= perfor!ance !etrics% &he io-derived 92-= is intended to e a Gdrop-inH fuel% &he Biofuels progra!!e continues to !a$e progress converting cellulosic and algae feed stoc$s to 92-=% 2erfor!ers funded under the effort include tea!s led # )eneral Ato!ics 5algae8 and @ogos &echnologies 5cellulosic8% Having succeeded in its initial efforts *A12A is no" considering options to facilitate further develop!ent of algaederived iofuels% &he cellulosic effort is ongoing% Biofuels in the present state of technolog# are $e# to aviation as it has fe"er fuel alternatives co!pared to ground transportation sectors and electricit# generation% 9et airplanes for co!!ercial and !ilitar# uses "ill need li,uid, high energ#-densit# fuels "ith the sa!e technical characteristics as petroleu! ased fuels and iofuels are e4pected to deliver on their pro!ise%