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Braden S.

Cutajar, Glen Slattery, Marcus Portelli

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION 1 | WITH THE AID OF DIAGRAMS EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE FOLLOWING INSTRUMENTS: ANGLE DEKKOR AUTO COLLIMATOR OPTICAL COMPARATOR TOOLMAKERS MICROSCOPE 2 | EXPLAIN THE USE OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS IN THE MEASUREMENT OF: STRAIGHTNESS SURFACE FINISH THREAD MEASUREMENT GEAR MEASUREMENT 2

3 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 10 10

3 | WHAT IS INTERFEROMETRY? EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF INTERFEROMETRY AND OF THE LASER INTERFEROMETER. GIVE APPLICATIONS WHERE THE LASER INTERFEROMETER IS USED IN INDUSTRY. 11 PRINCIPLE OF INTERFEROMETRY THE LASER INTERFEROMETER 11 12

4 | EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE BEHIND THE MEASUREMENT OF LAPPED SURFACES USING OPTICAL FLATS. 14 INTERFERENCE PATTERNS FINDING FLATNESS ERROR 5 | WHY IS LIGHT USED AS A STANDARD OF LENGTH? DEFINE THE METRE. GIVE A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ORIGIN OF LENGTH MEASUREMENT. 16 17

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Introduction
In order to measure angles with a very high accuracy, there are various instruments which all use the principle of collimation of light & reflection. When a source of light is positioned at the principal focus of a collimating lens, parallel rays of light would be produced as shown in Figure 1. The light rays should not disperse with distance but in reality theres a very small negligible dispersion. If the light reflects from a surface which is perpendicular to the rays direction, the rays will be reflected back their own path and refocused at the point sources position. [1]

INCIDENT RAYS
REFLECTED RAYS

FOCAL PLANE POINT SOURCE

COLLIMATING LENSE
Figure 1: Light from a point source passing through a collimating lens

PLANE REFLECTOR

If the reflecting surface is slanted at an angle, the reflected rays will be tilted by 2 and focused at the focal plane, a distance x from the point source as shown in Figure 2 . FOCAL PLANE

POINT SOURCE x

REFLECTED IMAGE

PLANE REFLECTOR

Figure 2: Light from a point source passing through a collimating lens and hitting a slanted reflector

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The displacement x is a function of angle of inclination of the plane reflector and the focal length of the collimating lens f and it is given by: = 2 Therefore by measuring the displacement x by an appropriate method, it is possible to find the angle of inclination . [2]

1 | With the aid of diagrams explain the principle of operation of the following instruments:
Angle Dekkor
The angle dekkor uses the principle of collimation. In the focal plane of the collimating lens there is an illuminated scale engraved on glass screen and a datum scale across the centre of screen where the image of the reflected beam is focused [3]. The reflected image of the illuminated scale is received perpendicular to the datum scale as shown in Figure 3. The whole system is closed in a tube as shown in Figure 4. The angle dekkor is used to measure angles of components, checking slope angle of a v-block and also to measure the angle of a cone or taper gauge. [4]

Figure 3: Optical System of an Angle Dekkor [1]

Figure 4: Angle Dekkor [3]

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Auto Collimator
The auto collimator is a device which measures small angular differences by the principle of collimation of light and it uses light as a working medium thus it does not come in contact with the objects being measured. It is mostly used for measuring straightness and flatness. Light rays are produced from a light source inside the auto collimator and project an image of illuminated cross-wires, found in the target graticule, onto a mirror (reflector) and a reflected image goes back through the collimating lens. If the mirror is exactly normal to the light rays, the image will be aligned with the target wire. Else, if the mirror is tilted, an offset becomes visible whose position can be done with a micrometre microscope [2] and then use this displacement to find the mirrors inclination angle. This set up can be seen in figure 5. Nowadays, the angle can also be measured by an electronic detector. A visual auto collimator is able to measure angles as small as 0.5 arc second whereas an electronic auto collimator is 100 times more accurate.

Figure 5: Optical System of an Auto Collimator [2]

In order to obtain the highest accuracy, it is important to work in stable air conditions since air current between the reflector and the auto collimator changes the refractive index of air which will affect the images position. [5]

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Optical Comparator
The Optical Comparator works by amplifying the displacement of the plunger by a mechanical and optical system. This type of comparator has an advantage over purely mechanical comparators due to a lack of moving parts, in fact the only moving parts are the plunger, lever and mirror. The optical magnification is also capable of much greater magnifications than a mechanical comparator thus resulting in much higher accuracy. [1] The displacement in the plunger of the optical comparator is first amplified mechanically by a lever. The lever then moves an arm, which moves a mirror. The mirror reflects a beam of light onto a scaled screen from which the user reads the measurement. The amplification is worked out as follows (refer to Figure 6 - Principle of the Optical Comparator):

Figure 6 - Principle of the Optical Comparator

Mechanical amplification: Optical amplification: Overall amplification:


2 1 2

For example, for a=1, b=20, c=1 and d=50, the amplification factor would be 2000.

The reason for the 2 is due to the fact that if the mirror changes direction by angle , the angle between the incedent and reflected beam will change by 2 thus doubling the amplification of the displacement on the scaled screen.

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Toolmakers Microscope

Figure 7 - Mitutoyo TM-505 Toolmakers Microscope 176-811CEE [19]

A typical Toolmakers Microscope consists of a lighting unit, an arm onto which the microscope is attached and a base onto which there is a rotary circular table. The object to be inspected is put on the table. Two knobs on the side of the table control its movement; one for the X-direction and one for the Y-direction. The displacement in both directions is traditionally read via a Vernier scale on the knobs themselves, while in more modern models (as seen in Figure 7 - Mitutoyo TM-505 Toolmakers Microscope 176-811CEE), this is read from a digital display. For each direction, there is a fine adjustment knob as well for more accurate displacements. The eyepiece has a graticule hairline which will appear superimposed on the object. This can be rotated and the angle can be read from the microscope. This enable the user to measure the angle of a screw thread for example. This is done by aligning the reference line with one edge, then aligning it with the other and reading the difference in the angle of the graticule. In a similar way the user can use the Toolmakers Microscope to measure distances by aligning points on the eyepieces graticule and measuring the difference in the displacement using the Vernier scale (and Pythagoras Theorem). [6]

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2 | Explain the use of optical instruments in the measurement of:


Straightness
Straightness is basically a measure of perpendicularity, with a straight line representing the path of linear dimensions. Straightness is highly important in machines, when necessary, as this will affect the shape of the machined parts. For example, the lathe needs to have highly straight guides to avoid straightness inaccuracies being projected on the work. A basic method of checking straightness is by bringing in contact with the surface a tool having the required straightness, a straight edge as seen in Figure 8 Straight Edge . This method is highly subjective and prone to errors since it relies on the optical perception of the user. Otherwise, feeler gages may be used to check the space
Figure 8 Straight Edge [17]

between the straight edge and the surface. Another non-optical

method is to use a dial gauge indicator and note the variation in readings. Moving on to optical measurements, the alignment telescope is an optical instrument which can determine the straightness of a profile. It establishes a straight line of site between the target and the alignment telescope, which are placed at opposite ends of a surface. The difference in height (ydirection is then noted through the eyepiece on the target. The eyepiece telescope has a micrometer which is used to measure the deflection. This is similar to the autocollimator, which however measures the angle of deviation between an opposite mirror surface and the receiver. If the angle of deviation is zero, this suggests a perfectly straight path. [1] [4]

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Surface Finish
Surface finish, or texture, is a characteristic of a surface which is a function of not only roughness, but also waviness and the lay. The latter is the predominant surface pattern, which depends on the machining method used. Roughness is a measure of the finely spaced irregularities on a surface, how smooth (or not smooth) a surface is, while waviness is a measure of flatness, which is the distance between crests and troughs in the larger wave. In Figure 9 - Roughness vs Waviness, the waviness profile is superimposed with a red wave while the roughness is marked with a blue distorted line. The most basic method to determine the surface finish of a part is by touch, however this is highly nonscientific and subjective.

Figure 9 - Roughness vs Waviness [1]

The Tomlinson Surface meter is an instrument which uses mechano-optical magnification means to determine the surface finish of a part. Springs hold the stylus against the surface of the being tested. This stylus is attached to the instrument by a leaf spring and has adjustable height to adapt to the surface. As seen in Figure 10 Tomlison Surface meter
Figure 10 Tomlison Surface meter [7]

, the stylus is only allowed to move vertically by the springs, and as the tip moves across the surface, the irregularities are

recorded on a smoked glass plate. This is then magnified for closer examination. Interferometry is used to determine a surfaces profile by superimposing electromagnetic waves in order to determine its quality. Reference flats are set to rest in contact with the surface being tested and then illuminated by a white light. Light waves reflected from each respective surface interfere, which results in bright and dark bands (similar to those exhibited by Youngs two-slit experiment. Flat surfaces are revealed by a pattern of parallel and straight fringes having equal intervals, while rough surfaces have uneven and arched fringes. This is a very accurate method as fringes show a surface fluctuation of lambda on 2, where lambda is the wavelength of the light projected. [8]

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Using point illumination, confocal microscopy captures high resolution images relative to fluorescence microscopes. This is particularly noticeable in the depth direction due to the thin optical sectioning and therefore this method is used to scan rectangular patterns and generate 3D profiles of samples, which gives us the ability to observe the surface roughness and waviness and thus determine the level of surface finish. In Figure 11 - Confocal Microscopy we can see the use of a confocal microscope to determine part of the profile of a 1-Euro coin. This optical sectioning replaces the use of thin sectioning, thus diminishing the need to physically section the specimen. [9]
Figure 11 - Confocal Microscopy [18]

Another method of surface finish deduction is by focus variation. Optics with limited depth of field are used. Images

having different focus are taken by moving the specimen in relation to the lens, and then the position of each plane is calculated. The depth of each plane gives the equivalent depth of the image at that position. Small depth of field can be achieved by having a lens with a high numerical aperture. [10] Structured light 3D scanners are used to determine the surface finish of grinded surfaces and tools to a certain degree of precision. The concept behind this is that a pattern of pixels is projected onto a surface, and then, depending on how the pattern deforms as it strikes the surface, the geometry of the surface can be determined. Scanning electron microscopes can also be used to determine the topography of a surface. This is extracted from the x-ray, light and backscattered electrons losses of energy, which contain valuable information. The intensity of these signals helps in determining the depth and ridges, which can then be used to determine the finish. [1]

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Thread Measurement
While the external diameter of threads can usually be measured with a hand micrometer, and the internal diameter with vee pieces on a diameter machine, the angle and form of a thread are usually measured by optic means. This is usually done by a projector or through observation by microscope. The main concept behind projecting a screw thread is by projecting the collimating beam parallel to the mean angle of the thread helix. By moving the thread closer to the lens and putting it out of focus, one is able to observe a pattern around the thread outline. This is usually symmetrical and the flank angle can then be measured with a protractor on the screen, ideally with a vernier reading. On the other hand, microscopes use a similar concept but have a protractor eyepiece which is fitted to the lens. [3] Whatever method is used, the accuracy of the readings is a function of the size of the thread, ie. it is easier to set the protractor on a longer flank. While smaller threads can be magnified further, this is usually at the expense of definition. The geometry of the thread is compared to that of a standard thread. The standard thread form diagram used for projection on opaque screens is sprayed on zinc plates. The diagram and the thread image are then overlapped in order for irregularities to be exposed. Taps are usually also checked via a projector or a microscope, rather than a diameter machine as this is quite time-consuming. [1]

Gear Measurement
Gears sometimes need to be checked for their involute profile. This can be done by means of a pantograph. The teeth are traced and this produces a larger, magnified image. The gear may either be directly projected onto a reference drawing or otherwise the pantograph is compared to the reference. [11]

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3 | What is interferometry? Explain the principle of interferometry and of the laser interferometer. Give applications where the laser interferometer is used in industry.
Principle of Interferometry
Interferometry is extensively used in metrology to make accurate measurements of displacement. It utilises the principle of electromagnetic interference in order to do this. Typically, two beams of a single wavelength and which are in-phase are emitted at reflective surfaces which are at different distances from the emitted beams. Once reflected back and super-imposed, the beams will not necessarily be in-phase again, and this will create a fringe pattern on the output screen (see Figure 12 - Principle of the Electromagnetic Interference Shows how different travel paths create fringes). Displacing one of the reflective surfaces will move the fringe patterns in a certain way and analyzing this fringe pattern, accurate measurements of the difference in the distances of the travel paths can be made. One has to keep in mind that the distance between the fringes represent a difference of 1 wavelength between the paths travelled to the fringes. Inteferometrys accuracy remains unsurpassed by other methods.

Waves are in antiphase and cancel out ie. Dark Fringe Waves are in phase and superimpose ie. Bright Fringe

Figure 12 - Principle of the Electromagnetic Interference Shows how different travel paths create fringes

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The Laser Interferometer


The laser interferometer is a device which is used to calculate accurate measurements of displacement using this basic principle of electromagnetic interference. A laser emits a beam of light at a beam splitter, which effectively splits the beam (thus making sure that both output beams are in phase and have the same wavelength) towards two mirrors. The beam splitter is usually a piece of glass thinly coated by silver, this enables the beam to partially pass through and partially reflect, in an equal manner. The beams are reflected back by the mirrors towards the beam splitter where both beams are split again, and the ones going towards the detector are observed by the user. These beams, by the principle of superposition mentioned earlier, produce a fringe pattern which is observed by the user (see Figure 13 - Laser Interferometer Setup).

Mirror A

Beam Splitter Laser Mirror B

Detector

Figure 13 - Laser Interferometer Setup

If, in reference to Figure 13, Mirror B is displaced, the fringe pattern observed will change. This occurs because the travel path of one of the incident beams on the detector will be elongated or shorted, thus shifting its phase in relation with the other. In fact displacing the mirror will cause the fringe pattern to continuously alternate its bright and dark fringes. In order to calculate the displacement of the mirror, one has to know how to interpret the change in fringe pattern. Page 12 of 20

Assume that the mirrors are initially equidistant from the beam splitter. Let the distance between the laser and bearm splitter be L, the distance between the beam splitter and mirrors A and B be A and B respectively, and the distance between the beam splitter and the detector be D. It can be seen that the travel paths of the two beams incident on the detector (referred to as beams A and B with respect to the mirrors they reflect off) are: Beam As travel distance = L + 2A + D Beam Bs travel distance = L + 2B + D Hence it can be seen that the difference of the beams travel distances is given by |2(A B)|. For the light fringe to change into a dark fringe (or viceversa) the travel distances have to be offset by half a wavelength (so that a crest coincides with a trough instead of another crest). Hence, for a switch between light/dark fringes;


ie.

= |2(A B)|

= |A B|

This means that in order for the fringes to switch between light and dark, one of the mirrors must be displaced a quarter of the wavelength of the light used either towards or away from the beam splitter. This is how the laser interferometer is used to calculate very accurate displacements. Due to the sensitivity, accuracy and precision of the laser interferometer, it has found a lot of applications in industry. It allows manufacturers to produce products with very strict specifications such as tools used for medical purposes or aeronautics. It is has great repeatability making it very reliable and ideal for repeated measurements of mass produced products. [12] [13] [1]

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4 | Explain the principle behind the measurement of lapped surfaces using optical flats.
The most appropriate method to measure the flatness to a high degree is by using optical flats and the principle of Light Interference. Optical flats are circular discs made out of stress-free glass or quartz, having at least one face which is ground, lapped and polished to a very high degree of flatness. This face is used as a datum in order to determine the flatness of other surfaces. Optical flats exist in various diameters from 25 mm to 300 mm [1] and if they are taken care of by using them and storing them with the right manner, they will not lose their flatness [1] [2] When an optical flat is placed (not wrung) on to another surface, in reality it will lie at some angle as shown in Figure 14. The optical flat is illuminated with a parallel beam of monochromatic light and the ligth will partly reflect at the optical flats face (light wave #2 in Figure 14: Interference of Light (Refraction of light is ignored)) and partly transmitted to reflect at the subjects surface (light wave #1 in Figure 14: Interference of Light (Refraction of light is ignored)Figure 14). When both waves meet MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT 1 2

EYE
Resultant Wave

SUPPOSEDLY FLAT SURFACE


Figure 14: Interference of Light (Refraction of light is ignored)

each other they will form a resultant wave according to their phase relationship. If the light is not monochromatic, the light will refract differently when it enters different media since it consists of various wavelengths. This will result in an undistinguishable output.

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If the phase difference is an even number of wavelengths than there is constructive interference as show in Figure 16. A resulting wave with a greater amplitude is formed which to the human eye is seen as bright white light. 1

2
Figure 15: Destructive interference

Resultant Wave

If, on the other hand, the phase difference is an odd number of wavelengths, destructive interference results. Therefore the waves will cancel out each as shown in Figure 15 hence no light would be visible to the naked eye. 1

2 Resultant Wave
Figure 16: Constructive interference

Therefore, if the optical flats surface and the subjects surface are perfectly flat, a series of parallel fringes will form which will be seen as parallel lines of light with a spacing of . which is presented in Figure 17.

MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT
Bright Dark Bright

SUPPOSEDLY FLAT SURFACE

Figure 17: Interference of light causing a series of light and dark bands of light

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Interference patterns

Perfect Flat surface Straight parallel lines Constant fringe spacing

Perfect Concave or Convex surface Concentric circles

NEW CONTACT In order to distinguish between a concave and a convex POSITION surface , the optical flat is pushed gently downwards . If the surface is convex, the optical flat will rock on the surface and the fringe pattern will shift to a particular direction as shown in Figure 18. If the surface is concave, the circular fringes tend to move away from the point of pressure. [1] Also, a convex surface will show a light patch in the centre whilst a concave surface gives off a dark patch in the centre. [14]

Figure 18: Testing method which results in a surface which is convex

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Considering a component which has a flat face and one side which is slightly lower. If the optical flat is put on the surface at a small angle, the fringe patterns shown in Figure 20 will arise. If the optical flat is exactly parallel to the surface, the fringe pattern in Figure 19 is observable.

Figure 20: Flat surface with lowered side: AIR WEDGE method

Figure 19: Flat surface with lowered side: CONTACT method

Finding Flatness Error


Considering having the concave surface in Figure 21 and the wavelength of the monochromatic light is known, then the flatness error may be estimated. For a concave/convex subject the number of fringes from the centre are counted and each fringe indicates a change in surfaces elevation of . In this case the range from flatness is 4 fringes. Thus, in order to find the total change in elevation, the number of fringes has to be multiplied with . If the wavelength used to find the fringe pattern in Figure 21 is 508 nm, than the deviation from flatness is: x 4 = 1016 nm 2
Figure 21: Concave Spherical Surface

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In the case shown in Figure 22, it is possible to find the flatness error from the shape of the fringes. Each curve is curved by approximately 1 spacing which represents . Therefore, is the wavelength of the monochromatic light used is 508 nm, then the flatness error is 254 nm.

Figure 22: Fringe pattern showing error in transverse flatness

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5 | Why is light used as a standard of length? Define the metre. Give a brief description of the origin of length measurement.
The first recorded standard of length is said to be that of the Egyptians. The standard is called the cubit and is defined as the length of the forearm, the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. They also had other units which were related to parts of the human body. Later, around 3000 B.C., a manufactured standard was created which was a cubit rod. This had become the legal standard and copies of it were made in order to be used as working standards. Nowadays these standards are found in the Egyptian Museum in Turin [2]. In 1305, Edward I established the yard or so-called Iron Ulna. For however could not access the Iron Ulna, King Edward wrote that three grains of barley, dry and round, make an inch; twelve inches make a foot; three feet make an ulna (yard) ; 5 ulna makes a perch; and 40 perches in length and 4 perches in breadth makes an acre 2. A yard standard is one which established Henry VII in 1497 which was later out-dated by Elizabeth Is standard in 1588. Both standards are today found in the Science Museum, South Kensigton, London which are qite similar to todays yard standard [2]. The metre was defined by the French in the late 18th century. In 1791, the French Academy of Sciences has a task of creating a new system of units which used powers of ten. They defined the metre as onemillionth part of the length of Earths meridian passing from the Observatoire in Paris [2] [15] . A new standard was created from a 10 percent iridium and 90 percent platinum alloy having an X-shape. The metre was defined as the distance from two precise marks on this X-shaped bar at 0 degrees celsuis. It was later when wavelength of monochromatic started being used to define a length. Around 1934 the metre was defined as "the length equal to 1 650 763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of the radiation ... of krypton-86." 3 The main advantage of using light as a standard of length is that light yields a very high level of accuracy. In the mid 1970s lasers were used as lengths standards. The new definition of metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of of a second. 4 [16]

2 3

An ordinance of Edward I (1303) Definition of a metre according to the 11th CGPM (1960) 4 Definition of a metre according to the 17th CGPM (1983, Resolution 1)

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Bibliography
[1] [2] [3] [4] J. F. W. Galyer, Metrology for Engineers (SI Metric Edition), Cassell & Company LTD, 1972. A. J. T. Scarr, Metrology and Precision Engineering, McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., 1967. K. Hume, Engineering Metrology, MacDonald & Co. , 1953. M. M, Linear and Angular Measurements, 04 2009. [Online]. Available: http://www.scribd.com/doc/14091174/Unit-2-Metrology. [Accessed 28 11 2013]. M.-W. Optical, Operation manual Autocollimator AKR 300/65/14,7, [Online]. Available: http://www.scribd.com/doc/182245063/Auto-Collimator. [Accessed 28 11 2013]. [Online]. Available: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/31002928/TOOL-MAKERS-MICROSCOPE. [Online]. Available: http://telc.tanta.edu.eg/hosting/pro5/containt/L2-2.htm. M. V. Mantravadi and D. Malacara, Optical Shop Testing ("Newton, Fizeau, and Haidinger Interferometers"), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007. [Online]. Available: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&fid=326128&jid=MAM&volumeId=11&iss ueId=S02&aid=326127.

[5]

[6] [7] [8]

[9]

[10] [Online]. Available: http://www.alicona.com/home/products/infinitefocus-standard/focusvariation.html. [11] A. Brookes, Basic Instrumentation for Engineers and Physicists, Pergamon Press Ltd., 1968. [12] [Online]. Available: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyePASErr5Q. [13] [Online]. Available: http://www.explainthatstuff.com/howinterferometerswork.html. [14] E. Optics, Optical Flat Manual, 2004. [Online]. Available: http://www.edmundoptics.com/technicalsupport/technical-library/marketing-literature/files/eo-optical-flat-manual.pdf#. [Accessed 28 11 2013]. [15] Alphagene, What's the origin of the meter and the metric system?, 14 03 2001. [Onli ne]. Available: http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1895/whats-the-origin-of-the-meter-and-the-metricsystem. [Accessed 29 11 2013]. [16] BIPM SI brochure, Section 2.1.1.1, BIPM, [Online]. Available: http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/metre.html. [Accessed 29 11 2013]. [17] [Online]. Available: http://www.woodpeck.com/media/main_sse-2-48.jpg. [18] [Online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Confocal_measurement_of_1-eurostar_3d_and_euro.png.

[19] [Online]. Available: http://www.tools-paint.com/mitutoyo-tm-505-toolmakers-microscope-176-811cee41039-p.asp.

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