A.

Word Formation Processes

The previous summary presented derivation as one process that allows us to introduce new words into a language. While derivation is generally assumed to be the most productive word formation process, there are several others.

I.

Borrowing

When a word is imported from another language we describe this process as borrowing. While German also has a large and increasing number of borrowings, especially from English, English itself is well-known for its mixed vocabulary and overall affinity for foreign words. ome words from !atin and Greek "e.g. strata street, episkopos bishop# were imported into a large number $ndo-European languages before English even existed, emphasi%ing that borrowing is in no way a novel process. & few examples that illustrate the mixed vocabulary of English' avalanche ( from )omansch via *rench bizarre ( from +as,ue via *rench candy ( from &rabic and possibly anskrit via *rench coffee ( from &rabic via Turkish and $talian ketchup ( from -alay via &moy .hinese schadenfreude ( from German *rench has contributed a very large portion of English loan words and often borrowed words take on different meanings due to competition with indigenous terms "cf. /ld English great with 0orse big and *rench large#.

II.

Back-formation

-any words came into English by this route' Pease was once a mass noun but was reinterpreted as a plural, leading to the back-formation pea. The noun statistic was likewise a backformation from the field of study statistics. $n +ritain, the verb burgle came into use in the 12th century as a back-formation from burglar "which can be compared to the 0orth &merican verb burglarize formed by suffixation#. ometimes speakers of a language will analy%e a word as containing affixes where none are present. +y removing these assumed affixes a lexeme can be back-formed. The examples' &d3ective 4couth4 from 4uncouth4 0oun Taxon a unit of classification in Taxonomy, derived from Greek "language# taxis "arrangement#5nomia 4distribution4 ingular 4sastruga4, plural 4sastrugi4 "from )ussian#' new !atin-type singular 4sastrugus4 has been used sometimes ingular 4syringe4, from plural 4syringes46 the original Greek singular form is syrinx 7erb 4edit4 from 4editor4 7erbs 4euthanase4 or 4euthani%e4 from the noun 4euthanasia4.

Even though many English words are formed this way, new coinages may sound strange, and are often used for humorous effect. *or example, gruntled "from disgruntled# would be considered a barbarism, and used only in humorous contexts, such as by 8.G. Wodehouse, who wrote 49e spoke with a certain what-is-it in his voice, and $ could see that, if not actually disgruntled, he was far from being gruntled4. The comedian George Gobel regularly used original back-formations in his humorous monologues. +ill +ryson mused that the English language would be richer if we could call a tidy-haired person shevelled ( as an opposite to dishevelled. $n the &merican sitcom crubs, the character Turk once said when replying to :r. .ox, 4$ don;t disdain you< $t;s ,uite the opposite ( $ dain you.4 9owever, though the foregoing examples illustrate a process of intentional back-formation, they illustrate the difficulty of avoiding collisions in definition when coining words by such processes. Gruntle and dain both are long-established words, and prefixing them with dis- does not invert the meaning of either6 gruntle actually is the etymological source of the formation of disgruntle, but it means to make a grunting noise, generally in the sense of complaining. Dain is simply a dialect contraction of disdain, without any difference in meaning, and in spite of claims to the contrary, neither dain nor deign was derived from the other. +ack-formations fre,uently begin in collo,uial use and only gradually become accepted. *or example, enthuse "from enthusiasm# is gaining popularity, though it is still considered substandard by some today. The immense celebrations in +ritain at the news of the relief of the iege of -afeking briefly created the verb to maffick, meaning to celebrate both extravagantly and publicly. 4-affick4 is a back-formation from Mafeking, a place-name that was treated humorously as a gerund or participle

III.

Onomatopoeia

The word ;onomatopoeia; comes from the combination of two Greek words, one meaning ;name; and the other meaning ;$ make,; so onomatopoeia literally means ;the name "or sound# $ make.; That is to say that the word means nothing more than the sound it makes. ;+oing,; for example, means nothing more than what it sounds like. $t is only a sound effect. -any onomatopoeic words have come to mean other things related to the sounds they make. ; lap,; for instance, not only means the sound that is made by skin hitting skin, but also the action of hitting someone "usually on the face# with an open hand. ;)ustle; is the sound of papers brushing together, but it also indicates the action of someone moving papers around and causing them to brush together, thus making this noise. &nd of course, ;twitter; is now much more than 3ust the sound birds make. /nomatopoeia is defined as a word, which imitates the natural sounds of a thing, which it describes. $t creates a sound effect that makes the thing described, making the idea more expressive and interesting. *or instance, saying, =The gushing stream flows in the forest> is describing more than saying, =The stream flows in the forest.> The reader seems to hear the sound of a =gushing stream> which makes the expression more effective. $n addition to the sound they represent, many onomatopoeic words have developed meanings of their own. *or example, =whisper> not only represents the sound of people talking slowly, but also describes the action of people talking slowly. )eviewing examples of onomatopoeia words and their various sound categories is an excellent way to learn to recogni%e and understand onomatopoeic words. !ook for the patterns that almost always exist, and if you ever have a ,uestion about what an onomatopoeic word means, 3ust ask yourself, ;What does it sound like?;

+elow are some common examples of onomatopoeic words' Common Examples of Onomatopoeia The bu%%ing bee flew away. The sack fell into the river with a splash. The books fell on the table with a loud thump. 9e looked at the roaring sky. The rustling leaves kept me awake.

The description of sound of animals also falls in the category of onomatopoeia. @ou will recogni%e the following sound easily' -eow -oo 0eigh Tweet /ink +aa ro!ps of Onomatopoeia words

/nomatopoeic words come in combinations as they reflect different sounds of a single ob3ect. *or example, a group of words reflecting different sounds of water are6 bloop, splash, gush, sprinkle, dri%%le, drip etc. imilarly, words like growl, giggle, grunt, murmur, blurt, chatter etc. denote different kinds of human voices. -oreover, we can identify a group of words related to different sounds of wind, such as6 swish, swoosh, whiff, whoosh, whi%%, whisper etc. /nomatopoeia is fre,uently employed in literature. +elow are a few examples of /nomatopoeia highlighted in bold letters' Examples of Onomatopoeia in "iterat!re Example 1' =The moan of doves in immemorial elms, &nd m!rm!ring of innumerable beesA> "B.ome :own, / -aidC by &lfred !ord Tennyson# Example D' =9ark, hark< Bow-wow. The watch-dogs bark< Bow-wow. 9ark, hark< $ hear The strain of strutting chanticleer .ry, Bcock-a-diddle-dow<C>

"&riel in William hakespeareCs The Tempest, &ct /ne, scene D# Example E' =9e saw nothing and heard nothing but he could feel his heart pounding and then he heard the clack on stone and the leaping, dropping clicks of a small rock falling.> " or !hom the "ell Tolls by Ernest 9emingway# Example F' =$t went #ip when it moved and $op when it stopped, &nd w%irr when it stood still. $ never knew 3ust what it was and $ guess $ never will.> "=The Marvelous Toy> by Tom 8axton# Example G' =$Cm getting married in the morning< &ing dong< the bells are gonna chime.> "=Get -e to the .hurch on Time,> by !erner and !oewe# We notice in the above examples the use of onomatopoeia gives rhythm to the texts. $n addition, it makes the description more lively and interesting, appealing directly to the senses of the reader. Onomatopoeia Poems 8oets are charged with creating works that are highly evocative. They use images that demonstrate emotions and ideas, either literally or metaphorically. .reative language is one of the tools that the best poets employ to get a point across. .onsonance, alliteration and rhyme are often discussed, but among the most evocative choices in poetry is the use of onomatop. Word '%at (imic /nomatopoeia is a fancy term for a word that mimics a sound. *or example' #"uzz$ splish-splash$ flitter-t%itters$ hushes$ cuckoo$ ring-ring$ achoo$ bang$ fizz$ hiss$ ticktock$ click$ &uacked$ tap$ zip$ beep$ boink$ slurp$ boom$ vroom$ %hinny$ sizzle$ %hisper' /nomatopoeia is often used by poets because it allows the reader to visuali%e the scene that they are setting up by creating a multi-sensory experience, all in words. Onomatopoeia and P%anopoeia /nomatopoeia in its more complicated use takes the form of phanopoeia. 8hanopoeia is a form of onomatopoeia that describes the sense of things rather than their natural sounds. :.9 !awrence in his poem = nake> illustrates the use of this form' =9e reached down from a fissure in the earth-wall in the gloom &nd trailed his yellow-brown slackness soft-bellied down, over the edge of the stone trough

&nd rested his throat upon the stone bottom, &nd where the water had dripped from the tap, in a small clearness 9e sipped with his straight mouth,A> The rhythm and l length of the above lines along with the use of =hissing> sounds create a picture of a snake in the minds of the readers. F!nction of Onomatopoeia Generally, words are used to tell what is happening. /nomatopoeia, on the other hand, helps the readers to hear the sounds the words reflect. 9ence, the reader cannot help enter the world created by the poet with the aid of these words. The beauty of onomatopoeic words lies in the fact that they are bound to have an effect on the readersC senses whether they are understood or not. -oreover, a simple plain expression does not have that emphatic effect that conveys an idea powerfully to the readers. The use of onomatopoeic words creates the effect of emphasis. http'HHliterarydevices.netHonomatopoeiaH http'HHexamples.yourdictionary.comHG-examples-of-onomatopoeia.html http'HHexamples.yourdictionary.comHexamples-onomatopoeia-poems.html http'HHintroling.ynada.comHcategoryHmorphology http'HHen.wikipedia.orgHwikiH+ack-formation