The History of Fitness

From primitive to present times, how fitness has evolved and come of age.
As we enter the 21st century, one of the greatest accomplishments we can celebrate is our continuous pursuit of fitness since the beginning of humankind. Throughout prehistoric time, the quest for fitness was driven by a need to survive through the arduous tasks of hunting and gathering. Today, though no longer driven by subsistence requirements, fitness remains paramount to people's health and well being. This article will highlight the history of fitness, beginning with primitive man and leading to the foundation of the modern fitness movement.

!rimitive "an #pre 1$,$$$ %&' !rimitive, nomadic lifestyles required continual hunting and gathering of food for survival. (t was quite common for tribes to embark on one or two day )ourneys to seek food and water. *ollowing successful hunting and gathering e+cursions, tribes would often travel si+ to 2$ miles to celebrate with neighboring tribes and then partake of dancing and cultural games that lasted several hours. This !aleolithic pattern of subsistence pursuit and celebration demanded a high level of fitness.

The ,eolithic Agricultural -evolution #1$,$$$ .$$$ %&' This period marked the end of the primitive lifestyle and signified the dawn of civili/ation. This time was defined by important agricultural developments, such as the invention of the plow and domestication of plants and animals. These advancements made it possible for hunting gathering tribes to obtain vast amounts of food while remaining in the same area, thus transforming primitive, nomadic peoples into agrarian #agriculture and farming' societies. 0nfortunately, this era also coincided with the beginning of a more sedentary lifestyle, as daily physical activity decreased with fewer hardships to conquer.

The ,ear 1ast #2$$$ 23$ %&' -ecogni/ing the importance of physical performance in the battle field, early leaders within the civili/ations of Assyria, %abylonia, 1gypt, !alestine, !ersia and 4yria encouraged fitness among their peoples. !erhaps the best e+ample of a civili/ation using fitness for political and military purposes was the !ersian 1mpire, which implemented mandatory rigid training programs to e+pand its domain. As this empire became more affluent, physical activity became less important. At the point the !ersian 1mpire finally collapsed, its society could largely be characteri/ed by an overall lack of fitness.

Ancient &hinese and (ndian &ivili/ations #23$$ 23$ %&' The &hinese culture recogni/ed that regular e+ercise could prevent certain diseases. (n fact,

the philosophical teachings of &onfucius encouraged participation in physical activity. &onsequently, the &hinese developed &ong *u gymnastics to keep the body in good working condition. &ong *u e+ercise programs consisted of various stances and movements that were actually modeled after the fighting styles of different animals. The ancient &hinese also engaged in other forms of physical activity, such as archery, badminton, dancing, fencing and wrestling. (n (ndia, the pursuit of fitness was discouraged because %uddhism and 5induism put a greater emphasis on spirituality than on physical fitness. 5owever, 5indu priests did develop an e+ercise program that conformed to their religious beliefs6 that program came to be known as yoga. Though its e+act origin has yet to be identified, yoga has e+isted for at least the past 3,$$$ years. Translated, the word yoga means 7union,8 a reference to the 5indu philosophy that strives to unite and develop the body, mind and spirit. %y observing and mimicking the movement patterns of animals, the priests hoped to achieve the same balance with nature that animals seemed to possess.

Ancient 9reek &ivili/ation #23$$ 2$$ %&' !erhaps no other civili/ation has held fitness in such high regard as ancient 9reece. This civili/ation:s appreciation of the body and focus on health and fitness are unparalleled in history. The 9reeks believed that development of the body was equally as important as development of the mind. *acilitating the growth of fitness were 9reek medical practitioners, such as 5erodicus, 5ippocrates and 9alen. 9ymnastics, along with music, were considered vital to the education of all 9reeks. (n fact, a common saying in ancient 9reek times was 7e+ercise for the body and music for the soul8 #;uest < %ucher 1==3'. (n Athens, gymnastics took place in indoor facilities called palaestras #the precursors to health clubs' and were supervised by a paidotribe #similar to today:s personal fitness trainer'. (n 4parta, the government imposed special fitness programs for its male children to ensure they would become highly fit adult soldiers. *emales were required to maintain good physical condition in order to produce healthy male offspring who could serve the state. The military dominated culture of 4parta resulted in one of the most physically fit societies in the history of mankind.

-oman &ivili/ation #3$$ %& 2>? A@' @uring its reign of conquest and e+pansion, the -oman 1mpire mandated that all its citi/ens maintain good physical condition and be prepared for military service. 1veryone between the ages of 1> and ?$ was eligible for the draft and trained in activities such as running, marching, )umping and discus and )avelin throwing #9rant 1=?2''. This emphasis on physical training resulted in a society of strong, fit people who conquered nearly all of the ;estern ;orld. 5owever, the fitness levels of the general -oman population declined as entertainment and acquisition of material wealth became higher priorities than physical condition. A lavish lifestyle and physical decay eventually took their toll, and the -oman civili/ation was overcome by physically superior barbarian tribes from ,orthern 1urope.

The @ark Ages #2>? 1$$$ A@' and "iddle Ages #=$$ 12$$ A@'

(n much the same way as primitive man, the barbarian tribes from ,orthern 1urope depended on physical fitness for survival. Their lifestyle consisted of hunting and gathering food and tending to cattle. Therefore, despite the cultural and intellectual setbacks that occurred with the fall of the -oman 1mpire, fitness actually e+perienced a revival during the @ark and "iddle Ages.

The -enaissance #12$$ 1?$$ A@' The -enaissance gave birth to a renewed interest in culture and a glorification of the human body. ,otables such as "artin Auther and Bohn Aocke espoused the theory that high fitness levels enhanced intellectual learning. The -enaissance created an environment that readied people for the widespread development of physical education throughout 1urope.

,ational !eriod in 1urope #1>$$ 1.3$ A@' &ontinental 1urope underwent numerous cultural changes following the -enaissance. *itness remained important and physical education programs e+panded within the emerging 1uropean nations. 9ymnastics en)oyed immense popularity during this era, especially in 9ermany, @enmark, 4weden and 9reat %ritain. Bohann 9uts "uthsCknown as the grandfather of 9erman gymnasticsCinvented numerous e+ercise programs and the equipment on which they were performed. 1+ercise facilities called Turnvereins were built throughout 9ermany to house apparatuses designed for running, )umping, balancing, climbing and vaulting #"atthews 1=?='. (n 4weden, !er 5enrik Aing developed e+ercise programs tailored for different individuals and advocated that physical educators be schooled in science and physiology in order to understand the effect of e+ercise on the human body. @enmark:s *rank ,achtegall created a program called 7Training Teachers of 9ymnastics8 for future fitness instructors #"atthews 1=?='. "eanwhile, Archibald "aclaren was developing 9reat %ritain:s ,ational 4ystems of %odily 1+ercise and Training in Theory and !ractice. -emarkably similar to present day e+ercise recommendations, "aclaren:s ideas included reducing stress through physical activity and gradually progressing activity levels #;elch 1==?'. America:s &olonial !eriod #1>$$ 1>>? A@' The hardships of colonial life ensured that the early settlers regularly engaged in physical activity in order to survive. &olonial America remained an undeveloped country, and its people spent a great deal of their time and energy plowing the land for crops, hunting for food and herding cattle. ;ith this lifestyle providing plenty of physical activity, settlers had no need for organi/ed e+ercise programs. America:s ,ational !eriod #1>>? 1.?$ A@' (mmigrants who arrived in the 0nited 4tates during this period brought with them many aspects of their heritage, including 9erman and 4wedish gymnastics programs. %ut these programs failed to attain popularity, since America was less vulnerable to foreign invasion than 1uropean countries were, and therefore keeping fit seemed a less urgent requirement #%arrow < %rown 1=..'. This is not to say that the need for e+ercise and fitness was unappreciated. Aeaders such as %en)amin *ranklin recommended regular physical activityC including resistance trainingCfor health purposes, while !resident Thomas Befferson recommended more e+treme measuresD 7,ot less than two hours a day should be devoted to

e+ercise, and the weather shall be little regarded. (f the body is feeble, the mind will not be strong8 #!ersonal *itness !rofessional 2$$1'. (ndividuals such as B. &. ;arren and &atherine %eecher also advocated regular e+ercise, especially for women. And in fact, %eecher:s programs, which mi+ed calisthenics with music, bore remarkable likeness to modern day 7aerobics.8 (n general, however, little emphasis was placed on physical education during this period. America !ost &ivil ;ar #1.?3 1=$$ A@' Ene of the most important events with respect to modern fitness in the 0nited 4tates was the (ndustrial -evolution, which resulted in widespread technological advancements that replaced labor intensive )obs. -ural life gave way to city life, which generally required less movement and lower levels of physical activity. #%y the 1=3$s, with life threatening diseases like cancer and diabetes becoming more widespread, the cost of industriali/ation and urbani/ation would become glaringly apparent.' En a more positive note, @ioclesian Aewis introduced 7The ,ew 9ymnastics8 following the end of the &ivil ;ar in 1.?3 #-ice, 5utchinson < Aee 1=3.'. Ether noteworthy advancements during this period included the development of anthropometric measurements to assess fitness progress, the launch of the first scientific studies on fitness instruction and the creation of organi/ed fitness teaching methodologies.

America in the 2$th &entury The 2$th century heralded the beginning of a new era in fitness. !resident Theodore -oosevelt, perhaps the most physically fit president ever to occupy the Eval Effice, used his power and own e+ample to encourage 0.4. citi/ens to be physically active. ;hile president, he engaged in multiple forms of physical activity, including hiking, horseback riding and other outdoor endeavors. World War I. ;ith America:s entry into ;orld ;ar ( in 1=1>, hundreds of thousands of military personnel were drafted and trained for combat. After the war was fought and won, disturbing information became available regarding the readiness of our troopsD Ene out of every three draftees had been unfit for combat, and many of those drafted were highly unfit prior to military training #%arrow < %rown 1=..6 ;uest < %ucher 1==3'. As a result of these dismal findings, the government passed legislation dictating that physical education programs within the public schools be improved. 5owever, the heightened interest in physical education and concern over low fitness levels would prove short lived as the 0nited 4tates entered the 1=2$s and the @epression. The Roaring 20s and reat !epression. Throughout history, the pattern has been evident that following a war, people tend to rela+ more and e+ercise less. The decade known as the -oaring :2$s was no e+ception and in fact earned its moniker because society lived more frivolously then than at any other time in recent history. !riorities centered on eating, drinking, partying and other forms of entertainment. ;ith the stock market crash in 1=2=, fitness levels continued to decline. The gains that physical education programs had made through the passage of legislation following ;orld ;ar ( were soon lost. *unding for these programs became limited and was eventually e+hausted as the economy continued to falter. @espite this lack of interest in physical activity, it was during this period that Back AaAanne first began to develop the programming and equipment that became the foundation of the modern fitness movement.

World War II. Aike ;orld ;ar (, the 7;ar That ;ould 1nd All ;ars8 again underscored the low fitness levels among Americans serving in the military. ;hen the war was over, the public learned that the armed forces had needed to re)ect nearly half of all draftees or give them noncombat positions #-ice, 5utchinson < Aee 1=3.'. Ence again, these embarrassing statistics helped focus the country:s attention on the importance of fitness. Ether significant developments during this time included the application of research to fitness practice, particularly by @r. Thomas F. &ureton at the 0niversity of (llinois. &ureton also introduced fitness testing for cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and fle+ibility and identified e+ercise intensity guidelines for improving fitness levels. "arly #ears of the $old War. (t is fitting that during this era, when the first wave of baby boomers were born, the focus of fitness shifted from adults to children. 1arly in the 1=3$s, tests were conducted on American schoolchildren to measure muscular strength and fle+ibility in the trunk and leg muscles. &lose to ?$ percent of American children failed at least one of the tests, compared to only = percent of children from 1uropean countries #Fraus < 5irschland 1=32'. (n the competitive climate that marked the &old ;ar, these startling statistics launched a new campaign among 0.4. political leaders to promote health and fitness among the nation:s youth. !resident 1isenhower responded in Bune 1=3? by holding a ;hite 5ouse &onference, which led to the formation of the !resident:s &ouncil on Gouth *itness and the appointment of a &iti/ens: Advisory &ommittee on the *itness of American Gouth #,ieman 1==$'. @uring this period, educating the public about the consequences of low fitness levels became a goal of several organi/ations, including the American 5ealth Association6 the American "edical Association6 the American Alliance for 5ealth, !hysical 1ducation, -ecreation and @ance6 and the !resident:s &ouncil on Gouth *itness #%arrow < %rown 1=..'. (n 1=32, the American &ollege of 4ports "edicine #A&4"' was formed6 throughout its history, A&4" has established position standsCbased on scientific researchC on various e+ercise related issues. The %&'0s and (eyond. !resident Bohn *. Fennedy was a ma)or proponent of fitness and its health related benefits for Americans of all ages. To reflect this concern, he broadened the scope of the !resident:s &ouncil on Gouth *itness by changing its name to the !resident:s &ouncil on !hysical *itness and appointed %ud ;ilkinson as its head. Fennedy also prompted the federal government to become more involved in national fitness promotion and started pilot youth fitness programs. Another ma)or influence during this time was @r. Fen 5. &ooper, widely recogni/ed as the 7father of the modern fitness movement.8 &ooper advocated a new philosophy that focused on disease prevention instead of disease treatment. 1arly in his career, &ooper stressed the necessity of providing epidemiological data to support the benefits of regular e+ercise and health. @ata from thousands of individuals became the foundation for his 7aerobics8 concepts. @r. &ooper:s message, programs and ideas established the model from which fitness has proliferated up to modern times.

Aessons *rom 5istory The history of fitness illustrates some fascinating themes that continue to resonate for those of us living in the 21st century. Ene common theme is that political and military leaders can help propagate the need for a fitter societyCand that after a war, people tend to e+ercise less. (n the wake of recent events, with American troops being deployed as we go to press on this issue, this is an important lesson to ponder. Another common thread is the relationship of mind, body and spirit throughout history. At

times, some cultures prescribed spirituality at the e+pense of the body, whereas others, like the ancient 9reeks, believed a sound mind could only be found in a healthy body. ;ith the world in turmoil, more and more people are seeking mind body modalities as part of their overall fitness program. Another interesting theme is the concept of e+ercise for the body and music for the soul. This concept has evolved harmoniously in present day fitness programs, with music being a distinctive component of the e+ercise e+perience. (t is also timely to remember that history has shown that, as societies become too enamored with wealth, prosperity and self entertainment, fitness levels tend to decline. 5istorically, physical fitness levels have also decreased as technology has advanced. ;hile the past cannot always provide ready solutions to these hurdles, we can learn some important lessons by understanding how fitness has evolved through the ages. %y applying some of these lessons with your clients, you can help move the world forward to healthier times. H

Fitness )afety Tips

%e sure to read our safety tips before you begin e+ercising. Article %yD ;eight;atchers.com Gou should talk with your doctor before beginning any e+ercise program, particularly if you suffer from high blood pressure or di//iness6 have had a stroke6 have a heart, lung, liver or kidney condition6 or if you have recently been hospitali/ed.(f you are more than 2$ pounds overweight, you should not work out at a high intensity level without professional supervision. These e+ercises and workouts may result in in)ury if done incorrectly. (e )*re to Warm +p4tart out slowly, and gradually pick up the pace as your body warms up. *or e+ample, if you're heading out on a I$ minute moderate walk, spend the first 3 minutes at a slower pace, then speed up to moderate. $ool !ownAfter your workout, gently stretch the main muscles you used during e+ercise. 5old each stretch for 12 to 13 seconds. @on't bounce. 4tretch to the point )ust before discomfort6 if the stretch is painful, you're pushing too hard. !rin, WaterAvoid dehydration by drinking fluids before, during and after physical activity. En hot days, don't e+ercise in the middle of the day. ;ear light colored, loose, comfortable clothing so body heat can easily escape.

(f you e-ercise o*tdoorsD H ;ear a medic bracelet with your condition and medications listed if you have an e+isting medical condition

H H H H H

@ress appropriately for the weatherJclimate to prevent illness &arry a light, and wear reflective clothing when e+ercising at night &onsider e+ercising with a buddy &arry a phone in case of emergency 1+ercise in familiar areas where you know the surroundings and terrain

H H 1quipment depends on what workouts is being done. H H

*itness 1quipmentD
The %0

eneral Fitness ),ills

$ardiovasc*lar.Respiratory "nd*rance/ 0 The a1ility of 1ody systems to gather, process, and deliver o-ygen. )tamina/ 0 The a1ility of 1ody systems to process, and deliver, store, and *tili2e energy. )trength/ 0 The a1ility of a m*sc*lar *nit, or com1ination of m*sc*lar *nits, to apply force. Fle-i1ility/ 0 The a1ility to ma-imi2e the range of motion at a given 3oint. 4ower/ 0 The a1ility of a m*sc*lar *nit, or com1ination of m*sc*lar *nits, to apply force in minim*m time. )peed/ 0 The a1ility to minimi2e the time cycle of a repeated movement. $oordination/ 0 The a1ility to com1ine several distinct movemnts patterns into a sing*lar distinct movement. 5gility/ 0 The a1ility to minimi2e transition time from one movement pattern to another. (alance/ 0 The a1ility to control the placement of the 1odies center of gravity in relation to its s*pport 1ase . 5cc*racy/ 0 The a1ility to control movement in a given direction or at a given intensity.