Catholic

Protest

Lutheran Anglican Calvinism

Sale of indulgences Dynastic goals over spiritual Same as Lutheran, Book of Common Prayer Moral regeneration of church and community Bible must be read by individuals to help with salvation, minster helps explain Church governed by ministers and elders (Presbyterianism). Married priests, ministers provide moral guidance Predestination

Role of Bible

Pope and priests interpret

Read by individuals and helps towards salvation, ministers can help explain

Church Governance

Hierarchy: pope, cardinal, bishop, priest. Celibacy, clergy oversees sacraments

Rejects hierarchy, Monarch is kept bishops. Married priests, ministers oversee sacraments. supreme, reject papal authority. Bishops, clergy oversees sacraments

Salvation

Faith and good works

Faith

Faith, some believe in good works

Eucharist Sacraments

Transubstantiation Consubstantiation Various 7 (Baptism, confirmation , Eucharist, penance, unction, holy orders, matrimony) 3 (baptism, penance, Eucharist) 2 (baptism and Eucharist)

Memorial Just baptism

Theocracy

State subservient to church

State controlled, not theocracy

State controlled, not theocracy

Theocracy

2. How does the Reformation affect women?

A. Protestant women: Luther believed that a womans occupation was in the home taking care
of the family. Calvin believed in the subjugation of women to preserve moral order. Protestant churches had greater official control over marriage than did the Catholic church. Suppressed common law marriages (which had been very common in Catholic countries) Catholic governments followed the Protestant. Marriage became more companionate, emphasizing the love relationship between man and wife. Martin Luther and his wife, Katherina von Bora were good examples of this view. Luther: sex was an act to be enjoyed by a husband and wife; not just an act of procreation. Increased emphasis on teaching people to read the Bible resulted in an increase in womens literacy. Mothers were often expected to teach their children. Schools for girls were developed. Protestant women, however, lost opportunities in church service that many Catholic women pursued Women gradually lost rights to manage their own property or to make legal transactions in their own name. Anabaptists did allow women to hold church offices.

B. Catholic women: Women continued to enjoy opportunities in the Church through religious
orders. Angela Merici (1474-1540) founded the Ursuline Order of Nuns in the 1530s to provide education and religious training. Approved as a religious community by Paul III in 1544. Established a foundation for the future of young girls within the church. Sought to combat heresy through Christian education. Ursulines spread to France and the New World. Teresa de Avila (1515-1582). Major Spanish leader of the reform movement for monasteries and convents. Preached an individual could have a direct relationship with God through prayer and contemplation. 3. What role did political and social factors play in the several reformations? i.

Luther: The years leading up to the Protestant Reformation were also plagued by moral
corruption and abuse of position in the Roman Catholic Church. The priesthood was

guilty of several abuses of privilege and responsibility, including simony (using ones wealth or influence to purchase an ecclesiastical office), pluralism (holding multiple offices simultaneously) and absenteeism (the failure to reside in the parish where they were supposed to minister). The practice of celibacy which was imposed by the church on the priesthood was often abused or ignored, leading to immoral conduct on the part of the clergy. Secular-minded, ignorant priests corrupted their position by neglect or abuse of power. During the fifteenth century the worldliness and corruption in the church reached its worst. The problem of corruption reached all the way to the papacy. Luther was disgusted by the sale of indulgences, authorized by Pope Leo XI. The effects of Christian Humanism also helped paved the way for the Reformation. A central part of this philosophy was reform, and the betterment of Christians through better education. The printing press put potentially the whole of human knowledge at the hands of the scholarly community in a new way, beginning with the publication of the bible. Erasmus Greek text of the Bible was used when Martin Luther translated the Bible into German. Erasmus was a critic of scholasticism (combination of religious dogma and mystical and institutional traditions of Augustine and Aristotle). Christian humanists mocked popular practices that were close to superstitious. Many of the top elites were educated as humanists and/or directly supported them (Henry VIII, Charles V, Mary Tudor, and Elizabeth Tudor). The Renaissance raised questions about the path to salvation by instigating new ideas, particularly the belief in individualism, which was the conviction that there is human ability to choose between right and wrong. The Catholic church, vehemently pushed the idea that salvation would only be found within the church, but when a Christian monk named Martin Luther interpreted a bible passage stating "just shall live by his faith" to mean that faith alone would save their souls he began to challenge the church. The Northern European Renaissance Ideas on Education emphasized critical thinking. The proliferation of printing presses in the Germany's had made printed material available and increased literacy. Humanist thinking and values increased the focus on virtue

ii.

Henry VII: Much of the English Reformation had to do with Henrys dynastic ambitions
rather than spirituality. He wanted his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled because they could not produced a male heir who survived into adulthood, and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty. Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was blighted in the eyes of God. Catherine had been his brother's widow, and it was therefore against Biblical teachings for Henry to have married her. A special dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding in the first place. Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid. In 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement to annul the marriage, but the Pope refused (according to the Catholic Church, this went against canon law). Divorce was not allowed by the Church, so Henry would have look for alternatives. Thomas Cranmer convinced Henry that he could marry Anne Boleyn by breaking away from Rome and establishing that the King had the ultimate authority, not the Pope, hence the creation of the Anglican Church, which Henry presided over. As archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine, allowing the king to marry Anne Boleyn. Under Thomas Cromwell's direction Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy (1534) fully defining the royal headship over the church. Although Henry himself wished to make no doctrinal changes, Cromwell and Cranmer authorized the translation of the Bible into English, and Cranmer was largely responsible for the Book of Common Prayer, adopted under Henry's successor, Edward VI (Henry forbade those below the rank of gentry from reading the bible, however). The gains that Protestantism made under Edward (r. 1547-53) were lost under his Catholic sister Mary I (r. 1553-58). The religious settlement (1559) under Elizabeth I, however, guaranteed the Anglican establishment.

iii.

Catholic: The standing of the church within the political order and the class structure of
Western Europe had been irrevocably altered in the course of the later middle Ages. Protestantism arose to challenge the spiritual authority of the papacy; therefore, there was no longer any way to invoke that political authority against the challenge. By the end of the 15th century there was a widely-held impression that the resources for church

reform within Roman Catholicism had been tried and found wanting: the papacy refused to reform itself, the councils had not succeeded in bringing about lasting change, and the professional theologians were more interested in scholastic debates than in the nurture of genuine Christian faith and life. The financial corruption and pagan immorality within Roman Catholicism, even at the highest levels, reminded critics of "the abomination of desolation" spoken of by the prophet Daniel, and nothing short of a thoroughgoing Martin Luther asked an essentially medieval question: "How do I obtain a God who is merciful to me?" He also tried a medieval answer to that question by becoming a monk and by subjecting himself to fasting and discipline--but all to no avail. The answer that he eventually did find, the conviction that God was merciful not because of anything that the sinner could do but because of a freely given grace that was received by faith alone (the doctrine of justification by faith), was not utterly without precedent in the Roman Catholic theological tradition; but in the form in which Luther stated it there appeared to be a fundamental threat to Catholic teaching and sacramental life. And in his treatise The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, issued in 1520, Luther denounced the entire system of medieval Christendom as an unwarranted human invention foisted on the church. Although Luther in his opposition to the practice of selling indulgences was unsparing in his attacks upon the moral, financial, and administrative abuses within Roman Catholicism, The cult of the Virgin Mary and of the saints diminished the office of Christ as the sole mediator between God and the human race. Thus the pope was the Antichrist because he represented and enforced a substitute religion in which the true church, the bride of Christ, had been replaced by--and identified with--an external juridical institution that laid claim to the obedience due to God himself. The challenge of the Protestant Reformation became also the occasion for a resurgent Roman Catholicism to clarify and to reaffirm Roman Catholic principles; that endeavor had, in one sense, never been absent from the life and teaching of the church, but it came out now with new force. Against the Protestant elevation of the Scripture to the position of sole authority, they emphasized that Scripture and church tradition were inseparable and always had been. Pressing that point further, they denounced justification by faith alone

and other cherished Protestant teachings as novelties without grounding in authentic church tradition. And they warned that the doctrine of "faith alone, without works" as taught by Luther would sever the moral nerve and remove all incentive for holy living. The Catholic Reformation or the Counter Reformation was a strong reaffirmation of the doctrine and structure of the Catholic Church, climaxing at the Council of Trent, partly in reaction to the growth of Protestantism. Even before the posting of Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, there had been evidence of internal reform within the Church, combating trends that heightened radical demands to fundamentally alter the doctrine and structure of the Medieval Church and even contributed to the anticlericalism of figures such as John Huss and John Wycliffe in the late fourteenth century. The Catholic Reformation, aimed at correcting the sources of the Reformation, and pronounced since the pontificate of Pope Paul III, was both retaliatory, committed to protecting Catholic institutions and practices from heresy and Protestantism, but also reformist, committed to reform the Church from within to stem the growing appeal of Protestantism. Broadly speaking, the Catholic Reformation, represented a three-sided strategy: an autocratic church at the top linked to the individual by the parish church. The Catholic Reformation was a strong reaffirmation of the doctrine and structure of the Medieval Church, presiding over reforms that would preserve its effectiveness. Rome was vulnerable, Charles V sacked Rome. 4. Why did the theological ideas of Martin Luther trigger political, social, and economic reactions? i.

Political: Religion becomes a public affair, majority rules in the sense that only very few
individuals believed in religious liberty. Official rules, practices, observations of holidays, festivities, etc. established by whomever held jurisdiction (civil authority prince, etc). Luther appeals to anti-Roman feelings, intellectual aspirations of humanists and patriotic feelings of nationality as New Testament translated to German.

ii.

Social: Some people began to apply Luthers revolutionary ideas to society. In 1524,
German peasants, excited by reformers talk of Christian freedom, demanded an end to

serfdom. He translated the Bible into the language of the people and translated the mass into the vernacular. The desire to read the bible resulted in a need for education. He is also credited with increased literacy for the common man, the popularization of public schooling and the education of women. He translated the Bible into colloquial German so it could be understood by everyone. Gutenberg Bibles were available. Luther made the laity question the Church's authority by criticizing the churches power over the temporal sphere. He had long condemned vows of celibacy on Biblical grounds. Protestant Thought begins to form. The Pope did not speak for God. The Church and the Priesthood where not necessary for salvation. Luther held that salvation comes by faith alone. Gods Grace was given to all to sought it freely. iii.

Economic: For centuries preceding the Reformation, the Catholic Church would raise
money by selling indulgences and imposing tributes on all the nations of Catholic Christendom. This would result in much of the money and gold of Europe leaving nonPapal states and concentrating in Italy; impoverishing European states in the process. With the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church, Rome was unable to tax/levy England for money to finance its operations on the European continent. This resulted in money and gold being retained in England, much to the benefit of English merchants and other men of commerce; helping to expand and grow the English economy. Secondly, with separation came the transfer of control of much of English territory from the Catholic Church to the English monarchy. England, much like all of Western Europe, was still largely physiocratic and agrarian; most wealth was derived from the control and use of land. Prior to the Reformation, much of England's land was under the control of Rome; preventing the English from using it to improve their own wealth and prosperity. However, with the Reformation, most of this land was transferred to the English monarchy, allowing for the English to use English land for English interests.