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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT

V o l u m e II

Abul Hasan All Nadwi

Edited and Translated by

(Late) Muhiuddin Ahmad

Academ y of

Islamic Research a n d P u b l i c a t i o n s
Lucknow (India)

All righ t reserved in fa v o u r o f ;

> ' . , A cadem y o f " , > '

; i j ? .

Isla m ic R esearch and P u blication s

P. O. Bos 119, Tagore M it| , Nadwa, Lucknow (India)

Series No. g 7

English

: 3rd Edition 1997

P rice Rs. 90.00

Printed at the Lucknow Publishing House 3 7, Cantonment Road, Lucknow - 226001 (INDIA)

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F O R E W O R D

I a m glad to present the second volume o f the Saviours o f Islam ic Spirit before the readers. T h e first volum e o f th e book covered the revivalist endeavours m ade during th e first six centuries o f the Islam ic era, from C aliph U m a r ibn A bdul Aziz to M au la n a J a la l u d -dln R um i. In this voiume the biographical accounts, thoughts and achievem ents o f three lum inaries o f the eighth century after H ijrah a re sought to be presented. In the U rd u version o f this book, the second volum e had to be exclusively devoted to Sheikh-ul-Islam Ib n T aim iyah because his splendid achievem ents in the intellectual and religious fields w ere quite extensive and varied. It is not a t al) extravagant to see the reverberating influence o f Ibn T aim iyah s thought in the generations succeeding him . O f late, the m ore intelligent and educated section o f th e M uslim s has shown even g reater interest in the works an d researches o f Ibn T aim iyah. H ow ever, I considered it appropriate to include in the present volum e the accounts o f tw o m ore personalities, dealt with in th e th ird p a rt o f its U rd u version, since all the th ree belong to th e eighth century. T hese lum inaries o f Islam Sheikh-ul-Islam H afiz Ib n T aim iy ah , Sultan-ul-A ulia K hw aja N izam ud-dln A ulla a n d M akhdOm -ul-M ulk Sheikh S h a ra f udd ln Y ahya M an eridiffer n o t only in tim e and space b u t also in th e ir tem peram ents, efforts an d ach iev em ents; yet, one would see a significant sim ilarity o f com m on ideal for w hich they all worked throughout th e ir lives. .A ll o f them fought against

intern al deterio ratio n caused by ignorance o f the masses, pro tested against external encroachm ents o f alien thought and customs an d called a h alt to th e decadence o f M uslim society by sum m oning it back to the original purity and o rd e r o f Islam . T h eir techniques differed according to th e ir circum stances and needs o f the tim e, but they all tried to re-create the true bonds o f relationship betw een the believer and the Suprem e Being. It has to be borne in m ind, in this context, th a t by the m iddle o f the eighth century the centre1o f Islam ic religious and intellectual activities had shifted itself to In d ia where a pow er ful M uslim pow er h ad been firm ly established. Sim ultaneously, th e ravages o f th e M ongols h ad destroyed all traces o f culture and civilization from T urk istan and Persia, in the east, to Syria and borders o f Egypt, in the west, and extinquished the lam p o f A bbasid C aliphate for ever. F or several hundred years to com e, In d ia h ad to assume the educational and intellectual and an d religious an d spiritual leadership o f the w orld o f Islam . A h isto rian has thus inevitably to tu rn his attention to this new centre o f Islam . It is for this reason th at a portion o f this volume and one or two subsequent volumes, whenever they are w ritten, w ould have to be devoted to the revivalist m ovem ent in this country. T h e re a d e r will find in this volume a new religious dim ension o f Islam revealed by M akhdum Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln Y ahya M an eri. T his is the inner and esoteric dim ension o f Islam , w ith its own peculiar concepts, im ageries and m odes o f expression, experienced in a new environm ent and set forth not in A rabic but in Persian, w hich hsid by then become the cultural lingua-franca o f T urk istan , Persia a n d India. M ohi ud-din A hm ad m ust have found it difficult to re n d er this portion in English, but, as fr.r as I have been able to see, he has acquitted him self well o f this onerous task. T h e d iffic u ltn ature of. his undertaking will be realised by those who have had to describe essentially eastern religious experiences in a foreign language like English.

W ith this b rie f prologue, I place this volum e in the hands

of my readers. I hope th a t they w ould welcome it as enthu

siastically as they h a d received th e earlier p a rt o f the book. Lucknow, Shawwal 14, 1334 O ctober 31, 1974

Abul H asan A ll N adw l

.

TRANSLITERATION

T h e dashes to m ark th e long vowels : a as. in f a r ; 0 as in loose : l as in m ean have been retained, leaving other conven tional signs. T w o m ore signs c and 5 representing the A rabic T h e sounds o f K and

ain an d hamza have also been retained.

dj used in th e Encyclopaedia o f Islam have been replaced by q and j respectively, w hich are now in com m on use. W here the

tw o consonants ch, dh, gh, kh, sh, and th have been used, these are to be sounded together, as, for exam ple, ch in church, sh in ship an d th in thin k . T h e sound o f gh resembles gz as in

ex act, th a t o f kh is like ch in Scottish loch o r the G erm an ach an d dh gives the sound th in fath er. W herever the two

consonants a re desired to give th e ir own sounds separately, an apostrophe has been inserted in betw een as, for exam ple, in Ad'ham, Ishaq, etc. H ow ever, w here any proper noun is in com m on use in English o r its pronunciation is generally known to the Englishspeaking people no signs have been used.

CONTENTS
Pagts

Sheikh-ul-Islam H afiz Ibn T aim iyah

I. M uslim W o rld in the Seventh C entury II. III. IV . V. V I. E arly Life T ria ls a n d T ribulations C h aracter an d Achievem ents R eform ative E ndeavour C riticism o f Philosophy an d Dialectics R efutation o f C hristianity an d Shicaism ... R ejuvenation o f R eligious T hought in Islam ... 3 19 26 61 73 93 117 138

V II. V III.

2.

Sultan-ul-M ashaikh K hw aja N izam ud-din Aulia

I. II. II I. IV . V. V I. V II. T h e C hishtiyah O rd e r in In d ia Life Sketch o f K hw aja N izam ud-d ln A ulia C h aracter an d Achievements N a tu ra l Affection L earn in g an d Spirituality Blessings an d Benignity R eligious an d M o ral R evival 147 166 202 211 220 228 238

3. M akhdum -ul-M ulk Sheikh S h arf ud-din Yahya

M aneri
I. II . III. F rom B irth to A dulthood T h e F irdausiyah O rd e r Life o f Self-Discipline ... ... ... 257 262 268

v iii

Pages IV . V. V I. V II. V III. IX . X. C h aracter an d D eportm ent O n the D eathbed M ak h d u m s Letters G od, the Absolute R eality D ignity o f M an Intuitive Insight Defence o f F aith Bibliography Chronological T able Glossary Ind ex ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 275 288 296 303 314 323 331 342 350 357 369

SHEIKH-UL-ISLAM

HAFIZ

IBN

TAIMIYAH

Sheikh-ul-Islam

H A F IZ IBN T A I M I Y A H

I Muslim World in the Seventh Century

M aulana J a la l ud-dln R G m ih a d sought to refute the exces sive rationalism o f th e dialecticians which was perm eated with the spirit o f G reek Philosophy and excessive form alism . ROml was, in fact, founder o f a neiv school o f scholasticism w hich was based on a g reater sense o f realism an d profundity o f thought than its earlier counterpart, dialectics, th e dom inant feature o f which was em ploym ent o f cold logical argum entation. ^ R u m is thought was grounded in the personal experiences o f a sublim ated soul, a purified h eart and an illum inated self. H e w as not simply an erudite scholar Of religion a n d a teacher o f dialectics, but was also blessed w ith a keen intellect and an enlightened heart. ; H e was disgusted by syllogism an d vain disputation o f the dialectics, when he was led by a G od-m oved soul, through prayer and penance an d the grace o f G od, to the lofty heights o f the certitude o f know ledge. H e soon realised th a t dialectics was m ore o f an exercise in speeious reasoning, an a rt o f con founding ones ad v ersary thari propounding the tru th . He* tfaere^ fore, adopted an o th er m ethod d f expounding the m ysteries o f m ute reality1and m etaphysical truths w hich reposed trust in the

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT

intuitive experience, intim ate and personal, for th a t could be felt deeply in the core o f ones heart. But, som ething m ore was needed to com bat the evil effects o f philosophy and dialectics. Theological philosophy, too, delved into the secrets o f im perceptible realities and freely discussed the n a tu re an d attributes o f th e Suprem e Being. Islam h ad not left m an groping in the gloom o f uncertainty in so far as the postu lates o f faith a re concerned ; instead, it h,ad expounded these m atters in a m uch m ore lucid an d easy m anner intelligible to all and sundry. For every ethical theory shaping the behaviour of an individual o r the culture o f a society m ust be rooted in the philosophical conception o f the** relationship between m an and U ltim ate R eality; it had o f necessity to be set forth by Islam quite clearly so th a t no further speculative effort was needed in th at direqtioft. T h e prophets aiene, declared Islam , w ere the fount o f know ledge in regard to the realities beyond the ken of h u m an perception an d the unverifiable, incom prehensible U lti m ate Being ; an d , therefore, th eir teachings constituted the last w ord on a subject w hich could not be adequately com prehended by m a n s intellect. T h e philosophy had, for th at reason, no rig h t, nO locus standi, to in tru d e in a m atter o f which it did not possess even rudim en tary know ledgethe basic premises from w hich it could infer th e logical conclusions d raw n by it. But th e questions which philosophy sought to discuss did not simply ad m it any analysis o r speculation, nor were the philosophers capable o f u ndertaking the ta sk ; but, curiously enough, philo sophy considered it pru d en t to m eddle w ith them , trying to explain an d elucidate an d even to bring in its verdict on them . T h e constant aim o f its endeavour was to trace every question dow n to its source a n d discover th e general principles underlying every m etaphysical phenom enon as i f it w ere a n organic m atter capable o f being analysed in a lab o ratory. D ialectics cam e into existence to answ er the questions raised by philosophy. But, it soon absorbed the spirit o f its adversary a n d itself tu rn ed in to a theological philosophy, discussing those very questions, em ploying the sam e claim o f reasoning and

MUSLIM W ORLD IN T H E SEVENTH CENTURY

trying, like philosophy, to ascertain the n ature and attributes o f ihc D ivine Being through the speculative categories o f reasoning. Ill fine, dialectics, too, turned a d eaf ear to the teachings o f the
prophets o f G od, and, placing reliance on lim ited hum an intellect, tried to explain the inexplicable in term s o f Greek m etaphysical terminology borrow ed from philosophy. All this vain effort resulted in com plication an d concealm ent o f the tru th behind a veil o f words and phrases although th e n a tu re an d attributes o f Divinity could have been explained in a sim ple, d irect and intel ligible m anner to the satisfaction o f all m inds, an d capable o f nkindling everyones heart. T he task could have indeed been accomplished in the light o f th e Q u ran an d the Sunnah, but the dialecticians preferred to compile volum inous treatises on philo sophic interpretation o f the simple tenets o f faith which betrayed how far it was influenced by (jreek thought even though it claimed to refute the latter. T his was a developm ent opposed 10 the spirit o f th e teachings o f th e Q u r an and the T raditions, and, accordingly, a sizable section o f the M uslims never agreed with the views put forth by the dialecticians. Still, a savant o f religious sciences with a penetrating intellect, extensive know ledge and firm conviction in the revealed tru th was needed at that tim e for expounding the Creed and its doctrines in a faithful yet convincing m anner. Islam was, at th a t tim e, confronted w ith several o th e r internal and ex tern al dangers. A new evangelical m ovem ent was taking shape am ongst the C hristians which sought to censure Islam and set up C hristianity as the only saving principle for humanity. T he incessant attacks by th e C rusaders on Palestine along with the presence o f a large num ber o f C hristians o f European origin in Syria and Cyprus h ad em boldened them to criticize the prophethood of'M nham m 'a'd, to compose works on the truthfulness o f C hristianity and to invite the M uslim s to debate and argum entation. A nother danger, ra th e r mOre severe and hurtful to Islam was th a t posed by a so-called M uslim sect known as B atinites. It had a peculiar creed interw oven from the texture o f

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

M agian dogm a, Platonic concepts an d dangerous political am bi tions, an d its followers like I sinaHites, Assassins, Druzes and N usayris w ere always too willing to help the enemies o f the M uslims. N ot unoften were foreign aggressions the result o f conspiracies hatched by the Batiniles. They sided with the crusaders w hen the latter attacked Syria and Palestine and were aw ard ed with offices o f dignity and confidence when the Chris tians established themselves in Syria. T hroughout the reign of Zengi an d Ayyubid dynasties the Batitiitcs continued to conspire against the then M uslim sovereigns an d , when the T a rta r hordes invaded the M uslim lands, they joined hands w ith them to make com m on cause against Islam. Besides this, by posing themselves as a sect o f the M uslims, they could easily sow the, seeds o f intel lectual dissension and spread irreligiousness an d apostasy among the sim ple-m inded folk. In order, therefore, to w arn the M uslim s from being fu rth er duped by the B&tinites and also to punish them for the abom inable crim es already com m itted by them , it was necessary to expose their nefarious activities and blasphem ous beliefs. , A part from these, free intercourse w ith non-M uslims, certain external influences and the indolence o f the then doctors o f reli gion had all com bined to introduce am ong M uslims certain impious ideas running counter to the concept o f U nity and over lordship o f G od, A lm ighty Like the Jews and Christians, the M uslim s h ad begun to glorify .their saints and elevated souls as those nearer; to God exercising some o f the D ivine functions. Acting on the pagan principleWe worship them only th at they m ay bring us near unto A llah even the educated saw no h arm in supplicating to the departed souls and m artyrs o r resorted to practices w orshipful in m anners and gestures even though the Prophet o f h a d strictly forbiddfen his followers to indulge in such practices. 'T h e careless and unguarded believe*' often yielded to the tem ptation o f participating in feasts and festivals of the non-M uslim zimmis and adopted their m anners and customs
1. Q.. XIXX : 3

MUSLIM W ORI.D IN T H E SEVENTH C E N T lRY

which wore the appearance o f harm less pleasure o r innocent entertainm ent. The polytheistic. beliefs and customs o f th<; nonMuslims being closely interwoven with eveiy circum stance of their private and public life, the ujitutoied m inds of the Muslim laity were artfully led to w ithdraw their adoration from the C reator to the abom inable associates o f divinity. In order to warn the Muslims against these impious ideas and practices which were destructive o f the religious value o f orthodox Islam , it was necessary to start a reform ative m ovem ent which could m aintain the purity o f faith by uprooting irreligious rituals and practices. O n the other side, certain indiscreet schools o f mysticism in Islam had, for reasons intellectual as well as those p e rtain in g to their developm ent, absorbed neo-Platonic and H indu doctrine o f initiation in divine mysteries. These m ystical-ascetic attitudes had been so m ixed up with the Islamic beliefs and doctrines that it had become difficult to distinguish one from the1other. The popular thought o f the M uslim mystics showed visible traces of neo-Plantonic gnosticism and H indu pantheism , in car nation and union, cult o f esoteric m eanings and hidden realities and autinom ian practices. Although some o f the em inent leaders o f mystic thought had vehem ently protested against these doctrines, still, a large p a rt o f the sfifls insisted on them and quite a few o f them even resorted to wonder-working and magic spells. A m isguided sect o f the R a fa ciyah mystic order, which was quite p o p u lar,in the seventh and the eighth century of the Islam ic era, had taken to divination, charm s and w onder working as a spiritual instrum ent. Thus, the siifls, with their tremendous influence oil, the uneducated masses, were spreading ideas completely divorced from the Q u r gnic system o f thc ight. In the intellectual circles, too, rigidity an d stagnation had overtaken the theologians who considered it a grievous sin to deviate from the corpus o f.tbeir own ju ristic schools. In th e ir disputes: over theological differences, they tried to in terp re t the canon in accordance with th e ir own cherished views instead o f subordinating th eir interpretations to the supremacy o f the

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT

Q u r an and the Sunnah. T h e doors o f legislative process w hich im p arts dynam ism to the legal system had almost been closed. T h e dem ands of the changing social problem s required study o f th e entire corpus o f legal doctrines o f th e earlier legists and thinkers, an insight into the teachings o f the Q u r, 5n and Sunnah, academ ic research and intellectual effort in the light o f accepted ju ristical norms b u t the rigidity o f approach on the p art o f the then theologians had so num bed th eir intellectual capabilities th a t nobody d ared to re-interpret the Law for keeping it abreast o f th e changing conditions. T h e legal system o f Islam had thus lost its originality and dynam ism , thanks to the erroneous view th at nothing could now be ad d ed to the corpus juris o f the Shari1ah already form ulated by the earlier teachers. T hese w ere, broadly, the disruptive forces w hich had to be counteracted by a systematic effort before any movement o f Islam ic renaissance could be started. In its conflict with tlie speculative reasoning applied by the dialecticians, Islam req u ired a doctor o f religion deeply versed in all the categories o f philosophy an d dialectics, th eir points o f difference and th eir grow th and developm ent. F or the polem ical disputes raised by the Christians, a m an o f vast learning fully acquainted with C hristianity as well as other religions, especially their original scriptures an d the am endm ents and interpolations to which these h a d been subjected from tim e to tim e, was needed who could u ndertake a com parative study o f the different religions. S im ilarly, the Batinite heresy could be com bated only by a m an who was fully conversant w ith the beliefs and dogm as o f all the Batinite sects. T h e reform needed for eradication o f external influences, rites and customs and such o ther un-Islam ic practices as suint-worship req u ired a doctor o f faith not only anim ated by zeal for Islam an d abhorrence o f polytheistic cults but also cap able o f distinguishing clearly Islam from up-lslam and discern ing even the faint traces o f the pagan past. H e had had to learn the lesson o f unalloyed Tnwhid directly from the Q u r an and the Sunnah, an d follow in the foot-steps o f the companions of the holy Prophet rejecting all those prevalent practices o f hi'-

MUSLIM W O RLD IN T H E SEVENTH CENTURV

time which cut across the true concept o f the Oneness o f G o d . The revitalisation o f the intellectual effort req u ited a m aste r m inda theologian, a T raditionist a n d a legist, all com bined into onea m an who h ad m astered the entire theological lite ra ture, had such a com m and over the Q u r3an an d the T ra d itio n s th at anything not acceptable to him could easily be rejected- as untrustw orthy; was deeply-versed in the lexicography, g ra m m a r and usage o f the A rabic lan g u ag e; had an encyclopaedic know ledge o f all the ju ristic schools ; h a d a developed sense 0 f interpreting the rules o f the Sharicah and draw ing analogical inferences from the teachings an d practices o f the e arlie? m a ste rs; an d , lastly, he had to have been endowed with an incisive intellect and prodigious retentive m em ory like the T raditionists o f the earlier times bearing testimony to w hat was thus predicted by the Prophet o f Islam : T h e parable o f m y people is th a t o f rain : nobody knows w hether its beginning is better o r its last. 1 Thus the m an o f the hour was to have not only m astered all the religious and secular sciences but he was also to possess all the ennobling qualities o f m ind and heart, a penetrating intellect, logical thinking, m ental graspV b readth o f vision and encyclopaedic knowledge so th at he could be held in the highest esteem as an illustrious scholar and m aster by his contem pora ries. H e h a d also to be a m an o f spirits so th a t he could will ingly put his life a t stake for w hat he deem ed to be right. If, on the one h an d , religious and political opponents o f BStinites were being elim inated by terrorism and ttiurder, any effort to oppose the popular M fi orders was, on the other, likely to earn the displeasure o f the masses as s well as the ruling elite. Sim ilarly, th e slightest deviation from the views held by earlier legists was sure to be condem ned as impious and irreligious invit ing severe condem nation by the thendoc.tors o f religion. Thus, the m an aim ing a t the reconstruction o f the religious life and thought o f the then M uslim society h ad to have th e courage to
1. Tirmizi on the authority of Anas ibn Malik

10

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

set his face against the then governm ents and the chiefs o f State, the m isguided t ulama and the popular opinion o f the time, and be willing to fight relentlessly on all fronts for the restoration o f the tru e faith. Such was the m an needed by the world o f Islam in the eighth century after H ijrah, an d it d id find him in the person o f Sheikh-ul-Islam Ib n T aim iyah, who, by his singlem inded devotion and idealism yoked w ith a strong practical sense, erudite scholarship and dauntless courage rescued the w orld o f Islam from th e ru t o f intellectual lethargy an d dem ora lisation.

P olitical and Social C onditions

F or a proper assessment o f the achievements o f Ibn T aim iyah it is necessary to touch upon the complex o f political, social, religious and intellectual atm osphere o f the tim e within w hich Ib n T aim iyah h ad to struggle for repovatioa o f Islamic thought and social life. It was, indeed, a critical period o f Islam ic history, beset by fast m oving events. Five years h ad elapsed since the sack o f B aghdad and three years after the capture o f H aleb (Aleppo) and Dam ascus by the Mongols, when Ib n T aim iyah w as born. As a child he must have heard the stories o f cruelty and barbarism o f the T a rta r hordes invading the M uslim lands. W hen he was seven years o f age, his home town o f H erran , situate in the north of M ongol occupied territory o f Ira q , falling between the rivers o f Euph rates an d T igris, was invaded by th e T artar?. Like num erous oth er people belonging to th a t town his ow n fam ily m oved on tow ards D am ascus to seek a place o f safety. Everywhere he saw people terror-stricken, appalled an d panicky, running away for th eir life in utter confusion an d disorder. L ater on, he could never forget th e stupefied people scared to d eath by the b rutality o f the T a rta r legioijts. Ib n T aim iyah would have also seen th e destruction w rought by the b arbariaii T a rta r legions an d h eard o f jthe innum erable stories o f terrifying cruelty per p etrated by them w hich m ust have raised a storm o f hatred in his bosom against the b ru tal invaders an d aroused the feelings

MUSLIM WORLD IN T H E SEVENTH CENTURY

o f sympathy and compassion for the unfortunate, victims of unprecedented tyranny. At the same tim e, he must have also heard o f th e brilliant victory won by Al-M alik al-Z ah ir Baibers only three years be fore his b irth a t Ain Ja lu t. I t m ight have im parted to his agitated heart,, as to m any others o f his tim e, a sense o f satisfac tion and reassuring confidence in the sw ord-arm o f Islam .

T he M exnlaks o f Egypt
About twelve years before Ib n T aim iyah was born, the Memluks had taken -over the adm inistration o f Egypt and Syria. T he M emluks, who w ere also known as Bahriyah,1 w ere the T urk slaves o f the last Ayyubid Sultan Al-M alik Al-Saleh Ayytib (d. 647 A .H .). O ne o f these MemlQks, Izz ud-din Aibeck alT urkm an l had ascended the th ro n e u n d er the title o f Al-M alik al-M ucIz in 647 A .H . after putting to sword T u ran Shah, the descendent o f Al-M alik al-SiUete. H e was succeeded by his son N ur ud-d ln c All w hen he was killed in 65'5 A .H . NQr ud-dln *Ali was overthrow n by S a if ud-d ln K atz; once th e Prim e M inister o f 1Izz ud-d ln Aibeck in 657 A .H . H e was the first M emluk Sultan who gave a crushing defeat to the T artars. However, only a y ear after Saif ud*dln K atz donned the purple, he was slain by R ukn ud-dln Baibers, who was also a slave o f Al-M alik al-Saleh N ajm ud*din Ayytib. Baibers ascended the throne w ith the title o f Al-M alik al-Z ah ir and ru le d over Egypt for eighteen years. H e won splendid victories over the invading crusaders and T a rta rs. . W hen Ibn T aim iyah was born, Egypt and Syria were ruled by Al-M alik al-Z ah ir Baibers an d when th e la tte r died, Ibn T aim iyah was fifteen years o f age. Baibers was the first M uslim sovereign who consolidated his forces to give m any a crushing defeat to the enemies o f Islam . Ib n K a th ir w rites o f him in

1.

Meaning the sea-man, they had derived this name from Bohr or sea, ai river Nile is called. Memluks had their settlements by the side of river Nile.

12

SAVIOURS OF IS&AMIC SPIR IT

Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah : C apable, courageous and brave, Baibers was always alive to th e dangerous designs o f bis enemies and ready to m eet the th re a t from any q u arter. H e endeavoured to strengthen th e disorganised M uslim power. Raised by Providence to reorganise an d strengthen the dejected and decim ated M uslim forces, he was, in truth, like a thorn in the flesh o f T a rta rs an d C rusaders. H e put a ban on the sale o f wine and expelled the hardened crim inals from his dom inions. H e could never take rest until the wickedness o r w iong brought to his notice was set rig h t. 1 Baibers held sway over the territories extending from the river Euphrates in the East to the farthest lim its o f Sudan in the South, w ith Egypt as its centre and C airo as its C apital. The large num ber o f educational institutions established by Baibers and the presence o f the A bbasid C aliph A l-M ustansir b llla h in Egypt h a d attracted m any renow ned doctors o f religion to C airo which h ad thus become the nerve-centre o f political, intellectual an d cultural activities in the East. Baibers was anim ated by a genuine feeling o f love for Islam an d fighting in the way o f G od, but he was arrogant and high handed also as the autocrat sovereigns generally are. T h e an nalists o f his tim e have listed num erous acts o f his haughty and despotic behaviour along w ith the b rillian t victories won by him . O ne o f these incidents relates to his reg rettable m isbehaviour w ith Im am Nawavl.* T he kingdom o f Egypt and Syria ruled for eighteen long years by Baibers so quickly changed hands a fte r his death th at ninfe sultans ascended the throne w ithin 33 years between 676 A.H . to 709 A.H. D uring this period only one ru ler o f grit and ability presided over this Islam ic K ingdom . H e was A l-M alik al-M ansur S aif ud-dln Q alaw oon who inflicted a crushing defeat on the T a rta rs in 678 A .H . an d liberated Tripolis from t.:e
1. Ibn K athir, Vol. X III, p. 276 2. Tabaqat-us-Shaftfiyah, Vol. V, p. 168

MUSLIM W ORLD IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY

13

crtifaders after 185 years o f C hristian dom ination over the city. H e donned the Im perial purple for twelve years from 678 A.H. to 689 A .H . but after his death the kingdom again fell to the lot o f incom petent rulers. At last MansUr Q alaw oons son AlM alik al-N asir M uham m ad ibn Q alaw oon wielded the sceptre o f authority for the th ird tim e in 709 A.H. and ruled over the kingdom for the next thirty-tw o years. M uham m ad ibn Q ala woon was the contem porary sovereign during whose rule Ibn T aim iyah held aloft the ban n er o f reform and renovation. Blessed with several qualities o f m ind an d heart like Baibers and his own father M ansur Q alaw oon, he becam e a source o f unity and strength to his kingdom . H e too, like his predecessors, dealt smashing defeats upon the T artars. D uring the whole o f this period, Ira q , Ira n an d K hurasan continued to sm other u n d er the despotic contrpl o f the T artars. Baghdad was not restored to the Muslims until its T a rta r ruler em braced Islam . T h e A bbasid Caliph o f Egypt him self led an expedition against Ira q and Baibers foo m ade several attem pts to regain Ira q , but none p f these efforts proved successful. Memluks, however, held the reign o f governm ent over Egypt, Sudan, Syria and Hejaz.

System o f G overnm ent

T h e State religion o f th e M em luk sultanate was Islam ; th e kings and the nobles believed in a n d ad o red Islam ; fought for its defence ; ecclesiastical dignitaries like Q azls and Sheikh-ulIslams w ere regularly appointed by the State the Shan1ah was enforced as th e law o f the la n d ; educational institutions, free from State control, im parted religious instruction ; but, despite all these the sultans w ere th e pivot o f jk>litico-militai*y structure o f governm ent. A ll decisions ultim ately rested with the K ing and his counsellors, w hich, sometimes, even lim ited the opera tion o f th e Sharjah laws, In its structure and (organisation, it was a m ilitary oligrachy w ithout any constitution, a codified law or a consultative body. ; A l-M alik al-Z ah ir Baibers an d other M em luk sultans,

14

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

undoubtedly, Always tried to obtain the support o f the religions leaders and if the culama ever strongly opposed any m easure of the governm ent, it was postponed or given up. W hen Im am N aw avl strongly condem ned the royal edict to confiscate all the fiefs o f landlords in Egypt and Syria, Baibers expressed his dis pleasure w ith the Im am and farced him to leave D amascus, but he could n o t enforce his decision arid the status quo was m ain tain ed . T he entire adm inistrative organ rested on the heredi tary system but it Was often disrupted by a powerful m ilitary general. In fine, it was not founded on the Islam ic principles o f polity. A system o f governm ent congenial to Islamic thought a n d spirit req u ired the head o f the State to be a capable ruler enjoying the confidence o f the com m unity: Meriiltik sultanate, ju st the other way, owed its existence solely to the personal grit an d am bition o f th e rulers. T he M em luk traditions o f Absolute m onarchy, pow erful aristocracy and increasing concentration o f m ilitary pow er enabled the am bitions m ilitary leaders to wrest pow er w henever such an opportunity arose. T he slaves of AyyQbid dynasty took over th e em pire from th eir m asters, thanks chiefly to th eir own effort; courage and prowess. A lthough every M em luk sultan tried to ensure th a t one o f his sons wielded th e sceptre after him , the M em luk tradition re-asserted itself tim e and again, an d w henever an opportunity was afforded, a valian t and zestful general replaced the rightful prince. This, natu rally , encouraged internal conflict and civil w ar to get hold o f the reigns Of governm ent, but the M em luks always united to face any th reat o f aggression from the T a r ta r or the C rusaders qu arters. :

M oral and Social con d ition s

T h e riding class o f the 'I tirkomari tribes was conscious o f its superiority an d kept itself ^lo o f from the local populatlori. I t spoke T urkish dialects and used A rabic only for offering pray ers o r conversing w ith the religious leaders and th e local popu latio n . M ost o f them , however, knew A rabic barely sufficient to perform the obligatory religious duties. N evertheless, they

MUSLIM WORLD IN T H E SEVENTH CENTURY

15

respected the doctors o f faith, the pious and the elect, constructed mosques and madrasns and did not discrim inate against anyone O H grounds, o f race or language. Still, the higher civil and military assignments w ent to the T urkom an elite. Sim ilarly, most o f the grandees, noblemen an d landlords holding fiefs in lieu o f m ilitary fcervi'cip w ere T urkom ans who m ade economic gains a t the expense o f the cultivators and labourers; An effort m ade by H osam ud-dln L ajeen in 697 A .H . to redistribute the agricultural holdings for im proving th e economic conditions of the tillers o f the soil proved abortive as the T urkom an chiefs opposing the m easure Tose in .ev o lt against him. Another influential section o f the u rb an population in Syria and Egypt consisted o f the T a rta r prisoners o f w ar who had settled, in large num bers, in these lands. These countries were full o f them , as al-M aqrizt reports, during the reign o f A l'M alik al-Zahir Baibers and their m anners and customs h ad percolated into the local population. T hey em braced Islam , no doubt, but, they also continued to adhere to th e ir national characteristics, habits and customs. T here were really only a few examples of the new converts to Islam adopting the ethical and social ideals of thei r new faith m arking a- total break w ith th eir past cultural traditions, m anners and morals. I t was a distinctive charac teristic of the Prophets companions alone, who, as if transform ed by a Prophetic m iracle, eschewed all traces o f the conflict between th eir adopted faith and th e pagan past. T hey appeared, in tru th , to have been reborn in Islam . T his could not have been expected o f the converts o f a later age when there was neither any arran g em en t for th eir guidance and training in the Islam ic ws y o f life n o r was the M uslim society dynam ic enough to absorb an d re-fashion the new entrants into its fold. The social life o f these T a rta r neo-M uslims was, for these reasons, an adm ixture o f Islam ic outlook and pagan traditions. T h e famous historian o f Egypt, al-M aqrizl, who has sum m ed up all th at he found floating dow n the stream o f tim e describes the social and religious behaviour o f these new converts to Islam in these words : T hese T a rta rs h ad learnt, in the M uslim countries, to

16

SAVIOURS OE ISLAMIC SPIR IT

read the Q u r an and adhered to religious canons and observances but their life was an am algam o f vices and virtues. They subjected themselves to the decisions of the C hief QazS in m atters relating to p rayer, fasting, poor-due, Haj, charitable endowments, adm inistration o f the property o f orphans and the disputes between the espouses but in their personal m atters, habits an d behaviour, they followed the Mongol traditions and the laws prom ulgated by Chenghiz K h an , They had appointed an adm inistrator known as Hajib to adjudicate upon m atters falling in the sphere of their custom ary law, to restore justice to the weak amongst them and to impose sanctions against the bully and strong. Disputes betw een the T a rta r traders in com m ercial m atters as well a s those relating to property and land holdings were also decided in accordance with th eirow n traditional laws. 1 The> increasing tendency o f the local population to adopt the T a rta r usages even to the extent of accepting some o f the inapt ideas was outcome o f free interm ixing:of the T a rta r and the Arab M uslims. A parallel example o f the interchange o f ideas culmi nating into a m utual absorption o f each other's cultural strains and thought patterns can be seen in the contact between Europe and Asia w hich first began in the battle-fields during the Crusades. T he free interm ixing o f different nationalities had thus given b irth to a new society, neither A rab nor Islam ic in its m ake up, which had brought to the fore new social and cultural problems. T his h ad, naturally, increased m anifold the responsibility of those religious doctors a n d reform ers who abhorred un-Islam ic beliefs an d practices adopted by tlie M uslims. T hey wanted to bring the M uslim society back to the p ath chalked out by the Q u ran and the Sunn.iha path treaded by the earlier preceptors in com pliance w ith the D ivine C om m and : E nter wholly into submission (unto H im ).2 ,
1. 2. Khutat-i-Misr, Vol. II, p. 221 Q.. I I : 20fi

MUILIM W O RLD IN T H E SEVENTH CENTURY

17

Jptellectual A tm osphere
Barring a few exceptions we find in the century preceding Ibn T aim iyah w idespread educational efforts and plentiful writ-lings on num erous subjects. Bui, by and, large, most o f the litera4ure produced d u rin g , this period lacks depth o f thought and profundity and can be classified as elucidations an d interpretations o f the earlier works, T h is lack o f originality was an outcom e of the stratification o f ju ristic schools w hich, content to rem ain within th e inviolable bounds o f th eir own m aking, rejected the ItAst deviation from th e teachings o f th e ir m asters. In principle, fell the four ju ristic schools o f orthodox Islam w ere deem ed to be right, but the votaries o f cach r egarded the in terpretation o f their own school as the only faithful version o f the D ivine ord i nances. T h e only consideration they could show to others was to concede th at the exposition o f th e Law by th e ir own fmg&i though largely correct m ight contain a few mistakes, but th a t o f the Others were likely to be correct only on a few points but w ere much m ore faulty. T he followers o f every-juristic school, th e n , considered th eir Own sect to be rightly guided, correct and God o rdained w hile the chief effort o f th e ir learned theologians, had been diverted to wards producing argum ents proving th e pre-em inence o f the precursors of th eir ow n ju ristic schools over all others. T h e psychology o f the then doctors o f religion is best illustrated :by the resentm ent show by the culemi belonging to the Shafe'I school on the appointm ent o f the C h ief Q a z i s of other juristic Kchools in ad d itio n to a Shafe4! State Ju rist by S ultan A l-M alik tl-Z a h ir Baibers. T hese theologians were indignant th a t in a country w here only a ShafecI doctor o f law held th at office," dignitaries o f equal ran k should be appointed from am ongst the followers o f other ju ristic schools as well. W hen the rule of Baibers progeny over Egypt cam e to an end a few years a fter this incident, it was construed by certain ShafecI l ulama as a Divine punishm ent for the B aibers action.1
I. Tabaqat-us-Shaje' iyah

18

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC SPIR IT

N arrow -m indedness an d rigidness Were not lim ited to the legists alone, for the fixity o f theological philosophy had restricted it, perhaps, to a fa r g reater extent to canalised ideas. T he follow ers o f the four schools o f o rthodox Islam acknow ledged each o th e rs validity ; they m et, conversed and had cordial relations am ongst them , but it- was impossible to see a sim ilar tolerance betw een the Asharites and H anbalites. W hereas the legists d ebated sim ply about the correctness o f th e ir own inter p retatio n , th e disputation betw een th e scholasticians was m ore often m eant to prove th a t the o th er side had lapsed from faith. T h e cred al fixity o f the dialecticians, as distinct from theological rig id ity , stim ulated by a flair fo r logical disputation had m ade these polem ical w ranglings a popular intellectual pursuit. T he grandees an d th e nobles, the learned and the laity all took a keen interest i n these verbal engagements. As a lre a d y stated e arlier, mysticism seems to have captured th e h e a rt an d s p u l o f a g reat m ajority. T h e sufistic thought had absorbed num erous un-Islam ic an d foreign ideas while most o f the sufis, illiterate an d profane, w ere spreading infidelity and indifference to th e teachings o f Islam ; A section o f th e philosophers was busy, on the other hand, in spreading its own agnostic ideas, often overtly, and at times covertly, com pletely disregarding the prophetic teachings. T h e re w ere others too w ho w anted to reconcile religion w ith philosophy, for, they h a d assum ed th e superiority o f reason ovef faith. Both these groups w ere, how ever, fossilised followers o f A ristotle and P la to ; they held the two in the highest esteem as fount o f all w isdom , an d th e ir theories as inviolate im m utable. T h is was, then, th e political, social, ethical, an d intellectual atm osphere o b tain in g a t th e tim e in w hich Ib n T aim iyah was b rought Up a n d w herein he rose to give a call for all-round refo rm an d regeneration o f th e M uslim w orld.

I I

Early Life
B irth and C hildhood o f Ibn T aim iyah
Born on M onday, th e I Oth p f Rabl-ul-A w w al 661 A .H ., Ahm ad T a q l ud-dln Ib n T aim iy ah cam e o f a reputed fam ily o f theologians belonging to H a rra n n e a r Edessa (R o h a) in n o rth ern Ira q . H is father, Shahab ud-d ln 1A bdul H alim Ib n T aim iyah (d. 682 A .H .), was th e pulpiter o f the great U m m ayyad mosque and a professor o f T rad itio n s in DarulHad\th c Assakuriyah o f Damascus.* Likewise, his g ran d fath er A bul B arkat M ajd udd ln Ibn T aim iy ah (d. 652 A .H .) was a renow ned teacher o f H anbalite school an d a m an o f letters, whose' Manlaqi-ul-AkhbUr classifying all th e T rad itio n s serving as th e source o f legislation is still held as a w ork o f g re a t eru d itio n .3 T his was the tim e w hen the entire w orld o f Islam was timorously trem bling w ith fear u n d e r th e terrib le blows d ealt with by the b a rb a ric T a r ta r hordes, but the lands of. Ira<j and Ja z ira h were a t the m om ent special targets o f th eir ho rrid depredations. Ib n T aim iy ah was seven years o f age w hen the T artars m ounted an attack on H a rra n . F earfu l o f m assacres, fip in es, conflagrations an d , above all, th e indignities w hich
1. Known as O rfa, the town is now in Turkey 2. Ibn k a tih r, Vol. X III, p. 303 3 ShaukSrri later wrote a commentary on Mantaqi-ul-Akhbar under the title of Nail-ul-Autar in eight volumes.

20

SAVIOURS O P ISLAMIC SPIR IT

w ere worse th a n d e a th , th e fam ily o f Ib n T a im iy ah left H a rra n along w ith th e terror-sm itten m u ltitude to seek asylum in some oth er M uslim country. T h ere was no question o f proceeding to Ira q w hich h ad alread y fallen to th e T a r ta r arm s. T hey had, therefore, to bend th e ir steps to D am ascus w hich was a com pa ratively safer place ru led by the pow erful M em luks o f Egypt. L eaving behind th e ir entire belongings, Ib n T a im iy ah s family chose to take aw ay w ith them only th e valuable treasure of books they h ad , but, w ith no beasts o f b u rd en being available to pull th e carts, they h ad them selves to perform th at job. Confusion an d d iso rd er prevailed everyw here, w hile the fugi tives, filled w ith g rie f an d te rro r w ere always fearful o f being overtaken by th e T a r ta r cavalry. O nce, w hen a T a r ta r colum n was n e a r a t h a n d , th e wheels o f th e c a rt got stuck up. T he m em bers o f Ib n T a im iy a h s fam ily fell prostrate on the ground an d fervently beseeched G od to save th em from the im pending calam ity. A t last, the c a rt m oved on an d the carv a n got ahead safely on its w ay.1

In D a m a sc u s
T h e news o f th e a rriv a l o f this illustrious fam ily soon spread in D am ascus. T h e people, specially the educated, w ere aw are o f th e scholarly achievem ents o f M ajd u d-dln ibn T aim iyah and *A bdul H a lim ibn T aim iy ah . T h e latter, Ib n T aim iyahs fath er, was invited to begin discourses on Hadlth. in the G reat U m m ayyad m osque an d th e Darul Hadlth 1Assakuriyah which w ere attended by a larg e num ber o f students and scholars.

P rod igiou s M em ory

Ib n T aim iy ah s fam ily was know n for its strong retentive m em ory. H is fa th e r a n d g ra n d fa th e r both h ad an eidetic m em ory b u t th e prodigious treasu re house o f the m ind endowed to Ib n T aim iy ah surpassed even his forefathers. W hen he was still a child , th e feats o f hjs m arvellous m em ory used to leave
1

At- Kawakii-ud-Durriyah

SARLY LIFE

21

the people lost in am azem ent. An eye-witness account o f his , am azing m em ory preserved in Al-CCJqSd ud-Durriyah runs as follows O nce a scholar o f H aleb w ho h a d com e to D am ascus heard o f a prodigious child, A hm ad ibn T aim iy ah , renow ned for his m arvellous retentive pow er. Com ing to a ta ilo rs shop n ear A h m ad s house he sat dow n th ere to w ait for th e child. A fter a shOrt w hile, the ta ilo r pointed out the boy sought by him . Hie sum m oned the boy a n d asked him to wipe off his tab let so th a t he could w rite on it. T h e boy h an d ed over the clean tab let to th e scholar w ho w rote 11 o r 13 T rad itio n s o n it an d then askfed the boy to read them once carefully. N ow , the scholar took back the tablet and asked the boy to repeat w hat he h a d read . T h e boy repeated them all w ithout a single m istake. T h e scholar got th e tablet wiped off again a n d w rote thereon a few transm itting chains o f th e T rad itio n s. T h e boy went through these and ag ain repeated th e w hole th in g . Asto nished at th e feat o f the boys m em ory he re m a rk e d : I f G od wills him to live, he w ould be a genius w ithout a peer in th e whole w o rld . 1 T here are num erous exam ples o f Ibn T aim iy ah s am azing feats o f m em ory w hich lend support to th e veracity o f this story. In fact, the intellectual m arvels o f strong retentive, pow er poslessed by the T raditionists an d oth er doctors o f religion, recorded by historians On th e au thority o f unim peachable w it nesses, show th at the story n a rra te d ab o u t Ib n T aim iyah is not at all exaggerated.

Education o f Ibn T aim iyah

Ib n T aim iyah was from his childhood an industrious student and, as his biographers say, he never took any interest in games and sports. L ater on, too, when he h ad grow n up, no diversion, fun or festivity could ever hold his attention. Nevertheless, his
1. Abu Zahra, p. 56 (cited from Al-*Uqud-ud-Durriyah) , p. 21

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SAVIOURS OE ISLAMIC SPIRIT

works b ear witness to the fact th a t he was fully aw are o f the different sections o f society o f his tim e, their habits and customs, m anners an d m orals an d even entertainm ents and recreations. It seems th a t he h a d not only spent his tim e as a scholar buried in books b u t h ad also studiously pondered over the problem s o f life an d contem porary society. Ib n T aim iyah gleaned knowledge o f a ll the secular a n d religious sciences o f his- tim e, fie gave special attention to the A rabic literatu re and gained com m and over gram m ar and lexi cology. H e not only m astered the Al'-Kilab o f Sibaw aih, the greatest authority on g ram m ar and syntax, but he pointed out its mistakes too.1 H is proficiency in this field proved immensely beneficial to him later on in the com position o f his own works. H e g ained a thorough know ledge o f the entire collection o f prose and poetry available a t the tim e. H e also studied the history o f pre-lslam ic A rabia as well as th a t o f the post-Islam ic era. T he wide knowledge thus gained by him gave him a breadth o f vision n o t found am ongst his contem poraries. Ib n T aim iyah also learnt, besides these, calligraphy and m athem atics from the teachers o f these sciences.* T u rn in g to the religious sciences, he studiously learnt the Sharjah law s, Jurisprudence, Hadilh an d the Q u ran. H e studied th e H an b ali system o f law from his own father. In Hadlth, hefirst learn t by h eart, as was the custom in those days, Im am H u m a ld ls al-Jam'-o bain-us-Sahlkain and then studied the science from several reputed teachers o f Hadlth present a t the tim e in Syria. Ib n eAbdul. H a d ! relates th a t the num ber o f Ibn T aim iy ah s teachers in Hadith exceeds two h undred.3 Among these a re included such em inent doctors o f Hadlth as Ib n c Abd ud -D ayam al-M aqdisI an d several others o f an equal rank and standing. Ib n T aim iy ah thus went through the Musnad Imam Ahmad and Sihah Sitia m ore than once to learn these from
1. 2. 3. Al-Kawaktb-ud-Durriyah, p. 2 Ibid, p. 2 Hid,, p. 2

B A U .Y

l if e

23

different teachers.1 Ib n T aim iy ah h a d a fancy for th e exegesis o f the Q u ran. Al he him self says, he h a d tu rn e d over th e leaves o f m ore than A hundred com m entaries an d glosses o f th e holy scripture.2 H e wai endow ed w ith a bent o f m in d wont to reflect an d m editate upon the pith and m eaning of the Q u r an. Ib n T aim iy ah has him self explained th e w ay he used to bring his m in d to bear Upon the study o f the Q u ranic verses. Says he : Sometimes I have gone th ro u g h as m any as h u ndred com m entaries o f a single verse o f the Q u ran. A fter I have dipped into these pages 1 have supplicated God to enlighten me about th e tru e content and significance Of the Uyah. I pray to G od thus on these occasions : T h o u a rt th e Exalted T eacher of A dam an d Ib ra h im . Favour m e T h o u w ith the essence o f this ayah.' O ften I betake to an abandoned mosque o r wilderness a n d beseech God w ith my forehead on the ground : O G uide o f Ib ra h im ! G ran t cognition to m e. 3 T h e A sh 'arite school o f dialectics was then p redom inant in Egypt and Syria. S ultan Sal a h u d-dln A yyubl was him self an Ashcarite who h a d com m itted to heart, according to the famous historian M aq rlzl, th e w ritings o f Q u tb u d -d ln A bul M aca lt al-Ashc a rl on scholastic theology. S alah u d -d ln even got his Hons to learn these by h eart. W ith th e p atronage afforded to the Ashcarite school by the princes o f Ayyubid dynasty and la te r on by the M em luk sultans o f Egypt, the Ashcarite school h ad gained immense popularity in those countries. Because o f th e u nending polem ical w ranglings betw een the H anbalites an d th e Ashcarite theologians, the form er h a d come to be looked upon as fundam entalists and opponents o f the m ore popular m odernist Ashca rite school. T he Ashcarite scholasti cism, w ith its m ethod o f argum entation based upon syllogistic
1. Al-Kwdkib-ud-Vuniyah, p. 2 2. Tajsir Surat-un-Nur, p. 136 3. Al-(Uqud-ud-Durnyoh, p. 24

24

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC S P IR IT

logic, appealed to reason and relied on the apparent m eanings o f the Q u r anic text and T raditions. T he H anbalites, just the other w ay aro u n d , w ere neither adept in discursive reason ing n o r in philosophical induction w ith the result th a t they w ere u nable to justify th eir stand as dexterously as the Asharites. M ore often they left a n impression o f being un-intelligent people, ineruditu and shallow, having only a smat tering o f know ledge o f inductive reasoning. T h is would have perhaps been th e feeling o f a proud and sensitive mail, th a t Ibn T aim iyah was, who resolved to learn all about dialectics and syllogistic form s, logic and philosophy. And he did learn all th e ins an d outs o f these ciences with a fullness o f knowledge th a t enabled him to argue pow erfully against the Greek philoso phers. H e pointed out the lim itations o f th e m ethods and con cepts o f these sciences so m asterfully th a t after him no philoso p h er o f note cam e fo rw ard to reb u t his criticism . In brief, Ib n T aim iyah interpreted the Q u r an and the Sunnah, established the superiority o f Islam over heresy, philo sophical concepts an d o th er faiths a n d contributed to a genuine revival o f religion a fte r a deep study and deliberation th a t was necessary for fighting the religious and intellectual waywardness o f th e tim e. Seeking to surpass his opponents, the Jew s and the C hristians, the philosophers and the Batanites and the mystics an d the dialecticians, he m astered the m ethodology employed by them to attack Islam . In fact, his learning, his erudition, his intellectual attainm ent and his m ental g rit always left his adversaries spell-bound. O ne o f his bitterest rivals, A llam a K a m a l u d -d lh al-Z am alkaril, has p aid a glow ing trib u te to Ibn T aim iy ah s encyclopaedic know ledge in these w ords . G od had m ad e know ledge o f a ll the sciences as easy for Ib n T aim iy ah as iron h ad been softened for (the pro phet) D avid. W henever he was asked any question, he answ ered in a w ay th a t the audience thought him to have spent his whole life in acquiring know ledge o f th a t very bran ch o f know ledge alone and acknowledged him as the greatest authority on the subject. Scholars subscribing to

tA H L Y LIFE

25

different juristic schools attended his discourses and each one o f them learn t som ething th a t he had not known earlier. It never happened th a t he debated any point and was put to sham e. W hatever be the subject m atter about w hich he spoke, w hether religious o r discursive, he surpassed all the authorities on th a t p articu lar subject. In penm anship, too, he was equally elegant. 1

The Gifted Teacher

Ibn T aim iyah was only twenty-two w hen his father died in 682 A-H. W ithin less th a n a year lie was asked to take the place o f his father. T h e very first address he del vered at th a t young age, in the presence o f such learn ed doctors as the C h ief Q azi B a h a 1 u d -d in ibn az-Z akl as-Shafet, Sheikh T aj ud-dln al-Fazarl, Z ain ud-dln ibn al-M unja H anbali, was full o f thoughts that breathe an d words th at burn. I t was a speech so impressive and forceful, sparkling an d m ajestic th a t the historian Ib n K a tfilr lists it as an astonishing event in th e annals for the year 683 A.H. I t was so ad m ired by a ll , w rites Ib n K a th lr, th a t Sheikh T a j ud-din a l-F a z a rt him self put dow n the speech in w riting. 2 In th e y ear 692 A.H-. Ib n T aim iy ah set out for H aj w ith a Syrian carav an u n d er th e leadership o f al-BSstl.3

1. At-Kwakib-ud-Durriyah, p. 5 2. Ibn K athir, Vol. X III, p. 303 3. Ibid., p. 313

HI Trials and Tribulations

H aving carved out a prom inent place for him self am ong the leading scholars o f Syria, Ibn T aim iyahs fam e was fast spreading as a pop u lar lecturer w hen, in the year 698 A .H ., for the first tim e, an unfortunate incident stirred up a tum ult against him . . Some persons belonging to H am ah subm itted a question to Ibn T aim iyah asking h im to explain the n ature and attributes o f the Supreme-Being in the light .of certain Q u ran ic verses and T rad itio n s w hich spoke o f these in finite signs an d symbols. Ibn T aim iyah gave a detailed reply to the question1. H e explained the view held by the com panions o f th e Prophet an d th eir succes sors, the religious doctors o f yore an d the dialecticians like Im am A bul H asan Al-Ashca rl, Q a z i A bu B aqr BaqillanI, Im am ul-H arm ayn an d others th a t a belief in the essential attributes o f God is the m ost im portant p a rt o f the M uslim s faith. Ib n T aim iyah proved from th e w ritings o f the earlier authorities th at all o f them acknow ledged the attributes o f God w hom they regarded beyond all sim ilitude and free from all lim itations.

1. The reply of Ibn Taim iyah covering about 50 pages under the caption * al-Aqeedalul Hamuyah-lul-Kubra is included in the collection entitled ' Majm'a-tar-Rasa'il al-Kubra published from Egypt in 1323 A.H. The charge levelled against him th at he subscribed to anthropomor phic concept of God is absolutely baseless.

THIALS AND TRIBULATIONS

27

Avowal o f tlie D ivine attributes by them was neither m eant to anth ropomo rpb ise D ivine attributes no r they considered it neces sary to d iy e st H im o f all the positive qualities in their craze to prove the eternity o f His Being. W hile insisting th a t the nature Qf the Suprem e Being cannot be adequately expressed in term s flpniHar to the finite h um an understanding they had acknow ledged the Suprem e Being as the K now ing (or O m niscient), the Powerful (or A lm ighty), the W illing, th e Living, the H earing, the Seeing an d the Speaking. Sim ilarly, th e theological doctors of old recognised other attributes ascribed to G od, w ithout any interpretation either designed to avoid the similitudes o r negating those qualities in a way th a t reduces His Being into sheer no thingness. Ib n T aim iyah m aintained th a t the conception o f the Life, K now ledge o r Pow er d id not attrib u te finite hum an form or personality to G od for H e is neither a substance circum scribed with lim its not determ ined by m easu re; neither does H e resemble b o d ie s; neither is H e a substance, n o r d o substances exist in H im ; neither is H e an accident n o r do accidents exist in H im . H e sits upon th e throne, after the m anner w hich H e H im self has described, an d in th a t same sense w hich H e Him self means, which is a sitting fa r rem oved from any notion o f con tact, o r renting upon, o r local situation. H e is above the throne, and above all things, even to the utm ost ends o f everything th at has a being. H e is distinct from the creatures by H is attributes, neither is there anything besides H im self in H is essense, n o r is Hi? essence in any o th er besides H im . T h erefore, it is not correct to conceive the inconceivable Being on the pattern o f any finite form or substance o r to consider the lim iting adjuncts o f hum an expression as circum scribing H im w ith the lim itations o f finite form s, qualities or personifications. Ib n T aim iyah w ent on fu rth er to explain th a t certain dialec ticians, either too m uch im pressed by the.; G reek philosophical concepts or anim ated by a n excessive zeal to uphold th e U nity o f G odhead, interpreted th e D ivine attributes in a way th a t was directly opposed to w hat th e Prophet h ad tau g h t and was u n der stood by the com panions an d later scholars. T h e negation o f

28

SAVIOURS O F ISLAU1C S P IR IT

D ivine attrib u tes, m ore often, end ed up in reducing G od Al m ighty to a nam eless, formless, nothing. T h e interpreta tion o f these dialecticians was, thus, far rem oved from the teachings o f th e precursors o f faith, th e earlier theologians and even th e ir own m entors. Ib n T aim iyah severely taxed these m isguided scholastics w hom he called an ignoram us lot unaw are o f th e tru e w orth and m erit o f th e prophetic teachings and blind followers o f th e Indo-G reek philosophical concepts. H e con cluded his reply w ith several exam ples o f philosophers who were ultim ately disillusioned by th e ir v ain pursuit and ended up with an expression o f sorrow ful disenchantm ent. M any o f them , said Ib n T aim iy ah , acknow ledged th e religious dogm a before joining th e g reat m ajority. T h e reply by Ib n T aim iy ah was a full-fledged treatise well docum ented w ith quotations from the Q u r a n a n d the Hadith, Which restated th e tru th in a convincing m anner, criticised se verely th e philosophers an d dialecticians and sounded a n#w note in theological w ritings by its m asterly blending o f a spirited defence o f religion w ith th e elegance o f style an d expression. T h e w ay it was w arm ly received by th e H anbalites inflam ed a* feeling o f b itter resentm ent am ong the dialecticians and cAshcarites who held posts o f influence an d authority in the ad m in istratio n . D escribing th e events o f 698 A .H ., Ib n K a th lr w rites th a t a group o f theologians w hich opposed Ib n T aim iyah kdm anded th at he should appear before the H anafite Q az l Sheikh J a la l U d -d in to clarify certain points but Ibn T aim iyah refused to d o so. His ad v ersaries'kicked Up a tum ult against h im b u t n o rm al conditions w ere ultim ately restored owing to th e firm handling o f th e situation by A m ir S a if U d-din JaghS n. T h e situation m ig h t have again taken an ugly tu rn , but the T a rta r advan ce against Syria left no room for any acrim onious disputation am ong the educated circles. T h e occasion, how ever, afforded another opportunity to Ibn T aim iyah to rise as a spirited defender o f the faith and a popular lead er o f
1.
tin Kathir, Vol. XIV, p. 4

4W A L S AND TRIBULATIONS

29

the masses.

'Tartar Attack on D am ascus

v* i ),, Intelligence in re g a rd to th e projected attack on Syria by G hazan,1 the T a rta r ru le r o f Ira n a n d Ira q , h a d begun to pour In the beginning o f 699 A .H . I t was reported that, the T a rta r forces were planning to capture D am ascus. W ith the impresllons o f te rro r still fresh in the m inds o f the M uslims, the popu latio n o f b o rd er districts like H a le b and H am ah took to flight. T he exodus was so gre&t th a t a horse could be h ired for trans port from H am ah to D am ascus for tw o hu n d red dirhoms. Howfver, the news th at A l-M alik al-N asir M uham m ad ibn Q alaw oon had left Egypt w ith a pow erful arm y to check the advance o f the T a rta r forces enabled the terror-stricken Syrians to heave a figh o f relief. E gyptian forces w hich en tered D am ascus on the 8th o f R ab^-ul-A w w al, 699 A .H ., w ere w arm ly received by the population o f th e city.

Defeat o f Qalawoo,*!
O n th e 27th o f R ab cI-ul-Awwal, 699 A H . the E gyptian and T a rta r arm ies encountered each other in a bloody battle. T h e operations o f w ar were conducted by both sides in equal vigour but the Sultan was vanquished and h e im m ediately retreated to Egypt w ith his rem ainiug forces. N ow D am ascus lay open, undefended, before th e triu m p h an t arm ies o f G hazan. T h e entire n o b ility , o f the ca p ita l including th e Shafe*ite and Mfilakite Q azls, religious scholars, th e adm in istrators and the trad ers took to flight leaving only th e com m ander o f the capital citadel. A ll th e com m unications lead in g to th e city w ere cut off, prices increased m anifold, public tran q u illity was disturbed
1. GhazSn, alio known as Mahmud, was the great grand-son o f Chenghiz Khan. He had embraced Islam in 694 A. H . owing to the persuasion of Amir Tuzaun, but he could not have been expected to have reformed his manners and morals within the short period of five years. The T artars were then as ferocious and given to rapine and plunder as before their conversion to Islam.

30

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC SPIR IT

by th e prisoners who broke open the gates o f the gaol and loot a n d arson becam e o rd er o f th e day. T h e d an g er o f im m inent attack by G hazan add ed to the chaos an d anarchy in the city which was incapable o f putting up any resistance and hopeless o f getting relief from any q u arter.

Ibn T aim iyah m e e ts Ghazan

Ibn. T aim iy ah an d th e rem aining patricians o f th e city then decided th a t they should lead a delegation o f the lulama and other noblem en, w hich should m eet G hazan and sue for the peace o f th e city. 3Jhe representatives o f the city accordingly m et GhazSn at N abak1 on th e 3 rd o f R a b 'f-u l-T h a n l, 699 A .H . Sheikh K am Sl ,ud*dln ibn al-AnjS, w ho accom panied Ib n T aim iyah in the delegation has left a m em orable account o f his m eeting with G hazan. H e says t I was with th e Sheikh (Ib n T aim iyah) on this occa sion. H e set forth in his address to the K ing t^ e Q uranic verses an d the T rad itio n s o f the Prophet enjoining fairness a n d ju st conduct. His voice gradually rising, he was d raw ing n e a re r to the king until his knees Were about to touch those o f G h azan who was attentively listening to the Sheikh but d id not appear to be displeased w ith him . H e was straining liis ears as if struck w ith awe. At last he asked W ho is he I have never seen a m an'like him so brave an d courag eo u s; none has m ad e a-dent in my h eart as he ! T h e Sheikh was then introduced to the K ing. T h e Sheikh said to th e K in g : You claim to be a M uslim . I have been told th at you have w ith you a Q a z l and an Imam, a Sheikh an d a m uaizin ; yet you have deem ed it proper to m arch upon th e M uslims. Y our forefathers were heathens, but they always abstained from breaking th e prom ise once m ade by them . T hey redeem ed the pledges they m ade but you violate th e w ord o f honour given by you. You tram ple
t;

1.

,i . ----- . The place is mid-way between Damascus and Him*.

V tltlA L S AND TRIBULATIONS

31

Im underfoot your solem n declarations in o rd e r to lay a hand if : on th e servants o f God ! ' Sheikh Kam&l' u d -d ln adds th a t despite Ib n T aim iyahs (rem onstrance in a strong language, the K in g bade him good-bye W ith the highest m arks o f respect. H e even set free, on Ibn T aim iy ah s recom m endation, a good num ber o f the prisoners. Ibn T aim iyah often used to sa y : O nly he fears who has a tlkkness in his h e a rt.' it: >Chief Q a z i Abul A bbas, who jvas also ad m itted to the Imperial presence along' w ith Ib n T aim iyah, has given some m ore details o f this rem arkable embassy. H e says th a t when food was brought before them , Ib n T aim iyah refused to partake (the meals on the ground th a t it h ad come but o f the looted pro perty o f the M uslims. At last , adds A b u l1A bbas, when the K in g asked the Sheikh to pray fo r him , he began by saying: O God ! H elp G h azan i f he has taken up arm s to defend T h y reli gion ; if not, then do w hatever T hou desirest w ith him . T h e companions *of Ibri T aim iy ah trem bled w ith fear lest they should 11 be executed because o f th e Sheikhs im prudence but they were am azed to see the K ing saying am en to his prayer. W hen Ib n T aim iy ah retu rn ed to D am ascus, he Was escorted by 300 nobles a n d chiefs o f th e G h azan s a rm y .1 A lthough G h a z in h ad g ran ted am nesty to D am ascus, the irregular troops o f the in v ad er w ere spreading te rro r and d e v iation in the outlying are a s an d suburbs o f th e city. G h azan had nom inated S aif u d -d ln Q ab jak as h>s deputy over Syria. His forces entered D am ascus and dem an d ed surrender o f all arm s, horses and w ealth concealed by the citizens. In this hour o f savage licence, w hen every passion was inflam ed and every restrain t was rem oved, th e precepts o f religion seldom influenced the behaviour of th e newly converted T a rta r savages. Several o f the most honourable citizens w ere surprised an d m assacred ; a large num ber o f innocent women an d child ren w ere sold into
1. Al-Kawikib ud-Durriyah, p. 25 2. Ibid., p. 25

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SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC S P IR IT

c a p tiv ity ; libraries an d charitable trusts w ere e x tirp a te d ; and the m alicious T a rta r soldiers roam ed throughout the city in quest o f prey a n d riches. T h e com m ander o f th e fort, Arjawash how ever, refused, u n d er th e advice o f Ib n T aim iyah, to open th e gates o f the citadel to the T a rta r ch ief appointed by G h azan .1 Ib n T aim iyah, alongw ith a few o th e r respectable citizens o f D am ascus, rep aired again to seek audience w ith G h azan but he was not allow ed to see the K ing. I n the m eantim e th e T a rta r forces laid siege to capture the fort. Ballistas were set up around th e fort an d th e citizens were conscripted for forced labour. Ib n K a th ir w rites th a t the city gave a deserted look as nobody d ared to come out o f his house except disguised as a Mongol for fear o f being obliged to help th e T a rta r attack on th e fort. D uring, a F rid ay service in th e great 'Urtimayyad M osque , says Ib n K a th ii, there w ere not enough worshippers to m ake up a single row. O n the 19th o f Jam ad -u l-O la G h azan left fo r Ira q , leaving sixty thousand troops u n d er the com m and o f hia deputy. H e declared his intention to retu rn w ith a larger force in the ensu in g au tu m n to com plete th e unfinished cam paign o f gam ing control over S yria as well as Egypt. A fter the K ing h ad d eparted, one o f his chiefs, A m ir B ulalJ, started to ransack the su rrounding areas. Vast tracts o f land, towns and cities w ere devastated, a large num ber o f M uslim child ren w ere forcibly taken aw ay from th e ir parents to be sold as serfs w hile B filai1 him self extracted large sums o f m oney from D am ascenes 'through geneial extortion and im m oderate fines. Ib n T aim iy ah decided to m eet Bfllal3 to alleviate the m isfortune o f his countrym en. H e m et B u lai on the 8th o f R ajab and was successful in liberating quite a good num ber o f the captives,3 both M uslim s and n o n-M uslim s/
1. 2. 3. 4. Ibn Knthir, Vol. X IV , pp. 7/8 Ibid., p 9 Ibid.. p. 11 Abu Zahra, p. 39

f l f A L S AND TRIBULATIONS

33

In the m eantim e th e news of the E gyptian forces com ing to the rescue o f Syria was broken by the com m ander o f the D am as cus fort. No sooner was this announcem ent m ade, the T a rta r IlQrdes hurriedly retreated from the city leaving it again w ithout ny semblance o f adm inistration. ArjawSsh and a few other prom inent citizens including Ib n T aim iy ah decided to m aintain and o rd er in th e m etropolis. Ib n T aim iyah was seen during (llis period keeping yigil by night and exhorting people to take V IP arm s for th e ir defence. These self-appointed guardians o f the city also decided to root out the abuses th at h ad flourished during the b rie f rule o f the T artars. T h e avarice o f S aif uddln Q ubjuk had prevailed upon him to patronise the sale o f wine which was a source of income to him . Ib n T aim iyah toured the city with his friends and students, destroyed every tvine-cask, bowl and cup and punished every d ru n k ard and ruffian in accordance w ith the law. T h e courageous action taken by Ib n T aim iyah was received with approbation and pleaure by all the law -abiding people o f the city.8
Pnnitive Expedition to the Hills

T he Christians, B atinites and Ism ailites settled in the hilly fracts o f Syria h ad afforded w hole-hearted support to the T a rta r invaders against the M uslims. They had surprised and attacked the retreating M uslim troops, killed m any o f them and looted their provisions. T hey were in fact a heretic people, without faith in any religion, who despised all authority and were used to a sem i-independent existence in the difficult terrain out o f the reach o f arm s o f law.3 A punitive expedition was despatched under J a m a l u d -dln Xqoosh al-Aft am a fte r peaceful conditions had been restored in Syria, to punish the recalcitrant hill dw ellers o f J a r d and Kasr wan. Ib n T aim iyah accom panied this expedition w ith a

1. Ibn Kaxhir, Vol. X IV , p. 12 2. Ibid., p. 16 I. Ibid., p. 23

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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT

large num ber o f volunteers a n d the people belonging to H auran. Ib n T aim iy ah exhorted th e tribesm en to renew their allegiance to J a m a l ud-din, follow the precepts o f true faith and return the p roperty despoiled by them earlier.1
The Second Tartar Invasion

F or tw o years, beginning from R ajab, 700 A .H ., uncertainty and instability prevailed in Syria. W ith the report o f second T a r ta r invasion reaching'D am ascus, people began to abandon th eir h earth s an d hom es. Ib n T aim iyah started urging people to eschew cow ardice an d defend th e ir hom e and honour instead o f deserting th e cap ital. H e prevailed upon the adm inistration to put a b an on th e people leaving th e city w ithout obtaining its p rio r perm ission. H ard ly had th e situation been stabilized when the news o f advancing T a rta r forces reaching a place know n as B irah was broken. An announcem ent o f jihad , the holy w ar, was m ad e an d the glad tidings o f Sultan Ibn Q alawoons d ep artu re from Egypt for the defence o f Syria were announced. O f a sudden, a com m unication was received th at the S ultan no longer w anted to come for a second encounter w ith th e T a rta rs. I t was n atu ral th a t the people exasperated by earlier sufferings resolved to transfer th e ir fam ilies and belongings to th e m ore secure places in Egypt. Ib n T aim iyah, how ever, not only arrested the exodus by his pow erful and pas sionate h aranguing but also m et the E gyptian G overnor o f Syria in his cam p outside D am ascus and persuaded him to oppose th e progress o f th e T a rta r arm y. T h e G overnor and other pro m inent citizens an d religious doctors requested Ib n T aim iyah to seek an audience w ith the' Sultan and urge him not only to send the levies but co n d u ct the operations o f w ar himself. Ib n T aim iy ah w ent to Egypt and m ade a spirited appeal to the S ultan for checking th e advance o f T a rta r forces. H e asked him not to be terrified by the m ultitude of his foe. Even if Syria h a d not been a p a rt o f your dom inions , said Ib n T aim iyah,
1.
Ibn K a lh ir,

Vol. XIV, p. 12

TRIALS a n d t r i b u l a t i o n s -- --------------------------rm

35

"It was a duty incum bent on you to have come to its rescue in this hour o f d anger. T h e responsibility o f its safety rests on your shoulders; but, if you care nothing for its welfare, tell us Mid we shall m ake our own arrangem ents. Wc shall select a monarch who would at least defend the land against its enem ies. Ibn T aim iyah rem ained w ith the Sultan for eight days and . at lait persuaded him to lead his forces for the defence o f Syria. By the tim e Ib n T aim iyah returned to Dam ascus a large Humber o f Damascenes had already left the city. Ibn T aim iyahs return with the news of.Sultans im pending arriv al emboldened the people to make preparations for facing the enemy but the T artars turned back on this occasion.1
Encounter with the Tartar Arm y

News o f the T a rta r forces advancing tow ards Syria was ig a in broken in R ajab , 702 A .H . Delay in the arriv al o f the lu lta n from Egypt was causing panic am ong the people in Damascus, m any o f w hom again left for safer places. After, |0m e tim e, two detachm ents o f the select T urkish w arriors reached Damascus by the end o f Shca b a n that year. Sim ulta neously, however, a stream o f refugees from the n o rthern districts began pouring into D am ascus. A controversy was also raised, perhaps, by some oyertim id theologians who raised the question w hether D am acenes need fight the T a rta rs at all since the latter had em braced Islam ? T h e legists w ere asked to define their position in the light o f the Sharjah, for, the T a rta rs Could neither be called non-believers nor rebels o f any M uslim |O vernm ent. Ib n T aim iy ah put them in the category o f Khauarij, i.e. the sect w hich h ad revolted against the authority Of both the Caliphs Ali and M ucaw iyah and h ad prom oted itl .l f to the dignity o f C aliphate, an d pronounced the juristic Opinion th at it was perfectly law ful to fight such people. T he Sultan was still fa r aw ay w hile the reports of T a rta r forces draw ing n earer to the capital w ere in everyones m outh.
I, tkn Kalhir, Vcl. X I V , p. 16

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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

Ib n T aim iy ah again w ent to u rg e th e Sultan w ho was on his w ay to D am ascus, to speed up his journey. Ibn Taim iyah extorted a solem n o ath from the S ultan th at he would live or die w ith th e people w hom G od h ad entrusted to his care. Assuming th e spirit o f a hero, he com m unicated a sim ilar enthu siasm to th e troops. Ib n T aim iyah even swore to G od th at the Egyptians w ould be victorious this tim e. H e quoted in his sup port th e Q u ra n ic verse : W hoso h ath retaliated w ith th e like o f that w hich he was m ad e to suffer and then h a th been w ronged, A llah will succour h im . 1 H e felt so assured th a t if anybody asked him to say : if it should please God A lm ighty ; he replied, Yes, if it should please God A lm ighty, definitely and unequivocally. 2 T h e M uslim forces o f Syria an d Egypt w ere at last arrayed against th e T a rta r arm ies in the plain o f T h aq h a b on the 2nd o f R a m a d h a n , 702 A .H . Ib n T aim iyah pronounced the legal opinion th at the troops should break the fast on th at day. H e w ent to every detach m en t an d the line to offer them something to break th eir fast atid told them o f the T rad itio n w hich s a id : T om orrow you shall have to face the enemy and you would be stronger if you do not keep fast. Sultan al-M alik al-N asir M uham m ad ibn Q alaw oon and the A bbaside C aliph A bur R a b cl Sulaim an were both present in the battlefield. T h e Sultan fought w ith indom itable courage and v a lo u r ; he chained th e legs o f his horse lest it should run aw ay in the heat o f action. A fter a bloody conflict, which continued till the evening and in w hich a large num ber o f T urkish veterans an d chiefs w ere killed the Egyptian forces dis persed an d dism ayed th e T a rta r arm s. T aking advantage o f the darkness, a large num ber o f T a rta r soldiers took shelter in the ravines an d caves, b u t the M uslim s kept vigil for the whole

1. 2.

Q.. X X I I : 60 Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 23

WUALS AND

t r ib u l a t io n s

37

*Blght and did not allow them to escape th eir revenge. M any TbItars who h ad survived the perils o f the sword fell to the 'fttahers arrow s or w ere drow ned in the Euphrates. f O n Tuesday, the 5th o f R a m a d h a n , the Sultan entered Dnmascus w ith the G aliph an d his arm y generals to receive the Warmest congratulations o f his subjects.
iitruggle against Innovations and Abuses

i A fter the T a rta r dan g er was rem oved, Ibn T aim iyah again Occupied him self w ith teaching an d preaching the purer spirit o f Itligion. As stated earlier, th e unhealthy influences o f the Jew ish and C hristian cults had given rise to m any heretical practices am ong the ig n o ran t masses. A rock by the side o f the river Q u lu t in th e vicinity o f D am ascus was held as an object o f reverence by the local population w here they regularly repaired Ho seek divine favour. Ib n T aim iyah got the rock cut to pieces Under his supervision by masons an d stone-cutters and thus he put an end to a heretical p ractice.1 Ibn T aim iyah always tried to prevent, by force if necessary, 11 accretions and innovations in re lig io n ; for, keeping the pristine purity o f religion constituted the highest form o f faith According to & pronouncem ent o f the holy Prophet o f Islam : . W hoever am ongst you should see any act being com m it ted against the dictates o f thfe Shari1ah, he should put a stop to it by fo rc e ; but if h e does not find it possible, he should criticise and try to reform i t ; and if he does not find even th at m uch possible, he should a t least hate it, although this constitutes the lowest category o f faith . It was really th e business o f the adm inistrators to see th at irreligious practices d id not spread am ong th e M uslims but they had no tim e to devote th eir energy to this im portant task. T he religious doctors, too, m ore often th an not either did not, care or fought shy to oppose , such accretions out o f regard for the popular sentiments. Ib n T aim iyah h ad, therefore, taken upon
I. Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV, p. 34

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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

h im self the onerous responsibility o f acting as a public censor of religion an d m orals. He h a d form ed a society, along with his followers and students, to censor th e notorious irreligion of the ignorant folk and guilty schismatics. T his was a voluntary effort with no other aim except to seek the pleasure o f God by m aking these people to observe the sacred law. An old m an who called him self A l-M ujahid Ib rah im ibn alQattsfn and wore a long flam boyant quilt w ith long nails and h a ir was b rought before Ib n T aim iyah in R ajab 704 A .H. on charge o f being addicted to intoxicants and abusive language. H e ordered his nails and h a ir to be trim m ed and his quilt to be to m to pieces. T h e m an was m ade to renounce drunkenness and revilem ent.1 A nother old m an, M uham m ad al-K habbaz al-Balasi, who claim ed to be an interp reter o f dream s and mys teries was forced by Ib n T aim iyah to give up his impious prac tices. H ow ever, as Ib n K a th lr reports, Ib n T aim iyah earned the displeasure o f a section o f population on account o f these reform ative activities.
Jihad against Heretics

Ib n T aim iyah had earlier accom panied al-A fram in his ex pedition against th e heretical sects living in the hills in 699 A.H. In Zil-hijja 704 A.H. he again visited them with Z ain ud-dln ibn A d n an and a large num ber o f his friends an d followers. A lthough his efforts to bring them back to the fold o f Islam were p artially successful and quite a good num ber o f them repented from th eir sins, yet they rem ained, as a whole, indiffe rent to Islam . T he separatist sects generally consisting o f Batinites, Ism a Jilites, H akim ites an d N usayrites had caused severe h arm to the M uslims. T hey were the people who had invited the Crusaders and the T a rta rs to invade the M uslim countries, helped the invaders against M uslim s, led expeditions o f loot and plunder w henever they found the latter weak and defenceless and they still posed a dan g er to the security o f the
1.
[bn K u th ir,

Vol. XIV, p. 33

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39

surrounding areas. Ib n T aim iy ah invited the attention o f the Sultan tow ards the crim es com m itted by these people in a letter in w hich jje w ro te : W hen the T a rta r hordes had attacked Syria, these forsakers o f true faith had m isbehaved with the retreating M uslim forces. These very persons had been in league with the Christians o f Cyprus and had helped them to capture a portion o f Syria. T hey form ed the vanguard o f the C yprian arm ies, trafficked in M uslim arm s, horses and serfs and trans ferred a large num ber o f them to Cyprus. For twenty days, they held regular bazars to sell the M uslim captives and m uni tions o f w ar to the C yprian C hristians. They gleefuHy welcomed the T a rta r invaders but when God bestowed victory to the Egyptian forces, they openly expressed their g rief at the defeat o f our enemies. Those people h ad earlier conspired w ith Chenghlz K h an and H alaku and they were responsible fof the sack o f Baghdad, destruction o f H aleb and Salehiya. T h ere are, in fact, num erous other instances o f perfidious and disorderly conduct to th e ir discredit. T h e peace o f the surrounding M uslim areas is continuously disturbed by them ./ They carry out noc turnal raids, ravage the M uslim habitations and com mit grievous crimes against the M uslims. W hen Cyprians visit their lands they extend a red carpet treatm ent to them but 110 M uslim can travel safely in their country. 1 Ib n T aim iyah headed an expedition against these schism a tics for the th ird tim e which set out from Damascus on the 2nd of M uh arram , 705 A. H . H e was supported by a powerful arm y led by the governor o f Syria. Inaccessible areas o f J u rd inhabited by Rawafiz an d the hilly tracts o f T iy am n a were opened up according to a judicious plan by w hich the roving plunderers were completely subdued. T he hilly tract had dark and im penetrable plantations w hich threatened every step o f the invading troops w ith its secret snares and am bush. Ibn Taim iyah pronounced the legal opinion th at the cutting down of these plantations was permissible under the Sharjah since
I. Abu Z ah > P- 45

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sim ilar action was taken by the Prophet in the case o f Bam AnN ad h lr. T he presence o f Sheikh-ul-Islam in this expedition, says Ibn K a th lr, proved propitious. Both his erudite learn in g and courage provided strength to the M uslims and filled the hearts o f th e enemies w ith m alice an d grief. 1
Contention of the Rafaiyah Mendicants

O n 9th J a m a d u l-U la, 705 A .H ., a group o f extremist R a fa 'ly a h m endicants called upon the governor o f Syria and dem anded th a t Ib n T aim iy ah should be stopped from enforcing the rules o f Sharl^ah on them . Ib n T aim iy ah , on the other hand, insisted th at every one would have to govern his conduct accord ing to the principles laid dow n in the Scripture and the T ra d i tions, an d , whoever tried to transgress these rules, would be opposed by him* T h e R a fa cIyahs also volunteered to enact c ertain black a rts like w alking o n fire as a p roof o f th eir being on the righteous an d divinely approved path. T hey claim ed th a t th eir w onder-w orking was accepted as a m ark o f piety by th e T a rta rs. Ib n T aim iyah refused th eir plea and rem ained firm o n his dem and w ith th e result th a t th e R a faciyahs h ad to put off the iron rings w orn by them . L ater on Ib n T aim iyah w rote a n exhaustive article delineating th e history, beliefs and th e practices o f the ,R afaciyah order.*
Opposition o f Ibn Taim iyah

T h e way Ib n T aim iy ah was trying to enforce the m oral a n d religious principles o f the Shari-ah had earned him a vast following. A section o f influential religious doctors, however, annoyed at Ib n T aim iy ah s taking the law in his hand and jealous o f his grow ing popularity, was looking for an opportunity to discredit h im in the eyes o f the adm inistration and the people. Ib n K hathSr w rite s : A group o f theologians was jealous of Sheikh T aq i
1. 2. Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 35 Ibid., Vol. X IV , p. 36

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ud-din ibn T aim iyah because of his position in the court o f the governor and also for his acting as a public censor who had taken upon him self th e responsibility o f enforcing w hat was law ful and preventing w hat was prohibited. T hey w ere envious o f his grow ing popularity and o f the love and respect accorded to him as well as o f his learning and zeal for religion. 1
Contradiction of the Unity of Being

By this tim e, Ibn T aim iy ah was again obliged to take p art in certain predal disputations. M uhi ud-din ibn cA rabl (d. 638 A.H.) was regarded as the most respected m entor and undisputed teacher o f the mystic thought. Ib n T aim iyah openly rejected his teachings expounded in Futuhat-t-Makkiyah (T he Meccan Revelations) and Fusus il-Hekam (T he M osaic o f W isdom), which contained a rapturous discussion o f the indw elling o f God in the created being's and the identification o f m an w ith God. T he pantheistic monism o f Ibn A rabI attem pted to square the exis tence o f a transcendental God with a God indw elling in the world and all created, m aterial objects w hich were to him nothing etse th an His m anifestations.2 T h e writings o f Ibn T aim iyah show th at he had carefully studied the works o f Ibn ArabI and reached the conclusion th at the pantheistic monism o f Ibn cA rab l could in no way be deem ed com patible with the teachings o f the Q u r an and the Sunnah? H e was particularly critical o f T ilm isanI and Ib n SabcaTn, th e two disciples o f Ibn A rabt, who had failed to m ake any distinction between the C reator and the created. T h e form er emphasised the negation o f D ivine A ttributes, but preached pantheistic ideas o f the union o f m an w ith God, em anation o f all things from the Divine essence an d , finally, the worship o f all created beings. Ibn T aim iyah pointed out how some o f the m isguided mystics had
1. 2. 3. 4. Ibn Kalhir, p. 37 Ar^Radd aUAqwam, p . 11 Al''Furqdni p p . 147-48 I b i d p . 145

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m ad e th e ir mystical creeds a cloak for liberation from m oral restraints an d a licence for practice o f sensuality.1 T he reigning m onarch o f Egypt and Syria, Al-M alik alN asir M uham m ad ibn Q alaw oon h ad delegated all authority to R ukn ud-dln Baibers al-Jashanglr. T he latter was a devoted disciple o f Sheikh N asar Al-M am bijl who held Ib n lA rabl in the highest esteem as the greatest mystic o f Islam . Ibn T aim iyah thus earned the displeasure o f Sheikh al-M am biji, who, as it was to be expected, misled the unphilosophic and m oderately educat ed T u rk , Baibers al-Jashanglr, to h arbour m alice against Ibn T aim iyah.
Ibn Taim iyah in Egypt

Ibn T aim iy ah was summoned to Egypt on the 5th o f R am ad h a n 705 A .H . His friends and disciples, naturally, felt worried a t the su m m o n ; even the governor of Syria advised Ibn T aim iyah to w ait until he got the whole affair straightened up through correspondence w ith the Sultan. But Ibn T aim iyah who h ad already decided to undertake the journey, set out for Egypt. O n his way to the C apital Ib n T aim iyah delivered a sermon in the principal mosque o f G aza w hich was attended by a large audience.
Ibn Taim iyah Arrested and Released

Ib n T aim iyah reached Egypt on the 2 2 n d -o f R a m ad h a n . O n F riday, he was asked to attend a m eeting of the theologians, jurists a n d the chiefs o f the State held in the F o rt after Friday prayers. Ib n T aim iyah stood up to address the gathering but he was asked to sit dow n. T hen, certain persons raised objec tions about the dialectical issues which he had already repeatedly explained in Syria during his discourses as well as in his writings. Ibn T aim iyah again stood up to answ er the charges levelled
1. 2. Al-Radd al Aqwam,., pp. 52-142. These related to the n ature and attributes of God on which Ib n T aim iyah had penned several articles and dissertations and also explained them in the debates held for the purpose.

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against him but he was once m ore heckled down with the rem ark 'th a t they had not gathered to listen to his sermons. Thereupon Ibn T aim iy ah asked, W ho is the Ju d g e in my case ? H e was told th a t it was to be decided by Q azi Ibn M ukhluf M aliki. Ibn T aim iy ah raised the o b jectio n : How could h e ? H e is my rival and adversary. Q a z i Ibn M akhluf M alik i got enraged and prom ptly pronounced the decision th a t he should be im prisoned. Ib n T aim iy ah was accordingly kept in custody for some tim e in a t u r r e t and then transferred, on the night of 'Id, to the famous prison o f J u b (the Well) alongwith his two brothers, S h araf ud-d ln cA bdull|ih and Z ain ud-dln cA bdur R ahm S n.1 Ibn T aim iy ah s sympathisers, particularly the governor o f Egypt and a few o th er theologians and legists had been trying all the w hile to get him released from the gaol. After full one year, on the nig h t of'Id next year (706 A .H .), he was offered to be set free provided he renounced the creed held by him . T he offer was m ade to him as m any as six times, but he always turned down the proposals saying : T he prison is d earer to m e than w hat I a m asked to affirm . 2
Sinners and Crim inals Redeemed

Ib n Taim iyah found his fellow prisoners sunk into m oral disease -spending their tim e in frolics an d amusements and recreations like chess and checkerboard, w ithout the least con cern for obligatory prayers o r the rules o f ethical conduct. H e raised his voice against these abuses, recom m ended tem peiance and discipline and inculcated the sense o f piety and prayer in the prisoners. Not long after his a rriv a l in the prison, he was successful in changing its atm osphere. T h e ^prison w as turned into a m onastery resounding w ith prayers, ejaculations and rem em brance o f God. A num ber o f prisoners becam e his devot ed disciples who, on being released, would m uch rath er not go

Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV, page 38. Ibn Taimiyah has also given a descrip tion of his imprisonment in a letter which has been published recently. 2. Ibid ., Vol. X IV, p. 42

1.

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT

back to their families but rem ain w ith him in the prison.1 A fter another four m onths an effort was m ade again to get him released from the ja il. T h e C hief Q S zl B adr ud-dln ibn Ja m a cah m et him on the 14th o f Safar, 707 A.H. but Ibn T aim iyah again refused his offer. O n the 23rd o f R abcI-ul Awwal A m ir H osam u d -d ln M ah an a ibn Isa, a n A rab C hief o f Syria, saw him in the prison and brought him out o f it after putting him on oath. A m ir H os5m ud-dln took him to the governor o f Egypt on whose advice Ib n Taim iyah decided to rem ain in Egypt for some tim e m ore.
Moral Excellence

T he episode o f Ib n T aim iy ah s arrest and release revealed his m oral grit and courage. H e d id not bow down before the threats o f tyranny, nor did he yield to the offers o f worldly gains, position and riches. H e rej ected all offers of royal favours and privileges which he could have easily won by retracting from his stand. But this incident also speaks o f his another excellencea nobility o f character seldom to be witnessed even in those claim ing the distinction o f ran k and blood. H e forgave all those evilhearted persons w ho h ad tiie d to get him into trouble with out giving a second th o u g h t to th e whole affair. H e announced th a t he h ad no grudge, no bitterness against anyone. In a letter he sent to Syria soon a fte r his release, he says : M ay G od be pleased w ith you. You know th a t I have never wished a single M uslim to get into any trouble o f any s o r t ; th en , how can I desire th at my friends (scholars an d theologians) should come to g rie f on account o f me? I have no com plaint, nothing to grum ble against anyon ; on the contrary, I have a greater love an d respect for them allfor th e ir learn in g and status as they verily deserve. I f someone opposes an o th er m an, he is either a scholar and m an o f principle o r an evilhearted w rong-doer and a
1. Al-Kwakib ud-Durriyah, p. 181

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sinner. In the form er case he deserves our thanks and a goodly retu rn from G od ; an d , if he falls in the latter cate gory, one needs to pray for his redem ption as well as fo r1 m e and all the believers. I do not w ant th a t anybody should be avenged for m y sufferings o r for levelling false allegations against m e, for, I have already forgiven every one of them . I desire well-being of every M uslim the sam e as I desire for myself. A ll those persons who discre dited ine or deposed false evidence against m e or caused trouble to m e are not th e least accountable so far as I a m concerned ; no responsibility lies upon them on my score. 1

Teaching and Preaching in Egypt

D uring his stay in Egypt, Ib n T aim iyah took up w ith a renewed zeal the task o f explaining his view-point to the scholars and theologians. H e delivered several lectures in different educational institutions, p articularly in M adarsa Salehiya in which he dw elt upon the intricate dialectical issues in the p re sence o f select gatherings o f scholars, jurists and theologians. He opposed the m ystical traits show m g influences o f the GrecoIn d ian thought, exceeding th e lim its of Islam ic spiritual dim en sion set by the earlier mystics or m arking a break with the protecting mould o f the Sharfah ; for, he quite often praised the m asters o f spiritual p ath like Sheikh cA bdul Q a d ir J ila n i and Sheikh cA dI ibn M usafir A m aw l in his writings an d discourses. How ever, Ib n T aim iy ah s criticism o f pantheistic m onism was not taken kindly in a country w hich h ad a long trad itio n o f the neo-Platonic thought o f which the poet Ibil al-FS ridh (d. 632 A .H .) h a d built a stately rim e. A famous mystic of Egypt, Sheikh Ibn A ta 1 U llah Isk an d arl,2 b ro u g h t up a case against Ib n T aim iy ah in the royal court on b eh alf o f the Egyptian mystics. A court o f enquiry instituted und er th e royal edict heard Ibn T aim iy ah s forceful exposition o f his view-point an d decided to
1. Abu Zhra, p. 62 2. The author of Al-Htkam, a famous treatise on mysticism.

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dismiss th e com plaint against him. Soon afte r th at another com plaint was m ade against him . H e was now to stand trial for the view held by him th a t no cry for help except to G od, not even to the Prophet o f Islam , was permissible under the Sharfah. T h e doctors o f religion to whom the m atter was refer red could not again find fault w ith Ib n T aim iyah. T he C hief Q a z f only rem arked th a t Ib n T aim iy ah s view savoured, if at all, some disrespect to the Prophet although it neither am ounted to heresy n o r sacrilege. T he adm inistration had, however, grow n w eary o f the never-ending complaints against him and, therefore, he was asked either to retu rn to Dam ascus o r to go to Iskandaria (A lexandria), but in either case he was asked to comply with certain restrictions imposed o n him . I f none o f these alternatives was acceptable to him , he was told, then he would have to return to the prison again. Ib n T aim iyah pre ferred the th ird alternative but on the insistence o f his friends an d disciples he agreed to retu rn to D am ascus. H e set out for Syria on the 8th o f Shaw w al but he was brought back the sam e day an d sent to ja il. T h e detention, on this occasion, was analo gous to house arrest, for he was allow ed the services o f ail attendant an d anybody could come to see him . Shortly there after Ib n T aim iyah was set free on a unanim ous request m ade by the theologians an d jurists.
Ibn Taim iyah again in Trouble :

Suddenly there was political change in Egypt w hich m ade the m atters w orse for him . N asir ibn Q alaw oon abdicated and went aw ay to K irk, leaving Baibers al-Jashangtr, as the undis puted ru ler o f Egypt and Syria. Ib n T aim iyah had been res pected by th e outgoing M onarch since the days o f his close association with him d uring the T a rta r w ar. Now, considered an enemy o f the new ru ler, he was also despised by Sheikh N asr al-M am bijl, the spiritual m entor o f Baibers al-Jashanglr an d a zealous defender o f the doctrine o f pantheistic monism. A royal edict for the exile and internm ent o f Ib n T aim iyah in Iskandaria was issued in the m onth o f S afar, 709 A .H . Ib n T aim iyah, how

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ever, did not sit idle even in these unfavourable conditions and his forceful elucidation o f the Q u r an and Sunnah soon earned for him a respectable place in the literary circles o f Iskandaria.1 The city o f Ib n T aim iy ah s internm ent was a stronghold o f the Sabciniyah order o f mystics. Pantheistic cult of the sect preach ed em ancipation from the ritu al o f Islam ; its diffusion am ong the masses had led thousands o f reckless and profligate spirits to enter upon the path o f erro r. Ib n T aim iyah launched a pow er ful m ovem ent against the SabcIniyah o rd er and w ithin his short stay of eight m onths in Isk an d aria, he was successful in winning back a large num ber o f its adherents to the m oral law o f the Sha.fi'-ah.1
Dawnfall of Baibers al-Jashangir

As already predicted by Ibn T aim iy ah , th e rule o f Baibers al-Jashanglr cam e to an end within a year o f his assuming the im perial purple. N asir ibn Q alaw oon first established him self in Syria by gaining control over D amascus, w ithout any resis tance, on the 13th of Shc a b a n , 709 A.H. T hen he advanced tow ards Egypt where too he found a ready support from the elite an d the masses. Baibers al Ja sh a n g ir abdicated and Ibn Q alaw oon entered C airo on the day o f cId th at year. AlJash an g ir fled to Syria w here he was captured and executed by the governor o f Syria on the 7th o f Zil Q acad a, 709 A.H. Baibers al-Jashanglr was an able and popular prim e m inister but no sooner had he ascended the throne th an his eminence and authority began to peter out. H e was virtuous, tem perate, m odest an d dignified writes the annalist o f Egypt, al-M aqrizl, but from the m om ent he assumed the title of Sultan and ascended the throne, his glory and eminence began to melt away an d he was taken as a weak ruler. T h e people began to make b o ld and the grandees as well as his slaves becam e defiant.

1. Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 50 2. Letter of Sheikh Sharf ud-dln ibn Taimiyah to the people of Damascus and Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 50.

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Unsuccessful in achieving his aims, he soon cam e to g rie f; his ru le cam e to an end an d he breathed his last. 1 W ho knows th a t his unexpected dow nfall was not a punish m ent inflicted b y Providence for the unjust persecution o f a blessed s o u l!
Release o f Ibn Taim iyah - '

Sheikh *Alam ud-din al-Barzail, a contem porary o f Ibn T aim iyah, says th a t w hen Sultan Q alaw oon entered Egypt on the day o f c/cf, th e anxiety upperm ost in his m ind was to bring back Ib n T aim iy ah . Accordingly, th e royal summons to bring him back reached Isk an d aria the next day and he departed from th e city on th e 8th o f Shaw w al. A large crowed in Iskandaria h ad g athered to bid farewell to him . T h e king and his courtiers cam e out o f the royal cham ber to receive Ib n T aim iy ah . A fter w arm greetings extended to Ib n T aim iy ah by all, the king took him to the inner cham ber where the tw o rem ained alone for some time. Ib n T aim iy ah later told Q azi Ja m a l ud-dln ibn al>QalanisI th a t w hen he was alone w ith the Sultan, the la tte r solicited his consent for the execution o f all those ju rists who had sided with A l-Jashanglr. T h e Sultan showed him th e legal verdicts given by these persons in favour o f A l-Jashanglr and said th a t these very persons w ere responsible for his own sufferings. Ibn T aim iyah adds th a t as soon as he cam e to know o f the Sultans intention, he began praising those jurists and told the Sultan th a t if these ju rists w ere put to sword there would be nobody to replace them . T h e Sultan, however, again said th at these per sons h ad left no stone unturned to put Ibn T aim iyah to the most grievous h arm . T o this, Ib n T aim iyah replied th a t he had already forgiven them . H e had , therefore, no claim upon them . Ib n T aim iy ah kept on u rg in g the S ultan until h e prom ised to p ardon the offending jurists.3
1. Khutat Misr, Vol. II, p. 418 2. Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 54 3. Ibid.

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Ibn K a th lr relates on the authority of Q a z i Ib n M akhluf, ne o f the bitterest enemies o f Ib n T aim iyah, th a t he had not Men a m an m ore large-hearted th a n him . Ib n M ak hluf confesslid to Ib n K a th lr th at he h a d always tried to instigate and pro voke th e adm inistration to take action against Ib n T aim iyah, but the latter, when his tu rn cam e, not only forgave his misdeeds but also pleaded his defence. Ib n T aim iyah again turned to the pursuits o f teaching and reform ative endeavour. A num ber o f his adversaries expressed regret for th eir past behaviour, who Were all prom ptly acquitted Of th eir previous enm ity by Ib n T aim iyah, but a few still conti nued to h arbour a grudge against him . However, as they found it difficult to say anything openly against Ibn T aim iyah, they Itarted to m align him am ong the ignorant masses and instigated them to raise a tum ult against him . T h eir efforts bore fruit and on the 4th o f R ajab 7 11 A .H . a few persons, evil-m inded and wicked in spirit, m anhandled an d caused bodily injuries to him . Soon a large crow d g athered to take revenge on his behalf, but Ibn T aim iyah firm ly forbade th em to take any action. T here are only three alternatives \ said he, an d th e first is th a t I 'have a Claim upon them . T his I forgo, and declare th a t they are released from every claim th a t I m ay have upon them . I f you have a claim against .them an d you do not also w ant to listen to me, then <io w hatever you please. A nd, if God has that claim , H e shall have H is due whenever H e likes. O n another occasion a theologian fulm inated against him in a gathering,but, on having second thoughts later on, apolo gised to him . Ib n T aim iy ah im m ediately forgave him saying I never take revenge. 1 Ib n T aim iyah d id not confine his activities only to the instruction o f his disciples o r p ropagation o f th e teachings o f the Qpr> Sn and the i$unnah. H e also tendered advice to th e S ultan and got some im p o rtan t reform s introduced in Egypt and Syria. A royal edict sent to D am ascus in 712 A .H. prohibited
I. Abu Zahra, p . 74

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appointm ents to public offices being m ade on m onetary consi derations for the practice encouraged dishonest persons to hold these posts for m inting money out o f them . A nother order issued by the Sultan forbade unauthorised retaliatory action against a person charg ed w ith m anslaughter. T h e culprits were ordered to be arrested an d im peached in accordance with the law. Ibn K athlrsays th a t both these orders were issued by the Sultan on the advice o f Ib n T aim iy ah .1
Ibn Taim iyah returns to Damascus

R eports o f renew ed T a rta r efforts to invade Syria reached Egypt in Shaw w al, 712 A .H . T h e S ultan him self advanced to m eet th e th r e a t ; he left the cap ital on the 8th o f Shaw w al and arrived a t Dam ascus on the 23rd o f th a t m onth. Ibn T aim iyah also accom panied th e Sultan. In D am ascus, he was given a rousing reception by the citizens. Ib n T aim iyah had come with th e intention o f participating in the holy w ar against the T a rta rs, but on reaching Dam ascus he cam e to know th at the invading T a rta r arm y h ad retired. H e w ent to Jerusalem with the intention o f visiting B ait-ul-M uqaddas. H e returned to D am ascus after com pleting the pilgrim age on the 1st o fZ il Q acadaj
Attention paid to Juristic Issues

Ib n T aim iyah again got him self busy, on his return to D am ascus, in the intellectual and religious pursuits, but there was a difference this tim e in his literary engagements. E arlier he had paid m ore atten tio n to the scholastical issues relating to th e cult an d creed, w hich w ere the subject o f a lively delibera tion betw een th e Ash*arites an d H anbalites, b u t now he devoted his thoughts to th e ju ristic problem s. I t seems th at Ibn T aim iy ah felt th a t the dialectical problem s d id n o t require his attention any m ore for he h ad clearly expounded its contentious issues in his earlier speeches an d w ritings.
1. Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 66

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Ibn T aim iyah was a H anbalite like his forefathers, and most o f the legal opinions given by him conform ed to th at ichool, but he d id not follow th e H anbalite school exclusively. O f a tru th , no scholar o f Ib n T aim iyahs compass o f m ind, having an insight into the teachings o f the Q u ra n and the Sunnah as well as the objectives, principles and rules o f their Application evolved by th e earlier ju ristic schools, could possibly rem ain a blind follower o f any p articu lar ju ristic school. In ipecific m atters, therefore, he preferred the school which m ore appealed to reason o r which he found upheld by a greater num ber o f the Prophets com panions and their successors. But, in spite o f his eru d itio n and intelligence, he always praised the profound knowledge, creative thought, honesty and piety o f the precursors o f all the ju ristic schools, whom he regarded as icholars correctly basing th e ir rules o f interpretations on the principles o f the Q u ran, the synnah, ijml a an d qiyas. H e never liked those who sought to destory o r discard w hat previous generations had built up, n o r he favoured those who showed dis respect to the earlier IniamSi1
The Question of Three Talaqs

Ju st as Ib n T aim iyah often rejected the H nnbalite view, in a few cases he drew up his statem ent o f legal position disagree ing w ith all the four principal juristic schools. In these cases too he claims to have in ferred directly from the express laws of the Scripture and th e T rad itio n s. O ne such case in w hich he differed w ith all the oth er ju ristic schools related to the repudia tion o f ones wife by th ree sentences o f divorce, all given a t a time. T he question was w hether a divorce thus pronounced thrice Kt a tim e, although offending the law as well as irre g u lar and

1. Ibn Taimiyah wrote Raf*at Malam Ay^mmatil c7ilSm to show that the founders of all the four juristice schools were men of piety who endeavoured to expound the Shari'ah in the light of the Qpr^Sn and the Sunnah according to their own lights.

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sinful according to all ju ristic schools and the consensus o f the M uslim s, took legal effect o r n o t? T h e issues this question., raised w ere w hether revocation o f such a divorce was possible o r n o t ; w hether the th ree sentences o f divorce would be reck oned as one revocable pronouncem ent o r taken as an irreversible s e p a ra tio n ; an d w hether the wife so divorced could return to h er husband o r not w ithout halalah (i.e. until the divorced wife was m arried to another m an, the m arriage was consummated and then divorced by th e second husband) ? All the earlier jurists and T raditionists, such as Auzal, Nakh*ee, T h au rl, Ish&q ibn R a h u w a ih , Abu T h a u r, B ukharl, as also a m ajority o f the Pro p hets com panions an d th e ir descendants had held the view th at such a pronouncem ent, however sinful and heterodox, would sufficiently am ount to an im plied divorce taking legal effect. T his view found support from several T raditions o f th e Prophet in w hich he h ad held all the three sentences o f such a divorce as separate pronouncem ents and ordered the wife to be irre versibly divorced.1 Ib n T aim iy ah an d solne o f his friends and disciples, on the contrary, held th a t th e three sentences o f divorce should be regarded as one revocable divorce. H e form ulated this view on th e basis o f the Q u ran, the T raditions an d analogy and gave sufficiently weighty reasons in support o f his view-point.8
Divorce by Swearing

T h e re was another form ofdivO rce in w hich Ib n Taim iyah held a view different from all other jurists an d w hich had had an im portant bearing upon the relationship between the then governm ents and th e people.

1. Falawah Ibn Taimiyah, Vol. I l l, p. 38 2. Contrary to the views held by other jurists Ibn Taimiyah-proved th at the Traditions of the holy Prophet on which others based their legal opinion were not of unimpeachable veracity in accordance w ith accepted canons of criticism. For fuller discussion on the subject see rf-u/-A#*aif by Ibn Qayyim and Ighathatallahfan.

TRIALS AND TRIBULATIONS

53

i A commoti form o f divorce, in those days, was to asseverate ones veracity o r will to do a thing u n d er oath on the penalty o f divorcing ones wife. Its common form was to say to ones w ife : I shall do (or not do) this, otherwise you will be divorced. D uring the governorship o f H ajjaj ibn Yusuf, the oath o f fealty m ade to the ru ler was also linked with it which Stipulated that in the case o f breaking that oath the separation from ones wife would also autom atically take place. In response to a request for a statem ent on the juristic position o f such divorces, Ib n T aim iy ah expressed the legal opinion that such a declaration constituted a simple oath affirm ing to do or not to do a th in g ; and w here a sw earer failed in its fulfilment, expiation was incum bent on him , but the failure did not take the legal effect o f separation between him an d his wife. Ibn T aim iyah cited in his support the legal Opinions o f certain oarlier jurists,1 but his view deviated from the consensus of juristic verdicts on the point. This, naturally, caused vexation among the theologians who tried to forbid Ib n T aim iyah from expressing legal opinions in such cases. O n Tuesday, the fifth of R ab cI-ul-Awwal , writes Ib n K a th ir u n d er the annals o f 718 A. H ., the C hief Q azl Sham s ud-din ibn M uslim m et Ibn Taim iyah and advised him not to express his legal opinions on cases pertaining to divorces by sw earing w hich m ight be referred to him. T he Sheikh accepted his advice an d promised to act likewise in deference to thfe wishes o f the C hief Q a z l and other jurists. T hen, in the beginning o f Ju m ad a-u l-U la, a royal edict was received from C airo w hich prohibited Ib n T aim iyah from giving legal opinions in such cases. T h e royal m andate was road out in a gathering and Ib n T aim iyah prom ised to 'ab id e by it. 2 T h ereafter, it seems, Ib n T aim iyah reconsidered the ( m atter and reached the conclusion th a t the adm inistration had no right to interfere in this m atter, n o r was it proper for him to desist from expressing w hat he believed to be right for fear o f
1. 2. Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 87 Ab'ti Zhrai pp. 436-37

54

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC S P IR IT

governm ent. A ccordingly, he again started giving legal opinions in these cases. O n Tuesday, the 22nd p f R ajab, 720 A. H ., a council o f theologians and ju rists was convened by the governor o f Syria to consider the com plaint against Ibn T aim iyah. It was decided to detain him in the citadel where he was transferred th e sam e day. H e rem ained in this preven tive detention for five m onths and eighteen days and was released, on the orders received directly from C airo, on the 10th o f M uliarram , 721 A . H .2
The Last Imprisonment

For about five and a h a lf years between 721 A. H- to 726 A. H ., Ibn T aim iy ah devoted him self again to the teaching in M ad rasa H anbalia and his own madrasa in Qassasin, pouring forth his encyclopaedic knowledge. H e also revised some o f his older works. H is ready pen would have, perhaps, produced some m ore classical works but his intellectual brilliance and pre-em inent individuality, w hich tended to overshadow his contem poraries was a constant cause o f trouble for him . Ib n T aim iy ah had expressed a legal opinion, seventeen years back, th at no journ ey to a shrine, even if it be to the grave of the Holy Prophet o f Islam could be undertaken as an act of devotion u n d er the Shancak. H e h a d based his opinion on the T radition which said : Do not saddle a dorm edary except for three mosques, the M asjid-i-H aram (K a 'a b a ), my own Mosque (the Prophets M osque) and the M asjid-i-Aqsa (Bait-ulM u q a d d a s'). Ib n T aim iy ah had explained how the pilgri m age to shrines o f saints opened the d oor to ascribing divine powers to th e saints a n d perform ance o f ceremonies which itnply reliance on beings other , than G od. In his support he had cited several other T raditions o f the Prophet sa y in g : The curse o f God be on the Jew s an d C hristians who have turned

1. 2. 3.

Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 87 Ibid., p. 97 In Jerusalem

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55

the graves o f their prophets into places o f w orship, 1 or, O Allah, do not make an idol o f my grave th at it m ay be worshipped. 2 T he enemies o f Ib n T aim iy ah u nearthed this seventeen year old statem ent o f legal opinion to discredit him am ong the ignorant folk. It was given wide publicity in o rd er to injure the susceptibilities o f the masses, on the one hand, who consi dered it an act o f great m erit to visit the Prophets grave, and to enlist the support o f the theologians, on the other, against a m an a t odds w ith th e ir unanim ous view. T his did have the desired effect as the feelings o f the masses w ere stirred up to an extent th at the adm in istratio n felt obliged to intervene in the m atter. T h e o rd er to put him again behind the bars was issued on the 7th o f Shaban, 726 A. H . W hen the news was com m u nicated to Ib n T aim iyah, he said, I was looking forw ard to it. It has a lot o f goodness and grace for m e. Ib n T aim iyah was taken to the D am ascus citadel. A sub sistence allow ance was fixed for h im an d his b rother Z a in ud-din A bdur R ah m an ibn T aim iy ah was allow ed to rem ain w kh him . D etention o f Ib n T aim iy ah was a victory achieved by his adversaries. H is friends and disciples w ere m anhandled and some o f them .w ere even o rd ered to be cast into prison. They were all released a fte r a few days, but H afiz ibn Q aiyyim , one of the devoted disciples o f Ib n T aim iyah, rem ained w ith his m entor in detention till his d eath .3
Protest by the Scholars

Im prisonm ent o f Ib n T aim iy ah was a source o f satisfaction to his enemies, but it saddened the h earts o f a large num ber of scholars and doctors o f religion as well as th e m ajority o f the Muslims in Syria a n d oth er countries. N um erous appeals were m ade an d petitions p referred to the S ultan urging him to release
1. Bukhari and Muslim 2. Musnad Imam Ahmad 3. Abii %ahra, p, 84

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the Sheikh. T h e petitions subm itted to the S ultan from every p a rt o f the realm and from the far-flung lands o f the Islam ic w orld show the extent o f popularity and respect ib n T aim iyah enjoyed am ong the people O ne such petition sent by the scholars o f B aghdad to the S u ltan expressed deep concern and the sorrow ful gloom overtaking the intellectual circles a n d the o rthodox M uslim s o f eastern countries, p articularly Ira q , and the gleeful m irth exhibited b y the heretics and non-conformists over Ib n T aim iy ah s internm ent.1 A num ber o f religious doctors even sent th e ir own legal opinions in support o f the stand taken by Ib n T aim iyah.
Ibn Taim iyahs Preoccupations in the Citadel

T h e internm ent o f th e Sheikh, however, provided him , after a long tim e, the m uch needed repose an d rest w hich he fully utilised in prayers and literary endeavours. H e com pleted, along w ith his b ro th er Z ain u d -d ln A bdur R a h m an , eighty recitals o f the Q u r Sn d u rin g th a t short p e rio d .2 T h e g reater p a rt o f Ib n T aim iy ah s w ritings during the period o f detention consisted o f exegesis o f the Q u ra n which shows th a t th e tim e left by recitals o f the holy Scripture was spent in pondering over the Q u ran ic verses. H e also wrote a few m onographs explaining certain specific issues w hich were referred to him by the scholars. H e was thus enabled to carry on his literary activities undisturbed during the initial period o f his last detention, except, o f course, the sermons which he used to deliver for th e benefit o f th e people.

Further R estriction s
T h e w ritings o f Ib n T aim iy ah w ere taken out o f the gaol and th eir copies sent to scholars in every p a rt o f the country. Among th e treatises an d m onographs w ritten by him d u ring this period, one lengthy dissertation was indited on pilgrim age which
1. Al KawakiHud-Duniyah. p. 198 and Al *Uqud ud-Burriyah p. 350 2. Ibn Kathir, Vol. X IV , p. 138

TRIALS

a n d t r ib u l a t io n s

57

he wrote in reply to an article o f a M alikite Q azl cA bdullah ibn al-A khnalJ. Ib n T aim iy ah showed at length how ignorant And unlearned the Q a z i was.1 Thereupon; A bdullah ibn al-Akhnal lodged another com plaint in the royal court agaitist Ib n Taimiyah which resulted in the issue of. another decree ordering th a t every book, paper and pen should be taken away from him. T he royal edict confiscated all the books and w riting m aterial possessed by Ib n T aim iyah on the 9th o f Jam ada-ul-U khara, 728 A .H . O n the first o f the following R ajab , even the m anus cripts and loose sheets o f p ap er w ere taken away from him and kept in the library of Ju d ic ia ry .2
Writings by Charcoal

Ib n T aim iyah neither protested nor even showed any resent ment over this attem pt to shackle his pen. A fter the ink and pen w ere taken away, he used to w rite w ith charcoal on loose sheets o f such paper as he could lay his hands on. Some of these writings were found later on an d preserved for a long time. H e seemed to have reconciled him self to his fate and accepted th e inevitable w ithout repining and regarded his tribu lations as trials and sufferings o f fighters in the way o f God. Expressing the same feeling in a letter he w rote . T h an k God that we a re now engaged in a fight in the way o f G od. T he battle we are fighting here is not a bit low er in o rd er th an our previous w arfare against G hazan, th e heretics o f the hills and the propagators o f pantheistic m onism . T h is is undoubtedly a blessing o f God on us, although most o f the people are not aw are 3f it 3.
1. See Al'AkhnaHyah 2. The building now houses the office of Al-Majm*a ul-[Imi-ul-*Arbi. This was the place where Ibn Khallikan wrote his famous Wa/ay i t tl-'A yan and lectures were delivered by Ibn Malik who later wrote Al-Fih. The material confiscated from Ibn Taimiyah, under the Royal edict, com prised 60 books and i 4 folios of his maniscript.
i, Abu Z* A

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Serene R esignation.

His serene contentm ent and calm submission to the will o f God bespeaks o f the faith delivered unto the saints. The grace and blessings o f G od , w rote Ib n T aim iyah in another letter, lie in w hat G od decides for H is bondsm en. V erily, H e is the strong, the D om inant, the W ise an d the Know er. M an is put to h arm only by his ow n sins, for, says God : W hatever of good befalleth thee (O m an) it is from A llah and w hatever of ill befalleth thee it is from thyself.1 T herefore, it is incum bent on m an to be thankful to G od an d praise H im ever and anon, and seek forgiveness for his sins from the cradle to- the grave. For benediction to G od brings His grace and blessings, supplication for Divine forgiveness averts His w rath and punishm ent. W hat ever God ordains for H is bondsm an, it is always the best for him . T h e Prophet o f God is reported to have said* : I f pros perity attends a believer, he is thankful (to A lla h ); and if adversity befalls him , he is patient and it is good for him . But Ibn T aim iy ah was also convinced th a t he was without reproach : the only fault he owned was th a t he d id not yield obedience to the authorities in a religious m atter in > which he considered him self to be ju st an d right. H e acknowledged his intractability, if it could be so nam ed ; but, far from being sorry for th e shortcom ing, he considered it the harvest o f his conviction in the U nity o f G od. In yet another letter w ritten by him from the ja il he says : T h e ir greatest charge against m e is th a t the orders given by a m an were disregarded by me. But, if the o rd er given by a hum an being, w hether he be a m aster o r king, contravenes th e com m andm ents o f God an d H is Prophet, then th a t should never be obeyed. O n the contrary, the entire M uslim com m unity is agreed on the view th at no obedience is perm issible in anything opposed to an express m andate o f God and the Prophet.

1.

Q,. IV : 79

2.

Muslim, on the authority of Suhaib ibn Si nan

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59

?h e Last Days

Z ain u d -d in cA bdur R a h m a n relates th a t after com pleting eighty recitals o f the Q u r an , Ib n T aim iyah started it again With him . However, w hen he reached the closing verses o f the SUrah al-Q am ar-^Lo ! the righteous will dwell am ong gardens and rivers firmly established in the favour o f a M ighty K ing1 he expressed his desire to continue the recital fu rth er w ith cA bdullah ibn M uhlb and his b rother ^AbdullSh az-Z araee. Both these brothers w ere pious and pure o f heart, and th eir recital was very m uch liked by Ib n T aim iyah. But he had not completed this recital o f the Q u ra n when the knell sum m oning him to heaven was sounded. T he Sheikh had been indisposed for a few days when the governor o f D am ascus called upon him . O n his request to pardon him for th e inconvenience caused on his account, Ib n Taim iyah replied : I h av e alread y forgiven you and all those persons Who have beea hostile to me, T hey knew not th at I was in the right. I bear no m aliee nor have I any grievance against the K ing for putting m e in ja il at the instance o f the theologians. He d id not do it o f his own accord and is free from a ll responsi bility in this reg ard . I h av e p ardoned every m a n in this affair except those w ho a r e enem ies o f G od and H is P rophet. Ib n T aim iyah was taken ill twenty-two days before his death. H is health gradually dw indled till the journeys end drew near in the night o f th e twenty second o f Zil-Qa*ada, 728 A .H., when he quit this w orld a t th e age o f 67 years. Every one th a t is thereon w ill pass away ; there rem aineth b u t the C ountenance o f thy L ord o f M ight and G lory. 2 T h e c rie r o f the citadel m osque announced th e death o f Ibn T aim iy ah from the m in aret, w hich was repeated by the guards in the tu rrets and soon it spread in the city like wild fire. T he gates o f the fort w ere throw n open to allow wave after wave of teem ing drowd com ing to pay its last hom age to the dep arted
1. 2. Q.. LIV : 54-55 Q . L V : 26-27

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teacher. M any o f them kissed, w ith tears brim m ing in their eyes, the forehead th a t frequently rem ained prostrated before the Lord. T he bier was brought to the Ummayyacl M osque for funeral service. T he thronging crow d w hich was getting stronger every m om ent was so g reat th a t th e arm y h ad to force its w ay into it for carrying th e bier w ith g reat difficulty. In the vast m ultitude jostling an d pushing to get n e a r the bier m any lost th eir shoes. At last the procession ended in Suqral-K hall where another funeral service was led by his younger brother Z ain ud-dln A bdur R ah m 3 n . A fter th e service, Ib n T aim iyah was la id a t rest in M aqbartis-Sufiyah1 by th e side o f his brother S h araf u d -d ln cA bdullah. It is estim ated th a t a train o f 60,000 to 1,00,000 persons o f which a t least 15,000 were women joined th e funeral procession.* ' ' In several Islam ic countries lying to the south and east o f Syria funeral services w ere held in absentia for Ibn Taim iyah. Ib n R ajab, a chronicler who w rote Tabqat-ul-HanSbilah, Says that th e funeral services w ere held in several n earer and far off lands like Y em an and China. T h e funeral service o f an expositor o f the Q u ran will now be h eld , was th e announcem ent m ade a fte r F riday prayers in a fa r off city according to the travellers returning from China.

1. In this burial ground where such luminaries as Ibn fAsBkir, Ibn us-Salah, Ibn al-Ath?r, Abul HajjSj Al-Mizzi, Hafiz Im id ud-din Ibn KathTr were buried, only the grave o f Ibn Taimiyah now remains in an open space before the Hall of the University of Syria and the Hospital. 2. Hn Ktihir, Vol. X IV , p. 136-39

IV
Character and .Achievements
Intellectual Brilliance

Ibn T aim iyah occupied a p rid e o f place am ong his contem porary scholars and doctors o f religion, theologians and legists who had all to acknowledge, without any exception, his super lative m erits in every branch o f learning. T his was not due to his fire o f genius alone but also because o f his marvellous reten tive m em ory w hich was, indeed, a God-given gift granted to a few beneath the heavens. By Ib n T aim iy ah s tim e, the religious sciences h ad been vastly developed and encyclopaedic literature had been accum ulated on scores o f its branches. No scholar could, w ithout a prodigious m em ory, claim m astery over the whole o f it, m uch less sit in judgem ent over the thoughts and findings o f the savants in every field o f knowledge. But the rem arkable treasure house o f Ib n T aim iy ah s m ind enabled him to have a t his finger tips the whole o f the then extant literature on exegesis, T raditions, jurisprudence, dogm atic theology, scholasticism, history, biography, lexicography and syntax. H e could always utilize this store-house o f know ledge in his thrilling career o f intellectual and literary pursuits. His contem poraries an d successors both are agreed th a t he possessed a w onderful m em ory, nim ble m in d , quick grasp and a rad ian t flam e o f intellect. O ne o f his classmates, cA lam uddln al-B arzall, says that he enshrined in his m em ory w hatever he h ea rd , rarely anything faded from his m ind a n d , intelligent as

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he was, he h ad a w ide know ledge.1 Shams ud-dln al-Z ahabi, the famous historian and biographer has avouched th at he has not seen a m an m ore adept th a n Ib n T aim iyah who could rehearse the T raditions so correctly (w ith the correct w ordings and the narrative^ chains), recall these at the appropriate tim e and cite the correct references. 2 Everyone conversant-with the! science o f T raditions knows how difficult it is to learn by heart the entire literatu re on T raditions. But, strange though it may seem, no contem porary scholar o f Ib n T aim iyah, not even his bitterest critics, ever disputed the testimony o f al-Z ahabi who sa id : It can truly be claim ed th at no T rad itio n would be acceptable i f Ib n T aim iyah pleaded ignorance o f it. 3 K a m al ud-dln ibn az-Z am alkani disagreed w ith Ibn T aim iy ah on m any issues and h ad figured against him in several polem ical dispu tations. O nce he acknow ledged that no m an o f such prodigi ous m em ory has been born in the last four or five hundred years. 4 T o quote al-Z ahabl again, Ib n T aim iyah was a flame o f intellect and a m arvel o f sparkling intelligence and a sharp w it. 5
Encyclopaedic Knowledge

Ibn T aim iy ah had so com pletely assim ilated all the know ledge o f his tim e th at even th e talented doctors in different fields o f learning w ere am azed to see his m astery in their own sciences. A num ber o f em inent scholars have paid glowing tributes to Ib n T aim iyah. T a q i u d -d in Ib n D aq lq ul-cId occupies a distinguished place am ong the teachers o f T raditions. His im pression, after Ib n T aim iy ah m et him in Egypt in 700 A.H. w a s : I felt th a t he h a d a ll th e sciences before his e y e s; he called up w hatever he liked and left w hatever he w anted. '1
1. Ar-Raid ul-W afir, p . 6G 2. Al-Qatd-il-Jali, p. 101 3. A i-K m fik ib ud-Durtiyah, p. 145 4. Ibid p. 145 5. Ar-Radd-ul-W afir, p. 29 6. H id p. 31

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63

K arnal ud-dtn ibn az-Z am alkanl was a renowned scholar in several sciences. Expressing his astonishm ent over Ib n Taim iyahs agility o f m ind he says, W hen he is asked anything, his reply gives the'im pression th at he has spent his whole life in acquiring the know ledge o f that very science alone an d there is none else who can equal Jiim in th a t b ran ch p f learning. 1 T a q t ud-dln ibn al-Subki, one o f Ib n T aim iy ah s rivals who h ad w ritten many books to confute Ib n T aim iyahs views on certain juristic issues, w rote in his letter to al-Zahabr. I am fully aw are that Ibn T aim iyah is an erudite scholar, his knowledge is profound and deep in all the religious an d secular sciences ; he is m ature in thought an d sparkling in intellect, an d I also know th a t his icholarship is beyond all praise. I have always acknowledged these qualities o f Ibn T aim iyah before my friends and asso ciates. 2 Ibn T aim iyah was not a student o f history. H owever, his competence in this field too was acknowledged by a historian like Sham s ud-dln al-Z ahabl in these w ords : His knowledge of history is rem arkably astonishing. Ib n Q ayyim has left an account o f Ib n T aim iyahs am azing proficiency in this field as well as sliarpness o f m ind. H e writes in ul-Mal ad th a t once the Jew s (of either Syria o r Ira q ) produced as scroll o f crum b ling p ap er w ith a w riting in the old script w hich showed that the Prophet had exempted the Jew s o fK h a ib a r from the paym ent o f JiZyah (poll-tax). T h e docum ent h ad the signatures o f c All, Sacad ibn M a 5 z an d a num ber o f other companions o f the Prophet as witnesses. C ertain scholars, not so well-versed in .history, accepted it as a genuine docum ent and gave the decision that the Jew s should be exem pted from the paym ent o f poll-tax. But w hen th e docum ent was shown to Ib n T aim iyah he at once declared it to be a fake docum ent an d gave as m any as ten realo n rfo r holding th a t opinion. Some o f th e reasons given by Ib n Taim iyah for declaring th e docum ent as spurious w ere th a t it had
1. Ar-Radd ul-Wajir p. 30 2. Taiqat-1 t-Shife^iyah

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the signature o f Sacad ibn M al az but he h ad died before the battle o f K h a ib a r ; th ere could be no question o f any exem ption from the poll-tax because the Q u ran ic verses imposing the tax were revealed in th e y ear o f TabQk i.e. three years after the battle o f K h aib ar was fought. T h e exemption o f the Jew s from forced labour, a m ention o f w hich was m ade in the docum ent, was absurd for the Prophet o r his companions neither considered it lawful u nder the Sharfak nor they ever subjected anybody to forced labour ; and, lastly, no historian, T raditionist or legist had m ade a m ention o f the docum ent in question in his w ritings. 1 A nother story o f his nim ble wit and facility o f poetization has been told by Saleh T a j ud-din. H e says th a t once a Jew brought a question about fate in the form o f eight verses. Ib n T aim iyah read the verses, pondered over the question for a few seconds and then started w riting its reply. W hen he had com pleted the reply it was found th a t he had composed 184 verses in the same m etre and rhym e in w hich the question had been indited. Saleh T a j ud-dln adds th at Ib n T aim iyahs verses were so profound th a t a com m entary on them would h av e filled two copious volumes.* Ib n T aim iyahs great store o f knowledge has been acclaim ed by his contem porary and succeeding scholars with such compli m entary rem arks as T h e M aster Spirit o f the Age, The Grown o f Scholars, L ast o f the Enlightened scholars, and A Sign am ong the Signs o f G od. Ib n Saiyid-in-Nas (d. 734 A .H .) says th a t his contem poraries did not see another m an like him , nor did he him self witness his p eer. 3 Sim ilarly, Shams u d -d ln al-Z ah ab i testifies: I f I w ere asked to testify before the K acaba I will sw ear by God th a t neither I saw a scholar like him nor d id he him self see a m an o f his stature.
Dauntless Courage

T h e T u rk chiefs an d m ilitary generals were am azed to see

1. Z i d ul-toa<ad, Vol. I , p. 336 2. Al-Kawakib ad~Durriyah, p. 154 3. Ibid.

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65

the dauntless valour o f Ib n T aim iy ah w hich he had shown

against th e Mongols on the battle-field. Seated on the horse back, says H afiz Siraj ud-dln, he assumed his station in the front line like a b rave soldier an d flew at the enemy ranks as if he h a d no fear. 5 T h e rem arkable courage shown by him against the kings and rulers in raising th e voice o f tru th was undoubtedly th e outcom e o f a n still deeper, spiritual and enduring elem ent o f his ch a ra c ter. M any scholars before him had expounded the issues h e touched upon, but the singular courage a n d fearlessness exhibited by him in explaining the true content o f th e U nity o f G odhead and placing ones trust in H im alone as against the innovation o f sflflstic ideas like pantheistic monism or union and absorption into th e Absolute Being or other aberrations o f the m isguided sects, and the way he endured all adversities patiently an d steadfastly show the fortitude and grit o f his m ind and character. Paying a glowing tribute to this brave, venturesom e characteristic o f Ib n T aim iyah, alZahabi writes : None am ongst his predecessors and successors dared to explain his v ie w p o in t so forcefully as did Ib n T aim iyah and the result was th a t a large num ber o f theologians o f Egypt and Syria becam e h is : enemy. His adversaries left no stone unturned to hum iliate and discredit him . They charged him with innovation, joined issues w ith him and wrote treatises to confute him , but he rem ained steadfast against all odds and difficulties. H e resisted all tem ptations and rem ained firm on what he considered to be rig h t an d correct. T he conclusions he bad reached w ere not only the result o f his own ponderings and wide know ledge o f the S cripture an d T raditions but also a product o f his piety, fear o f God an d deference to the ordinances Of the Shan1ah, O n m any an occasion he had to face the com bined antipathy o f opposing scholars, but h e was always helped fey God to em erge u n h u rt from the vindictive w rath o f his Opponents. 2
11 li A l-K iva kiiu d -D u n iya h , p . 161 A r-Radd-ul-W fijir, p. 67

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T h e com prehensive know ledge and intellectual brilliance o f Ibn T aim iyah b ad been acknowledged by his contem poraries, friends an d foes both, but the secret o f his greatness and im m ortal fam e lay in his inquiring m ind, coherent thought and ability to c h a rt an u ntrodden course for him self. No scholar before him h a d d ared to point out the mistakes o f Sibawaih, th e undisputed authority on g ram m ar and syntax, as he did. G reek philosophy h ad so pow erfully captured th e m inds o f the scholars an d doctors o f religion that even its greatest critic, Im S m AbQ H a m id al-G hazSll, had not succeeded in completely shaking off the influence o f Greek metaphysics and ethics in his fam ous w ork Ihyd? ul-cUloom.' But Ib n T aim iyahs writings do n o t show the slightest trace o f compromise w ith the Greek philosophy and its way o f thinking. In KitBb ur-Radd-i-l aM Mantaqiyin his criticism o f th e logical syllogism smashes the entire structure o f G reek philosophy from w hich it had been borrow ed. In T rad itio n s an d jurisprudence too, the scholars never d ared to discuss an y issue except w ithin the lim its set by th e ea rlie r teachers, but Ib n T aim iyah had the courage to re open m any issues w hich h a d by then been taken as decided once for all. H e fearlessly presented his findings w ith cogent reason ing couched in a literary style, which stirred the stagnant thou g h t o f his tim e. At last, he raised him self above the four orthodox juristic schools an d began to base his legal opinions only on the Scripture, th e T raditions o f the Prophet and the practice o f the com panions. F or the last few years , says al*Zahabx, ''h e is not giving his legal opinions in accordance w ith any recognised ju ristic school, but stands by w hat he considers, to be rig h t. H e has set f o r th 'a series o f such reasons an d j proofs, as none else h a d done earlier, w hich uphold the correct*) ness o f following th e precepts o f th e Prophet arid the earliest! followers o f Islam . * i I t is n atu ral for m an to e rr, and Ib n T aim iyah too was at!
!. 2. For a fuller discussion see Falasufatul Ikhlag Jil Islam wa Silituha til Falsafa til Ighriqiah and Tarikh-i-Akhlaq by Dr. Muhammad Yflsuf .MOSS. ! Ar-Radd-ul-Wafir, p. 17 1 * \

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fault in some o f his unique opinions ; b u t there is not the least doubt about his sincerity. H e never blindly followed any Imam nor gave up the opinion o f the founder o f any juristic school either on account o f false pretence, inertia o r sluggishness, vanity or expediency. H e was always disposed to act w ith careful regard to w hat w a s ' right and enjoined by the Book o f G od and T raditions o f the Prophet. T h e character o f Ibn T aim iyah can best be summed up in the w ords o f Ib n H ajar cAsqaIanl which is w orth repeating here. H e says th at Ibri T aim iyah was w ithout doubt the Saint o f saints. Even in m atters in which he was censured, he d id not form his opinion out o f arrogance. H e insisted on his opinion only whe he was satis fied about its correctness. In all those num erous m atters in which his opinion has been accepted as correct, one ought to avail oneself o f his wisdom and raise his hands in prayer for the peace o f his soul. O ne need not follow him where he is mis taken, but he cannot be reproached even in those m atters. All the erudite scholars o f his tim e have affirmed th a t he had attained th a t position o f scholarship an d learning w hich enables a m an to form ulate juristic opinions. Even Sheikh J a m a l uddln az-Z am alkam , who was his bitterest enemy always trying to put him to harm , has acknowledged the erudition o f Ibn T aim iyah. 1 ,l Furtherance o f the cause o f tru e faith was all his business, from m orn till eve. H e h a d no other occupation, no vocation, which could divert his attention from the rem em brance o f God and service o f his fellow beingsneither a trad e to ply, nor dependants to engage his attention he ever had. Ib n T aim iy ah s engagem ent in lite ra ry pursuits and devo tion to God so engaged his attention th a t he never thought o f accepting the responsibilities o f a m a rrie d life. H e busied him lelf in giving legal opinions and helping others to solve th e ir problems since early m orning until th e tim e a rriv e d fo r offering m id-day prayer. H e spent th e whole day in th a t m an n er a n d
I. Ar-Radd-ul-WdJir, p. 78

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taught the students until it was quite late in the night. In betw een these engagem ents, he would keep him self busy in recollection o f G od, in praising H im and in seeking His forgiveness.1 Acquisition o f know ledge was the other e rran d in which Ib n T aim iyah continuously kept him self employed. I t seems , says Siraj u d -d ln Abu H afs al-BazzSr, " th a t study an d edifica tion had become his m ood and m ental aptitude, dw elling in him an d pervading all bis actions.* Ib n T aim iy ah s sincerity and honesty o f purpose is apparent from the fact th a t on every occasion when h is enemies caused him trouble an d distress, he was generous enough to d e c la re : I acquit every M uslim accountable for the troubles caused to me, . T h e way he forgave Q azi. Ib n M akhluf and insisted on S ultan Q alaw oon to p a rd o n all those theologians an d jurists who h ad earlier opposed h im speaks volumes o f his largeheart-. edness an d nobility o f disposition. Always scrupulously careful to ad h ere to th a t w hich was m anifestly tru e an d right even in thought, his differences o f opinion w ith o th er doctors o f religion w ere always because o f disagreem ent on religious and intel lectual issues an d never owing to personal acrim ony. A nd, indeed) it was only on account o f his unim peachable honesty o f purpose an d uprightness th a t he was enabled to bequeath, w ithin the span o f 67 years from b irth to death, which was full o f restlessness an d m entally tiring activities, anxiety and anguish caused by his adversaries, an d adverse fortune a n d untow ard events b ro u g h t by destiny, a store o f encyclopaedic literature w hich was enough to gain recognition not for one but several erudite scholars.^ H e profoundly altered th ro u g h his sincerity,

1. Al-Kawakik ud-Dumyah, p. 156 2. / r f ,p . 156 3. Full details of all the writings of Ibn Taimiyah, many of which have been; lost, are not available now. However, the total number of his worker which include treatises, monographs and books, some of which cover only / Continued on next pegI

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69

independence o f m ind an d indefatigable efforts, not only the course o f religious thought o f his tim e but also left such indelible im prints an d influences which a re still pregnant for the future. H e can thus rightly be claim ed as the harb in g er o f a new era o f intellectual and religious thought in Islam .
Literary Achievements

T here are some distinguishing characteristics o f Ibn T aim iyah s w ritings which m ake them sigularly different from those o f his contem porary scholars. T hey can still hold our interest and are, in fact, again exerting a form ative influence on the m ore thoughtful sections o f th e M uslim society. T he first impression th a t a read er gathers from his writings is th at the au th o r has reached the core o f religion. His discus sions tend to centre round th e fundam ental bases of. the subject m atter w hile his forceful, lucid an d exhaustive treatm ent o f the subject captivates the h e a rt an d m ind o f the reader. Almost all his compositions, w hether full-fledged treatises o r sm all articles, especially those w hich deal w ith a credal, dialectical or juristic question, throw light on some inm ost aspect o r essence of the Wiurfck. , A nother feature o f his writings is th at they reflect the ideas, conditions and problem s o f his day. O ne can easily find out from his essays th e m oral and intellectual conditions, social problem s and religious and cultu ral life o f the society o f his time. These descriptions also speak o f the likes and dislikes, views an d feelings o f Ib n T aim iy ah in reg ard to th e prevailing conditions for he never w rote ais an unconcerned and indifferent n arrato r o f the events.' . , ; *

20 pages while others run into Sfeveral volumes, is 621. O f these, the writings on exegesis number 102, on Traditions 41, Jurisprudence and discussion of juristic issues 166, dialectics and matters pertaining to creed 126, morals and mysticism 78, criticism of philosophy and logic 17, letters expounding theological issues 7 and on other miscellaneous subjects 84. I, See, for instance, Iqtidhii3 Siral-ul-Mustaqtm Mukhalafaia Ashah ul-Jahim

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His com m entaries on the Q u ran ic verses restate the abiding truths in term s o f life an d surrounding conditions, m ake a close study o f the different sections o f society, th e ir m anners and m orals, customs an d habits and point out the disfiguring innova tions in form an d thought resulting from the disregard o f Divine guidance.1 T h e intim ate bearing of his w ritings on life o f the then society has im parted them attraction a n d effectiveness which will hold-attention o f the people for all times to come. W hatever subject Ib n T aim iyah takes up, he presents, in a few pages, all the connected m aterial culling them from hun* dreds o f volumes on different subjects. T he comprehensive treatm en t o f every issue on w hich be w rites, w hether pertaining to speculative sciences or creed and religion, is peculiar to. Ibn T aim iyah. At times th e m atter collected by him in a single volume is so extensive th a t it takes a long and intensive study to assim ilate it.s At the same tim e, however, the m ultitude o f ideas a n d excess o f details cloud the original them e and m ake it difficult for the read er to follow his thoughts. But this does not, in any way, decrease th e usefulness o f his works, each one of w hich is a com pendium o f all the then available inform ation on th a t p articu lar subject. But for these encyclopaedic works o f Ib n T aim iy ah a lot o f precious thoughts, utterances and writings o f the old w ould have been lost for ever. N evertheless, Ib n T aim iy ah s writings lack concentration o f treatm en t as he very often switches over to a related subject w hich unnecessarily prolongs the discussion. Anybody not acquainted w ith his w ritings, thus, finds it extrem ely difficult to assim ilate his ideas as well as keep his eyes on the central them e o f the essay. T his is, undoubtedly, a n atu ral defect found in th e writings o f those endow ed w ith the bread th o f interests and nim bleness along w ith im passioned eloquence, as was the case with Ib n T aim iy ah . I t seems th a t he was unable to keep him
1. Sec the commentaries on Surat-un-Nur and Surat-ut-lkhlas. 2. For instance; see Minhaj us-Sunnah and Al-Jateai-ul-Sthih li-man Baddala Din al-Aiasih.

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71

self strictly confined to the narrow lim its ol any s u b je c t a n d the restlessw anderings of his m ind continued to r e c a ll everything connected w ith th e m atter i n h a n d in q u ic k s u c c e s s io n . T his also holds tru e o f his lectures as one of his disciples, Hafiz Abu Hafs al-Bazzai; succinctly described in these w ords, W henever he started lecturing on any subject the Providence unveiled before his eyes the tieasurehouse o f know ledge, recondite truths and hidden m eanings, precepts a n d principles enunciated by th e m asters-of yore and all the sim ilitudes and illustrations o f the subject found in A rabic poetics, and it seethed th a t a headstream o f knowledge Was surging forth like a swift to rren t. 1 T he same was the case during debates w herein he usually raised too m any issues w hich confounded his contenders, who found it difficult to answer them adequately. T his was the reason why the scholars of* S y ria and Egypt m ore often fought shy o f challenging him during academ ic discussions o r polem ical disputations. O ne o f his contem porary scholars an d a noted d ebater, Sheikh S a fi uddln al-H indl, once rem arked, Ib n T aim iy ah , you a re like a breezy b i r d ; w henever I try to catch hold o f you at one point you swiftly move on to a n o th e r. 2 T h e writings o f Ib n T aim iy ah , like his speeches, are b u r dened w ith excessive details and digressions from the m ain topic but even these, being inform ative an d brilliantly couched, are rew arding for painstaking students. Lastly, Ib n T aim iy ah s works also differ from other w ritings of his tim e on dialectical an d ju ristic subjects. D eviating from the beaten tack o f a graceless an d severe style an d legal w ordage o f writings on these subjects, Ib n T aim iy ah s dress o f thought is graced by literary allusions an d quick wit, ease and lucidity o f style an d vigour an d eloquence w hich possess an im m ediate appeal to th e read ers. W hen he writes o f the precepts o f the old m asters an d th e seemliness o f the course followed by them his vigour o f thought im parts a life, a spirit
1. Al-Kawakii ud-Durriyah, p . 155 2. Nuzhatul Khawatir, Vol. II, p. 14

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to his w ritings th a t vies w ith the liveliness an d grace o f a forceful oration. Ib n T aim iyahs biographers and contem porary w riters have also m ade .a m ention o f his silvery tongue w hich was m atched by his lite ra ry flourish. Speaking o f the force and flow of Ib n T aim iy ah s elocution, Hafiz A bu H afs al-Bazzar says: His oratio n h a d the force o f th e flood, the rising tide of the sea. W hen he spoke, it appeared th a t he was n o t here b u t som ew here e ls e : his eyes h a lf closed and the face ra d ia n t with a heavenly grace, his h aranguing overaw ed his audience. 1 Ib n T aim iy ah s efforts to revive the tru e faith cover a vast *ield which can broadly be categorised into revival o f faith in the U nity o f G od, eradication o f pantheistic ideas, criticism o f philosophy, syllogistic logic and dialectics to assert the superiority o f the Q u ran an d the Sunnah, extirpation o f un-Islam ic beliefs through refutation o f Christianity and Shil aism an d , lastly, rejuvenation o f Islam ic thought an d its related sciences* ,

1. A l-K a w a k H u d -D u rriyth , p. 155

V
Reformative Endeavours
Thoughts borrow ed from un-Islam ic sources, irreligious precepts an d dogmas fostered by th e IsmaMlite C aliphate of Egypt and the pantheistic doctrines diffused by the illiterate and misguided j5 /i mystics h ad given b irth to num erous heretical beliefs and customs in those days. T he M uslim masses had begun to look up to th eir religious teachers o f yore, saints and m artyrs as intercessors w ith God in alm ost the same way as Ezra and Jesus C hrist h ad been elevated to the pedestal o f Divinity by the Jew s a n d the C hristians. T h e tombs o f M uslim aints presented the sam e spectaclethe sam e rituals, devotional lervices and oblationsas were commonly perform ed in m artyries and sanctorum s o f the other faiths. M uslim s too Invoked the aid o f th eir saints rath er th an o f God : repaired to their graves in large num bers to celebrate the anniversaries o f their death, constructed palatial buildings on th eir tom bs, perform ed cerem onies im plying reliance on them and peram bu la te d around th eir shrines like the House of G od. G raphic descriptions o f the perverted beliefs an d practices popular in those days have, been left by Ib n T aim iy ah . Some o f these are reproduced here to give an idea o f the popularity and strength of conviction gained by the perversion o f saint-worship.
Divinity o f Saints

M ost o f the people hold th e saints in reverence no less

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th a n God and follow the comm ands o f the attendants at their tombs, as if they were the saints apostles. Supplications are offered to the d eparted saints to get their difficulties solved while the attendants are presumed to have the authority of declaring w hat is law ful or not under the Shari'-ah. These people have., in fact, dismissed God from D ivinty and M uham m ad from prophethood. Not unoften people come to seek redress against the wrongs done to them by the kings or to have some o f their private affairs set right by a saint. T he attendant then goes inside the shrine and prom ptly returns to report th a t thepetitioners request has been transm itted to G od through the saint, and the prophet as well as God have accordingly sent word to the king in his affair. Is this not idolatry a n d ascrib ing partners to God ? Surely it is blasphemy o r rath er naked idolatry w hich would not be tolerated even by the Ghristiaps and polytheists, nor w ould they be duped by such tricks. The way these attendants avail themselves o f the offerings and presents brought to the shrines answers the description thus given in the Q u r an : O ye who believe ! Lo ! m any o f the (Je.wish) rabbis and the (C hristian) monks devour the w ealth o f m ankind wantonly and d eb ar (men) from the way o f A llah. 1
Tomb-Worship

M any o f these ignoram uses could be seen offering prayers facing the tombs or beseeching the saints to take pity on them and p ardon their sins. Some have even th e ir backs tow ards the K acab a while offering prayers facing these g ra v e s; a n d when they are asked to desist from it they declare th a t the K aab a is m eant to serve as a qibla for the laity w hile the elect and pure in h eart need pay divine honours to the saint alone. O f these persons, some are even known for th eir piety and devotion to; prayer and have thousands o f disciples. T here are other* to o >

1. Ar-Raddo *ala-al-Bakri, p. 298 (Q,. : ix : 34)

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who take to a life o f exacting self-m ortification a n d direcf their disciples desiring penitence to com plete a probation of forty days prayer and penance at the tom b o f th eir spiritual mentors. They sit m editating over the graves like idolaters contem plating upon th eir deities. These persons claim to have an exalted state of feeling, inspiration and rapturous joy in these shrines w hich they never .attain in tfe$ mosques although T his , lam p is found in the house which A llah hath allow ed to be exalted and (where) His nam e shall be rem em bered. 1
Irreverence to God

T h e saint-worshippers do not feel any hesitation in com m itting grievous sins but they trem ble w ith fear if they happen to see the dom e o f their saints shrinfe w hile deviating from the path o f virtue. T here they b id each other to be careful o f the departed soul resting in the m ausoleum ; T he saint they fear, but not God who has created the heaven an d the earth and causes the moon to expand and decrease. I f someone points out the blasphemy o f their beliefs they try to intim idate him with the w rath o f th eir saint in the sam e way as Ib ra h im was threatened by the idolaters.2 His people argued w ith him . H e sa id : Dispute ye w ith m e concerning A llah w hen H e h ath guided m e ? I fear not a t all th a t whic& y e s e t u p beside H im unless my L o rd willeth aught. M y L ord includeth all things in His knowledge. W ill ye not then rem em ber ? How should I fear th a t w hich ye set up beside H im , when ye fear not to set up beside A llah th a t for w hich H e h ath revealed u n to yoii n o w a rra n t? W hich o f th e tw o factions h ath m ore rig h t fco-safety ? (Answer m e th at) if ye have .knowledge. . Those w ho believe and obscure n et th e ir belief by
1,
t. Ar-Raddc^alal-Bakn, p. 295 (Q,. xxiv : 36) Ibid., p. 298

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wrong-doing, theirs is safety ; and they are tightly guided. *

Derision of God

T h e description o f saint-worshippers sacrilegious^ behaviour given by Ib n T aim iyah goes on to say th at they poke fun at the U nity o f God an d sneer at the prayers offered to H im . T hey look w ith scorn upon Haj an d thfc ffkjees and believe that the visit to the shrines o f th e saints is m ore estimable th an the perform ance o f Haj. T his is w hat the S h i'ah s beliei'e and m any am ongst the Sunnis also. Some are even insolent enough to trifle with the mosques an d the prayers offered therein, for they believe th a t the invocation o f blessings by th e ir sheikhs carries greater m erit th an th e prayer offered to God. A sect amongst th e Shicahs claim ing to be the follower o f Ytinus Qaisi not only has faith in such blasphemous doctrines but even expresses it thus in the verses quoted here H ark, and let Us lay in ru in s : T h e mosque to open a wine sh o p ; T h e pulpit, we m ust dism antle, T o fashion it into a lilte and fid d le ; F rom the leaves o f Q u ran, we m ake a flute, A nd of the Q a z ls beard, the g u ita rs string. Shameful Impudence

They a r e so brazenly shameless th a t they assert on oath w hat they know to be manifestly u n tru e but would dare not to sw ear by th eir saints w hat they know to be correct. T heir dictum runs, W e need no sustenance w hich is n o t from our sheikh ; when they slay a goat they say, In the nam e o f my L o rd and M aster ; som e o f them claim th at th e ir sheikh is superior to prophets o f G od ; w hile others hold th e ir spiritual m entors to be partakers o f D ivinity as the Christians think o f Jesus Christ. T h ere are still others who u tte r the nam e o f th eir saints with the highest m arks o f resp ect; claim th a t th eir sheikhs have
1. Q.. V I: 80-82 2. Ar-Raido*alal Bakri, p. 251

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attained union w ith G o d ; compose verses attributing Divine powers to th e m ; w hile these sheikhs pretend th at Moses had conversed w ith them when fee fell in swoon o r th at th eir call makes the,heavens move ; an d it is th eir fright which makes the worlds trem ble and oceans restless. 1
Divinity of the Saints and Prophets

T h ere a re also those poor, m isguided and unlettered folk who believe th at the prophets are the creators and restorers of all tilings, the operators o f the heavens and earth and it is they who solve all the difficulties o f a m an. T his is obviously not the faith o f M uslims but w hat C hristians believe about Jesus C hrist. But even the C hristians regard only C hrist to be the Divine word breathed from all eternity, for they do not hold such beliefs about other prophets like Ib ra h im and Moses although they grope in blind and naked ignorance. 2 Spipe others rest in confidence th at the inhabitants o f every city or town get sustenance on account o f their local saint who protects them from all the evils and enemies. T he saint enjoying their trust is called the guard ian spirit o f the town as, for instance, Saiyida N aflsah 3 is known as the guardian, spirit < > . Cairo and Egypt. S im ilarly-there are other tutelary spirits of different cities who are supposed to w ard off evil from them . 4 So credulous and superstitious they a re , says Ibn Taim iyah, th at when the enemy advanced against Damascus, they gathered round the tom bs o f their saints whom they expected ,to heat off the danger. O ne o f their poets says : , O who fear th e Mongol rancor, Com e and be safe u n d er Abu cA m ar.
'I. Ar-Raddo^dal-Bakn, p. 251 ' t . Hid., p. 328 3. Saiyida Nafisah (d. 208 . A, H ,) was the great granddaughter of Hasan, son of cAli, the fourth Caliph. Known for her piety and learning, her disciples included such luminaries as Imam -Muhammad ibn Idris . ash-Shafe*T. Her grave is reported to be in Cairn. 4. Ar-Raddo*alol Akhnap, pp. 82-83

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Another poet calls o u t : ; Abu A m ars tom b is the fender you need, T h at can keep off every trouble, indeed. 1

Shrines and M artyrie*

T h e n atu ral outcome o f the grow ing popularity o f sain t' worship was th a t every shrine o r tom b o f a person reckoned to have died in the halo o f sanctity became an object o f general adm iration and re v e re n ce ; decreasing, as if in a balance, the im portance o f the mosques. Shrines o f saints, quite a num ber o f w hich w ere fake, sprang up in every p art o f the M uslim w orld which w ere lavishly provided w ith rich endowments by the rulers o f the lands for th e ir m aintenance. Palatial mauso leums w ith gold plated domes were constructed and a whole arm y o f attendants, ushers and menials s o o t gathered round them . Fairs and festivals cam e to be organised at regular intervals which were attended by pilgrim s from far off places. At times these pilgrim ages to th e shrine o f saints w ere taken m ore seriously th a n even th e H aj pilgrim age. T hese shrines h ad thus become th e objects o f devout reverence' and centres of religious observances during th e seventh an d eighth centuries after H ijrah , fa r exceeding in im portance th an the mosques and threatening to replace even th e House o f G od. T h e descrip tions o f this outrageous m ultitheistic cult in Islam left by Ibn T aim iy ah clearly show how deep-rooted an d wide-spread the abuse had become in his days. O ne o f the reasons for its gaining w ide popularity am ongst the illiterate masses was the encouragem ent it received from the Fatim ide, or, m ore appro priately the B atinite em pire o f Egypt which held an undisputed sway over th e lands extending from the far west to Egypt and Syria for 266 years.2 T h e S h ia h s have always h a d a higher
1. Ar-Raddo'alal Bakrt, pp. 377-78 2. For detail* lee Saviours o f Islamic Spirit, Vol. I, pp. 256-61

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regard for the tombs o f th e ir Imams in com parison to the mosques, and for the shrines in N ajaf, K a rb a la and M eshhad a greater respect than even the tw o Houses o f God in M ecca and M adina. Although the Ism a ^ lite C aliphate h ad completed its days before Ib n T aim iyah was - born, but*its intellectual and cultural influences still lingered on as d id large habitations o f Shicahs and Ism a'liites in Egypt an d Syria. T h eir corrupting influences had combined with the preverted teachings of the misguided su fi mystics to raise the shrines o f the saints in popular esteem and tu rn them into centres of blasphemous practices. A few m ore passages by Ib n T aim iyah describing the then prevalent devotional observances at the tombs o f the laints would b ear repetition here.
Pilgrimage to the Tombs

T h ere are some persons who perform pilgrim age to these tombs. A few o f them have even w ritten treatises expounding the. rituals to be perform ed by the pilgrim s. A S h iS h doctor, Abu A bdullah M uham m ad ibn N oam an known by the nam e of B il-M ufld, has w ritten a book entitled ManUsik Hajj-ulMashahid in w hich he attributes certain sayings to the members o f the prophets household upholding saint-worship, although the spurious quotations given by him are m anifestly absurd and meaningless. 1 T h e pilgrim ages to th e shrines are often given preference while there a re people who labour under the misconception th at two or th ree pilgrim ages to the shrines o f certain venerable saints a re equal in m erit to Haj pilgrim age. T here are others who hold th e tom b o f their sheikhs to be another plain o f A r a f a t; they pay a visit to them d uring the days o f Haj and rem ain theVe exactly for the same period as one is required to cam p in A rafat d u rin g the Haj. This practice is prevalent in the East as well as in the W est. Some o f these m isguided persons hold the pilgrim age to th eir saints shrines h igher in estim ation th an
1.
Ar-Radehtalal-Bakn, p. 295

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th e Haj its e lf., O nce th e disciple of a saint offered to exchange the seven Hajs perform ed by him for a single visit to his saints shrine p aid by another m an. T h e latter enquired about it from his Sheikh who told him th a t if he had agreed to the transaction he would have suffered a great loss. O ne can often h ear these people m aking the assertion th at peram bulations seven times round the grave o f a saint are equal in m erit to one H a j i
Scant Regard paid to the Mosques

W ithout bestowing any care on the mosques which give a dull and deserted look, shrines a re adorned w ith beautiful carvings and decorated by splash o f colour and artistic designs. T he mosques m eant for offering obligatory prayers five times a day are left to the mercy o f the poor who a re often unable to provide even a carpet and a lam p for them . But, com pared to these mosques, looking like neglected inns, the shrines are deco rated w ith beautiful curtains, adorned with gold and silver ornam entations an d provided w ith m arble floors. Gifts and oblations continue to be offered a t these shrines all round the year. Does all this not m ean an open disrespect o f G od, His signs and H is Apostle, and associating partners to H im ?, But why does this happen ? T his dem onstrates the common faith o f these people th at the supplications m ade in a shrine o r calling out ones needs in the nam e o f the saints are m ore efficacious than the prayers offered to God in the mosques; T he natural outcome o f such a belief is th at the shrines a re given preference over the mosques w hich w ere to be the houses m eant for sending up all supplications an d invocations and entreaties and beseechments. I f th ere are endowments for the upkeep o f both a mosque an d a shrine, th e tru st for the latter would invariably be lavishly provided w ith funds in com parison to th at o f the mosque. T hey follow in the footsteps o f the pagans o f A rabia

1.

Ar-Raddo'alal-Bakrf, p. 296

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who have been described thus .by the Q u r an : They assign unto A llah, o f the crops and cattle which H e created, a portion, and they say : T his is A llahs,-in th eir m ake-believe and this is for (His) partners in regard to us. T hus th at w hich (they assign) unto His p artners in them reacheth not A llah and that which (they assign) unto A llah goeth to th eir (so called) partners. Evil is th e ir o rd in an ce. 1 Despite the existence o f pow erful M uslim kingdoms and celebrated centres o f Islam ic learning and the presence o f a large num ber o f theologians, legists an d other doctors o f religion, the M uslim w orld had yielded, during the seventh and eighth centuries o f the Islam ic era, to a blind allegiance to the saints and walls, om ens and auguries, sacred shrines and richly ornam ented tombs. N ot to speak o f the populace, even the learned and the eru d ite scholars seem to have been unresolved about the common beliefs an d practices. T he writings o f Ib n T aim iyahs contem poraries show th a t they had failed to distin guish clearly the essential elements o f Islam the unity oif God and the pure faith as laid down by the Q u ran and the precepts and practices o f the Prophet, from the current accretions and contaminations. Some o f bis contem porary doctors o f religion had even joined th e ir faith to these popular but lam entable departures from the first principles o f Islam . This is am ply borne out by two copious volumes w ritten by Ibn T aim iyah to Confute Sheikh cAli Ib n Yt aq u b al-Bakri and Q azi T aqlud-din al-A khnai.
Reformative Endeavours

T h e banner o f reform raised by Ib n T aim iyah, undeterred

by the b itter opposition o f the m isguided masses, posed a th re at to the very foundations o f u nw arranted luxury, idolatry and

lUperstitions o f the age.

T h e masses repaired to the tombs of

I, Ar-Roddo^alal-Bakri, p. 250 ( Q, vi : 136)

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT

th e saints, offered presents and oblations and indulged in prac tices contrary to the worship o f the one and only God. They belieyed th a t their prayers would be really answ ered if m ade in the nam e o f a saint. Ib n T aim iyah dem onstrated by his writings th a t no prayer or invocation to anyone besides God was allowed by I s la m ; for, th a t am ounts to ascribing partners to God, an d was an un-Islam ic practice borrowed by the illiterate laity from their non-M uslim neighbours. T he teachings o f the P rophet o f Islam leave no doubt, wrote Ibn T aim iyah in ar-Raddol alal B a k rl, th a t he never perm itted his followers to supplicate to any departed soul, w hether a prophet o r a saint either by way o f appeal or intercession. Sim ilarly it is not law ful to prostrate before any being, living o r dead, or to pay hom age to anybody in a way prescribed for divine service. We all know th at the Prophet has prohibited all these acts which are, in fact, different form s o f shirk or ascribing plurality to G od, and hence strictly prohibited by God and His Apostle. I f the theologians o f bygone days d id not declare such ignoramuses as o utright apostates it was because people w ere .unlettered and ignorant o f th e teachings o f the Prophet. T hey considered it prudent to w ait till th e precepts o f the Prophet and ordinances o f th e tru e faith w ere m ade known to a ll. 1 A t an o th er place in the sam e book he writes th a t im ploring the dead , w hether to prefer a petition or to make an appeal for redress is som ething foreign to the Shatx^ah o f Islam . T his is also a kind o f idolatry. Sometimes the devil appears before the supplicant in the guise o f a saint or in some other form as il l sometimes happens w ith the idolaters. Ib n Abbas has tru ly ' said th a t th e idolatry began w ith the worship o f tom bs. * j All the ea rlie r precursors o f Islam a re ag reed , says Ibnj T aim iyah, th at m aking a request to some one dead or absentJ w hether a prophet o r not is prohibited. G od and H is apostle! have not allowed such invocations ; neither the com panions ariq|
1. Ar-Raddo^alal Bakri, p. 377 2. Ibid., p. 56

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83

their successors nor the earlier jurists have approved o f them . The religious canon which has been preserved in its prestine purity and handed down to us . intact bears a- testimony to the fact th a t bo m atter how distressing o r how unfavourable the circumstances were during the initial p erio d o f Islam , nobody ever appealed to any, prophet o r sainf for help nor sought th e ir protection: as the m isguided people are prone to do now-a-days. T here-is not a single instance o f any com panion calling out the Prophet after his demise o r any other apostle o f God or visiting his totnb fo r seeking his help. T h e com panions of the Prophet were often engaged by the enemy in bloody conflicts, sometimes they were dispersed and dism ayed by the furious onslaught o f the invading foe or w ere plunged in difficulties But none o f them ever^ called, out to a prophet o r saint o r any other created being nor o n e of them ever went to th e Prophets tom b to offer prayers. Im Sm M alik and certain o th er doctors o f faith even abhor praying for oneself near the tom b o f the Prophet. T hey have clearly stated th at this is an innovation o f later ages w ith out any precedent o f the P ro p h ets com panions. 1 In ai-Tawassid wol-w.tsilah, the renow ned m onograph on the iubject o f intercession, Ibn T aim iy ah says, Beseeching the angels for help or, calling upon a prophet in his absence or after his death or asking th e ir statues or idols to intercede on ones behalf is a newly grow n cult w hich God neither autho rised nor commended to a prophet nor yet sent a scripture to uphold it. 2
Prayer for God Alone

! Expounding the reason for p rohibition o f prayers and sup plications addressed to a being , o th er th an G od, he sa y s: "A lthough G od has told us that, th e angels seek forgiveness for the dw ellers on earth, H e has forbidden us to p ray unto them . Sim ilarly, the prophets an d .saints rem ain alive in th eir graves
1. Ar-Raddo^alal-Bakri, p. 232 2, Qafidah, p. 15

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an d , as certain o th e r T rad itio n s tell us, they invoke Divine blessings upon us, but it is not lawful for us to supplicate to them . For it points th e w ay to associating partners with G od, the past generations reputed for true: faith and piety never prayed to anyone besides God* O n the contrary, asking any thing from a living being does not smack o f shirk. T he suppli cation m ade by an angel, prophet or saint for the living beings is an act im printed upon his soul and does not stand in the need o f our requesting h im to do so. T here is no h a rm in requesting a living soul for som ething but a fte r his death it is simply not capable o f acceding to any request.1
Kinds o f Saint-worship

A t another place Ib n T aim iyah defines the kinds o.f shirk involved in im ploring the departed prophets and saints. H e says : O n e o f its form s is th a t some one makes a request to the d ead soul to fulfil his needs or bestow health on himself, his household m em bers o r his cattle o r desires vengeance for his foe, o r else asks for som ething which cannot be granted by anyone except G od. All these am ount to ascribing partners to God an d the person im ploring the dead in this m anner should be required to express penitence and if he fails to do so, he should be slain . Now, if this m an takes the plea, continues Ib n Taim iyah, th a t he calls for th e help o f the saint o r prophet because they a re n earer to G od an d th a t they can intercede for him with God as th e elite an d g randees do with the kings, then his action resembles th a t o f polytheists and Christians. T hey also look up to th e ir priests an d clergym en merely as intercessors with God. But G od has alread y inform ed us o f the plea taken by the polytheists w ho say, W e only serve them th a t they m ay bring us n e a r God*

And this is what God says about them

O r chose they intercessors other th an A llah S ay: W h a t! E ven though they have pow er over nothing and have
1. Q a i d a b . p 132

REFORM ATIVE ENDEAVOURS

B5

no intelligence ?
S a y : U nto A llah belongeth all intercession. H is is th e Sovereignty o f th e heavens an d th e earth, A nd a fte r w ard unto H im ye will be b rought back.1 Ye have n o t, beside H im , a protecting friend or m ediator, will ye not then rem em ber ?W ho is he th a t intercedetli w ith H im save by H is leave ?3 f Som etim es the deceased saint is not asked to g ran t any favour but he is requested to pray o n ones b eh alf as people sometim es d o for others, o r, as the Prophet o f Islam invoked D ivine blessings for his com panions d uring his life-tim e. But one ought to know th a t th e Sharlcah allows only those w ho are alive to be requested for pronouncing benediction on th eir fellow beings. T hus, asking those who are no m ore alive to pray for us would be exceeding the lim it set by the religion. No com panion o f the Prophet n o r his successor ever d id so, nor has any Ini am allow ed it. T h ere is also no T rad itio n to support it. O n the contrary, we find th a t w hen a severe fam ine raged d u rin g C aliph U m a rs ru le, he requested cAbb as to pray for them an d him self pray ed thus : O G od, w henever there was a fam ine earlier, we requested T h y Apostle to intercede for us and T h o u wast pleased to send dow n ra in on us. Now we seek T hy favour through the uncle o f the Prophet and request T hee for a dow npour. C aliph cU m ar d id not go to the P rophets tom b a t this hour o f distress, nor any oth er com panion d id so on a sim ilar occasion. R equesting the d e a d to pray is a n innova tion w hich is not supported by the Q u r an o r by the Sunnah. T h ird ly , one m ay beseech G od in this m anner : I request T hee, O our L ord, in the nam e o f such and such p rophet or saint, w hom T hou lovest to extend m e a helping h a n d . In v o cations m ade in this wise a re com m on these days b u t no
1. Q.. X X X IX : 43-44 2. Q,. X X X II: 4 3. d . I I : 255

SA VIO U RS

or

ISLAM IC S P IR IT

com panion o f the Prophet o r his successor is reported to have addressed his prayers even in this m knner. Softie doctors o f faith perm it im ploring G od in this way only w ith the nam e o f the Prophet w hile th e re are others who hold th a t such petitions could be so p referred only in the life-tim e o f the Projjhet but not a fte r his d e a th . 1 ; ! .
Solicitatioas from the Living

Ib n T aim iy ah interd icted not only the practice o f supplica ting to the d eparted prophets, saints o r o ther pious souls but also objected to the requests m ade to a m an for something beyond his powers o r p ertain in g to th e m atters falling w ithin the pro vince o f D ivinity. E lucidating his view-point in ^'iarHtrul-Qjibwr, he says : T o im plore a saint, a prophet or a king w hether dead or alive, is unlaw ful if the object desired is such -as the h ealth o f cattles, deliverance from debt w ithout any effort to repay it, peace an d happiness for ones fam ily m em bers, attain m ent o f H eaven, rescue from Hell, acquisition o f knowledge, learning o f th e Q u ran , an d th e lik e ! for, these can be granted by G od alone. I f anybody entreats a created being in these m atters, he w ould be deem ed to be a polytheist like pagans w ho w orshipped the angels an d the prophets and the idols Or like th e C hristians w ho asked for divine grace from Jesus and M ary . 2
Intercession

It is often contended th a t opposition to the invocation or calling tip o f th e help o f a p ro p h et, saint o r wali am ounts to the denial o f m ediation o f the prophets betw een m an and God although they were an essential link betw een th e C re a to r and the hu m an beings. Ib n T aim iy ah explained th a t m ediation is spoken o f in tw o distinct senses, one o f w hich constitutes the fundam ental principle o f religion w hile the other is heretical
1. ^ioraiu/ Quboor, Majmtfa Rastflil, pp. 106-112 2. Ibid., pp. 104-5

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innovation underm ining the bases of faith. Ib n T aim iyah w rote al-Wastah Bain ul-Khalq wal-Haq for a fulller exposition o f the point. In it he says th at if m ediation o f an apostle o f God m eans th a t he is an essential link betw een m an and G od to explain the guidance vouchasafed to him by the L ord to his fellow beings, then it is entirely correct as there is no other way o f knowing the ordinances and, injunctions o f God Alm ighty. W e have no other m eans to know oi\ the treasures o f everlasting jo y prom ised to the pious an d righleous and o f the H ell fire kep$, ready for the infidel an d the agnostic. T h e knowledge about the n ature and attributes o f G od is verily beyond the reach o f hum an intellect an d , therefore* it can be gained only through the prophets sent by G od. - T his is a fundam ental tru th accepted by a l l : the M uslim s, th e Jew s and the C h ristian s; the followers o f all the revealed religions * re ag reed o n the need o f a link,betw een m an and the L ord, a G o d m o v e d soul entrusted w ith th e delivery o f G ods own m essage to His creation. T he D ivine w rit proclaim s in no u n certain w o rd s ; ' A llah chooseth from th e angels messengers a n d (also) from m ankind. 1 Any body who denies the mission o f these chosen apostles o f G od is an unbeliever in th e eyes o f every revealed religion. * -But, if m ediation m eans th a t an intercessor is heeded for the g ran t o f sustenance a n d , livelihod, patronage and the distri bution o f D ivine bounty whom every one has to im plore for obtaining these, then it am ounts to associating p artn ers to G od. In fact G od has condem ned polytheists simply because they hoped to obtain some benefit o r avoid a punishm ent through th eir saints an d holy personages.3 H ow ever, th e masses an d even some o f the persons belong ing to the ranks o f the culamH h a d raised not only the P ro p h et o f ' Islam b u t th e saints an d walls as w ell to th e level o f living
1. Q.- XXIX: 75 2. Al-Wastah, pp. 45-46 3. Ibid., p. 46

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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

intercessors for them a t the throne o f God, to whom they ad d ressed their supplications for blessings and patronage. In regard to these misguided folk, Ib n T aim iyah sa y s: T h e Imams and the doctors o f faith are also Connecting links like apostles, but between the Prophet o f Islam an d his follow ers: they a re preachers an d path-finders o f religion w orthy to be em ulated by the b eliev ers; th eir concordant opinions should be accepted by all, for they can never agree on w hat is m isleading. I f they disagree on any issue, one shall have to tu rn back to G od and the Prophet as none o f these doctors can be considered impecc ab le in his own rig h t like th e Prophet o f Islam , But, undoubtedly, one is an apostate and unbeliever, if one regards the saints arid the divines, the walls and the m en o f religion as divine functionaries o r m ediators betw een m an and G od like the stew ards an d atten d an ts o f a K ing, whom one has to approach to get into th e good grace o f a sovereign. Such a m an should be asked to repent an d if he refuses, h e should be put to th e sw ord, for, a polytheist is he who ascribes partners unto G o d . 1
Origin o f Saint Worship

Ib n T aim iy ah traced th e o rig in of saint-cum -tom b-worship to show th a t it w ere th e B stan ites an d Rafizls who started the p ractice an d coined spurious T raditions favouring th eir interest ed views since they w anted to aw aken popular enthusiasm in th eir own Imams an d th e ir shrines. First o f all, says Ib n T a i m iyah, they forged T rad itio n s, which affirm th e advantages an d benefits o f U ndertaking pilgrim ages to the shrines o f the saints. Rafizls an d o th er heretical sects w anted to see the mosques forsaken iii o rd e r 'to raise these shrines in popular esteem w here a new religion could be fabricated. In the Book o f God an d the T ra d itio n o f the Prophets one finds m ention o f m osques only and not o f the shrines o f holy m en. T his is w hat G od o rd a in s : Say My L ord enjoineth justice. A nd set your faces
!. Ai-WSstak, pp. 47-48

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upright (tow ard H im ) a t every place o f worship and call upon Hina m a tin g religion p u re for H im (only). 1 And the places o f worship* are only for A llah, so pray not unto anyone along w ith A llah. 2 H e Only shall tend A llah's sanctuaries who believeth in A llah an d th e last d ay and observeth proper w orship.48 Be at your devotions in the mosques. * And who doth g reater w rong th a n he who forbiddeth the approach to sanctuaries o f Allah lest His nam e should be m entioned therein, and striveth for th eir ruin. 5 Likewise, a n authentic T rad itio n o f the Prophet goes on to s a y : T h ere w ere people before you (the Jews and the Christians) who used to m ake churches an d synagogues over the tombs. Be careful not to do th e same. I forbid you to do so. "' 7 '. H e also m aintained th a t m ost o f the shrines o f saints are spurious tombs which w ere constructed by the impostors to deceive the people. Since very m any people are duped by them , the shrines have h o t been assigned any place in the religion nor has G od undertaken to safeguard them . N or has H e charged us w ith th e responsibility o f searching out the genuine tombs o f the saints, for no religious observance is to be perform ed over them . 1'
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Q,. V I I : 29 Q.. L X X II: 18 Q ..I X : IB i I I : 187 . iI I : 114 Ar-Raddtfialal Akhna*i, p. 48 Ar-Raddo'alal B aht, p. 313 (What Ibn Taimiyah wrote about the then shrines is borne out by the fact that there is hardly any reliable evidence to show the genuineness of numerous other shrines as, for instance, the one in Cairo where the head of Imam Husain is supposed to have been buried, the tombs of H azrat Zainah, or the grave of Caliph *A 1T in N a ja f; certain tombs claimed to be the graves of the Prophets wives or the shrine of Syed *AlJ H ajw airi, known as the tomb o f D Sta Ganj Baksh, in Lahore, are also spurious.

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Superstitious Beliefs
T he cult o f saint-w orslnp had given rise to another abuse an d this was the tendency to lean tow ards superstition and even idolatry. T his m isdirected reverence o f the mysterious had reconciled the conscience o f the believers to the so-called ability o f saints to cure chronic diseases and to answ er their prayers. False stories spread by th e devotees o f the saints asserting that their own needs had been fulfilled by their saints h a d fostered such a belief. But unfaltering faith and insight into the teach ings of Isia,m guided Ib n T aim iyah to reject all such spurious claims. H e could not give up the profound tru th learn t from the Scripture and T raditions for the figments o f saint-worshippers im agination. H e had no difficulty, in reaching the cpnclRsion th a t the popular belief in this regard was no m ore th a n the overcredulous and blind faith o f the masses. T here w ere certain shrines in, ,Cairo w here horses suffering from ijujigestion were supposed to be restored to health*,. Ibn T aim iy ah proved th at these so-called saints were realty Q becidite o r Fatim ite heretics. T h e punishm ent,,w hich these heretics received in th eir graves was, according to the T raditions, visible to all except m en and jin n . These horses' also saw th is ; punishmeftt which was so severe a n d gruesome th a t it frightened the poor beasts to excrete and this was taken by the sim ple-m inded folk as a sign o f th eir restoration o f health .1 T he votaries o f the saints often claim ed th a t the souls o f the holy personages on whom they called upon sometimes appeared in person before them . Ib n T aim iyah rejected these claim s as impious beliefs for he m aintained th at sim ilar claims were m ade by the worshippers o f the idols- and stars also. These, too, he held to be devils and evil Spirits appearing to m islead the m isguided and unbelieving people.2 H e showed by his irresistible reasoning-that such experiences w ere com m on to the ignorant people subscribing t o ,t he , heathen cults but no sooner d id they em brace Islam , as, for example, the
1. 2. Ar-Raddo*alal Bakri% pp. 310-11 Kitabbun-Nabuwat, p. 274

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T arta rs, th a n the light o f reasoning daw ned on them and they ceased to have these dem oniacal experiences.1
Profound Impact o f Ibn Taim iyah

T h ere was no d earth o f reputed culamZ a n d men o f letters nor w ere the preachers and serm onisers sliy o f fighting unIslam ic ideas an d vestiges o f the pagan past during the seventh and eighth century after Hijrah. I f the annalists have not left any record o f their efforts to com bat the innovations tending to deface the tm e faith in the U nity o f G od, it is because they all rem ained hugging their creed b u t a little bew ildered about how to act in pursuance o f th a t faith in a way m ore effective, more far-reaching. T he w idespread contam ination o f shirk, pan theistic ideas and creeds w hich h ad captured the heart o f the populace required an eru d ite scholar who could clearly distin guish betw een the essential elem ents o f Islam and its un-Islam ic a d m ix tu re s; one who was determ ined to propagate nothing but the pure faith an d was also courageous enough to stand for w hat he believed to be rig h t, regardless o f the suffering it m ight bring upon him . Tawhld or the U nity of G odhead, by its very nature, does not ad m it o f any com promise, any concession to the opposing views and interests, an d th a t is the reason why the apostles o f God had always to be sternly firm , inflexible and unyielding in their fight against the lewdness o f godlessnes and infidelity. Ib n T aim iyah deputised the prophets in com bating the superstitions o f his age and the unw arran ted concessions to the idolatry o f his tim es ; he subjected these doctrines to such a hostile criticism th a t it caused a flutter in the rank o f dissent ers an d blasphemers. T h e fundam ental basis o f Islam faith in th e U nity o f G od, H is Absolute Power, His essential a ttri bute o f E ternity, H is O m niscencethe purpose for w hich revela tions w ere vouchsafed to the prophets, was once again forcefully presented by him before the w orld. T h e achievem ent o f Ibn T aim iy ah in this field alone is q u ite sufficient to m ark him as
1.
Tafsir Surah Ikhlai, p. 118

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one of th e most outstanding reform ers and renovators o f the faith. His w ritings on the subject so profoundly altered the course o f religious thought in the later centuries th a t a num ber o f reform ers after him raised their voice to restore the true faithfaith in God alonewhenever the vestiges o f paganism and ignorance threatened to contam inate the teachings o f Islam .

VI
Criticism of Philosophy and Dialectics
T h e second achievem ent o f Ib n T aim iyah, both o f a reform ative as well as literary character, was to dem onstrate the superiority o f the Q u ran and the Sunnah an d their m ethod o f reasoning over Philosophy and D ialectics as well as logical syllogism employed by the two. In o rd er to m ake an assessment o f Ibn T aim iy ah s reform ative endeavour in this field, it appears necessary to take a cursory glance o f the developm ent o f philo sophy in Islam .
The Historical Background

T ranslation o f the G reek scientific and philosophical works into A rabic had begun to be m ade shortly after the establishm ent o f the A bbasid C aliphate, durin g the reign o f Caliph M ansur (136-158 A .H .). Num erous philosophical term s used by the M utazilites o f this period in th eir w ritings show th a t they were fully conversant w ith the works o f G reek Philosophers. But the organised, work o f these translations began on a large scale u nder the royal patronage o f A l-M 3m 0n (198-218 A.H.) who was him self an enthusiastic a d m ire r o f Greek Philosophy. S acyid Andlflsi writes in TabqUt ul-Umam th a t A l-M am un called for the works of G reek philosophers from the kings o f Greece who sent him the books w ritten by Plato, Aristotle, H ippocrates, G alen, E uclid, Ptolemy and others. A l-M am un got them translated into A rabic and encouraged scholars to study them . D uring his reign these works becam e quite popular which helped to produce m any an a rd en t ad m irer o f philosophy

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am ong the young and intelligent scholars o f his tim e. These scholars were also handsom ely rew arded by the royal court which vied w ith the Senate o f the R om an E m perors. 1 T he work o f translations started by A l-M am un continued until, by the end o f the fourth century, a greater p a rt o f the philosophical an d scientific literature o f the Greeks was m ade available in A rabic.2 T he vast exfent o f translations into.,Arabic listed the titles of ' ' . 'S' , quite a large num ber o f G reek authors but owing to a predilec tion o f the translators who were mostly N estorian, Y aqubi Christians or Sabians o f H a rra n , o r because Aristotelianism had prevailed am ong the last philosophers o f antiquity, the works o f A ristotle w ere studied by t{ie Arabs with a special zeal. The traditions o f Greek philosophy am ong the A rabs thus cam e to be associated w ith Aristotle who becam e a m ark and symbol of philosophy and was invested with an a u ra o f infallibility. It was indeed a m isfortune o f the Islam ic East th at its choice fell for a philosopher who, o f all the Greek m asters, was an ardent supporter o f the objective existence o f the m aterial w orld, its prim acy and eternity, an d who rejected the categories o f thought recognising the elem ent o f spirit, religious eschatology and the will o f God. f
Disciples of Greek Philosophers

T h e M uslim students o f philosophy d id not, in the initial stages, blindly subscribe to the A ristotelian logic and philosophy nor did they spare it a searching scrutiny and criticism . A num ber o f them wrote treatises severely criticising the weaker aspects o f Aristotelian philosophy and metaphysics. Forem ost am ong these, specially N azzam and A ba All al-Jubbaj, w ere M utazilite scholars. H asan ibn M usa N aubakhtI w rote Kitab ui-Ara3 Wad-Dayyanat in th e th ird century o f the Hijrah to disprove certain premises o f A ristotelian logic, w hile Abu Bakr B aqillanl
1. Tabqat-ul-Umam, p. 47 2. See Fihrist tin Nadim and Taiaqdt-ul-Ali66e

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composed WaqlPiq in the fourth century to refute A ristotle and dem onstrate the superiority <jf A rab philosophy over the Greek thought. I i i 't h e fifth century cAbd'ul K a rim S h ahrshtani1 wrote a m onograph to Contradict Proclus and Aristotle in which he brought out the contradictory features o f th eir philosophical thought in accordance w ittrth e rules o f logic. Then, by the end o f th a t century Al-Ghazall rose to become the greatest adver* sary o f the Greek philosophy. His TahSfut al-Faldtefak caused such a severe dam age to philosophy th at it could not regain its lost vigour for a: hundred years.* Abul Barak a t B aghdadi took up this tradition further ahead through his renowned work entitled A l-M if tabar in which he disproved a greater part o f the Aristotelian thought. Im am R azI, too, in the same century, proved his w orth as an indom itable advocate o f the Asharites and dialecticians by holding up philosophy to a severe reproba tion. But the coterie o f philosophers in Islam regarded as the representative and standai d-bearer o f the Greek school o f thought had been so powerfully tnam oured by Aristotle th at it held him as a prince o f philosophers and an infallible teacher beyond every reproach. It seems th at the respect for Aristotle conti nued to rise higher in this circle w ith th e passage o ftim e , since, every philosopher deemed it his duty to pay hom age to this Greek m aster dutifully and in a m ore reverential language th an his predecessor. "Both-these philosophers are the founders and perfectors o f philosophy and its principles and prem ises, w rote Abu N asr al-F arab i (d. 339 A .H .) about Aristotle and Plato, for every a priori principle and hypothesis o f philosophy can be traced to th em . 1 Abu cAli Slna4 (d. 428 A .H.) was a still more a rd e n t a d m ire r of Aristotle w ho w rote in Mantiq us^Shifa': No additio n could be m ade to the researches o f Aristotle in

1. Author of Al-Milal wan-Namal 2. For details see Saviours of Islamic Spirit, Vol. I, pp. 124-27 3. Al-Majnfa Bain Rai-il-Haktmain 4. Commonly known to the west by the name of Avicenna

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philosophy despite th e passage o f such a long tim e after him . 1 Ib n R ushd2 (d. 595 A .H .) was, the greatest philosopher born in Islam after A bl S ln a but he shows fo r Aristotle the- most un conditional reverence, going in this respect m uch further than his predecessors. H is adoration for Aristotle seems to have reached the stageto use the language o f mysticismo f a total absorption into his m entor. A m odern biographer o f Ibn R ushd w riting about his veneration of Aristotle says : His reverence? for Aristotle knows no bounds : he considers him as the m an whom God perm itted to reach the highest sum m it o f perfection in wisdom and intellect. H e ascribes even the qualities and attributes o f God to him . O f a fact, had-he been a polytheist, he would have raised Aristotle to the position o f the Lord o f all lesser gods. 3 T hen, in the seventh century after Hijrah N aslr ud-dln TusI (d. 672 A.H.) m ade his debut as a torch-bearer o f philosophy. He is known rn the circle o f philosophers as M uhaqiq TusI (the R esearcher from T us). H e was also a Counsellor and M inister o f HalakG a t a tim e when the barbaric inroads by the T a rta r hordes into the lands o f Islam and the sack o f Baghdad had sapped all the intellectual energy o f the M uslim w orld. TQSI, along with his two disciples Q u tb ud-din S hiraz! and Qutbud-dln R azi, founded in Ira n the school o f thought w hich allo cated central place to logic and philosophy in all the branches o f secular and religious sciences. T usI and his followers regarded A ristotle as the Agent Intellect whose findings were the touchstone o f reality. T heir defence o f Aristotle against the criticisms o f Im am R azi served to give a new lease o f life to the A ristotelian thought in the East.
Scientific Evaluation of Logic and Philosophy

Ibn T aim iyah was b orn ten years before TusI breathed his

1. 2. 3-

Al-.A'adwa, Vol. I (Q uoted from Mantiq us-ShiJd3.) Known by the nam e of Averroes in the West L utfi Jam'-ah, p. 155

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last. When Ibn T aim iyah cam e o f age, A ristotelianism dom i nated the intellectual and literary scene owing to the influence exerted by T tisl and his followers. T hus, it was th e tim e when a thorough grasp o f A ristotelian logic and philosophy was deem ed to be the summ it o f ones intellectual attainm ent, when nobody could d are to raise a dissenting voice against the teach ings o f the Greek m aster. T h e T raditionists and legists, w ith out any locus, standi in th at field, could hardly do anything to stem the rising tide o f philosophy. T hey could, a t the most, pronounce the juristic opinion prohibiting the study o f philosophy but th at too would have been ineffective in an atm osphere surcharged with the highest reg ard for the philosophical con cepts. Among the scholars predisposed to philosophy some had turned scep tic; others inclined to neo-Platonic, concepts w ere preaching n ih ilism ; w hile the rest suffered from an inferiority complex. How, in this atm osphere, Ibn T aim iyah was able to overcom e this wave o f G reek influence and how he argued powerfully against philosophy can best be seen from his own writings.
Physics and Mathematics

O f the w ritings attrib u ted to Plato and A ristotle, Ibn Tairftiyah too m ade a distinction, like A l-G hazali, between the investigations falling in the sphere o f physics and m athem atics, on the one hand, and those containing m etaphysical views, on the other. He acknow ledged th e intellectual brilliance o f the Greek philosophers an d accepted the correctness o f a portion o f their findings pertaining to the form er category. A greater p art o f the discussions o f these philosophers , w rote Ibn T aim iyah, relating to physics is quite clear, detailed and convincing. T hey possessed intellect and ap titu d e to understand these subjects an d , instead o f being predisposed to any p articu lar view , they seem to be searching for w hat is rig h t and co rrect. 1 Express ing sim ilar views about th e G reek m athem atics he w rote in
1.
A r-Raddo*alal Bakri, p. 143

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Ar-R.addtPfilal Mantaqiyin : T h e m athem atical form ulas dealing w ith num erals are quite convincing and are unanim ously accept ed by all scholars. Every m an has to have some knowledge o f these fo r one needs them for conducting his daily business as also for furth er studies. W ho can dispute th at one is not h a lf of two ? O f a fact, their equations are acceptable, for they have no inexactness to which any objection could be raised .1
Metaphysics

It was, however, the metaphysics o f G reek philosophy which was opposed by Ib n T aim iyah. D raw ing attention tow ards various unreasonable and even stupid surmises o f the Greek m etaphysical concepts, w hich w ere b ran d ed by him as blind and naked ignor ance, he observed th a t the Greek philosophers could have set forth their speculative tho u g h t w ithout blundering into its m etaphysi cal dom ain o f absurdity and saved themselves from becom ing a laughing stock. T h e philosophers bringing their m ind to bear upon physics , w rote Ib n T aim iyah, show their m ettle, but in metaphysics they appear to be unenlightened folk w ithout any knowledge of w hat constitutes the tru th . V ery little o f m eta physics has been handed dow n from Aristotle, but even that contains num erous faulty concepts. - In another article on the subject he says of the philosophers : Sq far as the knowledge o f G od is concerned, these unlucky people appear to be deprived o f the tru th . They have no knowledge o f the angels, divine scriptures, an d prophets o f G od, for they had h eard nothing about these either in favour or against them . O nly some o f the later philosophers acquainted w ith the revealed religions have spoken about these m atters. 3 Ib n T aim iyah argued th a t since the Greek philosophers have themselves acknow ledged th eir inability to attain certitude o f know ledge in m atters falling in the dom ain o f metaphysics,

1. Ar-Raddo'alal Mantaqiyin, p, 134 2. Ma*arij ul-Wasul, p. 186 3. Tcfsir Surah lkhlas, p. 57

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their theories in regal'd to it cart only be m ere suppositions and surmises. He sa y s: "Soirie o f the greatest philosophers have clearfy Stated th at there is no Way known to them to reach the certitude o f knowledge in m atters pertaining to metaphysics. T he utm ost claim th at they make is th a t w hatever they say is nearer to reason. T his, obviously, m eans th a t the philosophers have nothing but conjectures an d presum ptions to solve the m eta physical riddles ; but, as the Q u ran declares, specious reason ing can never take the place o f :d i vine rev elatio n . 1
Prophetic Teachings and Greek Metaphysics

Ib n T aim iy ah was surprised or ra th e r pained to see certain philosophers equating the prophetic teachings with the m eta physical speculation o f the Greek philosophers. W hen an educated person niakes a close study o f the A ristotelian m eta physics / Writes Ib n T aim \yah, he reaches th e conclusion th at there1was none m ore ignorant o f th e gnosis o f God than these philosophers. ' But he is even m ore am azed to see certain persons trying to com pare the G reek metaphysics w ith the teachings and the knowledge obtained through the prophets o f God. Sufch comparisons w ere , according to Ib n T aim iyah, no better th a n an effort tO establish analogy between a black smith an d an angel Or betw een a petty landlord and an Em peror. In fact th e re 1 can be some resem blance between petty land lo rd s and Em perors for th e form er too adm inister a small estate but the philosophers are com pletely unfam iliar w ith the message o f th e prophets. E ven the pagans and the Jew s and C hristians know m ore about G od, His n atu re and attributes than these philosophers do. I do not m ean to charge these philoso phers o f being ignorant o f th e knowledge revealed to tlie apostles o f G od, for th a t is vouchsafed to the prophets alone. They are even igno'rant o f th e know ledge diffused by the prophets in regard to the natu re and attributes o f G od, prophethood and H ereafter w hich can, to an extent, be com prehended through
1.
N aqdh-ul-M aniiq, p. 178

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reason. Even these a te a sealed book for the philosophers, m uch less the things w hich a re unseen and beyond the ken o f hum an perception and a re known to the prophets.through reve lation. T here can in (act be no com parison betw een the philo sophical m etaphysics and th e teachings o f the prophets of G o d . 1
Ignorance o f Philosophers

Explaining the reason why the philosophers plead ignorance o f the facts o f m ute reality, Ib n T aim iyah writes : T he philo sophers are ab so lu tely 'u n fariiiliar vfith the unseen reklities1 lau g h t by the prophets as also with those com prehensive natural laws w hich envelop al} beings and creations and whose know ledge could have helped them to correctly categorise all the existing things. O nly he can be capable o f attem pting it who can encompass the w hole varied existence but the philosophers have but little know ledge o f m athem atics a n d . the laws related to it. T his in fact shows th e ir com prehension o f just a small p a rt o f the general causes and principles o f n a tu ra l phenom ena. But the existence o f beings and causes not known to m an far exceed th at o f which he has any knowledge. Thus all those persons whose know ledge is lim ited like th at o f the philosophers, a r e taken by surprise w hen they a re told th at num erous other objects such as prophets, angels, em pyrean, heaven ancl hell also exist. T hey a re surprised because they believe th at nothing exists beyond w hat they know. This is also the reason why they ti y to interp ret th e facts o f unseen realities told by the prophets in th e light of lim ited know ledge o f things they possess. T heir argum ents are really baseless for they have no positive.evidence o f th e non-existence o f th in g s not known by them . O f a fact, to lack the know ledge o f a th in g s existence is quite different from th e non-existence o f anything. I t is not necessary th at w hat, ever we do not know does not have any existence. T h e ir denial o f the unseen realities is like th e denial o f the jin n by a physician
1 Ar-Raddo talal Mantaqiyin, p. 395

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on the ground that the m edical science does not afford any evidence o f their existence, although m edical science does not prove their pon-cxistence too. Sim ilar is the rase with others possessing knowledge in a p articu lar bran ch ofscience. W hatcvei; they find twit outside the compass o f their own know ledge, they deny simply out o f their ignorance o f it. T he fact is that m an lia.s not been as m uch misled in owning and accept ing th e things as in denying that o f whi< h he lias no knowledge. This is a common weakness and n a tu ra l propensity o f hum an beings which has thus been poken o f by God : Nay, but they denied th a t, the knowledge whereof they could not compass, am i w hereof the interpretation (in events) hath not yOt come unto th em . 1

H eritage o f th e Pagan G reece

Ancient Greece bequeathed to the world the valuable treasures o f physiis and m athem atical sciences, and had illum i nated the world with its intellectual brilliant-> for thousands o f years but it was also a land o f idol and star worshippers given to num erous superstitious and irrational religious beliefs. M odern researches into the historical past of the Greeks have shown th a t'in n u m e ra b le temples with a m yriad o f gods and goddesses littered the land. T h e G icck philosophy which was transm itted to the Islam ic w orld through its Arabic translations, and thence to Europe, was perm eated w ith its mythology and idolatrous beliefs. T ransform ed into philosophical term inology, the G reek mythology had been presented by its philosophers through a skilful use o f syllogistic logic an d a chain o f reasoning, and was accepted bv the A rab philosophers without any reserva tion as the patrim ony of G reek speculative thought. M ost of these philosophers had been led astray because o f the inadequate knowledge o f Greek history and religious beliefs. But the penetrating intellect Ibn T aim iyah possessed discerned the ido latrous bases o f G reek philosophy hundreds o f years before it
1. Q . X .- 3 9

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was b rought to light by m odern researches. H e vy^ites :< T he ancient Greeks w ere a heathen people keenly interested in sorcery. They w orshipped idols along ,with the stars and t h a t ' is why they tu rn ed to astronom y. I t was because,of th eir belief in the occult influence o f th e stars upon hum an beings th a t, they h ad built num erous tem ples for star w orship.. 1 At another place he says: M any o f their ancient and later priests prom oted idolatrous .practices. They called the stars as lesser gods and prescribed different religious rites for th eir worship. Those am ong th e M uslim s who have taken to th eir ways neither forbid polytheistic practices nor consider U nity o f G odhead an essential p art o f ones fa ith . 2
Distinction Drawn Between Ancient and Later

Philosophers
Ib n T aim iyah m ade a distinction between the philosophical concepts o f antiquity an d those b f the later philosophers, which, a g ain , affords a p ro o f o f the agility o f his m ind and the deep know ledge o f G reek thought. H e pointed out th at it was Aristotle and the later philosophers after him w edded to the view o f ratio n ality who denied th eir predecessors concept in reg a id to the unseen realities an d incorporeal objects. D escribing the Aristo telian view o f G reek philosophy he s a y s : T he philosophers following the A ristotelian thought d id not adopt the view held by the earlier m asters and precursors o f philosophy who believed in the creation o f the universe and the existence o f a super n atu ral world a p a rt from th e terrestrial one. T hey h ad spoken o f the celestial w orld in a language which confirms the descrip tion o f heaven given in the T raditions. Likewise, the ancients also believed in th e resurrection o f the dead as the w ritings of Socrates and som e other philosophers affirm . 8

1. Tajar Surah Ikhtas, page 57 2. Naqdh ul-Mantiq, p. 177 3. Tafsir Surah Ikhlas, p. 69

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Aristotle s Rejection o f the Spiritual View

Ib n T aim iyah suggests th a t the older philosophers who had visited Syria and the adjoining lands were influenced by the teachings o f the Prophets but Aristotle d id not get an opportu nity to go outside Greece. In Naqclh-id-Manliq he w rite s : Those who have com piled the history o f Philosophy say that the ea rlie r m asters like P athagoras, Socrates and Plato had visited Syria and other countries where they learnt o f the spirit ual view from the com panions an d followers of o f L uqm an,1 D avid and Solom on. But A ristotle never went to the countries w here prophets had lived and preached nor did he benefit from the teachings o f the prophets in any oth er way like his predeces sors. H e subscribed to the cult o f star worship and form ulated the rationalist view w hich was blindly accepted by later philo sophers. 2 M odern research leaves no doubt th a t the whole philosophy o f the A rabians was d raw n from A ristotelianism and the neoPlatonic thought. Expressing alm ost the same view, Ibn T aim iyah says, T he philosophical concepts adopted by A l-F arabl (A lpharabius), Ib n Slna (A vicenna), Ib n R ushd (Aver'roes) and S u h arw ard l w ere wholly borrow ed from Aris totle whom these philosophers have nam ed as the First T each er. 8
God in Greek Philosophy

Ib n T aim iyah argued th a t the A ristotelian concept o f God reduced H im to a m ere im aginary being. W hen a m an endow ed with reason reflects over th eir concept of G od he says, he comes to the conclusion th a t such a God can exist only in ones im agination for H e cannot have any objective existence. * Ib n T aim iyah holds th a t the philosophical concept o f G od, w hich divests H im o f all virtues, powers and attributes, is not
1. 2.
3. 4.

Perhaps Aesop of Greek traditions. N'aqdk-uUMantiq, p. 113

Ar~RaddofaUtUBnktii p. 206 Tafsir Surah Ikhlds , p, 37

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only unbecoming but also derogatory of even a sentient being, m uch less the Cheater and M aster o f the universe. H e laments that the M uslim philosophers subscribing to the Gieek philoso phic view were simply blind followers of Aristotelianism who overlooked this inherent contradiction of the Greek thought. H e deplores th at in abjuring their faith in the revealed truth, the philosophers had renounced a blessing from God which would have really lighted their path to the certitude o f know ledge.
Critique of Ibn Sina

Ib n T aim iy ah severely condem ned those philosophers who had tried , following the Aristotelian thought, to explain the m etaphysical truths and religious creeds in the light o f philososophical concepts. H e argued th a t the unseen realities could not be explained in the light o f causal relationship recogniscd as the guiding principle o f G reek thought. R ejecting the view .held by such philosophers, Ib n T aim iyah declaim ed against Ibn Sina who was considered as the ch ief representative o f Aristotel ianism am ong the M uslim philosophers. In a dissertation o k P rophethood he cries sham e upon Ibn S ina who held the view th at o f the num erous potentialities o f soul which differ am ong individuals, one is proph eth o o d . Ibn T aim iyah contended : O nly a m an com pletely ignorant o f the reality o f prophethood can reason in this m anner. T his is as if a m an who is aw are only o f the poets, tries to prove th a t the jurists and physicians are also like them . Even this sim ilitude does not fully bring out the absurdity o f Ib n S in as reasoning, for, the difference betw een a prophet and a non-prophet is m uch m ore m arked and wide th an th a t between the ju rists and physicians and the poets. T h e followers o f the G reek philosophers do not possess even a vague notion o f the prophethood but they try to afford p ro o f of its existence with the help o f philosophical principles which dc not possess the rem otest idea o f its essence "and reality . 1
j.
A n-N abiuvat,

p. 22

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In th e same book, sum m ing up the views o f M uslim philo sophers about prophethood, he says: O f all these groups those far away from the substance and reality o f prophethood are the followers o f Greek philosophy, Batinites and atheists. T o them the faculty enjoyed by all hum an beings and also constituting the basis o f prophethood is the vision during sleep. In fact, Aristotle and his im m ediate followers have not discussed pro phethood at all while A l-F arabl considers it simply a kind of dream . T h ere are other philosophers too who subscribe to the same view. Ib n Sina assigns it a bit higher status consisting o f a threefold characteristic. T h e first one, which lie calls theopneust faculty o f the prophets, depends on the development of their understanding w ithout the aid o f form al instruction, but, he also holds it to be o f the same nature as good sense o r prac tical sagacity. T he second characteristic o f the prophets deli neated by Ib n Sina is theophany or the faculty to conceive of something known to them , w hich takes the form o f certain celestial form s in their im agination and is experienced through a subjective audition. These sensations resemble the visions in the dream s in which a m an beholds others and talks to them but w hatever he sees has only a subjective existence for nothing exists besides him . It m eans th at according to these philoso phers, w hatever a prophet witnesses or hears is purely a subjec tive phenom enon as nobody else shares his experience. These in ternal sensations are o f an esoteric n ature without any extrinsic reality. But persons m entally deranged owing to illness or lunacy can also have sim ilar experiences. T he th ird charac teristic o f the prophets, according to Ib n S in a, is: the power possessed by them to interpose in the m aterial world w hich causes events contrary to custom. T his is thus the explanation o f m iracles worked by the prophets, for, in their view, every contingent is an em anation from hum an, celestial o r physical forces operating in the w orld. ............A ccording to the philosophers even the internal experi ences o f the Prophets proceed from Active Intellect. T hus, when these philosophers cam e to know the teachings

lOf)

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o f the prophets, they tried to reconcile these with their own! philosophical concepts. F or this purpose, they took up the M ate ' m ents o f the prophets but interpreted them in the light o f theirj own philosophical doctrines. In other words, their explanations' am ount to an exposition o f philosophys view-point in the words and phraseology used by the prophets. Employing the expres sions and dictions used by the prophets the philosophers have composed num erous treatises and dissertations. Anybody who is not aw are o f the purpose and design o f the prophets and philosophers and the difference between the two, comes u> believe that the prophets m eant w hat has been explained by the philosophers. Q u ite a good num ber o f persons and sects have been m isled by these w ritings. O ne can clearly discern this duplicity in the works o f Ib n Sin5 and his follow eis. 1
Critique of Dialectics

T he criticism o f Ib n T aim iy ah was not limited to philoso phy an d its camp-followers alone : he did not spare even those dialecticians who endeavoured to defend Islam but employed the philosophical doctrines and concepts and its terminology and syllogism to establish the facts o f unseen and unknowable re a lity ; for, the philosophical term s tended to im part a lim ited aind incorrect exposition to the transcendental realities owing to th e ir association w ith th e philosophical traditions and precepts. Speaking o f the dialecticians, he says in the An-Xabuwat : The w ritings o f these dialecticians affirming creation, resurrection, H ereafter and the existence o f the C reator are neither rationally persuasive n o r canonically reassuring, and this has been acknow ledged by th e dialecticians as well. Im am R a z i openly confessed when he h a d grow n old th at a fter pondering over the scholastic and philosophical subtleties he had reached the conclusion th at these could neither quench ones thirst nor cure th e sick. T h e reasoning o f th e Q u r an, he adm itted, was the most convincing. Look a t the Q uranic verses : Naught is as
1. An-Nabuwat, p. 168

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His likeness1 o r They camiot,fiampass it in k n o w l e d g e em phasiz ing negation o f similitudes to God or those affirming His a ttri butes, such as, Then (He) mounted the Throne,"* or Unto Him good wards ascend * or Who is in the Heaven* and you would arrive a t the same conclusion as reached fay al-R azi. G hazaJf and Ibn Aqeel have also d raw n sim ilar inferences for, indeed, this is an incontrovertible tru th . 9 In another passage of the same book Ib n T aim iyah high* lights the mistake com m itted by the dialecticians. They followed neither the path o f the rationalists nor followed the teachings o f ilie prophets w ith the result th at, on the one hand, they, deviated from their ingenuous nature, and, on the other, were also deprived o f the conviction im parted by the Shant d,h, T h eir rationalism led them only to u ncertainty and unnecessary quibbling and hairsplitting o f im aginary issues. 1 A nother weakness o f the scholastics tow ards which Ibn T aim iyah invited attention was th a t w hen they deliberate upon prophethood they raise weighty objections but their defence is norm ally weak and unassuring. W e have already given m any examples o f th e ir specious reasoning. W hoever studies their writings to find credenc'e and conviction, holding them up as the defenders and m outhpieces of Islam capablc of proving the existence of prophethood on rational grounds, he is unable to get a satisfactory reply in their books. H r becomes a victim o f scepticism a n d m ental perplexity which b a r his way to faith and certitude o f knowledge. T he doors o f doubt, u n b elief and ignorance are thus opened for those whose knowledge is lim ited to the w ritings o f dialecticians. 8
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. X L I I : 11 X X : 110 X III: 2 X X X V : 10 L X V II: 16 An-Nabuwat, p. 148 Ibid,, p. 148 Ibid. p. 240

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A Common Weakness of Philosophers and Dialecticians

In Ib n T a im iy a h s opinion both the philosophers as well as the dialecticians had com m itted a common m ista k e; since, despite their differences, the m ode of their reasoning was the same. T h e ir fundam ental weakness, or mistake, was that they tried to achieve that with the help of reason W hich could never be had through it. In the process they arrayed themselves against n atu ral hum an disposition as well as the guidance p ro vided by the prophets. T herefore, observes Ibn T aim iyah, the findings o f both these groups have m any mistakes, but little benefit to offer. ' T he m ode o f reasoning employed by the philosophers and scholastics was, according to Ibn T aim iyah, extravagantly form al an d elaborate w ith the result th at they had to adopt a lengthy and roundabout m ethod for establishing those facts w hich could have been proved easily by taking to a sim pler but unsophisticated course more appealing to hum an intellect. He disagreed with the dialecticians that the logical syllogism was the only satisfactory m ethod o f reasoning to be applied by them . H e argued th at even if the prem ises o f th eir reasoning w ere sometimes co rrect, they were not fundam ental because experience and study o f hum an nature shows th a t God has m ade it easy for m an to u n derstand w hat is essential for him to learn . F or th a t very reason, there are am ple signs, indications and evidences o f the existence an d oneness o f the C reator and the prophethood o f His apostles, and so are the m eans to attain the knowledge about them . T here were, how ever, certain persons, said Ib n T aim iy ah , w ho had a flair for logical syllogism and argum entation b u t for others it was quite unnecessary.8
The Quranic reasoning

Ibn T aim iyah strongly pleaded that the Q uranic reasoning

1. Naqdh-ul-Manliq, p. 162 2. /Ir-Raddo'-alal Mantaqiyin, p. 255

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was not only m ost ap p ro p riate .but also most convincing for the avouchm ent o f m etaphysical an d unseen realities and leligious truths. T h e argum ents put fo rth by the Q u ra n , w rites Ib n T aim iy ah , a re m uch m ore assuring and carry a deeper sense than the propositions o f the philosophers and dialecticians. A t the sam e tim e, the. form er do not suffer from paralogism w hich is a com m on feature o f logical disputations. 1 At a n o th e r place) he says, K now ledge o f the reasons advanced by the Q u r 'a n as weil as the self-evident m arks and signs adduced in support o f the existence o f G od, His sustcntation o f the w orld, His Oneness, H is know ledge and pow er and the possibility o f resurrection an d retrib u tio n in the. H ereafter is essential for acquiring th e noblest h um an qualities. In support o f his contention he cites the exam ple o f the different form s o f reasoning em ployed in support o f the exist ence o f D ivine Being an d H is attrib u tes w hich also bring out the difference betw eeh the philosophical and Q u ran ic concepts o f G odhead . The Q u r an is elaborate w here it affirms D ivine attributes but makes only a com pendious reference w here the negation is stressed (Naught is as His likeness) : this being also the way o f the prophets w ho explicate in d e ta il w hat He is and are concise in describing w hdt He is not. O n the oth er h an d , th eir rivals an d opponents (T he G reek philosopher?,) pay m ore atten tion to the denial o f His attributes but m ake only a passing reference w here they have to av er th e m . :! T h e w ritings o f the G reek philosophers and their votaries avouch the point m ade out by Ib n T aim iy ah . In fact, the pains taken by the philosophers to deny the positive attributes o f God have reduced His Being to a n im ag in ary and im potent entity. But, w hat God is, w h at know ledge and pow er H e possesses-th ere a re not m ore th a n a few w ords o r few philosophical term s t< > be found in their en tire work. A nd, as a result o f it, all

1. 2. 'S.

A r-R a d d o (alal M a n la q iy tn . p. 32! I b id .. p . 150 Ib id ., p. 153

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those who h ad been inspired by th a t philosophy in G reece and outside it, have never developed any conscious relationship with God expressing itself in th e ir intellectual ideals and m oral aspirations or a heartfelt longing for His propinquity. T his has been so because a w aking consciousness o f God can be created only through His nam es, attributes and m anifestations indicating positive characteristics but the philosophy insists on the negation o f His qualities. T he history o f m ans intellectual development bears witness to th e fact th a t m a n has never been enam oured of anyone about whose person and ch aracter he has h ad no know ledge. Every hum an affection going out to some other person o r object, w hether it is love o r fear, hope or disappointm ent, is directed only to know n persons or characteristics w hile philor sophy insists on the d enial o f D ivine attributes. T he historians o f religion and m orals a re unanim ous th at the ancient Greeks w ere not known for th eir devotion to God or religious genius their religious experience h ad in fact no depth and substance w orth the nam e. In the w ords o f Ib n T aim iyah this was because a hund red thousand negations could never be equal to a single affirm ation. N o religious structure can, in fact, be built on the foundations o f denial alone. A nd that is why G reek philosophy in the West and Buddhism in the East failed to reconstruct a society whose coi ner stone was a heart-felt sentience o f G od. Both these succumbed to idolatry and atheism because the in h eren t hum an propensities o f faith and conviction, devotion an d love can never be satisfied by any epistemology involving intellectual w rangling and forgeries of the b rain .
Disconcerting Influence of Greek Logic

In o rd er to dem onstrate the fallacious bases o f logic purely on rational grounds, Ibn T aim iy ah subjected its prem ises to a close scrutiny in the sam e way as he had critically exam ined its counterpart, the philosophy. T h e Greek logic had, in fact cap tured the h eart o f the A rabs even m ore powerfully th an the philosophy o f the Greeks. According to S a 'ld Q a rta b l the

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writings o f the Greek philosophers on logic w ere being zealously studied by the Arabs as early as the th ird century of Islam ic era. By the beginning o! the fifth century these h ad been accorded such a pride of place in the A rab curriculum that even AlG hazall was carried away by it. H e considered logic to be the basic discipline o f all sciences. In the introduction o f his wellknown book al-Mustafa he rem arks th a t logic constitutes the fundam ental discipline in every bran ch o f knowledge. Anybody who is not well-versed in this science, can never be sure o f the knowledge gained by h im . 1 In Maqasid-i-FalSsifuh he observes : So fa r as the logical perm ises and its a priori principles a re con cerned, most o f them a re undoubtedly tested and true. Only seldom is there any m istake in them . W hatever differences the doctors o f faith have with the Greek masters o f logic, these relate to the term inology used by the two w ithout any diver gence o f opinion in regard to its aims and objectives. All are agreed that this science is m eant to reach conclusions by con nected thought. 2 Ib n R ushd, who held A ristotle in the highest esteem, consi dered logic to be the w orthiest knowledge attainable by hum an beings and the m easuring rod o f ones excellence. L ogic , he said, opened the way to reality which could not be reached without its help even by the elite, m uch less the laity. 3 Philosophy had been attacked by different scholars from time to tim e but nobody had undertaken a rational evaluation of logic before Ibn T aim iyah. H e was thus the first scholar to subject this branch o f knowledge to a m inute and critical study and express his independent opinion about it. First he w rote a small treatise entitled Naqdh-ul-Mantiq and thereafter another detailed dissertation u nder the title o f Ar-Raddo'-clal-Mantaqiym in w hich he discussed logical propositions like prosyllogism, major, m inor and m iddle term s, conclusions, etc. and showed

1. 2.
3.

At-M ustafa, p. 10 Moqasid-i-Falasafah, p. 3

Muhammad Lutfijam 'ah, p p . 120-121

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th eir defects and lim itations to dem onstrate th at the im portance accorded to logic by the M uslim scholars was far in excess o f its real w orth. In the opinion o f Ib n T aim iyah it was neither the. m easuring rod o f rationality nor its m ethod o f reasoning provided the surest way to attain credence, nor yet true knowledge. H e writes, These scholars claim th at logic constitutes the criterion o f discursive knowledge w hich saves one from com m itting mistakes in the same way as the rules o f m eter and rhym e help in lyrical composition o r th e etymology and syntax in the learn ing o f a language or else m echanical instrum ents in ascertaining the hours o f th e day. But this is not correct, for, the knowledge is achieved through perception and rational faculty endowed to hum an beings by G od. Its acquisition does not depend on the rules form ulated by another person. It m ight be necessary to im itate the A rabs for learning A rabic language for the simple reason that it is the dialect o f a nation which has to be heard and copied, but that cannot be true o f discursive knowie.dge...... T he people before the inception o f Greek logic possessed know ledge about the reality o f th in g s ; likewise there have been nations after it which have endeavoured to reach the tru th of the m atter without taking its help. Among every nation one can find sages who reach the core of realities w ithout learning A ristotelian logic. A little reflection by these people would convince them that they attained the knowledge possessed by them w ithout rccource to this m an-inade science. 1
Much ado about nothing

Ibn T aim iyah pointed out quite a few weaknesses and defects o f syllogistic logic. H e held the view that it produced a vain and argum entative disposition, a copious and flexible idiom , and supplied the logicians w ith a set o f pompous words and term inology which actually m eant nothing. In the w ords o f Ibn T aim iyah the endeavour o f the logicians am ounted to m ere waste o f tim e and energy, and unnecessary m ental
1.

A r-R a d d o 'a la l M a n la q iytn , pp. 27-28

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exercise an d bragging which led people to useless disputation. 1 He described these verbal engagem ents as m uch ado about nothing. A nother ill-effect o f excessive logical ratiocination according to Ib n T aim iyah was th a t th e logicians too often be come incapable o f expressing th eir ideas freely. It bridles their tongue and pen by restraining them from exercising th eir m inds independently. 2 I t is a general rule th a t with w ider concepts and free thinking, observed Ib n T aim iyah, the expression becomes uninhibited but the strait-laced thinking, as the logicians are w ont to resort, m akes th e ir m ind and tongue circum scribed by n arrow er lim its an d enchains th eir concept and im agination. It is because o f these restraints th a t those logicians who are m ore intelligent take to a circuitous course o f reasoning. T h eir only achievem ent is to express some known fact m ore explicitly but th e h ab it o f thinking hedged in by logi cal premises im parts a perverse bias o f m ind inclining tow ards scepticism an d incredulity. Those not betaking the course o f logicians a re saved from these dangers. 3 Ibn T aim iy ah acknow ledged th a t there w ere a few exceptions to it am ong the logicians as, for exam ple, Ib n S in a whose w rit ings exhibited rem arkable eloquence an d flexibility. T his was because he d id not adopt the literary style o f earlier logicians laden w ith obscurities. Logic was taken by the dialecticians as an instrum ent to develop the unknow n o r m etaphysical truths from the known concepts practically in the sam e way as the fundam ental rules and principles o f other sciences a re employed to acquire further knowledge in those subjects. It is w qrthy o f notice th a t Ibn T aim iyah did not ad m it this proposition. It is clear th at the scales designed to weigh fire-wood, m etals and stones cannot be used for w eighing silver and gold. T h e tru th enunciated by

1. Ar-Raddtfialal MarUatjiyin, p. 31 2.. Ibid., p. 194 3. Ihid.. 1B7-

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the prophets and the reality o f prophethood is even finer and m ore precious than gold is considered am ong th e metals. Your logic cannot, therefore, be employed as a balance for the latter because it comprises both hum an ignorance and extrem ism . It is neither aw are of' th e ir weights and measures n o r it is cap able o f describing them . T his is a science o f ignorance for it denies th at which is tru th ; an d breeds e x t r e m i s m and obstinacy for it rejects th a t w hich is indispensable as well as inherent in hum an nature. No science can do without these im perative truths for hum an excellence an d nobility depend on th em .1 A nother scholar o f the ninth century who clearly u n d er stood the inadequacies o f reason arrived at a sim ilar conclusion. In his Introduction to th e W orld H istory Ibn K hald u n (d. 80S A.H .) observed ; T h e m ind is an accurate scale whose record ings a re certain and reliable, but to use it to w eigh questions relating to the U nity o f G od, or the after-life, o r the n ature of prophecy, or the divine qualities, or other such subjects falling outside its range, is like trying to use a goldsm iths scale to weigh m ountains. T his does not m ean th a t the scale is in itself inaccurate. T h e tru th o f the m atter is th a t m ind has limits w ithin w hich it is rigidly confined ; it cannot therefore hope to com prehend God a n d His qualities, itself being,only one o f the m any atom s created by G od. 2
Ibn Taim iyahs Contribution to Logic

F ar from being negative, Ibn T aim iyahs attitu d e tow ards logic was reasonably sensible as well as constructive. H e agreed th a t a p art o f it w a s 'n o t only correct and useful b u t even instinctive to a m an endow ed with reason. At the s a m e tim e he contended th at it also included falacious argum ents w hich w ere not heeded at all.8 He did not agree with th o s e

1.
2. 3.

Nuqdh-al-Mantiq, p. Ib4

Muqaddamah Ibn Khaldun, p . 473

Ar-Raddotalal M antaqiyln, p . 201

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wh6 thought th a t the logical principles, as adum b rated by the m asters o f yore, enshrined the wisdom th at was above criticism . O n the one hand, his criticism o f logic opened the way to its evaluation on rational grounds, while, on th e other, he contri buted to its developm ent by w orking out com plete and precise definitions and new standpoints alm ost untouched by his p re decessors. Ib n T aim iyah argued w ith severity against the syllogism o f Aristotle th a t proceeded from general principles, but he preferred the indu'ctive m ethod o f reasoning w hich he held to be an easier an d su rer way o f attain in g certain know ledge. Ib n T aim iyah set him self to work out several new theories and propositions, as stated by Syed Sulaim an N adw l in his introduction to the Ar-Radd&alal Mantaqlyln. H e w rites : I f you go through this book carefully you would find several discussions on philosophical an d logical issues w hich have been touched upon for the first tim e by Ib n T aim iy ah . Some o f his views are in harm ony w ith th e analysis o f the reasoning process put forth by the w estern philosophers. T o give an exam ple, all the earlier M uslim philosophers h a d followed the A ristotelian view th a t the universals form th e basis o f knowledge, a n d , for th at reason, they had all d isreg ard ed th e particulars and induc tive process o f reasoning. C e rta in w estern w riters claim th at M ill was th e first philosopher to lay th e foundation o f m odern logic by form u latin g the principles o f inductive reasoning (al though Ib n T aim iy ah h a d w orked these out hundreds o f years before M ill). T h e w ay Ib n T aim iy ah analysed an d am plified the intri cate problem s relating to denotation o f term s, genus, division, causal connection, syllogism , inductive process and a priori reasoning an d proved th e v alidity o f th e views set forth by him bear witness to th e ag ility o f his m ind. So far as-the theory o f causal connection is concerned, he b rought out exactly the sam e doctrine as propounded later on by H um e in his w ritings. As everybody knows th e doctrin e o f causation is one o f those diffi cult problem s o f philosophy w hich has m ad e m any a m in d to falter from th e rig h t p a th an d led th em to scepticism and

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agnosticism. T his book contains a num ber o f enquiries w hich speak volumes o f Ib n T aim iy ah s intellectual gifts and literary attainm ents. 1

I . Ar-RaddAiUl M tnUfW *, p. 3

VII
Refutation of Christianity and Shiaism
Ib n T aim iyah spent his whole life fighting those unrlslam ic beliefs a n d ideas which w ere m aking inroads in Islam from w ithin and w ithout. O f these only two, C hristianity and S h ia is m , are m entioned here since he has left two full-fledged works for th eir refutation. Perhaps Ib n T aim iy ah h a d to give m ore attention to these tw o because being well organised and vigorous, they posed a g reater th re a t to orthodox Islam than others. T h e weakening o f the Islam ic kingdom s alongw ith the dis location in the M uslim intellectual life produced first, by the long d raw n crusades, and then by the onslaught o f T a rta r hordes, h ad given h e a rt to th e C hristians to re-as*ert the supre m acy o f th eir religion against th e Islam ic faith. T he objections raised by the C hristians against Islam , who invited M uslim s to polem ical disputations, w ere m et by th e M uslim theologians but the im m ediate cause for Ib n T a im iy a h s response to th e th re a t from th a t q u arter was a new book w ritten in Cyprus. It attem pted to establish the superiority o f C hristianity oyer Islam th ro u g h ratio n al as well as theological argum ents and tended to show th a t the prophethood o f M uham m ad was not universal but lim ited to the A rabs only.

A l-Jawab ul-Sabih
Ib n T aim iyah w rote Al-Jawttb-ul-Saktk liman baddala Din-41

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MacjA in four volumes in w hich he adequately m et all the objec tions raised against Islam , adduced entirely new and satisfying argum ents in support o f the prophethood o f M uham m ad, quoted the prophecies about him contained in the Bible, traced the history o f C hristian church and its scholasticism and exam ined the varying interpretations o f the C hristian faith as expounded by the church fathers from tim e to tim e. In the words o f ia m odern critic and biographer, Sheikh Abu Z ah ra, this book alone is sufficient to carve out a place for him am ong the thinkers an d learned doctors who endeavoured to revivify the fa ith . 1 Ib n T aim iyah was the first am ong M uslim w riters who tu rn ed to the historical criticism o f C hristianity to show how the spiritual experiences o f the early C hristian com m unity were m oulded by the m ythological beliefs an d idolatrous practices o f the R om ans. H e says, T h e Christians have com bined two religions -one preached by the prophets an d the other belonging to pagansinto one. A p a rt o f th eir religion consists o f the teachings o f th e prophets w hile the rest o f it is derived from the creeds and practices o f the heathens. It this way they have introduced m ythological abstractions which are now here to be found in the prophetic scriptures. In the place o f graven images casting shadows they have introduced anthropom orphic figures w hich do not spread any shadow. T hey began offering prayers facing the sun, m oon a n d the stars and started keeping fast durin g autum n w ith the object o f uniting th eir religious observances w ith the anim istic cults. 2
Prevalent Christianity

Ib n T aim iyah m aintained th at the virgin purity o f the C hristian church was violated first by St. Paul and then again in the fourth century o f th e C hristian era during the reign of Constantine. H e says th a t th e ir prelates.and bishops continu
1. 2. Abu a h ra , p . 519 A l-Jaw ab-ul-Sahih, p . 199

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ously went on form ulating and evolving th e C hristian creed and canon as, for exam ple, 318 bishops prepared durin g the reign o f C onstantine a copious creed. T his credal declaration showered invectives on A rius and others who did not subscribe to it, arid contained statements which were not to be found in the scrip tures. It ra th e r had those term s and definitions which were against th e teaching o f the revealed books and even against sound reasoning. 1 In this form ulary o f episcopal consent, continues Ibn T aim iyah, they did not follow Jesus C hrist o r, the earlier prophets but p roduced an entirely new cred al statem ent which cannot be traced to the teachings o f the prophets. In the sermons of Jesus C hrist or other prophets, neither there is any mention o f th e equality o f three or m ore D ivine Persons, nor o f three co-eternal substances having D ivine Essence. N ow here in the scriptures any attrib u te or essence o f God is spoken o f as Logos o r th e Son o f G od, n o r is th ere any m ention o f the Holy Ghost. N or is there any assertion th at G od has begotten a Son who possesses all the inherent perfections appropriate to the Suprem e Being, or who is composed o f D ivine Essence and is also a creato r like God. Expressions like these, susceptible of heretical sense, are not to be found in the utterances o f any prophet. *
Rank and Worth of the Gospels

M uslim theologians often m ade the m istake o f equating New Testam ent w ith the Q u ran by assigning it the position o f a revealed scripture. Ib n T aim iyah held the view th at the books included in th e New T estam ent are m erely a n arrative of certain sayings an d acts o f Jesus C hrist like the biographical accounts of the life o f the Prophet o f Islam left by M uslim historians or, at the m ost, these can be equated w ith the records o f Traditions which a re not considered equivalent to the Q u ran in w orth
1. 2. Al-Jawab-ul-Sahih, V o l. I . p . 18 Ib id ., V o l. I l l , p. 134

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and au th o rity .1 E lucidating his point o f view he says : T he C hristians acknowledge the fact th a t the books o f Gospel they possess today were neither w ritten by Jesus, C hrist nor w ere these composed und er his guidance. These were w ritten a fte r the ascension o f Jesus by M atthew and Jo h n , who were his disciples, and M ark an d Luke, who h ad not even seen him . T he accounts o f the life o f Jesus C hrist n a rra te d therein were not rem em bered and h an d ed dow n by such a large num ber o f persons as to m ake them o f unim peachable au thority. Even the authors o f these books ad m it th a t they have n a rra te d only a p art o f the sayings an d actions o f Jesus C hrist an d have not attem pted to give the entire account o f his life. N arratio n o f any fact by two, three or four persons only is always liable to contain some m istakes; one conspicuous m istake these n arrato rs have m ade is about the person actually crucified. T his m akes th eir account doubtful. 2 In T aim iy ah goes a step furth er and claims th at the books o f O ld T estam ent were put into w riting over a period o f tim e w ith long gaps. T h e Jew ish traditions tell us th a t after the destruction o f the T em ple and wholesale dispersal o f the Jews from Palestine, the final version o f the Pentateuch o r T o rah was got w ritten by E zra about whom th ere is a dispute w hether he was a prophet or n o t. 3 Speaking o f th e difference between the Q u ran and the Bible Ib n T aim iyah says : T h e text o f the Q u ran as well as its m eaning have been transm itted by very m any persons in every age an d have always been accepted as authentic and genuine w ithout any doubt having been ever raised by anybody. Sim ilarly, M uslims have received the accounts o f the person and actions o f th eir P rophet through distinct sources whose authenticity can be ju d g ed in different ways as, for exam ple, unbroken chain o f n a rra to rs, consistent testimony o f the M uslims, circum stantial evidence, etc. E nshrined in the hearts of

). 2. 3.

A l-Jaw ab ul-Sahih, V o l. I , p . 10 Ib id ., V qI. I , p . 368 Ib id ., V o l. I I , p . 368

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Muslims, the Q u ran has not to depend for its existence on the w ritten pages alone. If, God forbid, all the copies o f the Q u ran were to be lost, it could still be reproduced from m em ory but, if the Bible w ere to disappear, there w ould be no continuous reproduction o f its text. T he C hristians have hardly anyone who has learn t the entire Bible by h eart an d w hatever is m em o rised by some is not trustw orthy. T h eir scriptures have been subjected to editing an d interpolation ever since these were handed dow n by the apostles and th at is why the Christians could not preserve the chain o f th eir narrato rs. N or have they evolved the canons for reception an d rejection o f their traditions or the d ictio n ary o f the n arrato rs like the M uslim s. 1

C orruption o f th e Bible
It is generally believed th a t Ib n T aim iyah did not subscribe to the view o f total corruption o f the Biblical text, w hich, he held, was also not the M uslims belief. In his opinion the C hristian an d Jew ish scriptures have been edited by th eir priests and redactors from tim e to tim e w hich has m aterially altered the sense carried by the original text.*

T he M istake o f th e C h ristian s
Ib n T aim iy ah m aintained th a t the inability o f the Christians to fully com prehend the language an d message o f the prophets, in w hich figurative descriptions and expressions w ere used, led them to accept T rin ity w hich violates th e prophetic concept o f mono theism . Citing an exam ple in support o f his contention he says, T h e w ritings o f th e people possessing revealed scriptures show th at the prophets o f yore- h ad used the w ords fath er an d son but they m eant G od by the form er an d one n earer to G od by the latter. Nobody has stated th a t any prophet ever used the word son for an attribute o f God n o r claim ed th a t such an attrib u te was begotten by G od. T o assert th a t by th e w ord son occurring
1. Al-Jawai-ol-Sahih, Vol. II. pp. 12-13 2. Hid., Vol. I , pp. 373-380 and Vol. II, p . 4

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1 in the phrase Baptize them in the nam e o f the F ath e r and o f th| Son and o f the Holy G host,1Jesus m eant th at he was co-equ^j an d co-eternal w ith the D ivine Essence is to charge him w ith a, b latan t calum ny. Sim ilarly, th e attribute o f God referring to His life was never expressed as Holy Ghost or Holy Spirit. In the term inology used by the prophets holy spirit stood for the thing or being descending w ith D ivine grace ?uid strength on the prophets and pious souls. 2 In another passage addressed to the Christians he says, You would ad m it th a t the w ord son has been used for others, too besides Jesus C hrist. You see Jesus Christ speaking o f My F ath er and your F a th e r, F ath er which is in H eaven,* and my God and your G o d 1 1 and th a t his disciples were all filled with the Holy G host.6 Likewise, in the T o rah you have one finds God asking Moses : T hou shalt say unto P haraoh, T hus saith th e L ord, Israel is my son, even my firstborn : and I say unto thee, Let my son go, th at he m ay serve me : and if thou refuse to let him go, behold, I will slay thy son, even thy firstborn.* T h e T o rah further s a y s : And all the firstborn in the lan d of Egypt shall die, from the firstborn o f P h araoh th a t sitteth upon his throne, even unto the firstborn o f the m aidservant th at is behind the m ill; and all the firstborn o f b e a sts/8 T hus the T o rah speaks o f entire Bani Israel as the son o f G od and all the people o f Egypt as the son o f P haraoh. It includes even the sons of beasts am ongst the son of P haraoh. In the Book of Psalms God says to D avid : T hou art my Son, this day have I begotten thee. Ask o f m e, and I shall give three. ' A gain, the

1. 2. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

M a tt, 2 8 : 1 9 A l-Ja w tii-u l-S th ih , V ol. I l l , p p . J81-I82 M att, 6 : 1 J o h n , 20 : 17 A c t, 2 : 4 E x. 4 : 22-23 E x . 11 -..5 l>s 2 : 7-8

3. John, 2 0 :1 7

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12 3

New T estam ent says that Jesus told his disciples, I go unto the fa th e r ; for my F ather is greater th an I 1 an d exhorted them to pray thus : 'O u r F ath er which a rt in heaven, H allow ed be thy nam e,........... ...G ive us this day our daily b re a d .2 In the same way the Holy Ghost did not descend on C hrist alone, there are others as well who were filled w ith the Holy Spirit. 4 Ibn T aim iyah then adds In short, neither in the earlier prophecies nor in the scriptures such as T o rah , Psalms or New Testam ent there is anything to show th a t the D ivine Spirit had transfused into Jesus C hrist or th at he had an indw elling effulgence o f G ods glory as the C hristians believe. T h ere is nothing in these scriptures to justify Jesus being regarded as the Son o f G od, in an exclusive or unique sense. In reality he was no m ore than w hat the Q,urJan says: T h e Messiah, Jesus son of M ary, was only a Messenger o f A llah, and His w ord which H e conveyed unto M ary, and a spirit from H im .5 T h e fact is th at the scriptures granted to earlier prophets and th eir pro phecies confirm w hat the Prophet o f Islam told us about them . Each one o f them , indeed, ratifies the other. As for the predic tions quoted by tne C hristians in support o f the supernatural virtue an d pow er o f Jesus C hrist, all these signs an d prophecies can be applied to others besides Jesus Christ. T herefore, to appeal to these oracles for establishing the divinity o f Jesus C hrist is completely u n w arranted. T h e words, such as, the sou, M essiah, descent of or being filled w ith Holy Spirit o r being addressed as the L ord are expressions used in the scriptures for others too and so none o f these expressions prove th at Jesus C hrist possessed the perfections appropriate to the Suprem e Being. * T h e evangelistic theologians very often take reso rt to the
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. J o h n 1 4 : 28 M a tt, 6 : 9 - 1 1 A cts 2 : 4 A l-Jaw ab ul-Sahih, V o l. I l l , p p . 185-186 Q.. I V : 171 A l-Jaw ab-ul-Sahih, V c!. I I , p p . 189-190

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mysterious argum ents d erived from the Platonic concepts o f the Logos and the soul o r spirit o f the universe to prove the subtlfe questions covering the n atu re, distinction and equality o f th e th ree divine persons. Ib n T aim iyah refuted all these argu m ents by showiiig, in accordance w ith the principles o f syllogis tic logic an d philosophical concepts, th a t none o f their presum p tions justifies the rem otest implications o f their opinion. Being unable to establish the tru th o f mysterious doctrines which could satisfy a rational m ind, the C hristian apologists try to d raw a veil o f sanctity over th e ir enigm atical b eliefs., They assert th at the doctrine o f T rin ity being em bedded in th eir Scripture, it is incum bent on them to have faith in it, and it is impious to doubt its authenticity, for, these a re abstruse questions o f infinite reality beyond the reach o f lim ited understanding possessed by the hu m an beings. But Ib n T aim iyah points out th a t this argum ent is equally Fallacious. T h e C hristian theologians fail to dis tinguish, observes Ib n T aim iy ah , the things w hich reason holds as ridiculous an d contrary to reason or rath e r impossible from those which it cannot com prehend o r cannot pronounce its verdict in reg ard to th e ir n atu re and existence. T h e apostles of G od have really inform ed us only about the m atters falling in th e second category, since, the things belonging to the form er category cannot simply form p a rt o f the message brought by them . These pretenders o f knowledge could not m ake any distinction between th e facts revealed and the incom prehensible mysteries which elude o u r enquiry. T hey decided to compete w ith the polytheists who h a d invented an associate o f G od and a son for H im . 1 Ib n T aim iyah arg u ed cogently to show th at revelation never contradicts th e facts acceptable to the norm al process of thought. T his also, in his opinion, brought out the basic difference betw een Islam an d C hristianity. Islam , he said, accepted certain facts' o f m ute reality w hich w ere beyond the ken o f senses but not against reason. O n the o ther h and,
I. Al-Jawat-ul-Sahih, Vol. II, p. 89

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C hristianity subscribed to th e doctrines which were irrational. T he p h ristia n theologians agreed th a t these w ere reasonless but they also insisted on their acceptance by holding them as revealed facts beyond hum an com prehension.

E arly F ollow ers o f C hristianity

In this book Ib n T aim iyah also gave an account o f those sects o f early C hristianity who h ad faith in the U nity of Suprem e Being and revered Jesus as a prophet and servant o f G od b u t which could not flourish due to a variety o f reasons. T he doctrinal subtleties separating different C hristian factions described m inutely by Ib n T aim iyah show how deeply he had studied th a t religion.

P rophecies about the L ast Prophet

Ib n T aim iy ah listed all the prophecies o f the O ld and the New Testam ents concerning the advent o f the Last Prophet. H e explained the significance o f the oracles attributed to Isiah, H abakkuk, D aniel an d Jesus w hich could be appealed to foretell the com ing o f th e Prophet o f Islam .1 T o give an exam ple, the prophecy contained in Jo h n 14 : 30 w herein Jesus is reported to have said : H ereafter I w ill not talk m uch w ith y o u ; for the prince o f th e w orld com eth, an d h a th nothing in m e was explained by him to show how it leferred to the Prophet o f Islam . T h | w ord prince , says Ib n T aim iyah, "occurring in th is ' passage is a translation o f H ebrew artiun w hich m eans glorious, illustrious, august an d high in dignity. Dwelling fu rth er upon this passage he adds since it is a manifest and accepted fact, everbody would agree th a t M uham m ad was the only Prophet iafter Jesus whose tem poral and spiritual leader ship has been acknowledged by th e w orld. People obeyed him w ith a ll th e ir h eart an d soul. D u rin g his life tim e and after his d eath , in all tim es an d climes, in th e East and the W est his followers have yielded obediently to his com m ands. A llegiance
1.
Al-Jaunt-nt-S*hih, Vol. I ll, p. 265 to Vol. IV,p 20

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is owed to the sovereigns durin g th e ir life-tim e alone for, as the saying goes, authority forgets a dying k in g ; but for religion such an allegiance is valueless. T h e spirit o f reverence and im plicit submission elicited by the Prophets is even above the fear o f chastisem ent and hope ,of rew ard in the H ereafter. Prophet M uham m ad (peace and blessings o f God be upon him ) brought to light the tru e faith o f the prbphets o f yore, confirm ed the message b rought by them and exalted their names. It was On account o f him th a t several nations acknow ledged Moses and Jesus as the prophets o f G od. Even am ongst those who h ad faith 'In the revealed scriptures, there w ere wide differences; they slandered D avid and Solomon an d d id not know m any other prophets like H u d , Salih and ShuaMb. 1
Signs of Prophethood

In o rd er to assert th e prophethood o f M uham m ad, Ibn T aim iy ah discussed the m iracles worked by the Prophet. H e did not, however, m ention only the m iracles recorded in the T raff ditions an d biographies o f the P io p h et but also dealt extensively w ith the definition and n atu re o f m iracles, and extended their scope, according to the Q u ran ic vocabulary, to include the signs w hich m ake visible and confirm the tru th o f prophethood. In form ing an estim ate o f the character o f the Holy Prophet he m aintained that all these, his character and deportm ent, his sayings and his actions constitute a m iracle, as do his canons and his followers, their way o f life and piety. T h e pure-hearted am ong his followers a re the signs a n d wonders in support o f his apostleship. 2 C oncerning the universality o f M u h am m ad s prophethood, he explained the significance and m erits o f the beliefs, doctrines and canons o f Islam , w hich, he claim ed, are com plete and satisfy the principles furnished by reason. T here is nothing founded on the d a ta o f reason w hich has been disallow ed by
1, 2. Al-Jawat-ul-Sahih, Vol. IV . pp. 86-87 Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 187

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the Prophet o f Islam an d nothing against the dictates o f reason which was Upheld by him . T h e Book revealed to him corrected, completed an d Superseded the earlier scriptures while the Sharjah brought by him incorporated all the guidance provided by the prophets o f yore.1 Ib n T aim iyah brought forth a series o f cogent reasons to prove th a t anyone who believed in the prophethood o f any apostle of God could not deny the prophetic mission o f M uham m ad ; for, w hatever reasons he would adduce for the prophethood o f any one o f these messengers o f G od, they would equally apply to the last Prophet also. Sim ilarly, the denial o f the prophethood o f M u h am m ad , for w hatever reason it m ight be, would lead one to deny the apostleship o f all other prophets.2 Ib n T aim iy ah d id not overlook the argum ent often prefer red by the Christians th a t M uham m ad was a prophet to his countrym en alone. H e devoted m ore than 200 pages o f the first p a r i o f Al-Jawab-ul-Sahlh8 to refute this assertion. H e quoted th e Scriptures to show th a t it was essential for all men to beilieve in the mission of M uham m ad. H e also dw elt upon the grand object o f divine revelation w hich intended to show m ankind, through the apostleship o f M uham m ad, the right path o f salvation and to bring forth all th a t is noble and good in m an.

M inhaj-us-Sunnah
Like Al-Jauiab-Al-Sakth, Minhsj-us-Sunnah is an o ther work o f distinctive m erit by Ib n T aim iy ah , w hich he w rote to refute the Shiaite schism, then posing a th re a t to the integrity o f orthodox faith. The-book consisting o f four volum es an d covering 1214 pages, was w ritten in feply to Minhaj-ul- KarZhmah o f Ibn-ulM u tah h ir al-H illl who had, in his excessive zeal to prove the divinely Qrdained office o f Irriamat, tried to m ake out the first three

1 Al-Jcwak-tu-Sahih, Vol. IV , pp. 81 -82 2. Hid., Vol I, p. 180 3. Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 28-230

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right-guided Caliphs not m erely hypocrites a n d im posters b u t also the vilest creatures steeped in inequity. T his, accprding,t<> Ib n T aim iyah, discredited Islam an d m ade the concept o f pro phethood untenable. Despite its polem ical natu re the Minhaj-usSunnah is rem arkable for the sobriety o f its style and the pursuit o f details and accuracy.
Vilification o f the Prophet's Companions

Discussing the logical result o f the S h i'aite denigration o f the Prophets com panions, Ib n T aim iyah observes : T he followers o f the Prophet o f Islam constitue the best o f people and the w orthiest in excellence and m erit am ong them w ere those who first em braced Islam . But the picture d raw n by these slanderers shows th a t the earliest M uslims had neither any inkling o f the T ru th n o r th ey followed it faith fu lly ; since, according to the Shicahs, most o f them , particularly the first three Caliphs knowingly opposed the teachings o f the Prophet. All the com panions, they say, followed these tyrants because they did. not possess those intellectual faculties w hich a re required for discernm ent o f the tru e p ath o f Islam . Now, it is not difficult to conceive how lustful an d pow er-hungry, unenlightened and m indless m en the com panions and Caliphs were according to Shic ahs. T hey charge th e C aliphs o f laying a claim to the C aliphate to look after their own interests. Thus, all the followers o f the Prophet w ent astray by forsaking'" the path o f T ru th . I f this view is accepted, the Jew s and the Christians w ould, o f a fact, be better than the Muslims for God bears a testimoney in the Q u r an th at o f the Moses folk there is a com m unity who lead w ith tru th and establish justice there w ith . * T he Prophet has foretold th at o f m ore th a n seventy factions o f th e Jew s an d Christians, only one would qualify for salvation but if we accept the Shicaite view there would not be a single sect am ong the M uslim s which could be deem ed as the
1. Minhij-us-Sunnah, Val. I, p. 152 2. Q,. V I I : 159

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standard b earer o f T ru th and Justice. I f the best in faith am ong the Muslims were so depraved, w hat can be said o f those coining after th em ? Does it not prove th at the Jews and the Christians are better eve* after the corruption o f th eir scriptures and faith, an d w orthier th a n those about whom God has said : Te are the best community that hath been raised up fo r mankind Ib n T aim iyah quotes Im am S h u 'eb l to show th at even the Jew s and Christians hold th e ir prophets in greater reverence th an the Shic ahs do. H e says, Asked to indicate the purest in faith am ong them , the Jew s replied th a t the Elders accom pany ing Moses an d th e ir followers Were the noblest believers. In reply to a sim ilar question the Christians said th a t the disciples of Jesus C hrist were the most pious am ongst them . But when the Shic5hs were required to suggest the most profane and, irreligious am ongst M uslims they pointed out to the companions o f the Prophet o f Islam . A h ! T hey w ere'com m anded to invoke blessings o f G od on these pious Souls but w hat they are doing is to curse and swear a t them . * Denigration of the Companions

Ib n - T aim iyah' pointed out th a t the predisposing cause responsible for the S h ia h s stan d in g a p a rt from and almost in hostile attitu d e to the rest o f Islam lay in the impassible bitter ness harboured by them (wards the first th ree Caliphs, in p arti cular, and the m ajority o f P rophets com panions, in general. The denigration o f the early' precursors o f Islam by them is really a cloak for their hostility to the P rophet whose life-long labour could not, in th e ir opinion, win over even a handful o f sincere followers. T h e stand taken by th e S h ia h s , says Ib n T aim iyah, also bespeaks o f the inability o f th e Prophet to fore warn the M uslim s about the secret designs o f the hypocrites and the events th at followed im m ediately a fte r his death although he had m a d e predictions about things th a t were to take place 1. Q. 111:110
2. M inhaj-us-Sunm h, V ol. I , p . 6

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hundreds o f years after him . N ot only th%t, the respect a n d confidence of th e Prophet enjoyed by his em inent com panions shows th a t either the Prophet could not foresee the danger for the future o f Islam or h a d p m a false appearance upon his outw ard behaviour tow ards them . In either case, it would be difficult, to justify his action as behoving the dignity o f a prophet. T h u s , concluded Ib n T aim iy ah 1 only those would vilify the em inent com panions w ho either nourished a secret feeling o f ill-w ill against Islam an d its Prophet, like the originator o f Shicaism an d th e leaders o f th e Batinite m ovem ent, o r, the unenlightened folk p ro d d ed by their selfish desires and ignorance, as generally a re the rank a n d file o f th e Shia schism .
Excellence o f the Companions

Ib n T aim iy ah d id not claim th at the com panions o f the Prophet o f Islam w ere w ithout a spot o r blem ish o r w ere not liable to sin like the apostles o f God. H e, how ever, d id assert th a t being th e m ost pious an d pure o f h eart in the entire com m unity, they w ere ju st, G od-fearing, tru th fu l, sincere and u p rig h t. I f they ever com m itted a sin, they repented and strenuously tried to atone for th e ir m istakes through prayers and fasting and virtuous actions. T h eir virtues and m erits outweighed th e ir faults. E xplaining his v ie w p o in t he says,2 W e have already stated th a t we d o not hold th a t there was anybody; impeccable after th e Prophet o f Islam , m uch less his not form ing a w rong opinion in ju ristic m atters. T he w rit o f G od runs for th e m : A nd whoso b ringeth th e tru th and believeth therein such a re th e dutiful. T hey shall have w hat they w ill o f their L o rd s bounty.. T h a t is th e re w a rd o f th e good : i T h a t A llah w ill rem it from them th e w orst o f what!
1. 2. Minhej-ut-Sunnah, Vol. IV , p. 123 Ibid., Vol. I I I . p. 238

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they d id , and will pay th em for rew ard the best they used to do. 1 , Ib n T aim iy ah has succinctly b ro u g h t out the unreasonable ness o f the Shic ahs in reg ard to th e com panions o f the Prophet o f Islam . T o borrow his w o rd s : T h e com panions were, regardless o f th e ir hum an shortcomings; the best group o f persons am ong the M uslims by virtue o f th eir faith an d righteousness. T h e ir deficiencies would ap p ear insignificant if we w ere to com pare th e ir m orals an d behaviour w ith th e com portm ent o f the followers o f o th e r faiths. , A ctually th e fault lies w ith those who can. see a black stain on a w hite sheet but are unable to detect the w hite scratch on a black bedspread* T his is, in fact, a great injustice as well as foolishness, for, one can easily find out the m erit and worthiness o f the com panions by com paring them w ith those known for th e ir purity of, faith and m orals am ongst the followers o f o th e r religions. H ow far th e stan d ard set by these persons can be deem ed to be. just i f they visualise a criterion o f righteousness u n attainable by m a n ? I f someone pictures to oneself o f an im peccable Im am o r a religious teacher who, sometimes not even nam ed as an Im Sm , is not liable to err,' a n d dem ands th a t every learn ed m an, religious teacher, ru ler o r king, notw ithstanding his eru d itio n , tem perance and the virtuous deeds perform ed by him , should be a replica o f th at id e a l; whose know ledge shoujd compass all the hidden mysteries of nature, who should be an acm e o f perfection free from all hum an shortcom ings an d w ho should never let his angry passions r i s e ; then, nothing can be done to deliver such a m an from the fantasy o f his m ind. T h ere are, in tru th , m any am ongst them w ho endue th eir Im am s w ith card inal virtues not possessed even by the apostles o f G od. 2 A t another place he writes8 Any one who has studied the history o f various religions w ould know th a t th ere has never

1. Q . X X X IX -.33-35 2. Minhaj-us-Sunnah, Vol. I l l , p. 241 3. Ibid., Vol. I l l , p. 242

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been a group o f persons m ore pious an d devout and m ore m ind ful o f avoiding schism and b reach in religion th a n the com pani ons o f the Prophet. These Were the persons about Whom God has said : ' Ye are the best comm unity th at h ath been tfaised up for m ankind. Ye enjoin rig h t condtict and forbid indecency1 ;and ye believe in A llah. 1 ! - ' W hatever goodness an d virtues M uslims shall posseis to the end of tim e , adds Ib n T aim iy ah , w hether it be the Faith o r the Q u r an, know ledge o r prayers, entry in Paradise or pro tection against H ell, ascendency over non-believers or glorifica tion o f G od, it shall all be th e fruit o f earnest efforts m ade by th e com panions o f the"^Prophet Who1preached the religion and fought in the* w ay o f G od. Every m an w ho em braces Islam shall lie u n d e r ail obligation to them till the Doomsday. Even the virtues, the Shi^ahs a n d others have, are the gifts from the com panions, who, in tu rn , w ere inspired by the right-guided Galiphs ; for the latter w ere the'fotm t o f all the blessings w h eth er o f this w orld or th e next.3 ff i
Caliphate of Aba Bakr

Election o f AbU Bakr to the office of caliphate has been the greatest bone o f contention betw een the Shicalis and Sunnis. E xplaining the significance o f th e elective principle regulating the appointm ent o f th e Caliphs, Ibn T aim iyah observes .* It is w orthy o f note th a t the caliphate o f AbQ Bakr and U m ar is really a sign o f th e perfection of divinely-appointed prophet h o o d o f M uham m ad (m ay th e peace and blessings o f G od be upon him ). T hey furnish a proof th a t he was not a king b u t an apostle o f G o d ; for th e kings always prefer to pass on the sceptre o f authority to th e ir nearest relations. T o the kings this is an essential step to save th e ir kingdom (from falling into the h a n d s o f bthers). So we also see the rulers and governors aro u n d us acting in a sim ilar m anner. T he Saljukids and the
1. Q,. I l l : 110 Minhajus-Sumuih, Vol. I l l , p. 245

2.

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Sultans o f S y r ia a n d Y em an pass on th e ir kingdom s to their kith an d kin, an d this ,h?is been th e practice followed by the C hristian an d h eath en k in g s as well. T h e kings o f the Franks a n d tho^e belonging to th e progeny o f G henghiz K hSn always ensure th a t the kingship rem ains w ithin th e ir fam ily. T hey are always m indful w hether the successor is a f th eir family and blood o r not. But, d isregarding th is universal practice, the Prophet d id not nom inate his uncle Abbas o r his cousin A ll or cAqU o r an o th er relation like R ab ica ihn a l-H a rith ibn Abdul M uttalib o r A bu Sufyan ibn al-H arith ibn cA bdul M uttalib as his successor, an d this shows th a t the P ro p h et was not guided by the regal preqepts an d conventions. Besides th e relatives already nained, th ere w ere ailso l U th m an ibn cA ffan, K h alid ibn Saceed ibn al-cAas, A ban ibn Saceed ibn al-Aas an d others belonging to Banu cAbd M u n a f the m ost respected clan :o f the Q uraish and nearest to the, fam ily o f the Prophet but none o f them was nom inated to succeed him . T his proves th a t M uham m ad was a prophet and s l a v e , G o d an d not a king. H e never bestowed his favour on anybody m erely on account o f th e nobility of blood or relationship w ith him but conferred his blessings only on grounds o f ones faitW and piety. T h is was an indication for his followers th a t they shall not endeavour to establish the rule of any clan o r fam ily but uphold the kingdom, o f God on earth . T hey w ere not to follow even those prophets o f yore who h a d been gran ted kingship by G od because M uham m ad was allowed to choose betw een kingship an d th e slavery o f th e L ord and he chose to rem ain a slave and a prophet. T h e caliphate o f A bu Bakr an d U m a r was thus a consummation, o f his teachings. H ad he nom inated someone o f his ow n household as his successor he would have been accused o f accum ulating w ealth and riches for his progeny. 1 . T h e ShicHhs m ain tain the divine an d indefeasible right o f cAll for succession to th e caliphate on th e d e a th o f the Prophet T hey assert the rig h t o f cAli because he happened to be the
1.

M inh a j-u s-S u n n a h , V o l. I V , p. 126

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cousin an d son-in-law o f the P rophet. They also claim th a t All w as expressly declared by the Prophet as his successor under divine guidance. Ib n T aim iyah, how ever, points out th a t the claim o f cA lts succession, based on his nearness o f kindred to the Prophet bears resem blance to the conventions o f the pagan past w hen tho A rabs w ere unduly predisposed in favour o f their ow n clans an d kins. Likewise, th e unw arranted veneration of cAll and o th e r m em bers o f th e P rophets household by the S h ia h s , as p artak ers o f divine nature, is looked upon by Ibn T aim iy ah as im pairing th e ir dignity rath e r th a n being compli m entary to them . T h e excessive veneration o f H usains progeny by th e S h ia h s , says Ibn Taimiyah.) exposes them to ; a b itte r tria l for/they adulate them in a way w hich brings them in to discredit. T h e contentions o f the Shi*8hs about th eir claims to succession o f th e P ro p h et a re also entirely unsupportable. In fact, h a d th e ir biographical accounts by Sunni w riters not been available, w h at the Shicahs relate about them w ould have been m ore o f a condem nation th an a com plitrient to th em . 1 Al-HiJl! h ad profusely quoted T raditions and Q uranic passages to establish th e m erit an d excellence o f 1A lt and other Im m s o f th e S h ia h s o r to d e n ig ra te ife e first th ree Caliphs. Ib n T aim iy ah subjected each one o f these (quotations to a search ing scrutiny in o i d e r to show th at these b a d ' either been cited out o f context o r m isinterpreted in favour o r against someone according to th e w him s and prejudices o f th e au th o r o f Minhajul-Kramah. T o give one exam ple here, A l-H illl h ad cited the following Q p ra n ic verses : H e h a th loosed the two seas. T hey m eet. T h e re is a b a rrie r betw een them . T hey encroach not (one Upon the o th er). VVhich is it^ b f th e fsivours o f yOur L ord, th at y deny ? T h e re com eth forth from both o f them the pearl 1 ! : a n d cbral-stone. 3
I . Minhaj-us-Sunnah, Vol. IV , p. 287 *. Hid., Vol. II, p. 125 3 Q,. LV : 19-22

REFUTATION OF CHRISTIA NITY A ND SHIAISM

13 5

Al-H illt then proceeded to expound th a t the two seas alluded to ,1All a n d F atim ah , the b a rrie r to the Prophet and the.pearl and coral-stone to H asan and H usain. Ib n T aim iyah exam ined the exegesis o f A l-H illl in some d etail to show th at th e'interp retatio n given by him betrayed agnostic tendencies o f Q arm atians and Batinites who invested the Q u ran ic vocabulary with an enigm atic o r allegorical sense. Ibn T aim iyah then gave num erous reasons to disprove the contention o f Al-Hilll. H e show ed th a t th e abovem entioned verses w ere revealed at M ecca w hile H asan and H usain w ere born at M ad in a. A gain, these verses w ere elucidated fu rth er by another revelation which sa id : A nd H e it is W ho h a th given independence to the two seas (though they m e e t) ; one palatable, sweet, a n d other saltish, b itter. 1 T hus, said Ib n T aim iyah, i f one w ere to identify cAlx an d F atim ah w ith th e two seas, one w ould also have to accept one o f them as saltish an d bitter. Likewise, the b a rrie r , i f taken to m ean the Prophet, would am ount to his disparagem ent, for the b a rrie r is always an obstacle or an agency th a t keeps tw o things a p a rt.2 iStijl jn o re significant is the section in w hich Ib n T aim iyah replied to the charges levelled by A l-H illl against the first three Caliphs. By applying th e sound m ethod o f criticism to the im putations o f A l-H illi a n d supplem enting it w ith accurate an d reliable historical d a ta , he showed how low a prejudiced m ind can stoop to m align ones supposed enemies.
Shicaite Beliefs

r '-I:' Ib n T aim iyah also devoted a section o f Minhaj-us-Sunnah to the discussion o f the Shi'-aite tenets o f faith w hereby he dem on strated th e hollowness an d contradictions o f th eir beliefs. To give an illum inating illustration, he accuses the hicShs of having com m itted alm ost the sam e m istake as the C hristians who h ad endued JesuS w ith divine attributes as the Son o f G od,
1. Q.. X X V : 53 2. Minhaj-us-Sutmah, Vol. IV , pp. 67-68

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! SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

and then depicted him as a meek and helpless preacher. The Shicahs subscribe to contradictory doctrines , says Ibn T aim iyah. O n the one hand, they m agnify A lls prowess and courage to! such an extent th at he appears to be the chief defender o f the F aith , on whose help even the Prophet had to depend, and who was, in th at task, no less th an a partak er o f .Divinity. But, . afte r Islam becam e strong and pow erful, he grew SO ' feeble and hum ble th a t he h ad to take recourse, like a helpless and shaky m an, to smoothing dow n and deying'his religious beliefs in order to save him self from persecution. T h en , there appears to be no other m a n 'm o re spineless and im portant th an cAlI, although th e fact is th a t his conversion to Islam had increased'his courage o f conviction. H ow could a m an supposed to be an ally o f God in establishing Islam and subduing the non-believers fail to bring his valour to his aid especially after em bracing Islam , to vanquish those who w ere denying justice to h im ? His adversaries w ere then fewer in num ber an d lesser in strength than the pagans "Whom he h ad earlier subjugated. 1 Ib n T aim iy ah deprecated the lack o f interest on the p a rt of Shic ahs in the study o f the Q u ran and the Sunnah, the perform ance o f prayers arid oth er religious observances and the upkeep of mosques. H e traced the reason for this irreligious behaviour to the Shicaite b e lie fs'w h ic h carry the veneration for their ItnUws so fa r as to raise them to the position of a divine person. C oncerning the theory o f Imamat, particularly the reappearance o f the tw elfth Imam who is believed to have concealed him self in some secret place till th e day o f his m anifestation before the end o f the w orld, Ib n T aim iy ah explained the untenability as well as harrtifiil effects o f th at doctrine. H e dem onstrated through cogent reasoning and irrefutable evidences th at the Shicaite theologians genefally follow the M utazilites, although som e o f them have a'so been attached to the school of. Greek philosophers. Some of ihem , like the author o f Minhaj-ul-Kramah, h a d tried to com bine their know ledge o f Greek philosophy
1: M inhaj-us-Sunnah, Vol. IV, p. 56

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and logical syllogism o f the M u'tazilites w ith their Shilaite beliefs an d doctrines to provide a defence for their religion. How ever, for an erudite scholar of both th e religious and secular sciences, th at Ibn T aim iyah was, it was not difficult to refute the Shicaite argum ents, point by point, a n d to thoroughly expose th eir fallacies.

VIII
Rejuvenation of Religious Thought in Islam
Ib n T aim iy ah was b o rn at a tim e w hen the prevalent sciences, both religious and discursive, and particularly those like exegesis, T raditions, jurisprudence an d the corpus o f law h a d already been developed to an extent th a t the educated persons norm ally specialised in any one subject. Sufficient literatu re, enough to fill in a lib rary , h a d by then been accum u lated on each o f these sciences. T h ere w ere also several scholars o f outstanding intelligence an d ability, who w ere not only deem ed an au th o rity on th e ir subject, but w ere also known for th eir w ide know ledge an d strong retentive m em ory. T h a t this is no m ere speculation is proved by the w ritings o f the doctors like K a m a l u d -d in Ib n A zm ahkanl, T a q i ud-dln 1A ll ibn Subki, Sham s ud-dln az-Z ahabl an d A bul H ajjaj al-M izzi. T h ere w ere, a t th a t tim e, scholars who could have been called a living encyclopaedia for th e ir extensive know ledge. In sum m ing up th e intellectual attainm ents o f th e age, however, a m arked deficiency noted by every h istorian is th a t there was no m aster m ind who could not only ; com pare w ith his predecessors in extensive know ledge b u t could also m ake an estim ation o f their; views, analyse a n d determ ine th eir w orth and bring in his own v erdict in those m atters. I n other w ords, the extensiveness o f know ledge possessed by the then scholars was not m atched by th e depth an d originality o f thought o f the preceding ages. T h u s, the scholars o f the tim e, instead o f investigating afresh the

REJUV EN ATIO N O F RELIGIOUS THOUGHT IN ISLAM

m aterial already existing, w ere content to collect, edit and interpret them in a series o f com m entaries and classified glossaries.
Ibn Taim iyahs Intellectual Endeavour

A fresh intellectual elem ent was ushered by Ib n T aim iyah who, besides, digesting th e existing knowledge o f the tim e, presented it afresh with th e fullness an d critical guarantees behoving a creativ e thinker. W ith his deep knowledge o f th e Q u ran an d insight into th e purposes an d underlying objectives o f the Sharicah and the principles o f ju risprudence, Ibn T aim iyah could present w hatever subject he chose to scribe, w ith a m arked authority and comprehensiveness. T h ere is not a single compo sition by him whose range is not so w ide th a t it could not be described as an encyclopaedia o n th e subjectbringing into its compass all the existing knowledge o f th e tim e a n d opening new vistas o f vision. W e have already discussed in some detail two o f his works, nam ely, Al-Jaw&b-ul-Sahih an d M tniaj-us-Sm m k, but there a re still m ore outstanding m onographs on other subjects, such as, Kitib-un-Nabuwat, Ar-Raddo-^aLal Mantaqlyln and Iqiidka^-us-Sirat-il-Mustaqlm, to nam e only a few, w hich com bine comprehensiveness w ith critical thinking and provide food for thought to th eir readers.
Exegesis of the Qur an

T h e principal object o f Ib n T aim iy ah s literary endeavours was exegesis o f th e Q u r a n : an interest so predom inant' th a t its influence can easily be seen in his alm ost every work. W henever he quotes any verse from th e Q u r an in his w ritings, he does not proceed fu rth er Without giving its interpretation. A ccording to his disciples his com m entaries o f th e Q u ran ru n into as m any as th irty volum es. U nfortunately, none o f these works survives today except in fragm ents consisting o f th e exegesis o f certain Q uraiiic chapters. H a d these volumes been available today they would have undoubtedly constituted one o f the most valuable collection on the subject displaying his rem arkable critical

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faculty an d acuteness o f th o u g h t. T h e com m entaries o f SSrat^uiIkhlas, Ma'-uwztain and An-Nur along w ith the exegetical excerpts taken from different works by Ib n T aim iy ah , published recently, exhibit his com prehensiveness, m ental g rit, reform ative zeal and th e developed sense o f in terp retin g the Scripture in accordance w ith th e cu rren t needs o f th e tim e. H e also w rote a m onograph on th e principles o f exegesis o f th e Q u r an w hich is perhaps the first dissertation o f its k in d o n this subject. T h a t the surpassing interest o f Ib n T aim iy ah lay in th e science o f exegesis was acknow ledged by his contem poraries w ho on his d eath invited th e people to offer th e fu n eral p ra y e r o f the com m entator o f the Q u r an .
Traditions

Ib n T aim iy ah has n o t left any book On T rad itio n s o r th eir interp retatio n . In fact, th e rem ark ab le advancem ent m ad e in this field by the seventh an d eig h th centuries after Hijrah, had hard ly left any scope for fu rth e r endeavour in th a t direction but his w ritings on th e principles o f T ra d itio n , bio-data o f the n a rra to rs, canons for th e reception an d rejection o f T rad itio n s, th e ir critical analysis a n d classification o f ju rid ic a l T raditions, scattered in his different w orks constitute his valuable co n trib u tion to the subject. All th is m a te ria l, w hich is quite extensive, if collected in a single volum e, could serve to provide his au th o ritativ e views on th e different issues o f this im portant science.
Principles o f Jurisprudence

T h e task o f legal definition an d form ulation o f juristic opinion was an o th er en d eav o u r w hich absorbed Ib n T a im iy a h s in tellectual energies. H av in g a tta in e d m asterful proficiency in this field too, his w ritings o n th e subject contain discussions on in tricate legal issues. Ib n T a im iy a h s com positions on ju risp ru dence com prise Iqtidfia^-us-Sirat-il-Musttqlm and a volum inous collection o f his ju ristic opinions along w ith some sm aller treatises like Al-QiyUs a n d Minhaj-il-W asul ila-cIlm-il-Usul. T h e w ork relatin g to th e com pilation o f legal precepts o f

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th e different juristic schools h ad alm ost been completed by the tim e o f Ib n T aim iyah. Still, he review ed several issued w ith the fullness o f a critical m ind w hich im parted a fresh dynam ism to the legal system. In expressing his legal opinions, Ib n T aim iy ah s constant endeavour was to provide guidance for the changing needs in the light o f the Sharil ah and to b rin g in a closer conform ity between the principles o f legal systems and th e :Q u r an an d the Sunnah. T h e legal opinions as well as the principles governing them , enunciated by Ib n T a im iy a h have been preserved in four volumes U n d e r the title o f Fatawah Sheikh-ul-Islam lb* Ttdmyah.1
Dialectics

Ib n T aim iy ah s writings o n dialectics and credal issues constitute m ore than h a lf o f his entire composition. A few o f these a re nam ed a fte r different cities (from which the specific issues w ere referred to him ), such as Sharah Isbahanlyah, Wastiyah, Tadmuriyah, RisHlah-i-Hamwiyah, KtlUniyah, BaghdZdiyah and Atjhariyah. Each one!b f these furnishes evidence o f his p^tietratiitg intellect, logical thinking, com prehensive knowledge and religious fervour.
Revival o f Religious Thought

Ib n T aim iy ah s literary endeavours, both extensive in scope an d deep in content, w hich com bined the dogm a w ith reason, served to clear aw ay th e cotfweb spun by im ita tive theologians during an age o f stagnation and immobility. T h e field o f his intellectual pursuits is so large th a t it can be coveted Only by a'' long and intensive study. H ere it would suffice to m ention th a t his insistence on adhering to the original teachings o f Islam firm ly established revelation as the sole

1. I t has since been published from Egypt in 1326 A , H . Recently, the collection of his Fatawa including his unpublished juristic opinions has , been brought out in 30 volumes in Saudi Arabia. These volumes really constitute an encyclopaedia on Islamic jurisprudence.

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criterio n o f any theological m ovem ent. H e brought out expli citly th e lim itation o f hu m an reason and the futility o f attaining know ledge o f G od th ro u g h ratio n al and philosophical methods in a way m ore appealing to the critical m inds, than the e a rlie r doctors* A longw ith these, his independent and c ritical attitude tow ards th e earlier authorities an d text-books, and the rejection o f the rigidity o f scholastic m ethod generated a process o f im provem ent by rejuvenating not only religious sciences but also by re-charging th e intellectual and m o ral life o f his tim e w |th renew ed vitality. L ike every fiery spirited reform er, having all the gifts o f intelloctual brilliance, wisdom and courage, he sounded a new note in literature and religious, thought which has ever since provided inspiration to the M uslim w orld. Ibn, T aim iyah stands out as indisputably the greatest thinker and, reform er in Islam whose influence extends to alm ost every reform ative m ovem ent started since the eighth century, an d particularly to those which gained im petus during the tw elfth century o f th e Islam ic era* H is intellectual heritage still continues to appeal and; stir the reform ative zeal o f the thoughtful elem ent ijrj Islam w ho w ant to re-state the truths cif Islam as a self-sufficing ideology based on a revelatory eschatology an d spiritual-m oral view o f life and the world as against the present-day m aterialistic thought-patterns and institutions. T hus, the greatest contribution o f Ib n T aim iyah to the Islam ic thought was to re-assert the supremacy o f the Scripture and the wary o f the prophet, and to dem onstrate how, m the changed circum stances, the whole o f the religious life and tho u g h t could be reconstructed on th a t basis. H e never com prom ised w ith any un-Islam ic thought o r practice which injured faith in th e Oneness o f G od an d the revelatory: basis o f creed an d d ogm a, be it the. popular belief o f the m isguided mystics and masses or the abuse o f intellectual subtlety o f philosophers an d dialecticians or else the dogm atism o f the theologians and ju rists. H e recognised only th e Q jlran and the Sunnah as the tWo v alid bases for the reconstruction o f religious thought w hich m eant, on the one h and, rooting out o f all the un-Islam ic

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beliefs and practices and, on the o th er, a positive m onotheistic interpretation o f all ideas and institutions. In setting up th e forgotten ideals and showing the way how these could guide the changing social, intellectual an d m o ral life o f the community, Ib n T aim iyah prepared the ground for a perm anent revivalist m ovem ent in Islam .

SULTAN.UL.MASHAIKH

KHWAJA NIZAM UD DIN AULI^A

! SItaa-l-Mahailih

KHWAJA NIZAM UD DIN AUL1YA

The Chihstiyah Order in India

The sixth century of (he Islamic era (the twelfth century A. D.) was a ptriod of special significance when a new country, rich in natural and human resources, was being gradually added to the realm of Islam. The country was destined to become, in the near future, not only the centre of Islamic missionary endeavour but also of its creative, intellectual and social energies. In the beginning of the sixth centuiythe barbarous Tartar legions had swept over the lands of Islam a n d destroyed, as if by a torrent, great cities, centres of learning and education, m o s q u e s 'and monasteries as well as every semblance of civilized existence in the countries overrun % them. B u k h i r i , Samarkand, Ray, Ham id In , Zanj, Qazwin, Marv, NishftpOr, KhwXrism and then Baghdad, the metropolis of Islam, were reduced to ashes. The Mongol onslaught eclipsod not only the political ascendancy of Islam in all these lands lying in the West Asia but also paved the way for its social and intellectual disintegration. Only India, ruled by a strong, vigorous and zestful Tutkish clan, was then able to fend off the assault of the Mongols in this region. In the Islamic wot Id, only they possessed

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the prowess as well as religious zeal which m ade them a m atch o r perhaps superior to th e ir adversaries. T h e M ongok m a d e repeated assaults b u t were always repulsed. D uring the ; reign o f A la 3 ud-d ln K h ilji alone, they advanced five times against In d ia b u t w ere beaten b a c k : first in 6 % A. H . and then on th e occasion o f th e ir fo u rth and fifth attacks M alik Ghazi T u g h laq fought so bravely an d inflicted such crushing defeats on the Mongol^ th at, in the w ords o f a historian, dejected and d isheartened, they gave u p th e ir attem pts to conquer In d ia as a forlorn hope. 1 W aves after waves o f refugees, m any o f whom were mfen o f culture and religion, w ended their way to the safety o f In d ia from Ira n , T urkistS n an d Ira q which soon m ade D elhi vie w ith G ardova an d B aghdad. Even some o f the sm aller towns an d sub-urbat* fjp tre s riv a lle d ^ R an k s to the conver gence o f num erous learn ed personages, such reputed centres o f learning as S h ira z an d Y em an. T h e historians o f the tim e like Z ia3 u d -d ln Barn) an d others haV elisted the nam es o f hundreds o f such persons belonging to ran k a n d nobility, learned doctors, m en o f letters a n d re n o w n e d m y stic s who had m igrated to In d ia ow ing to M ongol depredatiofts. Soon after th eir a rriv a l in In d ia they to@k u p p o st$ o f responsibility u n der the then adm inis tra tio n o r engaged them selves in teaching an d preaching. I t seems, as the annalists rep o rt, th a t In d ia had then inherited the entire intellectual p atrim o n y o f the Islam ic w o rld .2 T hese circum stances contributed n o t only to the develop m ent o f In d ia s creativ e genius but also pointed otit its future ro le , th a t it assumed n o t long after, as th e centre o f social arid cu ltu ral, religious a n d intellectual activities m the w orld o f Islam for m any centuries to come.
The Builders o f Islam ic India

T h e discovery o f In d ia by th e sons o f Islam w as in no way

Munltihtk-at-Tewerikh, p . 186 and Tarlkh Fltot ShShi, pp. 251, 302 and 323 2. T m '& k m n tS h tk l.p v . 111-113 1.

TH E CH ISHTIYAH O RD ER IN INDIA

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less m om entous th a n th e discovery o f A m erica by the West. M uslim adventurers h a d begun to push th e ir way to In d ia jn the first century o f Islam ic era. A fter M uham m ad ibn Q asim T h aq affl h a d captured the land lying betw een Sind and Muhajgi in 93 A. H ., num erous cloisters an d m onasteries o f M uslim saints an d sufis h ad sprung up like heavenly lights in the gloom o f surrounding polytheism and ignorance. But it was really MahmQd o f G azni (d. 421 A. H .) w ho carried th e M uslim arm s with unvarying success to In d ia an d S h a h a b u d -d ln M uham m ad GhorS (d. 602 A .H .) who firm ly planted th e standard of crescent in this country. Likewise, th e H eaven h ad pre ordained the spiritual conquest o f In d ia to th e lot o f the great mystic saint, Sheikh-ul-Islam Mo* In u d -d ln C hishti (d. 627 A. H .). Long before th e M uslim conquest o f In d ia, all the four mystic orders in Islam viz. Qadiriyah, Chishtiyah, Maqshbandiyah an d Suharwardiyak h ad alread y com e into existence. Each o f these has its share in th e regeneration o f Islam in In d ia but G ods w ill had selected the Chishtiyah o rd e r for providing spiritual nourishm ent to the nascent sapling o f th e faith ia this countryT h y L ord bringeth to pass w hat H e w illeth an d chooseth.1 Ways o f G od a re inscrutable, indeed, but it appears th a t th e Chishtiyah o rd e r, engaged -in enkindling th e flam e o f th e divine love in th e h earts f th e people in the adjoining la n d f Ira n , was bound by a neighbourly obligation t In d ia . I t w as but easier as well as incum bent on it to w in o v e r th e in h a b ita o ts o f In d ia w ho faa#e ever been w illing to acknow ledge th e m essage o f love and devotion to the L ord. F o r w hatever reasons the Providence had selected the Chishtiyah o rd e r fo r dissem inating the religion o f Peace in In d ia, one o f th e C hishti Sheikhs, K hw aja A bu M uh am m ad C hishti,2 tu rn e d the direction o f his
1. Q,. X X V III: 68 - ' : .iA ' f..2. KhwSja AbQ Muhammad Chishti (d. 409 or 411 A. H .) was the son and spiritual successor of K hw ija A baA bm ad Chishti who was a disciple of KhwSja Aba IshSq ShSmi. He was succeeded by KhwSja N ailr ud-dln f Continued on next page

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efforts tow ards In d ia. I t is related th at the cam paigns o f M ahm dd o f G hazni owed th eir success to his blessings. M a u la n a J a m i w rites in Nufhat-ul-Uns : W hen MahmQd had alread y left for Som nath,1 K hw aja Abu M uham m ad received the divine summons to jo in the expedition. Although he was then 70 years o f age, he joined th e cam paign with a retinue o f his followers.2
Khwaja Mo In ud-din Chishtf

K hw aja Mot ln ud-d in belonged to Sajastan* in Iran . Some o f the older historians including Q Szl M inhaj ud -d in U th m a n Jauzjanl, a contem porary o f K h w aja M ocln ud-dln Chishtl and au th o r o f the Tabqat-i-Ns'srl, asserts th at the K hw Sja accom panied Sultan ShahSb u d -d ln o f G hor, better known to history as M uham m ad G hori, w hen he gave battle to P rith v iraj and defeated him finally a t T a ra in . T he annalists o f the period relate th a t invocation o f divine blessings by the K hw aja was responsible for the spectacular success achieved by M uham m ad G h o ri against his foe.* T h e writings o f the later historians, however, show th at K hw aja M o 'ln u d -d ln h a d arriv ed in In d ia and taken up his
AbQ YQsuf after whom the mantle of succession passed on in. this wise to one after an o th e r: KhwSja 'Q utb ud-dln lylaudQd, H Sji Sharif Zandnl, KhwSja UJtbmSn HSrwani and KhwSja Mo(in ud-din Chishti. 1. Sultan Mahniad attacked Somnath in the year 416 A. H . while KhwSja Aba Muhammad Chishli died in 409 or 411 A. H . If the story told by , M au lin a JSm i is correct, the incident should relate to an earlier expedit tion of MahmQd and not to the attack on Somnath. 2. Jtujhat-vl-lnt, p. 207 . 3. The KhwSja is commonly known as Sanjari, which is a corruption of Sajazi denoting an inhabitant of Sajastan which, according to the old geographers, formed p art of the then KhurSsSn, is now divided between Iran and Afghanistan. Its capital was situated a t Zaranj, near ZShidSn where its ruins can still be seen. Its limits once extended up to Ghazni; 4. 7aiq3t-\-MStri I, p. 120, Tirikk Ftrishta, II, p. 57 and Muntakhab-utI a w & fik h y f*. 50

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residence a t A jm er in the in itial period o f M uham m ad G h o rfs In d ia n expeditions extending from 571 A. H . to 602 A. H . A jm er was then the capital o f th e Im perial C h auhan (C hahw ana) K ings o f north ern In d ia as well as a celebrated place o f pilgrimage.*
Prithvlraj Chauhan

P rith v lraj (571*588 A. H .) was th e son o f Som eshw ara, the only surviving son o f A noraj an d th e b ro th er o f V igrahrSj, also know n as Bisgldeo. Anorsij is considered to be the founder o f C h au h an K ingdom o f Ajm er. Som eshw ara is said to have w ield ed a n equal auth o rity over both th e C hauhS n court o f A jm er a n d th e T om ar' court o f D elhi. H aving been m a rrie d to the dau g h ter o f th e last T o m ar ru le r o f D elhi, A handpal, his son P rith v lra j claim ed lineage a n d relationship w ith the T o m ar b ran ch o f the RajpOts. Since A n an d p al was issueless, h e had adopted P rith v lraj as his son an d successor. T hus he succeeded, in d u e course, to th e tw o pow erful RajpUt kingdoms o f D elhi and A jm er. Brave an d courageous, he had shown his valour in num erous cam paigns against the surrounding RajpGt kingdom s. H is fam ous abduction o f J a i C h an d s d au g h ter from K annauj during th e course o f Soimbar, m ade him th e hero o f P rith v lra j R a is a , a g re a t epic by th e g raphic p en o f C hand Bard ffi w hich is still popular in th e north ern In d ia . H ow ever, it seems history has not forgiven him for his final defeat against M uham m ad G h o rl an d condem ned h im as a n inglorious sovereign despite his valour an d adventurous cam paigns. In th e late 586 A. H . o r 587 A. H ., M uham m ad G horl was defeated by P rith lrS j a t T a ra in 2 (how know n a s T ilondi), 14 miles ;from ThH nesar. In late 588 A. H ., M uham m ad G horl set o u t w ith a n arm y o f one lakh tw en ty thousand select horsem en to avenge
1. Seven miles from Ajmer lies Pushkar, a like of great sanctity, \yhich i* equalled only by th at of Mansarowar. I t is believed th a | here Brahma performed the Tajna and Saraswatl reappeared in five streams. (District Gazetteer of Ajmer, 1966, p. 736). 7 , 2. The name of the place has been given as Tarfiori hy certainhistorians.

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the d efeat. P rith v lra j advanced w ith three lakh horses and; three thousand elephants to m eet the enemy. T h e immense: a rra y o f horses an d foot was m arshalled u n der the foremost princes o f H industan. A g reat fight ensued, the RajpGts fought bravely but, a t last, P rith v lra j was slain w ith the best and bravest o f RajpQts. T his also signalled the end o f independent R a jp u t K ingdom s in In d ia .1 A few years before th e b attle o f T a ra in ended the sovereignty o f the C hauhans in 588 A. H ., as some chroniclers claim , an incident h ad sealed th e fate o f proud an d indepen d ent A jm er. P rith v lrg j is said to have treated unjustly a M uslim (perhaps one o f his courtiers), W hen th e K hw aja interceded on b e h a lf o f the ag g riev ed m an, P rithvlraj contemptuously replied : Since the tim e this m an h as come here, he is indulg in g in tall talk never expereinced o r h eard before by anybody. T h e K h w a ja , on h earing th e r e p ly o f P rith v lra j, calm ly sa id : "W e have handed o v er P ith o raraj, alive and in chains, to M u h am m ad G h o rl. I t was not long a fte r th is incident th a t th e p ro u d C h au h an was attacked an d defeated by M uham m ad G h o tl.2
The Saint and Preacher

W hatever m ay h av e been the sequence o f events n a rrate d by th e historians, th ere is h ard ly any doubt th a t K hw S ja Mot In u d -d ln had selected A jm er as the centre fo r propagating Islam and rad iatin g the message o f love a n d spirituality, sometimes in betw een th e cam paigns o f M uh am m ad G horl but before the latter h ad established his stronghold in th at political a n d religious centre o f m edieval In d ia. T h e KhwXjas decision bespeaks o f his courage, determ ination an d unflinching tru st in G od w hich are the hall-m arks o f g reat conquerors and founders o f religions. His determ ined efforts coupled w ith his sincerity, reliance on G od an d ennobling sacrifice for his cause turned the country, steeped in th e darkness o f idolatry for thousands o f
1. Tarikk-i-Hasri, I, p. 468 ; Tarikh-i-Firishla, I, p. 176 2. Siar-td-daliJp, 147 and Maathar-il-KirSm. '

TH E CHISHTIYAH O RD ER H* INDIA

15 3

years, into a land o f religious scholars an d saints and m ade it a repository o f religious knowledge an d spiritual attainm ents. I t was because o f him th a t every p a rt o f this g rea t country began to-resound soon w ith 'th e calls o f Ailah-o-Akbar and was filled with the love-songs o f th e Q u ra n and Hadith to th e envy o f th e entire w orld o f Islam . V erily, the w orld was moved by an illum inated Soul. T h e a u th o r o f Siar-at-Aulia* has correctly sum m ed up th e contribution o f K hw S ja M oin u d -d ln in these w o rd s : H industan, to the end o f rts farthest southern lim its, was a land o f pagans a n d polytheists. W hosoever held power m ade the claim : I am the L ord, M ost H ig h / T he inhabitants o f the land m ad e alm ost every object an d being a p artaker o f divinity. Stocks an d stones, trees an d beasts, cow and cowdung w ere the things before w hich they prostrated. D arkened by th e gloom o f infidelity th e ir hearts h ad been securely sealed. All w ere strangers to th e faith in G od and His ordinances, the L o rd o f th e w orlds an d H is a p o stles; neither anybody knew th e tru e direction o f G ods religion n o r h ad anyone h eard the call th a t G od is G r e a t/ T h e m om ent K hw aja M o 'In ud-dln set his foot on this tandj th e dreariness d f paganism gave w ay to th e brightness o f Islam . T hanks to his efforts and blessings, the relics o f fetishism Were replaced by th e pulpit, the niche an d the a rch , an d th e lands ringing w ith the sound o f idolatrous cuhs w ere filled w ith th e cries o f Alfch-o-Akbar. W hosoever would be blessed w ith tru e faith in G od in this country an d whosoever shall partake this w ealth till th e D ay o f Reckoning and th e ir progeny as well as all those who will extend the bounds o f tru e faith in this land shall go on increasing th e m erits a n d rew ard? o f Sheikh-ul-Islam M ocin u d-dln H asan S ajazi. 1 A nother chronicler, G hulftm cA h AzSd w rites in M a ith a ril-K ir& m : T h ere is not the least dou b t th a t the spiritual mentors o f Chishtiyah o rd e r have a rig h tfu l claim on In d ia. * T h e
1. Siar-ul-Aulia'', p. 47 2. Maathar-U-Kirim, p. 17

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Sa v i o u r s

o f is l a m i c s p i r i t

author o f Siar-ul-Aqtab. sa y s: T h e blessed footsteps, o f M ocIn ud-dln dispelled the gloom o f infidelity in the land and led to propagation o f Islam . 1 D uring th e life tim e o f K hw Sja MocJn ud-dln Chishti the political capital o f the land was transferred frdta A jm er to D elhi. A jm er, consequently, lost m uch o f its prom inence but th e K hw Sja rem ained at A jm er and sent his disciple and spiri tual successor, K hw aja Q u tb ud-dln Bakhtiyar K s k t, to deputise for him at the capi tal. H e gave him self up,- d u ring the rem ainder o f his life, to p ray er and m editation, teaching his disciples to govern th eir conduct according to the principles o f the Shefriah an d preaching th e message o f Islam to others; None o f the num erous m em oirs an d biographies m ention the details o f his m issionary activities except th at his efforts were crow ned w ith success an d a vast m ultitude entered the fold o f Islam on acconnt o f him . In the words o f Abul F adhal he took u p his residence a t A jm er w here he spread th e light o f faith an d , because o f his sublime life an d preachings, legions after legions o f people em braced Islam.* Such was, then, the mission o f the K hw Sja to which he devoted him self for fifty years till his death at th e ag e o f ninety years in 627 A. H .3 K hw Sja Q jitb ud-dln Bakhtiyar K a k r had by then established him self firmly a t D elhi w here h e was engaged, like his m entor, in revivifying and illum inating the hearts o f a vast m ultitude o f people. T he then Sultan o f D elhi, Sham s ud-dln Iltutm ish, was also a devotee o f th e K hw Sja whose m oderating influence led th e Sultan to dispense justice w ith an even hand an d strengthen the roots o f Islam in India.
K hw aja Bakhtiyar K akI

Born in the tow n o f Aush,* K hw aja B akhtiyar K a k l becam e

Li Siar-ul-Aqtab, p.101 2. iin-i~Akbati, Vol. II, p. 270 . ,, 3. The year in which the KhwSja died is disputed by his biographers who have mentioned 627, 632 and 633 A. H. The authors o f Siar-ut-Aqtii and Kazinalul Atfia are agreed ihat the KhwSja died in 633 A. H.. 4. A town near Forghana in the Trans-oxiana region.'

THJE CHISHTIYAH ORD ER IN INDIA

15 5

an orp h an a t the tender age o f. one a n d 'a h a lf years. His m other took, special care for his education an d got him adm itted in a prim ary school a t th e age o f five, w here he received educa tion from M aulanS Abu H afs Aushl. A fter completing his education a t Aush Qjatb ud-dln took the road to Baghdad w here his fate brought him in contact , w ith th at pure-hearted soul who helped him to a tta in th e h ig h e s t form o f spiritual existence and th en rad iate those lum inous qualities in H industan. H e was endow ed the robe o f spiritual-succession o f (the Chishtiyah order" by K hw aja M ocIn ud-dln in th e sacred m osque o f F aq lh cA bul L a ith S am arkandl, in the, presence o f a larg e num ber o f religious doctors an d celebrated saints. H e directed his course to In d ia at the bid d in g o f his m entor an d stayed over a t D elhi, capital o f the nascent Islam ic S tate in th a t country. T h e royal court a t D elhi was, a t th e tim e, filled with, poets, artists an d scholars from m any lands attracted by the S ultans generosity, an d h ad also m en o f a rts and learning d raw n from th e realm s over-run by Ghenghiz K h an and his successors. T his new m etropolis of In d ia h ad thus rapidly gathered the cream o f talent from th e entire w orld o f Islam . K hw aja Q p tb u d-din was held in veneration by Sultan Iltutm ish but he persistently refused to have anything to, do with the royal court a n d rejected all offers o f a fief o r a g ran t from the K ing. First in K ilokhri, an d then n e a r the m osque o f M alik cIzz ud-din, he continued to live like a m endicant although S ultan Iltutm ish continued to pay occasional visits to him .1 H e becam e so popular am ong th e masses th a t once when K hw aja M orln ud-din cam e to D elhi to see his disciple, the then Sheikh-ul-Islam N ajm ud-dln SuglirS m ad e a com plaint to the K hw 5ja. ; T hereupon th e K hw aja said to his disciple, B a b a Bakhtiyar, so soon have you gained em inence th a t th e servants o f G od have begun com plaining against you ? Leave this place and come to Ajmer, there I will be at your service. * T h e
I, Tarikh Firishta, Vol. II, p. 720 2- Siar-ul-Aulia3, p. 54

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s a v io u r s o f is l a m ic s p ir it

Sheikh had said w hat could be expected o f a m an w ho h a d attained th e sum m it o f spiritual perfection. H e d id not like his disciple to be th e cause o f anxious concern to anyone, an d not th e least to th e Sheikh-ul-lslam o f th e Islam ic State. H e had also hinted th a t i f th e people a t D elhi w ere n o t aw are tf the Stature a n d spirituality o f K h w a ja BakhtiySr K sk l, he knew it very well an d could acco rd h im the highest m arks o f respect. K hw Sja Q u tb ud*dfn gave th e reply expected o f him , M y L ord, w h at o f sitting in your presence, I h ard ly deserve to stand before y&u.n T h e m entor asked th e disciple to accom pany h im to Ajmer, and th e disciple nodded his assent w ithout a d em u r. But no sooner had th e tw o com e o u t o f th e city, it daw ned upon the Sheikh th a t th e popularity o f his disciple was by the will o f G od. K hw Sja Q u tb ' U d-dln started on his journey to A jm er in the com pany o f his SheikhV records a n annalist, b a t the news o f his d ep artu re raised a clam our in th e city. T h e whole o f its population along w ith S ultan Iltutm ish cam e out tf the capital to follow his steps w ailing a n d lam enting over his d ep a rtu re. * K hw Sja MocIn ud-d ln d id not consider it p ru d en t to plunge in to sorrow such a vast m u ltitude for the sake o f one m an . H e allow ed K hw Sja Q jjtb u d -d ln to re tu rn to D elhi and rem arked: BSbS BakhtiySr, you b e tte r rem ain here. T h a t such a large n um b er o f people a re sorrow -stricken a t your d ep arture, T do not consider it proper to ren d th e ir hearts. Go back, I leave this city in y o u r charge. * S ultan Iltutm ish thanked the Sheikh for allow ing K h w ija Q u tb u d -d ln to rem ain a t D elhi. Back in D elhi K hw S ja Q u tb ud*dln again took up his austere living and the task o f diffusing the spirit o f hum anity

1. Siar vl-Aviu* p. 54 ?. Hid., p. 54 3. IHd., p. 55. What the KhwSja m eant was th at he should carry on the mission entrusted to h im and continue to invite people o f the Capital to the p ath o f righteousness.

T H E G H B H TIY A H O RD ER W INDIA

am ong his followers and devotees. H e never had anything to do with the royal court. As a& earnest seeker o f truth he had renounced all w ordly w ealth an d earthly d e sire s; but the people still flocked to him as i f the whole w orld, all the notables o f ran k an d authority deem ed it an honour to pay .respect to h im . 1 Sultan Sham s-ud-dln Iltutm ish used to c a llu p o n him tw k e a week.* D elhi was then not only th e capital o f the Sultanate, but was also th e em erging stronghold o f Islam , in a countiy recently b rought u n d er its realm , w here m any a .sagacious m ind o f th e then Islam ic w orld h a d g athered. I t was no easy task to provide spiritual guidance to aD an d also to exert a m oderating influence over a n otherw ise autocratic form o f governm ent. A lthough K hw S ja B akhtiyar K a k l d i d n o t live long enough to com plete th e difficut task entrusted to his c a r e ; for he rem ained aliv e only fo u r o r five years after th e d eath o f h is spiritual guide, h e discharged his responsibilityw ith supreme success and also established th e Chishtiyah o rd er in In d ia on a firm footing for all tim es to come. H e was about fifty years o f age when the all-consuming flam e o f th e love o f G od, w hich he h ad kept subdued in his fra il bodily fram e for th e edification o f surrounding hum anity, burst fo rth in ecstatic trances an d transports. H e was often seen in th e state o f to tal absorption and elevation produced by D ivine illum ination o f his h e a rt, titt the day cam e when he h eard in th e cham ber o f Sheikh l A ll Sikizzi3 a singer recking the following couplet. U ng ru d g in g w ho a re in resignation a n d subm ission; A new life they get, ever and anon. H e fell into ecstatic tra n c e ; retu rn ed to his place after som e tim e, b u t rem ained a ttracted to th sam e condition. H e desired th e sam e couplet to be repeated ag ain an d again until
1. A k h i r-M l-Jik j> 4 r, p. 46 TM kh-i-Frntba, VoL HU*. 71?

2.

3. Abe known * Sheikh Ali Sftjurf, according to ioue bistariaa*.

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four days passed in the sam e condition. In between, when the tim e for p rayer arriv ed , he would perforin the observance, but would ag ain relapse into th e same state o f ecstasy and rapturous trance as soon as th e couplet was recited before him . O n the fifth nighty in the same condition, he preferred the deeper privacy o f the grave.' T his incident is reported to have hap pened in th e year 633 A .H .2 W hile returning from 1 Idgnh to his residence, a few days before his death, th e K hw Sja happened to pass through an open ground; H e rem ained standing a t the place for quite some tim e until a com panion accom panying him politely rem inded : I t is 'Id today an d a large num ber o f people w ould be aw aiting your re tu rn . H e replied : I find th e odour o f hearts em itting here. L a te r he called for th e ow ner o f the land and purchased the field for his b u rial place. T his is the place where h isgrave exists today.3 K h w ija Q utub ud-dln h ad conferred the habit o f succession to nine o r ten o f bis disciples, but his chief successor who devot ed him self w hole-heartedly to th e com pletion o f th e task under taken by him was K hw aja F a rid ud-dln G anjshakar.
Khwaja Farld-ud-din Ganjshakar

K hw Sja M o'in ud-dln Chishti was indisputably the founder o f Chishtiyah o r d e r in In d ia , but it was prom oted by K h w aja F a rid ud-dsn whose two disciples; K h w ija N iz im ud-dln D ehlavi and Sheikh Ala5 ud-d5n All S abir o f K alyar spread it fa r an d wide in the Country. T h e first nam e o f the K hw aja was M asud, the surnam e F a rid ud-dln, but he is com m only known by the appellation o f G anjshakar.4
1. Siar-ul-AuliS> , on the authority KhwSja Ni*Sm ud-din AuliS*. 2. Certain mem oirsgive the year as 634 A. H . 3. Siar-ul-A ulia (p. 55), on the authority of KhwSja NizSm ud-d<n AuliS1 The place is now called Q utub SShib 4. Lit. Treasure-house of Sugar. I t is difficult to say, with any amount of certainty, how K hw aja Farid ud-dln came to be known as Ganjshakar, for, difftien stciiw abcul ith av eb een told by the Writers.

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159

H is g ran d fath er, Q 3zi S h i/a ib , a lineal descendant o f the second C aliph, h ad m igrated from K abul to L ahore because o f the T a r ta r depredations. H e stayed for a w hile in K asur and then settled in K ahenw Sl where he was g ranted an estate and appointed as Qfizf. F a rid ud-dln was born here in 569 A.H. W hen still young, he travelled to M u ltan , then a great educa tional centre o f the country, fo r h ig h e r education. In M ultan he studied u n d er different teacher? am ong whom was also M au lan a M inhaj ud-din who taught h im An-Nufth, the renow n ed book on juristic science. It was h ere in M ultan th at F arid ud-dln m et K hw aja Q u tb ud-dln BakhtiySr K a k l in 548 A .H. and im m ediately took an oath o f allegiance to him . H e also decided to accompany his Sheikh by term inating his education but th e latter persuaded him to com plete his studies first, which he d id in In d ia and abroad.1 A fter com pletion o f his education, F a rid ud-dln cam e back to D elhi w here his Sheikh selected a place n ear G aznl G ate for his stay. H ere he busied him self w ith p rayer and m editation. A fter he was gifted w ith spiritual enlightenm ent and illum ination, he was perm itted by K hw aja Q u tb ' ud-dln to stay a t H ansl, w ith one o f his disciples Sheikh Ja m a l ud-din K hatib. W hen K hw aja Q u tb u d -d in died, F a rid ud-d ln was already atH S nsI. H e reached D elhi on th e th ird day o f his Sheikhs d eath and was invested w ith the robe o f his m asters vicegerency by Q azl H am id ud-dln N Sgaurf, as desired by the departing m entor. T h is was a n indication th a t K hw aja F a rid ud-dln should take th e place o f K hw Sja Q u tb ud-dln. I t was the th ird day o f F arid ud-dlns succession w hen an old acquaintance a n d follower, S arh an g a by nam e, cam e to see him . H e was, how ever, not allow ed to present him self before th e Sheikh by his attendants. T h e m an stayed there for a few days and when K h w aja F a rid ud-dln happened to come out o f his residence, he fell on his knees an d com plained th a t in H ansl it
1. Rahal-ul-Qjtlui, a collection of his utterances, containa th e details o f his journeys, but the book being of spurious nature cannot be relied Upon.

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was not difficult for him to pay his respect to the Sheikh, but in D elhi, the poor like h im could not g ain a n access to his p re sence. F a rid ud-dln took th e com plaint to his heart as a divine w arning for the pom p an d glory with which he had been surrounded. H e also d jd not like the absence o f peace and solitude at D elhi which he regarded as an impedim ent in the way o f his journey to higher stages o f spirituality. He, th e re fore, atonce decided to retu rn to H an sl. W hen it was pointed out to him th at his spiritual guide an d m entor had desired him to take his p la c e ; he re p lie d : M y m entor had no doubt bequeathed his trust to m e but w hether I live in a city o r w ilder ness, k shall ever rem ain w ith m e. 1 K h w a ja F arid h ad selected H an sl so th at he m ight live there as a recluse, unknown an d undisturbed. But M aulSna N u r T u rk , another disciple o f K hw aja Q u tb ud-din, told the people about his spiritual status and they began to crowd round him here too. K h w a ja F arid left for his home tow n K ahenw al, a town n e a r M u ltan , but his fam e having trav elled faster than him he h ad to m ove o n to A jodhan.2 K h w aja F a rid s eminence d id n o t, however, rem ain hid d en for long even in A jodhan where the stream o f visitors was often so long that he had to receive them till it was quite late in th e night. In the beginning he h ad not enough to live upon. A local w ild fruit; Piloo was brought to be boiled an d salted which served as th e m eal for K hw aja F a rid and his followers. But even durin g those days o f extrem e poverty, he was not the least less careful about th e lawfulness o f th e food taken by him . O nce, while he took a morsel in his hand to break his fast, he re m a rk e d : T here appears to be som ething w roag w ith it. T h e servant replied : W e h a d no salt. I borrow ed a sm all q u an tity .*

1. Siar-ul-AuliiP, p. p. 72 2. Now the place is called Pakpattan. It is situated in district Montgomery o f Pakistan. 3. SimMtf Aulil *, p. 66

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K hw Sja F a rid replied : T his is against my principle. Now it is not law ful for me to take this food. It was not long before th a t his initial indigence gave place to affluence. T hen the servants had to keep the dishes ready all day for the incom ing guests, from early m orning till late in the night. W hoever wished could come a n d take food from his im perial kitchen . 1 H e was equally cordial to all, great and sm all. In the words of K h w a ja N izam u d - d ln : In w hat a m agnanim ous and w onderful.w av he livedthat it was difficult to em ulate. W hether one -was an old friend o r follow er, living with him for years, o r a stranger com ing for the first tim e to see him , he would attend to all w ith equal kindliness o f h e a rt . 2 M aulana Badr u d -d ln says : I was his ch ief atten d an t. N orm ally he gave all instructions to me. W ith no veil e f secrecy, he was the same in com pany or solitude. I never noticed anything contrary to it during several years o f my companionship w ith him . Sultan N asir ud-dln M ahm ud once cam e to see K hw aja F arid at the head o f a large arm y w hich was on its way to U chh and M ultan. T he description of the vast m u ltitude desiring to pay hom age to the Sheikh on this occasion has been thus given by K hw aja N izam ud-dln : T he thronging crowd was beyond control. T h e attendants hung the sleeves o f his shirt from a balcony to be kissed by the people. V ery soon it was torn to shreds. At last the Sheikh cam e out to the m osque and asked his attendants to form a cordon round him so that people m ight pay their respect w ithout m obbing him . People came, saluted him from a distance and went away. Suddenly, an old sweeper broke into the cordon and fell on the feet o f the K hw Sja saying, Sheikh F arid , are you fed u p ? You ought to offer thanks for this blessing of G od. T h e Sheikh cried and express ed regret. L ater he bade him farew ell w ith presents . 4

1. 2. 3.

Siar-ul-Aulia}, p 64 Ibid. p. 68 Ib id , p . 65

4.

Ibid., p. 79

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SAV IO U RS OF ISLAM IC SPIR IT

O n another occasion the P rim e M inister G h iy a th ud-din B aiban called upon the Sheikh on b eh alf o f Sultan N Ssir ud-din an d presented some cash an d a royal c h a rte r granting four villages to the Sheikh. T h e Sheikh returned the ch arte r and distributed the cash am ong the m endicants.1. G h iy ath ud-dln B alban succeeded Sultan N asir ud-dln. H e was also devpied to K hw aja F arid ud-dln since he considered his accession to the th ro n e as a rew ard o f K hw aja's blessings and invocation for him . Still, th e K h w a ja alw ays rem ained uncon cerned an d unsolicitous. A recom m endatory letter w hich the K h w a ja once w rote to Svdtan G h iy ath ud-din B alban for a c ertain person bears out how little he cared for the K ing. H e wFote : I present the affairs o f this m an first before G od and then b efore you. I f you com e to his aid, the benefactor would really be G od to w hom you should be g r a te fu l: but. if you do n o t ; then you would desist by the will o f G od and no responsibility shall lie on you.'' K h w a ja F a rid u d -d in h ad the most cord ial relations with o th e r mystics o f his tim e. Sheikh-ul-Islam B alia u d -d in Z akaryS o f M u ltan was an em inent spiritual guide and a Sheikh o f Suharwardiyah o rd e r a n d also his contem porary .3 T h e K h w a ja h a d g re a t re g a rd and affection for him and always addressed him as Sheikh-ul-Islam. T h e ru lin g passion o f K h w aja F a rid u d -d ln s life was his a rd e n t love and devotion to God w hich reflected his worthiness. H is h e a rts im m o rtal th irst for D ivine propinquity inspired, g u id ed an d tra in e d such other em inent mystics as cA la 7 ud-din c A ll S a b ir an d K h w aja N izam ud-din. T h e latter relates th at once he saw K h w aja F a rid m oving about w ith breathless im p atien ce in his room an d reciting some verses w hich m e a n t: M y only w ish is to live sm itten w ith T h y lo v e ; L ive if I m ust, b en eath T h y feet, an d crum ble unto dust.
1. 2. 3. Siar-ul-Autia3, p p . 79-80 A khbar-ul-A khjar . T h e le tte r h a d b e e n w r itte n in A rab ic. w as b o rn in 566 A . H . a n d S h e ik h -u l-Is la m B a h a 3 u d - d in Z a k a ry a

K h w S ja F a r id u d - d in w as th r e e y e a rs y o u n g e r to him .

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T hee alone I desire in this w orld an d the next, W ould th a t I live for Thee an d die for T h ee. H e recited the verses and then fell into p rostration ; a fte r a w hile he would get up, move about in the room restlessly and again recite the same verses . 1 T he K h w aja possessed a ten d er h eart which was easily touched by a devotional verse o r ancedotes o f the saints. O ften he broke dow n into tears ; always kept f a s t; recited the Q ur^an regularly ; an d instructed his disciples to follow his exam ple in fasting and recitation o f the Book o f G od . 2 H e was also fond o f m usical recitations. O nce someone rem arked th at the theolo gians disputed the validity o f musical recitations. H e replied : Holiness be to G o d ! O ne has been b u rnt and reduced to ashes but the o th er is still disputing its legitim acy . 3 H e spent his life as a solitary anchorite. Indifferent to the grandees and ruling chiefs, he h a d dedicated him self to the service o f God like the earlier mystics o f his path. Sheikh B adr u d -d ln G aznavl was a contem porary of K hw aja F arid ud-dln an d a disciple o f his Sheikh, K hw aja Q u tb u d-dln B akhtiySr K a k l. H e was on friendly term s with a certain grandee o f the tim e who h ad built a m onastery for him . It so happened th a t the p articu lar p atrician incurred the w rath o f the king a n d with him Sheikh B adr ud -d ln had also to suffer certain hardships. H e requested K hw Sja F arid ud*dln to pray for him . T h e K hw aja w rote back to him . W hoever shall tre a d the p a th you had chosen, he will surely invite trouble for him . You a re a follower o f the pure-hearted saints, then w hy d id you get a m onastery constructed for you against their traditions. T his was not the way o f K hw aja Q utb u d -d ln and K h w a ja M o 'ln u d -d ln , n o r h ad they ever paraded their wares in a m onastery : they w anted to live unnoticed, unknow n . 4

1. Siar-ut-Aulid3, p . 123 2. Halat-i-Sultan-ul-Masha}ikh, p 12 3. Siar-ul-Aulia, l p. 12 4. Siar-ul-Arifin, p 85

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Because o f his indifference tow ards the rich and the noble the K h w aja had to suffer privations, despite his increasing popu larity, tow ards the end o f his life. K hw aja N izam ud-dln says in Siar-ul-Aidia 5, By the tim e he cam e to his journeys end, he was again in reduced circum stances. I was with him during the m onth o f R a m a d h a n , w hen the food we had was insufficient for us. None o f us took a hearty m eal in those days. Every thing in the household was o f inferior stuff. W hen I took leave frOm the-Sheikh to d epart from there, he gave m e a sultanV for t trav ellin g expenses. L ater on, he sent m e a w ord through M au lan a B adr ud-din Islia q to postpone my departure for a day m ore. W hen the tim e arriv ed for fast-breaking, no edibles were available in his house. I w ent to the Sheikh and requested him to allow me to purchase Some foodstuff from the mojiey he had g ranted m e earlier. T he Sheikh gave m e the permission an d also invoked blessings o f God for m e . 2 K hw aja N izam u d -d ln goes on to describe the death o f his Sheikh in these words : O n the fifth "of M u h arram his illness took a serious tu rn . H e fell unconscious after perform ing the Lisha} prayers. A fter a w hile when he regained consciousness he asked w hether he h a d recited th e prayers. Those present at the tim e replied in affirm ative but he said : Let m e repeat it again. W ho knows w hat is going to happen. H aving per form ed the prayers he ag ain fell in a swoon. A gain bn com ing back to his senses, he rep eated his earlier question but again said : "Let m e say the prayers again, fo r nobody knows w hat is to h ap p en . 9 H e recited the cisha prayers for the th ird tim e and then he shuffled off his m ortal coil . 4 K h w aja F arid u d-dln d ied on Tuesday, the fifth M u h arram 664 A. H .5 and was buried at A jodhan. Sultan M uham m ad
1. 2. 3. P ro b a b ly th e ru p e e o f those d ay s, Siar-ul-Aulia> , p . 66 Ib id ., p . 89 ib id ., p. 89 T h e y e a r o f his d e a th , co m m o n ly h e ld as 644 A . H ., does h o t a p p e a r to I Footnote continued on next page J

4.
5.

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T ug h laq later constructed a m ausoleum over liis grave. T h e K hw aja was survived by five sons, Sheikh Nasr ud-din N asr ullah, Sheikh Shahab ud-dln, Sheikh Badr ud-din Sulairnan, K hw aja Nizam ud-dln and Sheikh Yaqoob and thiee daughters, Bibi N astural), Bibi F atim ah and Bibi Sharjfah. Among the spiritual successors of K h w aja F arid ud-dln,' his third son Sheikh Badr ud-din an d grandson Sheikh Ala ,5 ud-dln were noted for their piety and saintliness. Saltan M uham m ad T u g h laq was also a devoted disciple of Sheikh cA la 5 ud-din. His descendants too included a num ber o f purehearted souls who devoted their'lives to preaching and inviting people through their precepts and exam ple tow ards spiritual and m oral purification.

he c o rre c t. K h w a ja N izSm u d -d m i as rmnlionc:d iev ?ral in cid en ts p e r ta in in g to K h w a ja F a rid u d - d in , v^hich }.app< ncd in (be year 669 A. II. I t seem s th a t h e d ied in 670 A. H . as n K h'i't-ntul Asfia on tii a u th o rity o f M ukhbirul W dsdin an d T o zk ira tll * A a : n qin.

II
Life Sketch of Khwaja Nizam ud-din Aulia
P opularly know n by his surnam e N izam ud-dln, he was n am ed by his fath er A hm ad Ib n 4 Ali as M uham m ad. D escend ing from a fam ily o f Saiyids w hich h ad m igrated from A rabia to C en tral Asia, his g ra n d fa th e r K hw aja cAlI and m aternal g ra n d fa th e r K h w aja A rab , w ho w ere also cousins, had come dow n to L ah o re an d thence to B udaun 1 w here several other fam ilies o f Ira n an d K h u ra sa n noted either for th eir noble descent o r godliness h ad settled dow n.
E arly Education

K h w a ja N izam u d -d ln was b o rn at B udaun in 636 A. H .2

1. B u d a u n is s itu a te d in R o h ilk h a n d D ivision o f U tt a r P ra d e s h n e a r th e e a s te rn b a n k o f S o t R iv e r. I n th o se d a y s i t w as a p o p u lo u s to w n w h ic h b e c a m e im p o r ta n t a s th e n o r th e r n f ro n tie r p o s t o f th e th e n M u slim k in g d o m o f D e lh i (N azhatul K h w a tir). C a p tu r e d b y Q u tu b u d - d i n A ib eck in 1196, i t re m a in e d a m a jo r p r o v in c ia l g o v e rn o rs h ip u n d e r S h a m s u d - d in I ltu tm is h . M u slim k in g d o m . T h e r u in e d fo rt a t B u d a u n is a w itn e ss o f th e im p o rta n c e i t o n ce h a d u n d e r th e e a rly T h e im p o s in g Ja m * ! M a sjid w as b u ilt h e r e in 1223, b e fo re h is acce ssio n to u n d e r th e p a tr o n a g e o f I ltu tm is h , a f te r w h o m h is so n R u k n u d - d in F iro z S hS h also r e m a in e d g o v e rn o r o f B u d a u n th e th r o n e . 2. T h e y e a r h a s b e e n c a lc u la te d by th e a u th o r o f Siar-ul-Aulia? by d e d u c tin g h is a g e fro m th e y ear w h e n h e d ie d .

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167

W hen he was only five years of age his father died. His m other who was known for h er fervant piety, took pains for his proper education and m oral guidance despite h er appalling poverty. H e received his education u nder M au lan a A la 5 ud-dln Usiilx .1 A fter M aulana A la ud-din U sull h ad taught him some elem en tary books on jurisp ru d en ce and a text-book nam ed Qjtdoori, he asked his disciple to bring a turban. K hw aja N izam ud-dins m other somehow m anaged to purchase cotton and got it spun and woven into m uslin for h im .2 She also invited some o f the notable theologians and mystics o f the tim e on the occasion. K hw aja cAll, a disciple o f Sheikh J a la l u d-dln TebrezI placed the first coil o f the tu rb an round his head and all those present, at the cerem ony prayed for his spiritu al developm ent.
Uttermost Poverty

As an o rp h an who d id not have enough' to live upon, he had not un-often to forgo his m eals. H e related later on tliat w henever he had nothing to eat, his m other used to tell him th a t they w ere G ods guests th at daya rem ark which was very pleasing to him . O nce somebody sent some corn to his m other w hich sufficed for their meals for quite a few days. He states th at he soon becam e' so sick o f it th at he longed for the day when his m other would again announce that they were the guests o f God. At last the day cam e when the gifted corn was finished an d he was told by his m other th a t they had to rely on the hospitality o f G od. K hw aja N izam ud-dln says th at the blissful satisfaction he derived th a t day from the intim ation from his m other was beyond description .3
Impulsive Attraction Towards the Sheibh

K hw Sja N izam ud-dln sa y s:

1.

W hen I was only twelve

M a u la n a *AlSJ u d -d ln U su li w as a d iscip le o f Sheikh J a la l u d -d in T eb rez I. L ike h is S heikh he le d a s p iritu a l a tta in m e n ts. fru g a l life a n d took care to h id e his

2. ,, S ir y - u l-fila ja lis (U rd u T ra n sla tio n K h a ir-u l-M a ja lis) , p. 222. 3.

Siar-ui-Aulid3, p. 113

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SAV IO U R S O F ISLAM IC S P IR IT

years o f age, still studying lexicology u n d e r A bu Bakr K h a rra ta (also know n as Abu Bakr Q aw w al), a m an who h a d been to M u ltan cam e to see my teacher. H e began to n a rra te the virtues an d excellence o f Sheikh B ah a 5 ud-din Z akariya M ult anl, th e atm osphere o f sanctity arid godliness prevailing in his m onastery an d (he enthusiasm and eagerness o f the people aro u n d him for prayers an d vigils w hich h ad m ade even the m aid serv an ts to pass th eir tim e in recollection o f G od. H e w ent on w ith his n a rra tio n praising the Sheikh but nothing o f th e description given by him aw akened any response in my h eart. T h e re a fter he told th a t from M u lta n he also went to A jodhan w here he m et Sheikh-ul-Islam K hw aja F a rid u d-dln, who could really be callcd a king of the saints. At once I felt a strong an d absorbing a ttra c tio n tow ards K hw aja F a rid ud -d ln .
Studies at Delhi

K h w aja N izam u d -d ln first cam e to D elhi at the age o f sixteen y ears .2 H e spent th ree o r fo ur years in fu rth e r studies a t D elhi w here w ere th en some o f the erudite scholars o f the tim e. S u lta n N asir u d -d ln M ah m u d then presided over the kingdom w ith G h iy a th u d -d ln B alban as his C h ief M inister. M a u la n a Sham s u d -d ln K h w a rz a m t, also know n as K h w a ja Sham s ul-M uik, held the office o f Mustnuji-ul-Mamalik3 b u t he was also a savant am ong the scholars o f tlje tim e. H e h a d taken upon him self, as was the custom in those days, the a d d itio n al responsibility of teaching the students along w ith his onerous official duties. K h w a ja N izam ud-dm was fo rtunate to get h im self enlisted as one o f his students. H e soon becam e a favourite o f his teathet- w ho graciously p erm itted him , alongivith

1. 'Siar-bi-Aitlia* p. 100 anil

2.

p. 149

T h e ag e give.it in Siar-ui-A ^ a p p e a r s to b e correct fo r th e K h w a ja s p e n t th re e o r four years nt D elhi a n d Uun w e n t to A jo d h a n to b e c o m e 'a rtiscipV- of K h w a ja F a r id ttd -d m . T h e n he w as . '0 years o f a*.

3.

1 he C !iieI* A uditor or the A ccountant C e n tra l o f the kingdom .

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169

tw o o f his fellow students Q u tb u d -d ln N aqla and B urhan ud-dln B aqi, to take their lessons in his private apartm ent. W henever any student absented him self o r was late, K h w aja Sham s ul-M ulk used to rem onstrate them simply by sa y in g : W h at was my fault th a t you d id not com e, or he jokingly rem arked : Let m e know my m istake so th a t I may not commit it ag ain . But K h w aja N izam ud-dln says th at Shams ul-M ulk never com plaincd w hether he was late or absent. -He always insisted on K hw aja N izam u d -d ln to come and sit w ith him in his own cham ber.'
A Brilliant Student

K hw aja N izam ud-dln .was a studious an d brilliant student. H e occupied a distinguished place am ong his class-mates as an eloquent o rato r an d a skilled debater. His proficiency in l-easoning the points cogently earned him the title o f Mahfil Shikari or the breaker o f debates .2 MaqamUt Hariri a book o f stylistic elegance composed in rhym ed prose was included in th e curriculum in those days. N orm ally the students used to study it like Other books o f litera tu re and learnt to explain its difficult passages. K hw aja N izam ud-din, how ever, learnt forty of its chapters by heart. L ater on, when he realised the futility o f his effort, he com m itted to his m em ory Mashariq-ul~Anw(ir,a. fam ous com pilation of T ra d i tions to m ake am ends for his mistake.H e studied Hadith from Sheikh K am al ud-din Z ahid (d. 684 A .H .),:| a noted T rad itio n ist o f his tim e and a disciple of A llam a Hasan- ibn M uham m ad as-Saghani, (d. 650 A .H .) 4 the author o f MashBriq-ul-Amvar. In Fiqah o r Jurisprudence, he was fortunate enough to study u nder A llam a B urhan u d -dln
1. FaivaPcl-itl-Futvid, p. 68 2. 3. 4. S i m - u l - A u l ia p. 101 Ibid.. p. 101 Besides Mnshcrirf-id-Aint'ir. a fam ous text-book on T ra d itio n s , he also w rote A l-U bS b-ui-\Skhir, one o f the m ost reliab le an d a u th o rita tiv e w orks o n lexicography.

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al-M arginianl who h ad w ritten the Hidayah o f w orld fame. K hw aja N izam ud-d ln also studied Mashariq ul-Anwar from the latter who granted him a certificate for teaching it to o ther .1
Mental Disquietude

Like an assiduous student K hw aja N izam ud-dln paid full attention to his studies. H e w anted to achieve distinction as a m an o f letters, but h e also felt a choking disquiet in his h e a r t : it was not the product o f any apathy o r lethargy but an anxiety born out o f his solicitous natu re desiring som ething else which could make him calm and composed. T he pedantry o f the bookish knowledge he was acquiring as also the verbal wranglings over theoretical issues filled him w ith disgust. O nce he re m a rk e d : As a young m an I usfed to associate w ith my com panions but I always felt an aversion, a desire to avoid them all and longed to forsake their com pany. A lthough my friends w ere students and academ icians engaged in literary pursuits but often I felt agitated and told my friends th a t I would not rem ain w ith them for long and abandon them . In reply to a question by A m ir H asan A la 3 S ajazI he said th at he had these feelings before he m et K hw aja F a rid ud-dln. T h e m other o f K h w aja N izam u d -dln died w hen he was still in D elhi .2 O nce he m entioned about the death o f his m other an d wept so bitterly th a t it became difficult to follow w hat he said. Lam entingly he recited the verse : Alas ! no device could avail me then, N or could I chain the nig h t o f tryst. T he K hw S ja says : O nce a fte r sighting the new m oon, I w ent to salute an d pay m y respects to m y m other. She replied, W hom w ould you p ay ' hom age next m onth ? I a t once knew

1.

T h e certificate w hich h as been q u o te d in Siar-ul-Aulia* is d a te d 22nd R ab*I-ul-A w w al, 679 A . H . T h is , in o th e r w ords m eans th a t K h w a ja I t also show s his eager N iz a m u d -d in w as 43 years o f age a t th a t tim e.

ness to c o n tin u e his f u rth e r ed u catio n till a n ad v an ce d age, 2. Fawdfid-ul-Fuwad, p. 47

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171

th a t h er death was draw ing near. Dejected, I began to weep an d I asked, M other, to whose care do you entrust m e. T o m orrow shall I answer your question, she replied and bade me to spend the n ig h t with Sheikh N ajib ud-dln. 1 w ent away but before daw n next day a m aid-servant cam e running to announce th a t th e m other w anted me at once. I enquired if she was all lig h t. She replied in the affirm ative and I hastened to my m others side. She said, Yesterday you had asked me some thing. Now listen to me carefully. T h en she asked for my right hand and holding it in her hands said : O God my L ord, I entrust him to 'T h y care. A fter th a t she closed her eyes and bade farew ell to this fleeting w orld. I thanked God for the reply given by m y m other for I would not have been so: wellpleased if she h ad left the house filled w ith rubies and gold than the reply she h ad given to my q n e s t i o n . 1
An Unfulfilled Wish

At a tim e when the stories o f the gifts and honours bestow ed by the royal court on accom plished scholars, doctors and jurists w ere in everyones m outh, it was not strange th at the young K hw aja aspired, w ith his learning and straitened circum stances, for a lucrative post of rank and authority. It was but n a tu ra l for a m an who had tasted the pangs o f hunger, despite his spiritual yearnings, to look forw ard to m aterial comforts, honour and riches. H e asked one day Sheikh N ajib ud-dfn M utw akkil to pray God th at he should become a Q az i. Sheikh N ajib ud-din, however, kept quiet at his request. H e repeated his request again for he thought the Sheikh had: not listened to to him . Thereupon the Sheikh replied, D ont be a Q azi. Become som ething else. . i'" -

First visit to Ajodhan

Sheikh N ajib ud-dm M atw akkil was the brother o f K hw aja

1. 2. Siar-id-AuliaJ, p. 151
Fawai^d-ulFuwad, p, 28

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F a rid u d-dln. N izam u d -d ln h ad already developed a feeling o f g reat reverence for K h w aja F a rid u d -d ln w hile still a boy at B udaun. H is introduction to Sheikh N ajib ud-dln, with whom he spent some o f his tim e, inflam ed his fascination for K hw aja F a rid . H e m ade up his m in d to re p air to A jodhan. K h w aja N izam u d -d ln has him self given an account o f his first m eeting w ith his spiritu al m entor. H e says th a t no sooner th a n was he ushered in the presence o f K h w aja F arid , he recited a Persian couplet which said : T h y separation set m y h eart in flames blazing, A nd the soul was ra v a g e d by the flood o f thy longing K hw Sja N izam u d -d ln w anted to express his keen desire to m eet the Sheikh but he found his tongue chained to his pallet by th e aw e o f K h w aja F a rid ud-dln. F inding him overw helm ed w ith em otion, K h w aja F a rid rem arked : Every new com er is o vertaken by aw e . 1 K h w aja F a rid u d -d ln showed special favour to N izam u d-dln an d ordered a cot to be provided for him in the guest house. N izam u d -d ln , how ever, hesitated to sleep on a cot a t a place w here num erous respectable persons, learned Scholars and divines who h ad com m itted the Q u r a n to th e ir bosom had spread th eir beddings on th e g ro u n d . W hen this was conveyed to M au lan a B adr ud-dln, who was charged w ith the care o f the guests, he sent him th e w ord : H ave you to follow your own w him s o r abide by th e instructions o f the S h eik h ? N izam u d-d!n replied, I shall do w hatever the Sheikh desires. H e then instructed him to sleep on th e cot . 4 N izam u d-dln took th e oath o f fealty to K h w aja F a rid ud-dln. H e was then 20 years o f age.*

F u rth er E ducation
It seems th a t K h w aja N izam u d -d ln had still certain text1. F iiw dVd-ul-Fuuad, p. 3i 2. S ia r - id - A u lia p. 107 3. Ibid., p. 107

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173

books to study when he went to A jodhan. T he path he had chosen for him self required that he should now strive to attain th at perfect knowledge of God which was the great purpose of his journey or, indeed, the very object o f ones existence. T he form al education he had so far was nothing m ore than a dis concerting experience for a sensitive an d awakened soul. I f he had devoted him self so long' to his studies as a necessity and prelim inary step to lead his w andering soul onw ards, it now seemed doubly difficult for him to continue the pursuit o f form al education when he had reached the fount o f knowledge. H e had, however, chosen a Sheikh who was him self an accomplished scholar with a h eart illum inated by the certitude o f Divine knowledge. H e considered it necessary th at every traveller seeking the path of mysticism should acquire a certain degree o f form al education, for he had him self been instructed by his spiritual m entor in th at wise. T here was another reason top. T he Sheikh h ad a prognostication o f N izam u d -d lns outstand ing gifts o f a seer and teacher w hich he h ad to utilise later on for the guidance of the people. T herefore, when N izam ud-din sought the permission of K hw aja F a rid u d-dln to term inate his studies in o rder to devote him self exclusively to devotional exercises, he replied, I do not like anybody to term inate his studies. Do both, continue your studies as well as the recitations and prayers and see w hich engages your attention m ore. H e also said, T he m endicant has to have some know ledge to o .1 As a m ark o f special favour to N izam u d -d ln , K hw aja F a rid ud-din him self started teaching him . N izam , you would have to study certain books under m e, said he. Six chapters o f Sheikh S hahab ud-din S u h a rw a rd js 'Awarif-ul-Ma'-Srif. and the Tamhid o f A bu Shakur Salm i w ere tau g h t by him to N izam uddin. H e also instructed his disciple about the rules o f recita tion o f the Q u ran and guided him in the recital o f the first six parts o f the holy Scripture."
1. 2. Siar-id-Atdia3, p. 107 Ibid,, p. 106

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K h w aja N izam u d -d ln could never forget the ch arm in g way in w hich K h w aja F a rid u d -d in h a d tau g h t him . H e often used to say th a t th e deep an d h id d e n m eanings o f the m ystic tru th s explained to him by K h w a ja F a rid ud-din could never be explained by anybody eW . I often w ished , said N izam udd in later on, th a t it would be b etter if I die listening to his discourses . 1
A Lesson in Self-effacement

T h e copy o f l Awarif-ul-M aca rif from w hich K h w a ja F a rid u d -d ln tau g h t N izam ud-d ln was old a n d crum bly and w ritten in a crab b ed h a n d . W h ile K h w aja F arid had once to pause for a few seconds to m ake out th e w riting, N iza m ud-din innocently rem ark ed : I have seen an o th er copy w ith Sheikh N ajib u d -d ln M utaw akkil. I t was a correct one. I dont have the energy to co rrect this o n e , was th e reply o f the K h w a ja w hich he rep eated m any a tim e. N izam u d -d ln says th at at first he d id not u n d e rsta n d w hat his teach cr m eant b u t w hen M au lan a B adr u d -d ln Is h a q to ld h im th a t th e K h w aja was expressing d ispleasure a t his rem ark , he was confounded. T a k in g off his cap, he fell on the feet o f his m entor and im plored his for giveness. K h w a ja N izam u d -d ln says th a t he repeatedly request ed the Sheikh to p ard o n h im but his annoyance d id not abate. A t last he got up , an d know ing not w hat to do, he spent tw o days sorrow -stricken an d d ish earten ed . H e even thought o f com m itt: ing suicide by ju m p in g into a w ell but good sense prevailed on him . A t his w its end, he sped aw ay to a nearby forest where he w ept bitterly at his m istake. S h ah ab u d -d ln , one o f the sons o f K hw aja F a rid ud-din, was on intim ate term s w ith N izam u d-dln. H e inform ed the K h w a ja o f the lam en tab le condition o f his friend. At last the K h w aja forgave N izam u d -d in and p erm itted him to retu rn to his presence. O n the next d ay he told N izam ud-din : I had done this for your b etterm ent. T h e P ir (Spiritual g u id e ' is like
I. Fauia}id-ul-Fuwad, p . 75

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a decorator o f his disciple. T h ereafter he invested Nizam ud-dln w ith a robe o f honour .1
A Decisive Movement

It was undoubtedly a critical m om ent for N izam ud-din when his spiritual m entor reacted in a sharp and sudden m anner over his innocent rem ark. V erily, it would appear th at the K hw aja need not have shown such a resentm ent over the simple rem ark th at N izam ud-dln had seen a better copy o f the book with his b rothera statem ent o f fact w hich was neither w rong nor violated any m oral precept. But the K h w aja could not tolerate even this harm less com m ent by his disciple for he h a d already chosen him as his future spiritual successor. I t was, therefore, necessary for him to teach th a t disciple a lesson in self-effacement in a way th a t should destroy even the least vestiges o f self-conceit an d vanity in him . H e h ad also to take him through th a t state o f anguish and grief, dejection and dow n heartedness which every path-finder o f the love o f God has to experience at one tim e or the other. But, the occasion was also crucial for a young, educated and intelligent youth since his whole future depended on a correct decision at th at decisive m om ent. T he assessment o f the situation by M anazir Ahsan G llan l is undoubtedly correct, who says : It was the tim e when the genuineness o f his yearning had to be tested. T he w orld w anted to know his decision w hether he would rem ain a m ere debate-breaker and a logician as thousands had been before him or he would prove him self worthy of becoming the sultan o f seers an d mystics. It really depended on his courage
1. FawaHd-ul-Fuwid, p . 27. O n e sh o u ld n o t m isu n d e rs ta n d th e m o tiv e of K h w a ja FarTd u d -d in o r th a t his in d ig n a tio n w as a v io le n t a n d v in d ic tive e m o tio n al o u tb u rs t for a p e tty fa u lt. ab a s e m e n t in th e ir disciples. T h e sp iritu a l g u id es a d o p t d iffe re n t m e th o d s fo r g e n eratin g a sense o f self-effacem ent a n d selfT h e severe test to w hich K a ca b ib n M a lik for a n u n in te n tio n a l e rro r fu rn ish es w as p u t b y th e P ro p h e t o f Isla m p erso n .

a n o th e r ex am p le o f th e d iffe re n t m e th o d s a d o p te d to tra in a n d g u id e a

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an d w ill as a poet has said : To be content w ith buds but few, thou w ert a f o o l; E nough to fill thy blou, garden had floscule. H e cast aw ay the few buds th at he had and decided to ow n th e entire g ard en . H ad he been shallow -headed, he would h av e reasoned th u s: W h at was, a fte r all, my fa u lt? I com m itted no w rong. I knew o f a better copy and m entioned it to the Sheikh ! T h en , why this fit o f anger ? H ad he taken to this line o f reasoning he w ould have prolonged it to a length greater th a n th e prom ptings o f the Devil. H e would have been led to the conclusion th a t th e old m an had lost his balance o f m ind or th a t he was blinded by his own glory. H e could have even p roved the action o f his teacher as a clear transgression o f the ethical norm s ta u g h t by the Prophet. But he knew th at he had gone to th e Sheikh to rem edy his own defects and not to point out the faults o f his m entor. H e knew th at the K hw aja was his physician and therefo re he h ad no rig h t to question his teac h ers m ethod o f tre a tm e n t . 1
A Friendly Advice

K h w aja N izam ud-d in says : W hile I was at A jodhan, one o f my old class-mates cam e there. G rieved as w e ll as surprised to see m e in rags, he said. W hat have you m ade o f yourself; N izam u d -d ln ? H ad you taken to teaching in any city you would have becom e an accom plished scholar and m ade a fo rtu n e. I Offered m y excuse to him but when I w ent to the K h w aja he at once rem arked : W hat would he your reply, N izam u d -d in , if one o f your friends happens to meet, you and asks w'hy a re you w asting your tim e here like this and why have you given up the profession o f teaching which would have been a stepping stone for your p ro sp e rity ? I said, I w il l say w hat ever you advise. W henever anybody raises th a t question, said he, tell h im : T h o u a rt riot a w ay farer o f my p ath , O ff you go ; Peace be to you, let m e be hum bled an d low .
1. N iz a m -i-T 'a lim , V ol. I I , p p . 94-95

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T h e re a fte r he ord ered m e to take a tray, o f food from the m onasterys kitchen to my friend o a my head., I d id as I was bidden. W hen m y friend saw m e com ing like th a t he h u rried to take off th e tra y from me. W hen I told him w hat h ad happened, he replied, I never knew t b i t ^otir Sheikh h a d guided you to such dizzy heights o f selflessness ! T ake m e to h im . A fter hp h a d taken his m eals, he asked his servant to carry th e tray back but I refused an d insisted on taking the tray back on m y head as I h a d b ro u g h t it. W e b o th went to the K h w a ja and he becanje his disciple . 1 N izam u d -d ln went th rice to A jodhan .2 I t is, how ever, not know n w hen he was him self allow ed to take disciples in the Chishtiyah o rd e r. N one o f th e chroniclers has m entioned the year o f th e visit w hen he was g ran ted th e h a b it o f succession.
Blessings by the K haw ja

O nce th e K h w a ja called for N izSm u d -d ln a fte r F rid ay pray ers .3 H e p u t his saliva in th e m outh o f N izam u d -d ln and b ad e him to leai;n the Q u r Ja n by h e a rt. T h e re a fter he said, (God has bestow ed upon you th e good o f this w orld a n d the w orld beyond.. T h is is w h at one can o b tain h ere. T h e K h w aja then asked him to go to D elhi. H e s a i d : Go an d capture H in d u stan . It has been stated in Siar-ul-Auliii* th a t K h w aja F a rid ud -d ln w rote a khilafat-n&mah in favour o f N izam u d -d n a n d asked him to show it to M au ln a J a m a l u d -d ln in H ansl a n d Q S zl M u n tajab in D elhi. T h e K h w S ja also rem arked : Y ou w ould

1. Siar-ul-Aulia3, pp. 139-40 2. Fawai 'd-ul-1'uwad, p, 42 3. The date mentioned in Siar-ul-Aulia3 is 25th Jam ada ul-Ula, 669 A. H. but this appears to be wrong. I t should be 664 A. H ., the year o f KhwSja Farid ucl-dins demise, as mentioned elsewhere in Siar-ul-Auliax, or, we would have to agree with Khazinatul Asfia which gives the year of his death as 670 A. H . 4. Siar-ul-AultiP, p. 123

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC S P IR IT

be like a shade-tree beneath w hich the people w ould get rest and repose. Gi ve yourself up to p ray er and fasting in o rd er to lead your soul on th e pathw ay o f p u rity . h
Request o f a Prayer

K h w aja N izam u d -d ln also requested his Sheikh, on the first o f Shcab 5 n , to p ray for him so th a t h e m ight not have to d ep en d upon th e people. K h w aja F a rid u d -d in accepted bis request an d p tay ed for h im .' O n an o th er occasion K h w a ja F a rid u d -d ln told Niz&m u d -d in : I have prayed to G od to confer on you som ething o f th e w orld also. T ro u b led to h e a r this, for, m any a people w ere led astray by it, N izam u d -d in show ed signs o f distress. K h w aja F a rid ud-dln, how ever, assured him , F o ry o ti th e w orld shall n o t be a tem ptation. R est assumed. *.
From Ajodhau to Delhi ,

A fter taking leave o f his sp iritual guide K h w a ja N izam u d -d lii took th e ro ad to D elhi 6 n his sacred m ission o f guiding the people a n d purifying th em o f th e ir evil a n d im m oral traits. But he was then a p o o r w ay farer on his w ay to the renow ned cap ital o f the m ost pow erful M uslim kingdom in the seventh century a fte r Hijrah, whose only equipm ent for this form idable task was tru st iniG od, sincerity an d u tte r indifference to the w orld an d everything it stands for. M an S zir A hsan G llan I has given a beautiful description o f K h w aja N iz am ud -d ln s jo u rn ey to D elhi in these w o rd s : N ow he sets out from A jodhan to triu m p h o v er D elhi, th e cap ital o f H in dustan, w here innum er ab le gods have a rra y e d them selves from highest o f the high to th e lowest o f the low ; th ere a re am ongst them those on whose o rd ers heads roll on the gro u n d an d also those who confer riches a n d glory on th e ir m eanest servitors. R anks arid honours a re being distributed fre e ly ; pleasures a n d fortunes a re being
1. Siar-ul-Aulia*, p. 123 2. Ibid., p. 132

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179

given out With b o th 'h a n d s. A nd, this king o f th e saints is well up in all those arts and learnings w hich a re req u ired to feather ones liest. You have alread y seen th a t before com ing to A jodhan, he was know n as* a 'd e b a te b re a k e r in th e educated circles o f D elhi. H e finds all the doors f r b t n the office o f a Q azi to th a t o f Slmkk-iil-Islam o r Sadar-i-Jahan opened for him . But the love o f th e C reato r has been so deeply em bedded in his heart th a t it has expelled the longing for every w orldly gain. It was this sublim e quality o f h e a rt w hich he often described in these w ords : N obtidys faith is com plete liriless the whole creation is to him not w orth the cam els d u n g .1 O nce som ebody told K hw aja N izam u d-din o f a certain persbn w ho devoted him self night and day in prayers at D am ascus ju st for achieving th e office o f Shnkh-ul-lsldm. T h e K hw aja, his eyes b rim m in g w ith tears, replied : 'B a rn S/ieikh-ul-Islawi first and th en th e fnonastery an d last o f a ll yemr ow n ego In fine, he left A jodhan a fte r consigning to flames all the w orldly longings an d d e sire s....................aind a rriv ed in the capital em pty handed w here he had to rule as a spiritual m o narch . 3
Fulfilment o f his Obligations

K h w a ja N izam ud-din relates th a t his Sheikh h ad directed him to always fulfil his obligations and never kfcep anybody displeased w ith him . T h e K hw aja had purchased some cloth from a cloth dealer a t D elhi for w hich he owed 20 Jitals 4 to him and had alsW to retu rn a book lost by h im to one o f his friends. W hen he reached B udaun, on* his w a y back to Delhi from A jodhan, h e-m ad eU p his m ind to satisfy these obligations first. A ccordingly, on reaching D elhi he laboured h ard for a few days arid as soon as he h ad saved 10 Jttdls he ap pftiad ied the cloth

1. 2.

Siar-ul-Auti<i*, p. 551 Fawo^id~u(-Fitiodd, p. 23 3. AVeSm-f-'r*5/?m. Vol. II. p. 150 4. J lta l or Chftal was a copptr coin.

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d ealer. H e gave him th e m oney he h a d w ith him an d prom ised to re tu rn th e rem ain in g am o u n t as soon as possible. T h e cloth d e a le r took th e am ount given by th e K h w a ja b u t rem arked : I t seemsyou a re com ing from am ongst th e M uslim s. I forego m y claim fo r th e rem ain in g sum . T h e re a fte r th e K h w aja w en t to th e m an from w hom he h ad tak en th e book on lo an a n d to ld him th a t since the book h ad been lost, he w ould p rep are an o th er copy o f it fo r him . H e also gave up h.is claim b u t observed : I t was only n atu ral for you to do so a fte r visiting th e place you a re com ing fro m . 1
In Delhi

W h en th e K h w aja retu rn ed to D elhi, it w as a populous and exp an d in g city b u t for q u ite som e tim e, till he took up his resi dence a t G h iy a th p u r he h a d no proper abode. H e h a d so frequently to change his h ab itatio n s th a t, it seems, h e could not m an ag e to h av e even a h u t w here h e could live in peace. M ir K h u rd relates th e story o f th e K h w a ja s dw elling places in those days in th e w ords o f his fa th e r Saiyid M ah m m ad M u b arak K ir m a n I : So long as th e K h w S ja lived in th e city he h ad no house o f his ow n n o r he trie d to have one fo r bim . W hen he cam e fro m B udaun, he ren ted a house in S a rS P M i5n B azar w hich was also called N am ak ki S a ra i. A m ir K h u sru then also lived in th e sam e locality. A fter some tim e, on the recom m endation o f A m ir KhusrQ, he was allow ed to live in th e house o f his m atern al g ra n d fa th e r R a w a t l A rz .2 H e lived in this house for tw o years. T h e house was situated n e a r M a n d h G ate a n d M a n d h B ridge by th e side o f th e citys o u te r w all. I t was quite a good building o f stately stru ctu re w ith spacious cham bers but w hen th e sons o f R a w a t cA rz re tu rn e d , th e K h w a ja h ad i o vacate th e house. H e h a d nothing except books w ith h im w hich w e c a rrie d on o u r h ead s to a m osque in fro n t o f S ira j B aqqal. O n th e next day,
1. 2. p. 14 Also known a i Im idul-M ulk

F iiu V id -u l-F u w a d ,

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a disciple o f Sheikh S ad r ud-dln, Sad K ag zl by nam e, took the K hw Sja to his ow n house and lodged h im in the upper a p a rt ments. K h w aja rem ained there for a m onth an d then got a house in the S arai o f R a k a b d a r n ear Q aisar Bridge,. A fter some tim e he took up his residence in the house o f ShSdl G ulabi, n ear th e shop o f M uham m ad, a fruit-seller. In the m eantim e, the sons an d relatives o f Sham s u d -d ln S h a ra b -d a r1, w ho w ere devoted disciples o f the K hw aja begged him to occupy a portion o f th e ir own house. H e lived there in peace for several years. *
Frugal living

W hen the K h w aja arrived at D elhi, he had to face those sufferings and tribulations w hich have to be endured by all those w ho a re elevated an d illum inated and desire to show the p a th o f v irtu e to others. T h is was th e tim e w hen D elhi was rolling in the w ealth pouring from th e four corners o f H industan. E verything was so plentiful an d cheap th at two seers o f bread could be h ad for one Jlta l an d a m au nd o f muskm elon fo r ju st two Jltals. But the K h w aja h a d to pass his days in such a state o f extrem e poverty th a t occasionally h e could not provide even a lo af o f b read for him self an d his dependants. N or could he afford the luxury o f enjoying a m usk-m elon although it was so cheap ! But not only reconciled to his frugal living he even longed to pass on his days in th a t wise.* O nce w hen he was residing in th e house n ear M an d h G ate, he h ad to go w ith em pty stom ach for a few days. At last, a student who was aw are o f it inform ed some o f his neighbours who w ere w eavers by profession. T hey b ro u g h t some edibles for him but w h ile'h e was washing h is hands to take the food, some one rem arked : G od m ay bless the student who told us about you. W h at d id he say ? enq u ired the K hw aja. H e inform ed us, th e m an replied, th a t you h a d nothing to satisfy
1. The royal servant appointed to provide drinking w ater to the king. 2. Siar-ul-Aulid3, p. 108 3. Ibid., p. 108

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the pangs o f hunger for quite a few days. T h a t is. why we have b rought it to you. Excuse me then, said the K hw aja and refused to take it in spite o f th e ir insistence.
Death o f His Sheikh

K h w aja N izam u d -d in paid the last visit to his Sheikh, K h w aja F a rid u d-dln th ree or four months before the latter died. T h e K h w aja sa y s: H e died on the fifth of M u h arram but he had sent m e back to D elhi in the m onth o f Shaw w al .2 Since he h ad alread y been taken ill, he was not keeping fasts d urin g R am ad h an . O ne day someone brought musk-melons, one o f w hich I placed before him in pieces. T he Sheikh took them an d gave one piece to m e. I thought of taking th a t preci^ ous gift even if I m ight have to keep expiatory fasts continuously for tw o m onths in lieu o f breaking the obligatory fast on th a t d a y .. But he forbade me saying, O h, No. T he Sharfah perm its m e but not you . 3 i T h e Sheikh h ad m e in his thoughts before he d ied , conti nues K hw aja Nizarri ud*dln, for he said to those p re s e n t: N izam ud-din is in D elhi. I was also away in H ansl when my Sheikh Q u tb ud-dln B akhtiyar K ak l d ie d . T he Sheikh also wept w hile saying th is. * K h w aja N izam u d -d ln w ent to A jodhan after the Sheikh h ad passed away. M a u la n a B adr ud-dln m ade over the Sheikhs robe, p ray er m at an d staff to him as desired by the Sheikh .5
In Ghiyathpar

It has been related in Fawa^id-ul-Fuwnd th at the K hw aja did not like the d in an d cla mctur o f D elhi. O nce he saw a reclusjf busy in th e rem em brance o f G od at H auz Q atlagh K h a n , T h e

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Jawmrfie ul-Kalim, p. 2% In 664 A. H. Fawdhd-ul-Fuwcid, p. 53 Ibid., p. 53 Siar-ul-Aiilia p. 122

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K h w aja asked him if he h ad chosen to live in the c ity .o f his own accord. H e replied in the negative but a d d ed th a t although he w anted to go awy, h e could not som ehow leave the place. T h ereupon th e K h w a ja m ad e up his m ind to leave th e city for P atiali 1 w here a Turk lived in those days, o r to go aw ay to Bishnalah. H e once w ent to B ishnalah an d lived th e re for th ree days but could pot obtain a residence to put up perm anently there. Back in D elhi ag ain he earnestly im plored G od to guide him to a place w here he could h av e peace an d repose. As the K h w S ja relates, h e h e a rd a celestial voice directing h im to go to GhiyathpO r although he d id not th e n know w here th e place was. H ow ever, he took up his residence a t G hiyathpO r w hich was tfcen a quiet an d sparsely p opulated place. W hen K a ik a b a d 3 selected K llokharl* for his residence, G h iy a th p u r was crow ded with, th e royal chiefs an d retinues. T h e K h w aja ag ain thought o f leaving th e place. O n e day he h appened to be present in the last rites o f one o f his teachers in th e city, w here a lean and th in but ag reeably good-looking m a n h a d also come. No sooner th an he cam e, he addressed the K h w aja w ith a couplet w hich m e a n t: You h a d to know , th e day you w ere m ade a m oon o f ' goodly f r a m e ; Cynosure o f a ll eyes, on every tongue w ould be your nam e. m a n should first avoid be com e in the lim erlight, he o f it so th a t he m ig h t not on th e D ay o f R eckoning.

H e also told th e K h w aja th a t a com ing far-fam ed, but once he h ad should try to prove h im self w orthy have to lose face before th e Prophet

1. A town in district Etah 2. . AmJr Khusru 3. Sultan M uciz ud-din, Kaikabad, the son of Bughra KhSn and grandson of Ghiyath ud-din Balban, who ruled for three years from 686 A. H . to 688 A. H . : ' 4. Sir Saiyid writes in Athar us-Sanadid: M u'iz ud-din Kaikabad built a fort and named it Kilokharl in 685 A. H . The fort is no more now but a village of that name still exists near H um auns tomb (p. 82).

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T h e m an th e n said to the K h w a ja : Is it a t all virtuous to devote o neself to G ods recollection only a fte r retirin g from the w orld ? H e w anted to im press th a t the rem em brance o f G od along th e w alk o f life needs a g re a te r strength o f ch aracter. W hen he h ad finished talking, the K h w S ja brought some food for him , but he m ade no m ove until K h w a ja N izam u d -d ln resolved th a t he w ould not leave G h iy athpur. T h ereafter he ate a b it a n d w ent aw ay . 1
Popular Regard

K h w ija N izam ud-dift began to a ttra c t attention an d esteem o f th e people d u rin g his stay a t G hiyathpO r. Q u ite a large n u m b er o f people started paying visit to him for m oral and sp iritu al purification a t his h an d . T h e chroniclers h av e not given th e details w hen th e rising p o p u lar re g a rd for th e K h w a ja started to d raw people to G hiyathpO r. I t has only been stated by them th a t for a tim e a fte r tak in g u p residence at G hiyathpO r, h e h ad to live from h a n d to m outh. D u rin g th e hottest sum m er days he h a d to w alk dow n to th e d istan t J a m 4! M asjid. At last privation gave place to abun d an ce : a n elegant su p erabundance com bined w ith lav ish generosity w hich surpassed even the splendour o f th e D elhi d u rb a rs. A m ir K husrQ has aptly depicted the K h w S ja s m ajesty in these verses : A sovereign is he in m e n d ic a n ts c lo s e t ; O v e r the kingdom o f h e a rt runs whose w r i t ; A prince, w ho has no sceptre n o r crow n ; T h e e a rth b en eath whose feet, th e kings w ould covet.
A Bounteous Friar

W hoever cam e fro m fa r o r n e a r was allow ed to pay his respect to th e K h w a ja w ho gave to th e visitor some cash, a robe o r a g ift o r w hatever he h a d a t h an d . E verything bro u g h t to him as a present was gifted aw ay by h im : nobody ever retu rn ed
1.

Siar-ul-A ulia*, p . 129

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185

em pty-handed from h im .1 K hw aja ' N aslr ud-d ln Chiragk Dehti relates : It seemed th a t a riv er o f riches flowed beneath his feet. -People cam e from early m o rn till dusk o r even late in n ig h t ; those who brought the gifts w ere few er th a n those w hom h e sent back laden w ith a la rg e ss; th e K h w a ja alw ays gave m ore th a n w hatever one bro u g h t in presentation to h im . 4 Always o n getting u p a fte r th e afternobn n ap he used to ask w hether th e tim e for l asr p ra y e r h a d arriv ed and w hether som eone was w aiting fo r h im .3 H e n ever liked th a t anybody should have to w ait for him . T h e m ore his fam e and p opularity increased d raw ing la rg er crow ds to his doors, the m ore he becam e indifferent to the w orld an d its attractio n s. O ften he w ept a t the presents bro u g h t to him a n d trie d to dole out everything a t th e earliest opportunity. Som etim es he w ould d ire c t his attendants to dis trib u te everything left w ith h im to th e needy an d poor an d heaved a sigh o f re lie f When noth in g rem ain ed w ith h im . O n Fridays, before th e K h w a ja left for prayers, all th e stores and room s o f th e m onastery w ere swept clean to ensure th a t nothing rem ain ed w ith th e inm ates a n d disciples. T h e visit o f any prince o r ch ief o r th e announcem ent o f a gift b ro u g h t by them very often called forth th e cynical re m a rk from th e K h w a ja : W hy has he com e to w aste my tim e ? *
Indifference to W orldly Possessions

A m ir H asan A la 9 S ajazi relates th a t once w hen he happen ed to be present there, a c ertain noble sent a tran sfer deed assigning a g rove, some a g ric u ltu ra l la n d an d o th er p roperty to the K h w S ja w ith a request to accept th e sam e. T h e K h w a ja sm iled arid re m a r k e d : N ow people w ill say th a t the Sheikh

1.

Siar-ui-Aulia?

2. Siraj-til-Majalis (Tr. Khair-ul-Majalis), p. 310 3. Siar-ul-Aulia p. 126 4. Ibid., p. 129

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has gone to see his grove o r th e crop. W h at have I to do w ith a ll these ? N one o f m y Sheikhs ever h ad an y la n d o r property . 1
The Im perial Kitchen

T h e K h w aja kept fa st ever a n d anon. But dishes oi different varieties an d tastes w ere alw ays served up to the visitors, young an d old, poor a n d rich , w ho w ere not only fed to th e ir h e a rts content but also allow ed to take hom e w hatever they liked. T h e victuals served a t the K h w ajas m onastery w ere o f th e highest quality th a t the nobles a n d chiefs o f the State found difficult to afford, a n d rem em bered lpng once they h a d tasted them . Q u ite a p a rt from th e sp iritual regeneration o f those who p a id a visit to th e K h w aja, his unbounded m unifi cence an d filling o f th e em pty stom achs speaks o f his bountiful generosity to th e poor a n d lowly. O f th e K h w a ja s generosity M a n a z ir A hsan G ilan l w rites : T hose who w ag th e ir tongue to sym pathise w ith tfye p o o r in th eir tab le talks w ould h ard ly be aw are th a t these very mystics o f Islam w ere th e connecting link between the rich an d th e poor. T h e irs w ere th e courts w hich dem anded trib u te fro m th e kings. Such w as the royal court o f the K h w a ja th a t even K h iz r K h a n , th e heir-apparent o f the kingdom was his devotee. Tolls a n d tithes flowed to the coffers o f A la u d -d ln K h iljl from every p a rt o f the co u n try but he, too, h ad to pay an im post to this exchequer............ T hese very m onasteries w ere th e channels w hich Conlneyed th e shares o f the in d ig en t an d beggers to them . A nd this is w h at is m ean t by th e a d a g e : T h e p ro perty of a mystic is for the com m on good . 2 T hese mystics w ere th e b rid g e along w hich both the p oor an d ,the rich w alked to u nderstanding. Both p re sented them selves before th e m ystics in th e sam e capacity very m any people h a d th e ir needs satisfied through them .
1. FawaH4-ul-Fuu)ad, p. 99 2. Nizdm-i-T'alim, Vol. II, p. 214

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187

O f a fact, th ere was h ard ly a tim e w hen in every p a rt o f the then In d ia the prophetic injunctioncollect from the wellto-do an d d istrib u te tq th e poor was not im plem ented by these p u re-h earted souls. W h erever an y mystic was lipid in, esteem by the people o f ran k an d authority, the poor always stood to gain by it. ' T h e K h w a ja alw ays joined in th e repast w ith his guests but he seldom took anything except a b re a d o r h a lf w ith vegetables or a little quantity o f riqe. O ften he rem ained sitting w ith others at the repast but took nothing at a ll .2 D i s r e g a r d of the R oyalty F rom the very beginning the guid in g principle o f the Chishtiyah o rd er in In d ia h a d been to reform an d reg en erate the In d ian M uslim society in accordance w ith th e teachings o f Islam but, at the sam e tim e, to rem ain unsolicitous o f th e royal favours. As earnest seekers p f tru th , the earlier Chishti mystics h a d held fast to this golden ru le as a sacred p atrim ony o f th eir precursors and spiritual guides. F rom K h w a ja M ol In ud-dln to K hw aja N iza m ud-din, every mystic saint rem ain ed com pletely indiffer ent to th e royally w hich helped them to keep th eir mission clearly alo o f from th e political upheavals o f th e tim es. N um erous dynasties held the reigns o f governm ent and tum bled dow n but the sincerity a n d indifference to Wealth and dignify on the p a rt o f these, su fl saints allow ed th em to propagate th eir m ission rem itlessly over h u n d red s o f years an d this w as perhaps the reason for th e w ide popularity it g ained am ong the masses. Since th e day K h w a ja N iz a m u d -d ln was nom inated for the spiritu al conquest o f the country, seven kings adorned the th ro n e p f D elh i S ultan ate;; some o f them were extrem ely h a u g h ty ; others ru led w ith pom p an d s p le n d o u r: but the K h w a ja never g raced the royal co u rt by his presence (except once w hen he was called upon to take p a rt in a disputation

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about th e law fulness o f m usical recitations), nor he allow ed any king to pay a visit to him . T h e K h w S ja h ad still not achieved the em inence by the tim e o f G h iy ath u d-dln B alban, so the la tte r d id not take m uch notice o f him . M uciz u d -d ln K aik b S d was too pre-occupied w ith huntin g a n d am usem ents to pay any attention to him . J a la l u d -d jn K h ilji was, how ever, th e first K in g w ho was him self a h accom plished scholar an d connoisseur who patronised m en o f letters an d talent. T h e K h w aja h ad also then reached the pinnacle o f his fam e. J a la l u d -d ln K h ilji expressed his wish several tim es to be allow ed to pay hom age to the K h w aja , but th e la tte r alw ays tu rn ed dow n his request. At last, he planned w ith A m ir K husril to secretly visit the K h w S ja w ithout inform ing him . A m ir K h u sru , how ever, thought it im prudent to keep his Sheikh in th e d a rk a n d h e broke th e news to him . T h e K hw S ja im m ediately m ad e u p his m ind to visit the shrine o f his ow n Sheikh a t A jodhan. W h en the K ing cam e to know o f it, h e chided A m ir K h u sn i for leaking out his secret, b u t A m ir K husrQ r e p lie d : D ispleasure o f th e K in g posed a d an g er to my life b u t th a t o f the' Sheikh w ould have laid open my faith to p e ril. T h e wise an d generous K in g , th a t J a la l ud-dln K hilji was, kept quite a t this answ er . 1
K hw aja Put to Test

S ultan cA la 5 ud-dln K h ilji ascended the throne a fte r his uncle J a la l u d -d ln K h ilji. L o rd ly a n d a rro g a n t by n ature, this second A lex an d er o f In d ia was n eith er devoted to the K hw Sja in th e beginning n o r bo re any ill-w ill against him . But certain persons envious o f th e K h w aja trie d to em bitter the K in g against him . T hey told th e K in g th a t th e grow ing popu larity o f th e K h w S ja was fra u g h t w ith d an g er to the kingdom . In o rd e r to test the sincerity o f th e K hw S ja he w rote a letter requesting for p ray er and his advice for conducting the adm inis tra tio n , a n d deputed his son an d heir-ap p arent K h izr K h a n to
1. Siar-ulrAuliiP, p . 135

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189

b e a r th e letter to th e K hw Sja. W hen th e le tter was delivered to h im , h e took it in his h a n d b u t d id not re a d it. Instead, addressing those who w ere th e n present, he said, I pray for th e K in g . T h ereafter he a d d e d : W h at have we, the m endicants, to do w ith th e K in g . L ike a recluse I have w ith d ra w n to th is co rp er to p ray for th e w elfare o f'th e K ing an d th e M uslim s. But i f the K in g should disapprove o f it, I shall go aw ay from h ere. G ods e a rth is w ide enough. Pleased w ith th e reply given,by th e K h w S ja, th e K in g o b se rv e d ; I already knew th a t th e K h w S ja is least concerned w ith th e affairs o f the kingdom , b u t m alicious people w an ted m e to pick up a q u arre l w ith h im so th a t this country should go to ru in . 1 T h e K in g apologised for th e lettear sent by him a n d express ed his devotion, to th e K h w a ja . H e also requested K hw aja N izam u d -d ln to allow h im to pay a visit to him b u t h e replied: T h e K in g need n o t com e. I shall p ray for h im in his absence w hich is m o re efficacious . 2 S u lta n A la 1 u d -d ln .K hiljl repeatedly m ad e requests to see th e K h w aja. W hen th e K in g becam e m o re insistent the K h w ija replied : I h av e tw o doors in m y house. I f th e K ing enters from th e one, I shall go put from th e o th e r . 3 S u ltan *Al5 u d -d ln K h iljl, how ever,, still continued to have th e highest re g a rd for th e K h w S ja w hom h e requested to p ray for h im w henever he h a d an y w orry o r anxiety. K h w a ja N izam u d -d ln alw ays solem nly beseeched G od on b e h a lf o f the K in g o n such occasions. A h isto rian o f th e tim e, Q a z i Z ia J u d -d ln B arnl w rites : W hen M alik N a ib 4 h a d la id th e siege o f W aran g al, the com m unications to T ila n g a n a broke dow n a n d th e S u ltan could not get a n y new s ab o u t his forces fo r m ore th a n fo rty days. T he S u ltan felt w o rried a b o u t th e safety o f his troops w hile certain

1. S ia r -u l-A u lit p. 134 2. Ibid., p. 135 3 Ibid., p. 135

4. M alik K if o r

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cou rtiers ap p reh en d ed th e possibility o f some disaster or defeat as th e Cause 6 f th e disru p tio n o f com m unications from th e front. O n e day, in a m om ent o f despairiilg anxiety, the Sultati d e p u t'd M alik Q arS Beg an d Q a z l M ughfth u d -d ln o f Baya'nah to convey his m ental disq u iet to th e K hw Sja. T h e K ing asked them to tell the K h w aja th a t since he was even m ore solicitous th a n him ab o u t th e wtelfare o f Islam an d its adherents, he m ight let h im knoW about th e w elfare o f th e arm y if his illum inated self h a d any prognostication about it. H e also instructed his m essengersrto exactly re p o rt th e reply given by th e K hw aja. W h en th e tw o courtiers conveyed th e message to the K hw Sja, he started relatin g th e victories achieved earlier by the K ing and then ad d ed : But these a re n o th in g as com pared to those we expect in fu tu re1, T h e K in g was m uch pleased to learn the reply given b y th e K h w S ja for he Was assured th at W arangal w ould have been captured by th e tim e. T he sam e day, after easr prayers, th e em issaries, sent by M alik N aib, arriv ed w ith his letter describing the success o f his expedition. T h e letter was re a d out by th e pulpiters a fte r F rid a y p rayers, the victory was announced by th e beat o f drum s a n d th e people in th e ir happi ness raised th e strains o f in w ard joy. T h is incident also increas ed th e K in g s devotion an d re g a rd for the K h w a ja . 1 O n an o th er occasion, w hen th e M ongols attacked In d ia, th e S u ltan h im self m arched out, placin g h im self at the h e ad o f his troops, to d riv e back th e invaders. H e sent a message retjuesting the K h w aja to invoke divine succour a t th a t critical m om ent. T h e K h w aja instructed a ll th e inm ates o f his m onastery to p ray a n d him self earnestly e n treated G od fo r th e victory o f th e S ultan. A fter a few days th e news w as received th a t th e S u ltan S v a lo u r h ad b ro u g h t decisive victory to his arm s an d the rftvaders h ad fled to a rap id an d d iso rd erly re tre a t .2 O n e o f the S u lta n s courtiers, Q S zl Z ia 5 ud -d ln , relates th a t 6 A l5 u d -d ln never spoke disparagingly o f the K h w S ja. A lthough
1. Tarikh Firoz Shahi, p. 333 2. Siar-ul-Aulia>, p. 160

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KlIwAJA NIZAM UD-DIN AULIA

191

there w ere several persons who described the Khw'Sjas bounti ful generosity an d popularity in a m anner calculated to arouse jealously in the K in g s heart but he never gave ears to them . T h e S u lta n s reg ard for the K hw Sja gradually developed into a respectful submission but he could never m eet the K hw Sja.
1Q ptb ud-dins Animosity

A fter A la 5 u d -d ln had b reath ed his last, his second son Q u tb u d -d ln M u b arak S h ah ascended the thrbne depriving the rig h tfu l claim ant and heir-apparent K h izr K hSn. Since K hizr K h S n h a d been devoted to the K h w aja, Q u tb ud-dln M ubarak S h sh nursed a feeling o f resentm ent against the K hw aja too w hich developed into hostility w ith the passage o f tim e. Q u tb u d -d in built a new Ja m ci M osque which he nam ed M asjid M trl , a n d 'o rd e re d all the theologians and divines o f D elhi to perform th e F rid ay prayers therein. K hw aja N izam ud-dln, how ever, refused to comply with the royal com m and, replying th a t hfe h ad a m osque n ear his house w hich had a greater claim upon him . T his fu rth er enraged th e K ing. T he relations betw een the tw o w ere so strained th a t when the K hw Sja once saluted the K ing, o n com ing across him in the shrine o f Sheikh Z iS 5 ud-d ln RQml, th e latter refrained even from exchanging the greetings. A nother incident, how ever, provided the K ing with an opportunity to declare his foolish intentions w hich he m ight have concealed for long in his bosom. A ccording to the custom followed in those days, all the grandees, officers and res pectable citizens w ere required, on the first day o f every lunar m onth, to present, themselves before the m onarch for salutation an d presentation.O f gifts to him . : T h e K hw Sja, however; never w ent on these occasions but used to send his servant, Iqbal, as his deputy. Feeling slighted by* th e proxy, the K ing ordered th a t none am ongst his chiefs and officers should henceforth visit G hiyathpO r to pay respect to the K h w aja. A m ir K husrtt relates th a t th e king even said : W hoever would bring the head o f th e Sheikh, he shall be rew ard ed one thousand Tankas."1 1. The tilver coin of the time.

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T h e K ing publicly announced his intention : I f he does not tu rn up next tim e I w ould k n o w how he comes. T h e K in g s intention perhaps was to have K hw aja N izam ud-dln brought to the court as a prisoner or he m ight have even decided, to get rid o f him once for all. T h e K h w aja was told of the K ings resolve. But indifferent to the peril threatening him , the K h w aja rem ained quiet. O ne a fte r one the days "were running out. T h e m onth began to d raw to a close , says M a n a z ir Ahsan G lla n i ,1 and with it every w ell-wisher o f the K hw aja began to w orry him self sick. A t last, the new moon was alsq sighted. Now everyone entitled to adm ittance before the K ing shall pre sent him self before the m orach on the com ing day. But the K hw aja is still ad am an t an d has decided not to visit the K ing, w ho, o n his p a rt, is also firm on his declared resolve : I would know how he com es. O nly the n ight is to pass for the day, d re a d e d by the citizens o f D elhi, when the two Sultans, one o f th e tem poral w orld and th e other of the spiritual realm shall clash th e ir arm s. T h e fateful night had still not folded up when th e K in g s doom was sealed. K h u sru K h a n 3 seized the K ing by th e h a ir, th e tw o grappled each other but KhusrQ K h an succeeded in thrusting a dagger in the abdom en o f the K ing who cam e crashing dow n to the ground. K husru K han severed his head* from th e body and flung it dow n into the courtyard o f

1. Nizom-i-T'alim, Vol. II, p. 230 2. KhusrQ K han, in whom the Sovereign placed implicit confidence, was a low caste convert to Islam. His acceptance o f Islam was merely the cloak under which he concealed his deadly hatred o f the faith and lib determination to conspire against the King in order to gain the throne for himself. 3. The author of Siar-ul-Aulii5 does not give the datfj. when the king was beheaded. Firishta fixes the incident on the fifth of Rab*>-ul-Awwal, 721 A. H. (Vol. I, p. 227) but a t another place he gives the date as 29th ShawwSl (Vol. II, pp. 740-41). But greater reliance can be placed on Amir K husru's Tughlaq A'ctrch which was composed during the reign Of SultSn GhiySth ud-dln Tughlaq. I t states th a t the- incident happened in Jam lda-nl-U khrfi, in the night the new moon was sig h ed (p. 19).

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th e Im p e ria l Palace o f T housand P illars . 1

The M ysterious Repast

. D uring th e period w hen S u ltan Q u tu b u d -d ln h ad forbidden his courtiers to pay a visit to th e K h w aja, spies h a d also been deputed by h im to b rin g .intelligence how th e K h w aja m anaged his im p e ria l k itch en a fte r th e cessation o f a ll gifts a n d presents by th e roy al entourage. Sheikh N a slr u d - d ln , ChitZgh D thli re lates th a t w hen the Sheikh was apprised o f th e K in g s o rd e r, he directed his atten d an ts to increase th e Quantity o f victuals cooked in his kitchen. A fter a few days th e K in g enq u ired about the m a tte r a n d was to ld th a t the quan tity o f food-stuff h ad since been doubled by th e K h w a ja . Surprised to h e a r the reply, he rem arked ; I w^s m istaken. H e seems to get his sustenance from unknow n sources . 2

G hiyath ud*din T u gh laq

D u rin g th e br>ef p eriod o f his despotic ru le, K h u u Q K h a n let no opportunity go by p f insulting a n d ridiculing the faith w hich be h ated a t h e a rt. In 721 A .H . G hiy 3 th u d -dln T u g h laq (M alik G hSzI) m arch ed upon th e capital an d established the T u g h laq dynasty a fte r putting th e u su rp er to sword- G hiyath ud-dln was not a scholar but h e showe d due deference to the Shari1ah an d th e doctors o f teligion. T h e K h w a ja used to have sittings o f m usical recitations w hich h a d then becom e popular in t^ e capital. A c e rta in person n am ed H osam u d -d ln F a rja m , who, h a d been w ith th e K h w aja for quite some tim e b u t h a d rem ained unenlightened despite the pray ers an d penance u n d er

Qajr-i-HazBr Situn, as it was naifted because of the large num ber o f pillars utilized in its construction, was built by C AH* ud-din in 1303 A. D ., oil the place he encamped outside Delhi to give battle to the Mongol invader Targhi. The Qasr m ust have been as grand and beautiful as other buildings o f *AU ud-din, but unfortunately its complete destruc tion later on renders it difficult to locate its site with any am ount o f certainty. 1 . Khair-ul'Majdlis, p. 310-11

1.

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taken by h im , was a tru sted councillor o f the K ing. Qaz! J a lS l u d -d ln , th e D eputy C h ief o f State was also hostile to the m ystics. The Q a z l a n d few other theologians prevailed upon H osSm u d -d ln F a ijS m to bring it to th e notice o f th e K in g th a t th e K h w a ja s p articip atio n in these m usical rhapsody's, deem ed un law fu l b y I m a m A bu H a n lfa , p ro v ided an excuse to others to indulge in an d prom ote a p ractice p rohibited by th e Shari1ah. T h e K in g being unaw are o f th e legal position lto this re g ard , was am azed to h e a r 1th a t a scholar and divine revered by all co u ld be accused o f an y th in g im perm issible by the SharPah. A n u m b er o f ju ristic opinions d eclarin g m usical recitations unlaw ful w ere produced before th e K in g w ho agreed to convene a council to exam ine th e co rrect legal position in this reg ard . T h e m eeting was convened an d th e K h w a ja invited to it, w hich has been thus described by M ir K h u r d : T h e K h w aja was sum m oned to th e Im p erial Palace. H e w$s accom panied by Q a z l M u h l u d -d ln K a sh a n l an d F a k h r u d -d ln Z a rrS d l, both Of w hom w e re eru d ite scholars. Q a z l JalS l ud-dTh opened the proceedings w ith a serm on calling upon the K hw Sja to desist from th e p ractice. T h e w ay he addressed the K hw Sja w as not only unbefitting but he even proceeded to th re a te n h im w ith punishm ent if he still persisted in looking upon it as al law fiil p ractice. In d ig n a n t a t the a rro g a n t rem arks o f Q a z l J a la l u d -d ln , th e K h w aja rem arked : You shall be dism issed from th e office w hich m akes you b ra g your tongue. A nd tw elve days th e re a fter th e Q a z l Was dism issed a h d m ade to leave D elh i. In fine, a ll th e scholars, ju rists a n d theologians, an d th e K ing too, anxiously aw aited th e K h w S ja to expound th e correct ju ristic position in re g a rd to th e m a tte r u n d er discussion. H osam ud-dJn F arj 5 m levelled th e charge th a t people w hirled a n d d a n c e d an d m a d e loud excited utterances in th e m usical sittings held by th e K h w a ja * Dont m ake noise. Instead of continuing y our allegations first define m usical recitatio n , d em an d ed th e K h w S ja fro m H osS m u d -d ln . F a rja m a d m itted th a t h e d id not know w hat constituted a m usical recitation but a d d e d that the ju rists held it unlaw ful. T h e n , replied th<

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195

K h w aja, I need not answ er the charges levelled by a m an who does not know w hat th e issue is. H o sam u d -d in F a rja m was thus .put to sham e. T h e K ing gave e a r to th e speech o f the K hw aja an d forb ad e others to speak loudly o r in terru p t him . A m ong tjie scholars present in the m eeting H a m id u d -dln and S h ah ab u d -d in m ostly kept quiet. T h e fo rm er, how ever, deposed th a t th e description o f ^he K h w a ja s sittings o f m usical recitations, as given by F a rja m a n d others w ere incorrect as he had him self atten d ed .these sittings as well as those held by other saints,and fria rs......... ......I n the m ean tim e A lam ud-dln, the grandson o f Sheikh-ul-Islam Bah a 5 u d -d ln Z ak ariya M u lta n f arriv ed . T h e K in g .asked him w h eth er m usical sittings w ere perm issible o r prohibited. H e replied th a t he h a d discussed the m a tte r a t length jn his m onograph o n th e subject. I t was law ful for those who listened to these recitations to w arm the cockles o f th eir h e a rt for sp iritual elevation b u t unlaw ful for those who w anted to g ratify th e ir senses. I n reply to a fu rth e r ques* tion asked by th e K in g he said th a t in B aghdad, R u m 1 and Syria th e mystics atten d ed these recitations b u t nobody ever raised any objection. H e a d d e d th a t th e practice was followed by tbe mystics even d u rin g the tim es o f J u n a id and Shibll. J a la l u d -d ln im plored th e K in g to forbid m usical recitations by a royal decree in o rd e r to uphold the ju ristic view held by the theologians o f H anaB te school. T h ereu p o n th e K h w aja asked the K in g not to issue any edict on th e subject. T h e K ing accepted th e K h w a ja s recom m endation an d did not issue any o rd e r .2 Q a z i Z ia J u d -d ln Barn! writes in Hasrat Jsaman th a t when the K h w a ja retu rn ed from th e m eeting he called for M uhi ud -dln K S sh an i and A m ir K hu sru . Me told them th at the theolo gians an d ju rists of D elhi w ere filled w ith bitterness and envy ; they gave vent to th e ir in d ig n atio n w hen they found an opportu nity b u t it was surprising th a t they gave preference to the
1. Modern Turkey 2. Siar-ul-AuliV (Summarised), pp. 527-32

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SAVIOURS O P ISLAMIC 8P1RIT

ju ristic opinions o f th e , Im am ? over the T rad itio n s o f th e P ro p h et. T h e K h w aja w as grieved to find the theologians rejecting a T ra d itio n m erely, because Im a m ShafecJ h ad T e l j e d upon it w hile th e ir ow n Iih am s h a d disagreed From him . A t last th e K h w aja observed ; h a d n ever seen a scholar who refused to give heed to a n au th en tic T ra d itio n o f the Prophet. I d o not know w hat is going to h appen Ito th e city ? N o city can flourish w here a behaviour so outrageous can be to lerated . No w o n d er i f this city goes to rack an d ru in ! W here the K in g and th e nobles a n d th e com m on folk h e a r the Q ,azls and the l ulama assert:ng th a t they d o n o t follow th e Prophets: T rad itio n s, how w ould they continue t o h av e faith in th e m ? 1 fe a r th a t the d isb elief o f th e religious scholars o f this city m ig h t invite the curse o f H eaven in th e shape o f calam ity an d disaster, fam ine a n d p estilence . 1

D e tr a c tio n o f D ellfi
T h e fe a r expressed by K h w a ja N izam u d -d ln was not u n fo u n d ed . Exactly six years a fte r his foreboding, M u h am m ad T u g h la q , the son arid successor o f G hiyath u d -d ln T u g h lak , suddenly issued a d ecree for vacating D elhi an d m ig ratin g to D ev ag iri, ren am ed by h im a s D au la tab a d . H e enforced his o rd e r w ith such a haste a n d u n reaso n in g obstinacy th a t th e cap ital becam e desolate. In a city w here form erly it was difficult to p ro c u re a house, no living being except wild beasts , w ere seen. M u h a m m a d Q a sim B ijapuri w rites in Tarikh Firishta : T h e functionaries o f the State d id not allow a single in h a b ita n t p f th e city, h a b itu a te d to its clim ate, to rem ain there. T h ey despatched everybody to D ev ag iri, and D elhi becam e soj d evastated a n d d epopulated th a t no voice except th a t o f th e | jack als, foxes an d o th er w ild beasts was to be h ea rd th e re . 1 | A ll those theologians an d ju rists w ho h a d arraig n e d them*! selves again st th e K h w a ja in th e Im p e rial Palace h a d to leavqg
1. Siar-ul-Aulid* (Summarised1, pp. 52732 2. Tarikh FirishtS, V. I, p. 243

L IF E SK ETCH O F K H W A JA NIZAM UD-DIN AULIA

197

D elhi alongw ith o th e r s ; m any o f them perished in th e course of the long an d strenuous m arch to w ard s D ey ag iri } those who reached th e new cap ital w ere destroyed by fam ine an d pestilence a n d , thus, th e g rim p red ictio n o f th e K h w a ja cam e tru e w ithin a deca.de. ?
D aily Routine of the K hw aja

T h e K h w aja used to com e dow n from his a p a rtm e n t for tisha') prayers. A fter p erfo rm in g th e sam e w ith congregation, he w ould re tu rn to his ch am b er ag a in w here h e spent some tim e in the recollection o f G od. T h e re a fte r hg took a little rest before th e atten d an ts h anded over to h im his rosary. T h en nobody excepting A m ir K hu sru was allow ed to see him . A m ir K h u sru used to sit dow n n e a r his cot relatin g the topic o f the day o r o th er m atters. T h e K h w a ja often nodded his head to signify his assent o r asked: T u rk , w hat is th e,n ew s. T h is gave an o pportunity to A m ir 1 to p u t tw o and tw o together and m ake it five. T h e K h w a ja asked about som ething and A m fr Ittfliged the opportunity to relate the w hole story* O ften the K hw aja also p erm itted th e ch ild re n o r relatives to come and join the sitting a t th is hour.
Nocturn'al Occupation

A fter A m ir KhUsrQ an d others present at the tim e h ad taken leave to d e p a rt, th e Khyyajas personal atten d an t Iq b a l used to b rin g a few jugs fille d ; w ith w ater for perform ing ablution. T h e re a fter th e K hw aja used to bolt the doors from inside an d then nobody knew how he occupied him self to attain
1. The biographies as weJl as the poems of (Ainir K husiu speak volumes of his deep, quiet and enduting affection founded upon his attachm ent and esteem for the K hwaja. The Khwajas kindly feeling for his disciple is disclosed by w hat he once said to Amir Khusru : I sometimes get tired of myself bu t never with you. (Siar-itl-Aiilia3, p. 302). Another time the K hw aja told Amir K h u sru : A man asked me to lay my eyes upon him as I look upon you. I kept quiet but I thought of telling him first to prove himself worthy of it. (Ibid., p. 302}.

198

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC S P IR IT

th e p ropinquity o f G od o r tb w hat lofty stations he was raisied by th e D iv in e grace. '

Sahur

W hen th e tim e cam e for Sahur, the atten d a n t used to tap th e d o o r. H e b rought dishes o f different cooked victuals b u t tile K h w aja took but a little o f these and instructed to keep them for th e ch ild ren . K h w a ja cA bdur R ah im , w ho was ch arg ed w ith this duty relates th a t sometimes th e K h w aja ate alm ost nothing a t Sahur. W hen he was requested to take a bit m o re since he h ad eaten very little a t the tim e o f I f tar, he w ould break out into tears an d say : H ow m any destitutes and poor w ould be lying h u n g ry on th e stairs an d platform s o f the m osques ? H ow cah I take all th is'w h en they a re in such a great distress. T h e food b ro u g h t to the K h w S ja for Sahur had vefy often to be taken back untouched by him .
In the Day

T hose who saw th e K h w a ja in th e m orning found his eyes re d d ish b y th e night-long vigils b u t his face would be lit up With heavenly grace, as if by an indescribable happiness o f inrie'r bliss, w ith o u t the least trace o f w eariness. N obody could say th a t th e K h w aja w ould have p erfo rm ed fo u r o r five h u n d re d r a ta ls o f p ray er in ad d itio n to th e chantings in praise o f God. Besides th e in w ard illum ination o f his purified soul, the onfy occupation th a t em ployed h im was consolation o f the hearts broken by th e tu rm o ils o f e a rth , th an w hich th ere is no nobler task. The K h w aja could be seen whole day sitting on the prayed m a t o f his spiritual guide absorbed in the ocean of Diving presence. A streiam o f visitors w hich included saints ana scholars as well as persons o f ran k a n d authority continued aU . day . T h e K h w a ja conversed w ith th em bu t he also kept himsefl in w ard ly absorbed in the contem plation o f D ivine p erfection .1
1.
Sia r-u l-A tilia 3,

pp. 125-129

L IF E SK ETCH O F XHW AJA NIZAM UD-DIN AULIA

199

A fter th e K h w aja h a d perform ed th e m id-day p ray er, th e visitors.; com ing from outside w ere called in. H is kind and com fortable w ords consoled the w earisom e hearts and instructed th e m in th e w ay o f salvation. But nobody, not even the savants and th e saved could d a re to cast th e ir eyes on the rad ia n t countenance o f th e K h w aja.
End o f the Journey

T h e K h w a ja w as o v er 80 years o f age when he h ad a prem onition th a t his jo u rn ey s end was draw ing n ear. O ne day he told his a tte n d a n ts : I saw th e P rophet in th e dream . H e said, NizSm , I am anxiously w aiting for yo u . 1 D uring his illness, th e K hw S ja gave out w arrants o f vicegerency to several disciples. T hese w ere d rafted by F ak h r udd ln Z a rrS d l a n d Copied by Saiyid H usain K irm Sni<and finally signed by th e K hw S ja. T h e d ate g iv en o n these documents being th e 20th Z ilhijja, A. H . 724, these m ust have been Written three m onths a n d twenty-seven days .before th e K hw aja breathed his last. Some* o f th e w arran ts w ere sent o u t to th e disciples for w hom they w ere m eant. T o others* th e K hw S ja granted them personally. F irst o f all Sheikh Qjutb u d -d ln M unaw w ar was asked to present him self. H e was g ran ted th e w a rra n t and a hab it o f vicegerendy an d told to offer thanksgiving prayer# In the m eantim e Sheikh ffa slr ud-dln M ahm Gd (Chirag Dehit) was also called in an d aw ard ed the robe an d th e w a n a n i. Sheikh Q u tb u d -d ln M unaw w ar was called ag ain by him a n d both w ere told to con g ratu late and em brace each other. T hen, the K hw aja said : Both o f you are. broth ers. N ever m ind who got th e w a rra n t first. * F o rty days before th e K hw S ja shared th e rew ard o f heaven ly kingdom , he atta in e d th e stage o f to tal absorption an d seemed overw helm ed by D ivine light. G iving a n eye-witness account o f the KhW ajas condition b efore he passed o n to his heavenly
1. Siar-ttl-Aulia*, p. 141

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SAVIOURS O P ISLAMIC SPIR IT

abode, M ir K h u rd sa y s: It w as F riday. T h e K hw aja seemed to be im m ersed in D ivine light. In the pray er he repeatedly prostrated as i f yielding to the g ran d eu r o f th e Suprem e Being. In th e sam e condition, he retu rn ed to his residence from the m osque. T ears continuously rolled dow n from his eyes, he occasionally passed on to ecstatic trances b u t a fte r short spells he rem arked : T o d ay it is F riday. A friend .recalls to his m in d the prom ise m ade by the friend and gets engrossed in it. In the sam e condition he often asked w hether it was tim e for the prayers and w hether he h ad perform ed it or n o t? I f he was told th a t.h e has alread y said his prayers, he replied : Let me perform it ag ain . H e continued to rem ain in this condition all th ro u g h this period. O nce he called for all th e disciples and servants present in the m onastery a n d said : All o f you shall b ea r witness on the D ay o f Ju d g em en t th a t if Iq b a l has w ithheld anything, he shall be responsible fo r it before G o d . IqbSl replied : I have kept back nothing ; everything has been given aw ay. T h e m an had actually done so an d distributed everything to the poor excepting some grains which would have sufficed for the inm ates o f the m onastery fo r a few days. M y uncle S aiy id ' H usain inform ed the K hw aja accordingly w ho angrily dem anded from I q b a l : W hy have you kept back th a t rotten d u s t? T he K h w a ja then ordered th a t th e poor an d the needy be c a lle d ., W hen they h a d gathered, he said : Break Open the store. T ake aw ay all the grain and sweep it cleaiu In a few m om ents everything was carried aw ay by the crow d. D u rin g the period o f his last illness a few disciples an d j attendants asked th e K hw aja : W h at shall be o u r lot a f t e r ) y o u r H e replied : You shall get enough to keep, your body | an d soul togeiher. A ccording to another report I heard fro m l certain reliable persons, the K hw aja was a sk e d : W ho w o u ld l be blest w ith luck am ongst us ? T hey m eant who would be t h e | K h w a ja s ch ief (spiritual successor. W hosoevers luck shoulit favour h im , was the reply given by the K h w aja. Some o f th e friends an d attendants requested m y m aternal g ra n d fa th e r

L IFE SKETCH O F KHW A IA NIZAM UD-DIN AULIA

201

Sham s u d -d in D am g h an l to tell th e K h w a ja th at a num ber o f his disciples who have built p a la tia l buildings a re desirous tOt know w here the K h w aja w ould like to have his eternal resting place. T h e K h w a ja , how ever, replied th a t instead o f having his g rav e in one o f these houses, he w ould like to be buried in a n open space. A ccordingly ,he was laid to rest in a n ope field w here Sultan M uh am m ad T u g h la q later built a cupola. F o rty days before the K h w aja died, he had left taking food .1 D uring th is period he h ated even the smell o f cookqd victuals. O nce h e w as offered a little soup o f fish b u t he said t T h ro w it aw ay in th e running w a te r.' M y uncle Saiyid H usain once said to th e K h w a ja : Y our h o nour has not taken anything fo r th e last so m any days. T h a t w ould be h a rm fu l, But the K hw S ja r e p lie d : Saiyid, how could he relish food who is anxious to m eet th e H oly Prophet ? H e hot only took n o food d u rin g these forty days but also spoke very little. A t last in th e forenoon o f th e eighteenth R ab^I ul-A khir, 725 Ai H . this spiritu al sta r shed its lustre fo r th e l a s t tim e i n d passed on to his heavenly abode. T h e funeral p ra y e r o f the K h w S ja was led by Sheikh ulIslam R u k n u d -d ln , son o f th e renow ned saint Sheikh B ah5 5 udd ln Z akariyS o f M ultan. A fter th e p ray er Sheikh R ukn u d -din o b se rv e d : N ow I know th a t fo r four long years I was d etain ed in D elhi to have th e h o nour o f leading this funeral p ra y e r. * T h e K h w a ja never m a rrie d a n d h ad no soii b u t his spiri tu a l sons in succession continued to keep alig h t th e lam p O f guidance in different p arts o f th e country.
The aversion of the Khwaja could be described as an irresistible impulse of a man iiftmened in an exalted state of (feeling and should not be taken as a rule or custom followed by other mystics. 2 / Siar-tii-Aulia^pp. 152-158 3. M arriage is not an im pedim ent to spiritual elevation, nor something looked down upon by the Shari'ah or by the mystics. T h e K h w ijas decision not to m arry was, perhaps, because o f his personal circum stances and b e n t o f w ind. I.

Ill
Character and Achievements
T h e gifts a n d talents o f K h w S ja N izam ud -d ln w ere perhaps expressed m ost concisely as w ell as meaningfully* by his spiritual guide K h w S ja F a rid ud-dln Ganjshakdr w hile conferring his vicegereney upon him . H e h ad said : G od has bestowed upon you th e gifts o f know ledge, intellect an d His, lo v e ; a n d anyone com bining these qualities is best suited to discharge the respon sibilities o f a vicegerent . 1
Sincerity o f Purpose

The essence o f his c h a ra c ter w hich enabled him to carv e out a p rid e o f place not only am ongst th e saints and sufls o f his ow n tim e, b u t also to becom e a loved an d respected personality in th e annals o f Islam a n d to g ain im m ortal fam e w as his w holehearted devotion an d th e love o f G od. HJs sterling sincerity h a d m ad e this ru lin g passion o f his h ea rt the sole object o f his earth ly existence a n d expelled all o th er desires th e longings for w ealth an d glory, th e love o f th e w orld aricl w orldly desires. H ail, O Love th a t bringest us good gain , thou a rt th e physician o f a ll o u r ills, . T h e rem edy o f o u r p rid e an d vainglory, o u r P la to an d o u r G a le n .'
1. The Mathnawi, Vol. II, p. 6, Book I, (verses 23-24)

CH A RA CTER AND AC h IEVEMENTS

203

LoVe is th a t flam e w hich, w hen it blades u p .to n su m ^ s everything else b u t th e Beloved. ' H e (the lover) drives hom e th e sw ord o f .M rtin o rd e r to kill a ll o th er th a n G o d : T h e re u p o n c o l d e r w hat rem ains a fte r N ot.1 T h e r e rem ain s except G o d : a ll th e r e s tis gone. H a il, O m ighty Love, destroyer o f polytheism.* T h e Whole life o f th e K hw Sja was spent in the sw e e t^ t strains th a t cause one to forget ones ow n self in love divine and exert a stim ulating influence over others to seek the Sublime object O^ h u m an existence. A s h e ik h 3 o f th e NizSmiyak o rd er has p erh ap s best expressed this very feeling Of ecstatic rap tu re in these verses : * N eith er a devotee, n o r a clerk in holy b rd e r, N o r yet a H afiz, n o r a zealous believer ; W ith a ll th e ills th a t m en en d u re, I w ould be a lover, T o b e sorrow -sick in th e sea o f troubles, I would clam o u r. H aving attain ed th e state o f peaceful contentm ent, the K h w a ja was alw ays careful th a t all those disciples who w ere chosen by h im to keep alight th e la m p o f his mystic ord er, expelled the liking for w ealth an d dignity from th eir hearts. O nce F aslh u d -d ln , a disciple, asked : W ho deserves to becom e th e vicegerent o f a spiritual teach er ? O n e , replied the K h w a ja , w ho is n o t a t all keen to becom e a vicegerent. * M jr K h u rd relates th a t a reputed disciple o f th e K hw S ja w ho h a d been g ra n te d th e w a rra n t o f vicegerency by him , began to p u t on airs. T h e K h w a ja becam e so displeased th a t w hen he ag ain cam e to see him , th e K hw S ja refused to speak to him
Alludes to the Q uranic verse (X X V II: 88) which says : And cry not unto any other god along with Allah. There is no God save Him. Everything will perish save His Countenance. 2. The Matfmawi, Vol. V I, p. 38, (Book V , verses 588-90) 3. M uham mad ibn Q utub (popularly known as ShSh MfnS) o f Lucknow, (d. 874 A, H .). 4. Siar-ul-Autia3, p. 345 1.

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SAVIOUR* OF ISLAMIC S P IR IT

a n d revoked his ^permission to act as his vicegerent. T h e K h w S ja forgave h im only a fte r be h a d expressed regret over his p ast behaviour. c.
Love for the Enemy

O n his way to spiritual developm ent, a devotee has to a tta in th a t stage o f selflessness, renunciation and sincerity where his h e a rt becomes free from all em otions o f liatred and revenge a n d al] desires to cause d am ag e o r h u rt to anyone. H e is then not sim ply hum ane a n d c o rd ia l to his friends but also develops a genuine kindliness o f h e a rt even for those w ho are hostile to h im . Iij fact, he then supplicates for the prosperity and hap p i ness o f his enemies as if th e hostility against him is a favour conferred upon h im for w hich he ought to express his heart-felt g ratitu d e. A m ir A la* S ajazi relates th a t once the, K hw aja. rem arked in his presence : W hoever m akes my h e art b lefd , w ould th a t G od blest him m o re ! T h e re a fter the K h w a ja recited a coup let w hich m e a n t: T horns w ho sows in m y way out o f ill-will. M ay his flower o f life blossom w ithout a prickle !* A certain person whose nam e was J h a jju , says ^K hw aja N a slr u d -d ln , lived in H isar In d ra p a t n ea r G hiyathpur. F o r n othing he bore m alice against th e K h w a ja and spared no effort to abuse a n d get h im in to tr o u b le ., W hen he d ied, the K hw aja n ot only atten d ed h is fun eral but also offered two rafcats o f p ra y e r o n his grave an d prayed thus for him : O G od, I have forgiven h im for w hatever ill he m ig ht have thought o r done to m e. D o not punish h im o n m y ac c o rd . 1 O nce, some o f his disciples told th e K hw aja : T h e re are a few persons w ho accuse you publicly an d even from the pulpit o f th e m osque. I t becom es difficult for us to keep quiet on these occasions. T h e K h w a ja replied, I have forgiven all o f them . Y ou too should d o th e sam e a n d never pick up a q u a rre l w ith
1. Siar-td-Qrifin

C H A R A C T ER AND ACHIEVEMENTS

th e m . T h e re a fte r he a d d e d , I f th e re is a feud bet w ^ e n i& o persoAs, th e surest w ay to p u t an end to it'is th a t one o f the two should dism iss th e feeling o f resentm ent from his h e a rt. A fter all, why shotlid anybody feel ill o f being called nam es by another person. D oes riot th e adage riin : T h e prop erty o f the Sufi is a public tru st an d th e spilling o f his blood perm issible to all I T h e n w hy should one q u a rre l m erely for callin g nam es ? T h e K h w a ja used to tell his disciples th a t th e practice folloWfed by th e com m onalty was to be kindly to th e good an d to rep ay th e b a d in th e Same coin b u t th e convention o f the m en o f G od was to re p a y e v e n evil With a k in d deed. O nce he said, I f som eone puts a tftotfnin you*- Way a n d you to o do th e sam e, th e Whole p a th Will soon h e litte re d w ith thorns. A w ell-known proverb runs : Be a friend o f th e good an d .tq tb f w icke^ a f o e ; b u t th e custom o f th e mystics is to b e k in d to th e frien d as Well as to n tfife * f e e ." * T h e K h w a ja V m o tto w as even still h ig h er. H e u sed to say : I t is b a d to speak ill, b u t to seek ill is even Worse. 8 It is n o t difficult tO conceive th e loving kindness th a t a m an With such a ru le of*conduct h a d fo r th e descendants a n d rela tives Of his OWri Sheikh. T h e a u th o r o f Siar-ul-2rifin relates th a t once K h w a ja cA ta 5 U llah , th e s o n o f Sheikh N ajib u d -d ln s d au g h te r, asked K h w a ja N iz tm u d -d ln to w rite a letter to a c ertain g ran d ee asking h im io h elp *Ata 5 U lla h w ith some m oney. T h e K h w S ja p leaded his inability on th e g round thiat h e w as not a t a ll acq u ain ted w ith th e ch ief n o r h ad ' th a t m an ever visited h im . A tS 5 U lla h got a n ry a n d gave loose to the tongue o f s la n d e r against him . H ow ever, thfe K h w S ja d id not allow A ta 5 U llah to go aw ay displeased w ith h im and offered som e m oney to pacify h i m /

1. 2. S. 4.

Fawa Hd-ul-FuwSd, p. 95 Ibid., p. 87 Siar-ul-Autia*, p. 554 Siar-ul-t/lriftn

206 Concealing Other s Faults

SAVIOUR? OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

, M ir K l u u d r e p o m th a t. persons p a y in g . a ' yit,.l| 0! .the KLb,waja used to bring som e present P r sweety to offer a? , f g ift t<a him* w hich wfire pollected by th e .attendants and distribute^ am ong th,e, v,i$itors n4 iijnoates o f the njpnastery, O nce a reli gious scholar, bro u g h t a packet ^ f du?t and put it alongside the gifts b ro ug h t by others. H e h a d presum ed th a t the K hw 5ja, w h e n ev er car,ed to know w hat was b rought by whom , w ould n o t discover his. ru$$, After, a , w h ile ,th e K h w a ja s atten d an t cam e to collect th e gifts but the K h w a ja asked him to leave th a t p a rtic u la r packet, sa y in g ; I^ e a v e ij: here. T his antim pn)! is m e a n t for m y . eyes. T h e $ e 0 ^ i ^ ; j i p ^ < g i i a |t e l y apologised * fo r putting h im to test a n d enlistee^ h im self aityong. his dispiples.J

A ffection ate K in d n ess

1 '
' t l'il

'
" >J 'O . : ' .

; T o w ard s th e hum anity, a t la rg e , a n d th e M uslim s a n d those w ho w ere in any way; connected to h jm , in partipular^ the K h w S ja h a d such a deep a n d kindly feeling w hich, it wo^tld.not be ex aggeration to say, m easured .-up to affection o f a m o th er fo r h e r ch ild ren . Of, a fact, a ll those w h o are perfect in faith in h e rit th e P ro p h e ts solicitude a n d c a re f o r ih e hum anity thus p o rtray ed in th e w ords o f G od : , ? ,t h T h e re h a th c0?e im to you a m es6 Bger J (offe), o f yourselves, unto w hqpi, a u g h t th a t ye a re Qyserbvrdened is ; . grievous, full o f <;owern for, you, for $he believers full o f pity, m erciful . 1 ,, , ;> T o be Jcind, gentle an d consid erate w ith others is seally to foUqwim Jhe footsteps o f th e P rophet w ho h a d bpen enjoined th u s by G od ; fe , . T A nd low er thy w ing (in kiqdness) unto those believers w ho follow th ee. A kindly affection, deep, ten d er an d constant, going

1. Suar-ul-AuliV, p. 142 2. Q,. I X -.128 3. f t . X X V I: 215

C H A R A C T ER AND ACHIEVEM ENTS

207

out to o th er h u m an beings im p arts such a feeling o f oneness and sp iritu al -affinity th a t the pleasure an d pain o f others is directly felt by th e h e a rt o f th e person developing such a ten d e r affection. A m ir H asan A la 1 SajazS relates th at once, in a g ath erin g w hich was being ad dressed by the K h w aja , a few persons w ere sitting in the sun. T h e 'K hw aja stopped his discourse to say, B rothers, com e closer so th a t those sitting in th e sun m ay ,g et a p lace in shade. T hey a re sitting in the sun bu t I am getting b u rn t . 1 * O nce th e K h w a ja quoted some one, perhaps to refer indi rectly to his ow n feelings, who h a d s a id : G o d s creation takes <food before m e a n d I find it going dow n m y ow n throat* as i f I a m m yself eatin g th e sam e . 2 A m ir H a sa n tells one o f his own experiences. H e once paid a n untim ely visit to the K h w a ja . H e h ad actually com e, as h e h im self says* to see som e o f his relatives b u t h e d id not like to re tu rn w ith o u t m eeting th e K h w a ja even though it was an ill-tim ed visit. H e w ent an d told th e K h w a ja how h a d he com e a t a tim e ill-suited to him . T h e K h w aja replied, You d id w ell. A lthough th e etiquette requires th a t one should not visit a Sheikh b efo re ishraq in th e m orn in g a n d a fte r 'asr in the evening* b u t I d o n t follow these rules. A nyone m ay com e a t any tim e he likes. *
Solicitude for Others

T h o se w ho h av e attain ed the stage o f sp iritual perfection expel a ll p e rso n a l cares a n d anxieties from th e ir h earts but the w elfare o f h u m a n ity alw ays keeps th em vexed a n d w orried : like a frien d w ho sticketh closer th a n b ro th e r, they a re friend o f a ll in th e w o rld . O nce a c e rta in mystic said to K h w 9 ja S h a ra f ud-dln* th a t K h w aja N izam u d -d m h a d no cares to tro u b le his m ind, neither
1. Faiua> id-ui-Fuwid, p. 91 2. Siar-til-AuliV, p. 77 3. FuiciPd-ul-FuwSd, Vol. 1, p. 96 4. Grandson of a famous mystic, K hw ija N aslr ud-dln Chirdgh D M

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SAVIOURS O F IS L A M IC S P IR IT

a w ife n o r ch ild re n whose well-being could stir his h e a rt or w o rry his h e a d a b o u t them . S h a ra f u d -d in w ent d irect from th e re to th e K h w aja but before he could m ention it to him , th e K h w S ja s a id : S h a ra f u n -d in , the choking disq u iet I c a rry in m y h e a rt is o f a n intensity h a rd ly felt by anybody else. W hosoever com es to m e tells his problem s w hich makes m e extrem ely sad . H e is really heartless who does not feel the pinch o f his b ro th e rs w orries. V erily th e sincere a re faced w ith d an g ers g r e a t ! N ow you c a n u n d erstan d w hy those who a re n e a re r (to G od) rem ain asto u n d ed . * T o th e Khw&ja th e g reatest v irtu e w hich could help one to receive th e L ight-D ivine w as to cheer a n d please a believer an d to m itig ate his sufferings.. A u th o r o f StatrulrAulta1 reports w hat th e K h w a ja once said : I n a d re a m I w as given a book. I t w as w ritte n in it th a t as fa r as possible one should console th e d istre sse d ; fo r, th e h e a rt o f a b eliever is th e repository o f d iv in e , secrets. Som e body h as w ell said : O f th e living -beings, d e ad en th e p a i n ; A n d have th e d a y s b re a d for the po o r a n d th e . t forlorn. O n a n o th e r occasion th e K h w a ja s a i d : O n the D ay o f R eckoning n o th in g shall be m ore valued th a n th e w ords, Sind a n d com fo rtab le, consideration a n d solace extended to th e w or ried h e a rts . 2
Attachm ent to Children

T h e K h w a ja , am iab le by n a tu re , h a d a ready affection an d kindliness for child ren . H is pre-occupations w ith th e visitors an d d evotional exercises left him little spare tim e, b u t he always found som e tim e to c h eer up th e children. H e took p artic u lar c a re to k*ok a fte r th e ir req uirem ents. R a f cs u d -d ln w as th e g ran d so n o f th e K h w S jas sister. T h e K h w S ja alw ays aw aited his a rriv a l before he started tak in g
1.

Siar-ut-*Ariftn
Siar-ul-Aulia1, p . 128

2.

CH A RA CTER AND ACHIEVEMENTS

209

his m eals no m atter who was present a t the repast. T h e K hw Sja always took special care for his education a n d m oral guidance .1 R a fci u d -d ln was fond o f w restling, archery and swim m ing. T h e K h w aja chatted w ith him about these sports to gladden and encourage h im .2 O ften the young visitors cam e to the K h w aja sm artly dress ed w hich was disliked by the orthodox because o f the airiness o f such dresses. T h e K hw aja, how ever, never objected and received them courteously a n d endeavoured to guide them on the path o f m oral rectitude. T h e au th o r o f Sior-ul-Aulia * , M ir K h u rd , says th a t once his uncle S aiyid H usain K irm an I, who was then a young m an, was fashionably dressed w hen he p aid a visit to th e K hw aja. T he K h w aja , on seeing him , said p o lite ly : Com e on Saiyid, sit dow n here an d share th e benediction . 3 T h e benign an d winsome treatm en t o f th e young by K hw Sja N izam u d -d ln helped m any a young m en to shake off undue exuberance an d gaity an d take to righteous living and spiritual developm ent. T h e K h w a ja s loving h eart an d sweet disposition had m ade his m anners so am iable an d pleasing th a t one is rem inded o f the findings o f al-G hazali after years o f w anderings to find the path o f T ru th an d certitu d e o f knowledge. I learn t from a sure source th a t the sufxs are th e true pioneers on th e p a th o f G o d ; th a t th ere is nothing m ore beautiful th a n th e ir life, n o r m ore praisew orthy th an th eir rule o f conduct, nor p u re r than th e ir m orality. T he intel ligence o f the thinkers, th e w isdom o f the philosophers, the know ledge o f th e m ost learned doctors o f th e law w ould in vain com bine th e ir efforts in o rd e r to m odify o r im prove their doctrine an d m o ra ls ; it w ould be impossible. W ith th e sufxs,

1. Siar-ul~Aulia?, p. 203 2. Ibid., p. 203 3. Ibid., p. 203

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repose an d m ovem ent, exterior o r interior, are illum inated w ith th e lig h t w hich proceeds from th e R adiance o f Prophethood. A nd w hat other light could shine on the face o f the ea rth . 1

1. Al-Munqidh, p. 101 (Confessions of Al-GhazSli, p. 54)

IV
Natural Affection
T h e p ith an d m arro w o f K h w aja N izam u d -d ln s life and ch ara cter, w hich illu m in ated his in n er self and inspired his m oral zeal, was th e ferv o u r o f spiritu al love arising from the harm ony o f his soul. T h e flam e o f th is love w hich he carried in his self from th e very beginning b u rst into a ra d ia n t glow in ' the p ractice o f sp iritu al austerities u n d er th e p atern al guidance o f his Sheikh an d g u id e K h w a ja F arid -u d -d In Ganjshaknr and illum inated the environs o f D elhi for m ore th a n h a lf a century. T he K h w a ja s elevated soul w hich h a d reached the highest degree o f sanctity, diffused the message o f d iv in e love to the four corners o f the cou n try and com forted in n u m erable roving spirits. H is whole life, his conversations a n d discourses and his devotional an d ecstatic practices point out unm istakably to the sam e in fatu atio n an d innerm ost w arm th o f divine love w hich has been th u s describ ed by I q b a l : A t last th e flam es burst forth from every h a ir o f m e, F ire d ro p p ed from th e veins o f m y th o u g h t . 1 As re la te d in th e Fawai1d-ul-Fuwad, once the d eathbed accounts o f different m ystics w ere being n a rra te d before the K h w aja. Som eone told th e story o f a sheikh w ho h a d the nam e o f G od on his lips w hile sinking in th e jaw s o f d eath . O n the
1. Asrar-i-Khttdi. p. 68 (T ranslation by Nicholson, p. 145)

2 12

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC S P IR IT

edge o f tears, th e K h w aja recited th e verse w hich m e a n t: W ashing my cheeks w ith stream ing te a r s ; I set my foot to d ra w n e a r ; U n io n w ith T h e e I ard en tly aspire, H um m in g T h y n am e, I go to d eathly slum ber.1 Such was th e all-consum ing love cherished by the K hw aja. I t h a d expelled every o th er d esire from his h e a rt as some one h as said : th e h e a rts im m o rtal th irst rem ained a n d th e rest w ent u p in smoke ! T h e jo y fu l ex h ilaratio n o f divine love kept the K hw S ja alw ays fresh an d beam ing w ith rad iance in spite o f n ig h t long vigils. E ven w hen he h a d grow n quite o ld, he continuously kept fasts a n d und erto o k exhausting devotional exercises b u t no tra c e o f w eariness could be seen on his face. H e lived to the rip e old age exceeding eighty years, b u t even in th a t advanced age he was alw ays brisk, ch eerfu l an d fresh as a daisy .2
M usical Recitations

But th e flam e o f love also stirs th e blood w hich th e n needs th e-so o th in g b alm o f lyrics sung in praise o f G o d .2 A h e a rt inflam ed by th e love o f G od gets an opportunity to shed tears

1. 2. 3.

Fawi i}d~ul-FuwBd, p. 80 Siar-ul-Aulia*, p. 128 M uch has been w ritten in favour and against musical recitations (songs unaccompanied by musical instrum ents) but the middle course appears to be that it is neither a must for devotional exercises nor absolutely unlawful. I f recourse is taken to it with moderation and within certain limits, it acts as a means of spiritual upliftm ent. A well-known Sheikh of the Chishtiyah order, QSzl H am id ud-din NSgauri has shed light on musical recitations in these words : I am H am id ud-dln. I listen to these recitations and hold them lawful for the jurists have also held % similar opinion. I suffer from the pangs of love and musical recitation is a balm for it. ImSm Abu H anifa lias allowed the use o f wine when in the opinion of a com petent physician it is the only medicine to save ones life. My ailm ent too is incurable except w ith the auditions extoll ing the glory o f God and therefore these are oermissible for m e bull unlawful for you {Siar-id-Aqtab)

N A TU RAL A FFEC TIO N

213

an d pacify its consum ing passion th ro u g h these recitations while the tiresom eness o f exhausting devotional exercises is cast aw ay by ex h ilaratin g love songs. T h is is th e reason given by J a la l u d -d ln ROmI too in these verses T h erefo re samca (music) is th e food o f lovers (o f G od), since th erein is th e phantasy o f com posure (tran q u illity o f m ind) FrOm (hearing) sounds an d pipings th e m ental p h a n ta sies g ath er a (g reat) strength ; nay, they becom e form s (in th e im agination). T h e fire o f love is m ade keen (inflam ed) by m elodies, ju st as th e fire (ard o u r) o f th e m a n w ho dropped w alnuts (into th e w a te r ) .1 Alm ost th e sam e reason has also been given by th e K h w a ja in support o f these recitals. H e says : T h e m usical recitations a re fo r th e seekers o f tru th , the faithful an d th e devotees who a re given to ard u o u s orisons and vigils. T hey have verily a rig h t to soothe th e ir ag itated hearts and tired bodies (to reg ain the lost strength). T h e P rophet has said th a t your ow n body has a claim over you .5 T hus, when the self is refresh ed th ro u g h these recitals, it again gets, busy in its labour o f love . 2 M au lan a K ash an f, another auth o rity on the subject, says : Assiduous contem plations an d exercises rew ard ed w ith ecstatic transpo rts an d illum inations often becom e burdensom e to the trav eller w ho feels a p a in fu l lack o f strength resulting from the long and continued strain . T his gives rise to a lte rn a te condi tions know n as co n tritio n an d rad ia n c e in his spiritual ascent. T h a t is w hy th e m ystics o f old have prescribed m usical recita tions the m elodies o f harm onious voice to retouch the spirit ual vigour p ro v id ed , o f course, these do not overstep the lim its set by the la w . 3

1. The Mathnawi, Vol. IV , p. 313 (Book IV , veres 742-74) 2. Siar-ul-Aulia?, p. 198 3. Misbah-ul-Hidayet, p. 141

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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC S P IR IT

T h e mystics also m ain tain th a t these recitations help the trav eller on his p a th an d illum ine an d revivify his spirit. T h e K h w aja, how ever, never took the m usical recitations as an aid to o r on indispensable p a rt o f devotional exercises. H e occasionally took recourse to them simply as a spiritual nourishm ent. D elineating the essential requisites o f a lawful recitatio n he s a y s : Sam'-a (m u 'ical recitation) is o f four types, viz, law ful, pro h ib ited , unbecom ing an d perm issible. I f the listener is inclined m ore to the P rim al Being, the recital is perm issible; if he is m ore a ttra c te d to a finite being, it is unbecom ing ; if he is exclusively absorbed in a m ortal being, it is prohi bited ; but it is law ful if the tru e love in which the listener is engrossed is none but A lm ighty G od. T herefore, w ho soever is fond o f such recitations ought to be aw are o f these four categories. F o r a law ful recitation there are few pre-requisites too. First, the songster, secondly the listener, thirdly, the recitation, a n d fourthly the m usical instrum ents. Th.e singer should be a grow n up m an, neither ,of tender age nor a w om an ; the listener should hearken w ith his thoughts fixed on G od ; th e recitation should not deal with a subject ludicrous, frivolous or s illy ; an d finally, no m usical instru m ent like a lute o r violin should accom pany the recita tio n . 1 . T h e K h w a ja not only disliked instrum ental music but also fo rb ad e its use by his disciples. N o r d id he accept any excuse if any follower ever indulged in the u n authorised practice. T h e K h w aja was once inform ed th a t a few friars had attended and w hirled in an auditio n em ploying instrum ental music. T h e K h w a ja said, T hey d id n o t d o w ell. W hatsoever transgresses th e lim its o f the Shancah is un law fu l. W hen the K h w a ja was told o f th e plea taken by th e m endicants th a t in the ecstatic rev erie they h a d so ab an d o n ed th e ir selves th a t they becam e
1. Siar-ul-Aulia3, pp. 491-92

NATURAL A FFEC TIO N

2 15

com pletely oblivious o f th e m usical instrum ents, he observed : T his is no excuse. T h is plea can be a d v an ced for indulging in every vice . 1 T he K h w aja once told his disciples : T h e use o f m usical instrum ents being a m eans o f am usem ent is strictly prohibited. H ow could it be law ful w hen w om en in a co ngregational prayer a re prohibited even to clap th e ir hands in o rd e r to rem in d the Im am , if he com m its a m istake in th e recitation o f the Q u r a n ? 2
Ecstatic Transports

T h e K h w aja often used to say th a t a single verse was sufficient to m ove a m an w ith unsullied h e a rt to tears and ecstasy b u t noth in g could ex h ilarate a spiritless fellow .3 W hen ever a verse p raisin g G od was recited before th e K h w aja he was en rap tu red b u t in a w ay th a t nobody could notice it. D uring these rap tu ro u s states only tears used to roll dow n his cheeks.* M ir K h u rd has quoted a few verses w hich, on different occasions, sent th e K h w aja into ecstatic transports. H e says th a t often a whole poem could not p roduce th a t ra p tu ro u s exaltation w hich was caused by a single P ersian o r H in d i verse. O nce a g ran d ee, A m ir Q a irb e k , held a recitatio n al sitting w hich was atte n d ed by several nobles an d m ystics. T h e songster sang the v e rs e : H a rd p u t to toil I am , w ithin m y shanty hom e ; G ive n o t tongue to m y t a l e ; let alone. N o sooner th a n th e verse was recited, th e K hw S ja was c a rrie d aw ay by a deep em otion a n d tears began to roll dow n his cheeks w hich set th e w hole g ath erin g in a m elting m ood. A no th er tim e, alth o u g h the K h w a ja w as indisposed he was

1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

Siar-ul-Aulia3, pp. 520-21 Ibid., p . 522 Ibid., p . 522 Ibid., p . 5. Ibid., p . 514

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SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC S P IR IT

sent in to tra n sp o rt w hen H asan B eh d l recited the verse : O w ithout a figure indeed, Saca d i thou a rt, T oo p oor a catch w here th e trapped a re pure in h eart. T h e re c ita tio n en ded, a n d th e.K h w aja calm ed dow n. But as soon as A m ir H a jl1 began an o th er ode o f A m ir K husru, the K h w aja a g a in dissolved in tears.2 O n ce A m ir K husrQ recited one o f his odes whose opening verse was : H e stood unveiled to all, but asked m e not to behold ; T h rille d an d lost, I knew not w hat his words co n tained. T h e K h w aja gave a side-long look a t A m ir K husru and th e n b roke into tears falling into rap tu ro us ecstasy.3 W h ich ev er ode o r verse p roduced the consum ing em otion o f ecstasy in K h w aja N izam u d -d ln becam e instantly popular in D elhi as a household w o rd .4 I t is related th a t Sultan 'A la udd ln K h iljl h a d given instructions to his co urtiers to inform him o f the verses w hich caused th e K h w aja to fall in raptures. T he K in g d eriv ed pleasure w henever these verses w ere related to him .

R ecita l o f th e Q iiran
T h e in im itab le sym phony o f th e Q u r an h a d always been th e greatest sourcc o f delight to the sheikhs o f Chishtiyah ord er w ho show ed keen interest in its m em orisation an d recital. F rom K h w aja M o1in u d -d ln C h ish ti to K h w aja N izam u d -dln, every Sheikh b a d e his disciples to learn , recite a n d study the holy Scripture.4 W h ile vesting K h w aja N izam u d -d ln w ith the robe o f vicegerency, his m entor h a d instructed h im to com m it the Q u ran to his h e a rt a n d th e K h w aja fulfilled th e wish o f his, teacher a t
1. Son of Amir KhusrQ 2. Siar-ul-Aulii1, p. 515 3. Ibid., p. 516 4. Ibid., 510 5. N iz a m -i-T 'a lh n , Vol. II, p. 12

N ATU KAL AFFKCTIOK

217

the earliest opportunity on reaching Delhi. Likewise, the Khw&ja called upon his closer associates ajjd disciples to do the same. When Amir Hasan Ala* Sajazi took the oath of fealty to the KhwSja, he was quite an elderly man, and poetry had remained his favourite pursuit throughout his life. The Khwaja instructed him to let the Q uran take precedence Over his poetic zeal. Amir H asan1Ala1 Sajazi says in Fawa?id-ul-Fuwad : I have repeatedly heard the Sheikh saying that the recitation of the Q uran ought to throw into shade the eagerness to compose poetry. 1 When Amir Hasan Ala* Sajazi had learnt one third of the Q uran by heart, the Khwaja instructed him to memorise the Quranic verses in small portions and continue repeating what he had already learnt.* Khwaja Muhammad had been placed under the tutelage of the Khwaja by his father Badr ud-din Ishaq. The Khwaja got him to learn the Q uran by heart. He recited the Q uran so sweetly that the Khwaja appointed him to lead the congrega tional prayers.3 Khwaja MOsa, brother of Khwaja Muhammad was also a hUfiz as well as a g irl. Before the Khwaja began his meals the two brothers used to recite a portion of the Q uran by way of Table Prayer (D ifa-i-M aPdah) S The Khwaja also got his daughters sons to memorise the Q u ran and used always to enquire about the progress made by them.5
Love for his Spiritual Guide

Every man inclined to be grateful has always a warm and friendly feeling towards his benefactor, but the Khwaja was affectionately devoted to his Sheikh who had guided and groomed him to attain interior illumination and spiritual
1. Faw&id-ul-Fuuad, p. 249 2. Ibid., p. 93 3. Siar-ul-Aulia*, p. 200 4. Ibid., p. 99. The prayers before meals is, however, not prescribed by the Shari'ah. 5. Ib id ., p. 203

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SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

em inence. T his devoted attach m en t always rem inded him o f K h w aja F a rid u d -d jn w henever an y verse recited before him h in ted a t a person d e a r to ones h eart. O nce, w hen K hw aja F a rid u d -d ln was still alive, a songster recited the verse in the presence o f K hw aja N izam u d -d ln . In this m an n er stroll ye n o t ; T h a t evil eye one m ight cast. T h e K h w aja says th a t th e verse recalled to his m ind the qualities a n d virtues, excellence an d equipose o f his Sheikh so vividly th a t he a^ked the songster to go on repeating the same verse for some tim e. R elatin g this story tearfully on a subse quent occasion, th e K h w aja a d d ed w ith a sigh : But, alas, it was not long after this incident th at m y Sheikh left this w orld.1
Watchful attention to Religious Observances

N o m a tte r how weak, indisposed o r tire d owing to strenu ous exercises th e K hw aja was, he Was always extrem ely careful to p erfo rm obligatory prayers alongw ith the congregation. It has1 been related in Siar-ul-Aulid? th a t even w hen he had crossed his eightieth y ear he regularly cam e dow n from his ap a rtm e n t on the first storey for all the five congregational prayers along w ith the m endicants and disciples who happened to be present th ere. In spite o f his old age an d feeble body he fasted d aily a n d ate very little. 2 T h e K h w aja attach ed g reat im portance to the Sunnah and always enjoined upon his com panions and disciples to observe the practices o f th e Prophet w ith utm ost care. M ir K h u rd has recorded th e K h w ajas instructions to his disciples w herein he told them : O ne should follow th e P rophets Sunnah steadfastly an d staunchly aiid should never let go even the practices occa sionally followed by the holy P ro p h et. 3

1. FaiviPid-ul-Faw'ad, p. 96 2. S ia r-u l-A iilid 3, p. 125 3. Ib id ., p. 318

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219

T h e K h w aja considered it essential for every spiritual guide to be thoroughly well up in T rad itio n s an d the ju ristic laws so th a t he m ay n eith er act nor cause others to act against the prac tices o f th e P ro p h et.1

1.

F aw & id -u l-F u u ta d ,

p. 147

V
Learning and Spirituality
K h w a ja N izam ud-dxn h a d not only a tta in e d the state of exalted spirituality but h a d also acq u ired proficiency in religious sciences w hich he h ad studiously learn t from some o f the em inent doctors o f his tim e. H e h a d studied literature and theology u n d e r M ustaufi-ul-M am alik M au lan a Sham s u d -d ln K h w a rz a m l, T rad itio n s u n d er M au lan a K am a l ud -d ln Z ahid M u h am m ad ibn A h m ad M a rlk a ll an d , finally, gone over some books u n d e r th e guidance o f Sheikh F a rid u d -d ln Ganjshakra. O ne o f his teachers, A hm ad M a rlk a ll h ad received instruction from th e au th o r o f Mashariq-ul-Anwar, Sheikh A hm ad ibn M u h am m ad as-Saghanl.
Literary Pursuits

T h e K h w a ja s disposition as well as the guidance o f his Murshid th e spiritu al g u id eset h im to seek the in ner content o f th e religious observances in o rd e r to raise his religious experience to a h ig h e r p lan e o f consciousness a n d p u rp o se; still, he never lost his interest in intellectual an d literary pursuits till his last b re a th . M ir K h u rd has m entioned in Siar-ul-Aulid? th a t M a u la n a R u k n ud-dln m a d e out th e copies o f Kashsliaf and Mufassal a n d a few o th er books fo r th e K h w a ja .1 Both these books w ere w ritten by th e w ell-know n M u ctazilite doctor
1. Siar-ul-Aulia*, p. 217

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Mahmud Ja r ullah Zamakhsharl (d. 538 A. H .) ; the first one being on exegesis and the other on syntax, which speak of the Jiterary interests of the Khwaja. The author of Siar-ul-Aulia3 also relates that the Khwaja used to listen to the recitation of Khamia-P-Nizamx by Saiyid KhSmosh ibn Saiyid Muhammad Kirmani.1 The famous Persian poet Amir KhusrQ, known as t h e Sugar Tongued Parrot of India had the honour of being guided by the Khwaja in his poetic compositions. In the beginning Amir KhusrQ used to submit his poems to the Khwaja for correction and improvement. Once the Khwaja advised him to rhyme his verses in the style of Saphahanls.2
Traditions and Jurisprudence

The speech delivered by the KhwSja in the court of Sult&n Ghiyath ud-dln Tughlaq on the question of musical recitations illustrates his deep insight and extensive knowledge of the subject under dispute. The six authoritative books of Traditions, known as Sihtkus-Sttlah, had not become prevalent in the northern India prior to Sheikh Abdul Haq Muhaddith Dehlavi (d. 1052 A. H.J nor were the doctors of religion then aware of the books comprising even the Sahihain. MasKariq-ul-AnuiUr and Mishkat alone were then regarded as the two most authoritative dissertations on the subject.8 Numerous apocryphal and spurious Traditions were then extant and freely used by the mystics and preacher* as could be seen from their utterances preserved in the biographi cal literature of the time. The canons evolved for the acceptance or rejection o f the Traditions were also not known to the religious scholars of the country before Muhammad Tahir Patnl (d. 986 A. H.) But the biographies and discourses of the Khwaja bespeak of his profound knowledge of the Sahihain for he never argued on the basis of any disputed or unauthorised
1. Siar-ul-AuliS*, p. 219 2, Ibid., 301 S. F or details see ThuqdJat-il-Islomiyah fil-Hind

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T rad itio n prevalent am ongst the mystics o f his tim e. O nce, on being asked w hether the saying : A generous person is a frien d o f G od even if he be an u n b eliev er was a T ra d itio n o r not, the K h w aja re p lie d : T h is is an a d a g e . T h e en q u irer persisted u p o n saying th a t he h a d re a d it in a book on T r a d i tions but th e K h w aja re p lie d : W hatever is in Sahihain is au th en tic. 1
Significance o f Knowledge

T h e acquisition an d im p artin g o f know ledge w as highly com m ended by K hw aja N izam u d -d ln ; for, like th e precursors o f Chishtiyah o rd e r, he considered it a n essential, pre-requisite for those w hom he com m issioned io r p reaching an d guiding the people on th e p a th o f spirituality. A n intelligent and capable young m an hailing from Bengal, w ho la te r shined as Sheikh S iiaj u d -d in o f the Chishtiyah m onastery o f Pandw a, cam e from L ak n auti w ith th e intention o f u n itin g in th e bond o f spiritu al p atern ity w ith the K hw Sja. A fter he h a d taken th e oath o f fealty, the K h w aja said to M au la n a F a k h r u d -d in Z a r r a d I : T h is young m an seems to be capable but i f he could also go in for learn ing, he w o u ld becom e a com petent f r ia r . M a u la n i Z a rra d l o btained perm ission to teach th e young m a n fo r som e tim e a n d very soon he was able
I Faw&id-ul-Fuwady p. 103. I t may be m entioned here' that the Khwfija was undoubtedly aware o f the m erit and worth o f Sahihain but the two books comprising it being then not included in the curriculum o f Indian educational institutions, were generally not studied by the doctors of religion. Some of the Traditions cited by the KhwSja in support of musical recitations during th e ' debate held by SultSn Ghiyfith ud-dln Tughlak, are not to be found in the Sahihain, nor are they considered of unimpeachable authority by the Traditionisfs. The speeches o f the con tending doctors in t^at debate show even greater ignorance of the science of Traditions. Ignorance of the Sihah-us-Sitlak and the canons framed for their evaluation had given rise to many un-Islamic practices in the monasteries of the th e n mystics of India. This, by the way, testifies to the great service rendered by the Traditionists of India in revivifying the true co n te n t o f faith in thecountry.

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to create in his disciple the desire for fu rth e r education. A fter the K h w ajas d eath S iraj u d -d ln continued his studies a t D elhi before retu rn in g to his hom e town to diffuse th e spiritual m ission o f th e Chishtiyah Order in Bengal an d the eastern provinces.1
The Perfect Knowledge

T h e K h w aja being well schooled in th e theological sciences was able to occupy him self fru itfully w ith contem plations an d investigations o f tru e know ledge concealed to all b u t those illum in ated by th e D ivine grace. T h is com prehension acq u ired th ro u g h in tu itio n a n d inspiration is know n by th e mystics as the perfect o r intuitive know ledge. T h e a u th o r o f Siar-ul-AuliH? states th a t w henever any u n certain ty p ertain in g to any question lingered unresolved, th e K h w aja clarified th e issue as if th ro u g h his in n er lustre w hich satisfied ev ery m in d . H e alw ays gave such a convincing reply th a t everyone w as am azed a n d h a d to a,dmit th a t such a reply could be given only by one endow ed w ith th e in terio r sp irit o f piety. N um erous scholars o f th e day a n d doctors o f religion w ho w ere know n fo r th e ir opposition to th e p a th o f m ysticism h a d u ltim ately to repent for th e ir vainglory a n d enlist them selves am ong th e disciples o f the K h w aja.2

T h e P ath o f S h a r ja h
W ith bis eru d itio n coupled w ith th e zeal to follow th e way o f th e P rophet, th e K h w a ja h a d developed th t sense w hich guided h im to reject all th e irreligious practices prevalent am ong th e m ystics o f his day. T h e doctrines o f th e th e n su jis d e p a rt ing from th e p u re faith w ere n ever accepted by him how soever sacrosanct they m ig h t have been considered by others. A m isguided b elief th e n com m only h eld by th e s ufis was th a t waljlyat o r sainthood signified a stage h igher th a n the
1, Siar-ul-t&rifin, p. 12

2. Siar-ul-Aulia1, p . 130

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p ro p h eth o o d , fo r, th e fo rm er developed a continuous absorption in th e contem plation o f D ivine Essence w hile th e latte r re q u ire d a tem p o rary recession from devoted a ttra c tio n 'to G od for purposes o f p reach in g an d im p artin g guidance to th e m ankind. Some o f th e m ystic sects even w ent a step fu rth e r to claim th a t every wall o r saint was g ifted w ith a h ig h er spiritual m erit th a n a p rophet. K h w aja, how ever, never subscribed to- these views a n d , as reco rd ed by th e a u th o r o f FawaPd-ul-FuwSd, he o b se rv e d : T h is is a n irreligious belief. Even though the prophets had to devote a p a rt o f th e ir tim e to th e guid ance o f hum anity, a fraction o f th e ir devotion to th e Suprem e Being c a rrie d infinitely g reater m e rit th a n th e life-long absorption o f the mystics in the love o f G o d , 1
Spiritual Development

A m isconceived b u t p o p u la r notion about m ysticism is th a t it req u ires renunciation o f th e w orld for it reg ard s every m u n d an e a ffair a snare and a glitter o f th e deceptive w orld w hich lets fall a veil o f ignorance before th e eyes o f the a ttra c t ed tra v e lle r. But th e K h w aja h ad atta in e d th a t stage o f in w ard illu m in atio n w hich h a d lifted h im above th e external features o f th e devotional observances o f th e mystics and opened to his view th e real significance o f every act law ful in the eyes o f the S harfak. W e a re indebted to th e collectanea o f K h w a ja Saiyid M u h a m m a d G esu D a ra z who has quoted th e observation o f the K h w S ja N izam u d -d ln on the s u b je c t: N othing (m ade) law ful

1.

Fawd}id-ul-FuwSd, p. 120. Sheikh Ahmad Sarhindi (d. 1034 A. H.) commorily known as M ujaddid Alf-i-Thani (the Renovator of the Second M illennium ) has further elucidated the point that even when the prophets have to turn their attention to the human beings their interior self rem ains absorbed in the ocean of Divine wisdom more than thesaints do during theperiod of Godly attraction. Explaining the reason for it he says that the prophets direct their attention to the human beings in pursuance of the Divine command to convey His message to the hum anity and* th<rcfcre, no distinction can t e made between it and absorption in the recollection o f God.

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(by th e S h a rp ah) is a h in d eran ce in th e w ay o f G od n o r cuts off th e p a th o f an a ttracted trav eller, else it w ould not have been m ad e perm issible by G o d . 1 A nother tim e th e K h w aja said, You should be p u re o f h e art an d conscious o f G od in every action. A fter th a t you m ay engage yourself in w hatever (law ful) occupation you desire for nothing w ill th e n h a rm you. 2
Renunciation o f the World

A clear an d intelligible exposition o f th e reality o f renuncia tion was m ade by the K h w a ja in these w ords : R enunciation does not m ean th a t one should put off his clothes an d don a loin-cloth. A m an can dress properly an d take food and also enjoy w hat is law fully availab le to h im b u t he should never try to store up these; n o r should he entangle his h e a rt in anything. T his is th e correct w ay o f the renunciation o f w orldly desires. 3
K inds o f Obedience

O bedience (to G od) is o f tw o k in d s, the K hw aja once eexplained, obligatory an d tran silien t. T h e obedience falling in the first category consists o f those acts w hich benefit the person com plying w ith a com m and as, for exam ple, the p rayer, fasting, h a j an d recollection o f G od. T ran silien t obedience is th a t w hich extends th e benefit to others such as restoring harm ony betw een the M uslim s, show ing consideration o r benevolence to others. T he obedience o f th e la tte r category is highly m eritorious an d shall have lim itless re w a rd from G od. Absolute sincerity is essential for the acceptance o f o bligatory obedience but transilient obe dience w ill be recom pensed by G od howsoever it is ren d ered . 4
M iracles Worked by Saints

T h e m iracles w orked by th e saints w ere held by the K hw Sja

1. Jimanf-e-ul-Kalam, p. 160 2. Siar-ul-AuUa(, p. 160 3: FawaHd-ul-Euwad, Vol. I, p. 7 4. Ibid., p. 14

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to be resu ltin g from th e ir to tal absorption a n d intoxication in th e love o f G o d . T h ey a re a ttra c te d devotees, says th e K h w aja ab o u t th e saints w orking m iracles, w hereas the prophets h av e a p lacid disposition a n d serene spirit. T h a t is w hy, unlike th e prophets, m iracles becom e an obstacle for the m ystics in th e ir jo u rn ey o f spiritual developm ent. O n the other h an d , th e love o f G od im parts stability to th e state o f elevation.1
Knowledge o f the Prophets

T h e K h w S ja classified know ledge into th re e grades viz. perceptive* intellectual an d divine. W e have perceptions th ro u g h o u r senses such as th e taste o f different edibles o r th e various types o f smells. T h e know ledge in reg ard to these is ob tain ed th ro u g h th e senses. O n th e second g ra d e comes the know ledge o b tain ed th ro u g h intellect. T h is is also o f tw o kinds, a c q u ired a n d intuitive. T h e K h w S ja fu rth e r explained th a t even th e intuitive know ledge is not divine, w h at to speak o f acq u ired know ledge. Excepting those fo r w hom th e doors o f divine know ledge a re opened, w ho can say w hat its features a re ? N obody w ho gains know ledge th ro u g h his intellect, eith er by his ow n effort o r th ro u g h in tuition can find his w ay to the divine know ledge although he can d erive pleasure from his intellectual know ledge. In o rd ei to illustrate his point the K h w aja to ld th e story o f a c e rta in saint w ho desired to record th e m anifestations o f reality d aw ning upon his h e a rt d u rin g the m om ents o f ecstatic illum inations. In fact he w rote quite a lot to express his feelings b u t ultim ately confessed th a t hum an lang u ag e could not convey w hat he w anted to describe.2
Love o f the World

O nce someone said to th e K h w S ja : T h e re a re some who love th e w orld w hile th e re a re o th ers w ho h a te it. T h ere a re th re e types o f persons, replied th e K h w S ja, som e cherish
1. Fawa}id-ul-Fuwad, Vol. I, p. 33

2. Ibid., p. 69

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the w orld so m uch th a t they a re alw ays crazy about it a n d th eir n u m b er is q u ite larg e. T h e re a re o thers w ho not only hate the w orld but hold it in contem pt an d alw ays sneer a t it. T h e re is also a th ird category, who n eith er hold it d e a r not detest it. T hey neith er eulogize the w orld n o r frow n upon it an d these are b etter th a n both th e form er categories. T h e re a fte r the K hw S ja to ld th e s to ry : O n ce a m an cam e to R a b icah Basri an d started denouncing th e w orld. She replied : Please do not come ag ain to me. You seem to be so enam oured o f the w orld th a t you a re n ever tire d o f talk in g ab o u t it. 1
Recitation o f the Q u ran

T h e K h w aja once, to ld ab o u t the th ree ways o r g rad es o f recitingj th e Q u r an. H e said : T h e first is th a t w hatever you recite, its p ith an d substance sinks in your h e a rt. T h e second g ra d e o f its recital is th a t your h e a rt is aw akened to the aw e p f G od while th e th ird g ra d e is th a t your h e a rt rem ains attra cted to G od so long as th e recital continues. O n e should alw ays be a w are o f the fa c t, the K h w a ja continued, th a t th e recitatio n o f the Book o f G od confers a blessing undeserved by him . But i f th a t be not possible, one should a t least keep in m ind th e rew ards prom ised for the recital o f the holy S crip tu re. 2 As th e K hw aja has him self acknow ledged, he d id not leave anything in w riting5 b u t his greatest productions w ere his spiritual sons, p u re o f h e a rt a n d perfect in know ledge and dem eanour, w ho were exam ples o f rectitu d e, piety a n d tru th fulness. H ow ever, A m ir H asan A lS 'S a ja z I a n d M ir K h u rd have n a rra te d num erous sayings a n d teachings o f th e K h w aja w hich b e a r witness to his deep know ledge a n d incisive intellect.

1. 2. 3.

FawaHd-id-Fuwad, Vol. I , p . 189 Ibid., p. 71 Ibid., p. 45 and Khair-ul-MajaUs, p . 51

VI
Blessings and Benignity
B efore w e unfold th e story o f K h w aja N izam u d -d ln s rem ark ab le ach ievem ent in enk in d lin g the zeal fo r m oral recti tu d e a n d sp iritu al u p lift in countless h earts, specially a t a tim e w hen th e success o f th e M uslim arm s h a d b ro u g h t in its tra in th e forgetfulness o f G od an d g iv en a free rein to self-indulgence, let us recap itu late th e m eth o d evolved by th e pure-hearted mystics to rejuvenate th e religious vigour o f th e w idespread M uslim p opulation, as explained in th e first volum e o f this book. A fter th e first few generations religious sem inaries and edu catio n al institutions too d id n o t p rovide any answ er to the problem because o f th e vast population o f M uslim s and the m u n d a n e pre-occupations o f th e people. T h e problem o f m ak in g arra n g e m en ts fo r a continued and concerted effort for th e ed u catio n an d tra in in g o f th e people in religious tenets and practices, a n d infusing a b re a th o f new li f t in th e vast num bers spread over fa r off lan d s defied solution in th e absence o f a tru ly Islam ic S tate. T h e forem ost business o r r a t t e r th e end o f th e C a lip h a te w as, in th e w ords o f C a lip h U m a r ibn A bdul A ziz, to g u id e th e people in m o ra l re c titu d e r a th e r th a n to col lect th e revenues fo r th e co n d u ct o f a d m in istratio n . T h e then M uslim States w ere, how ever, not only indifferent to this fu n d a m e n ta l objective b u t w ere extrem ely allergic to any m ovem ent o r critic ism on th is score w h ich could pose a th re a t to th eir

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political suprem acy. T h u s, these governm ents being suspicious o f all efforts m ad e for the resurgence o f Islam ic spirit, a n d , erroneously taking these as m ovem ents desigried to build up political leadership, lost no tim e in crushing th em . Iq these circum stances th ere was no w ay left to revivify the religious spirit a n d fill th e people w ith an enthusiasm , zeal and self-confidence for re in tro d u c tio n o f th e precepts o f religion in th e ir d aily life. T h e only altern ativ e left w as to call upon the people to take a o o a th o f allegiance for th e purpose. Follow ing in the footsteps p f th e A postle p f G od, it h ad becom e necessary th a t a guide o f sp iritu al an d m oral excellence should obtain an oath, o r the bafit, as it is called, from th e people w illing to offer sincere penitence an d u n d ertak in g to lead a virtuous life in future in accordance w ith the directions o f th e ir m en to r. I f placing oneself u n d er the instruction o f an inspired guide m eant th a t he was fairly started u p o n in.his journ ey to th e end o f purification o f spirit a n d m o ral re c titu d e ; th e o ath o f allegiance enjoined a m uch m ore onerous responsibility on th e m en to r him self. T h e guide o r the spiritual teach er h a d to lead th e w an dering soul o f the disciple taking th e befit, stage by stage, from cleansing o f his spiritual im purities, renouncing th e love o f w orldly te m p ta tions an d desires, w ealth an d honour, infusing an spirit o f m oral uprightness a n d co rrect ethical behaviour, follow ing the teach ings contained in the Q u r a n an d the T rad itio n s, to th e illum i nation o f th e p u p ils soul. T h is was, in tru th , w hat the befit m eant an d by w hich th e inspired souls trie d to infuse into th eir disciples, th ro u g h p reach in g a n d personal exam ple, loving care a n d unalloyed sincerity, a n in n er vitality o f spirit a n d strength o f m oral integrity. As th e experience shows, the reform ers and renovators o f faith d id succeed in revivifying the tru e faith and tapping new sources o f p o p u lar strength in th eir ow n tim es, th ro u g h this trie d an d in fallible m ethod w hich ju st copied the procedure an d technique followed by the Prophet o f Islam . In n u m erab le persons have been provided w ith an opportunity o f not only ado p tin g a virtuous life th ro u g h this m ethod but have also been led to a tta in even the stage o f D ivine

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A cquaintance a n d L ove by th e inspired guides an d teachers. *

B a 'i t : A Pledge and a Covenant

T h e b<fit im plies a d eterm in atio n to com pletely tu rn aw ay from sin an d to p attern ones life in accordance w ith the ord i nances o f G od an d H is Apostle. N one o f his biographers has m entioned w hat th e Khw&ja re q u ire d th e intending disciples to say o r prom ise w hile adm in isterin g th e bacit to them but the K h w S ja has h im self left a n account o f th e m an n er in w hich his ow n Sheikh, K h w aja F a r id u d -d in used to accept disciples in his sp iritual p a te rn ity . Since th e K h w aja had a deep and enduring affection for his spiritu al guide an d trie d to follow in his foot steps, it can be assum ed th a t he w ould have also acted sim ilarly on such occasions. Speaking o f his Sheikh, th e K hw aja says : W hen anybody cam e to th e S heikh (K hw aja F a rid u d -d ln ) w ith th e intention o f taking the bacit, he used to ask h im to recite th e SUratul Fatiha * and SUratul Ikhlas? T h e n th e Sheikh , him self recited the last five verses o f Suratul Baqr* follow ed by th e verse : A llah (H im self) is W itness th a t there is no G od save H im . A nd th e angels and th e m en o f le a rn in g (too are w itness). M ain tain in g H is creatio n in ju stic e, th ere is no G od save H im , th e A lm ighty, th e W ise. L o ! religion w ith A llah (is) the su rren d er (to His W ill an d G u id an ce). 5 T h e re a fter he used to tell th e d isc ip le: You have tak en th e b tfit on th e h an d s o f th is w eakling, on the hands o f m y Sheikh an d his Sheikhs an d on th e hands o f the P ro p h et, o n w hom be peace a n d blessings. A nd now you sw ear an o a th to G od A lm ighty th a t you w ould g u ard yoUt*|

1. Saviours o f Islamic Spirit, Vol. I, pp. 197-98 2. First chapter o f the Qur*Sn 3. H undred twelfth chapter o f the Q uran 4. Second chapter o f the Q uran 5. Q . I l l : 18-19

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hands, feet and eyes from the ways o f sin a n d betake the path o f Shari*ah an d th e way (o f life) chalked out by it. 1
Wide Circle o f Disciples

T h e K hw S ja p erm itted everyone desiring to take the baHt, to enter th e circle o f his disciples w ith o u t putting him to any test o r tria l. T h e baHt being a pledge an d a covenant to follow in the steps o f ones sp iritu al guide fo r th e rest o f ones life, a question m ight arise as to why th e K h w S ja adm inistered the baHt so easily to everyone. T h e K h w aja has him self given an answ er to this question. T h e w ell-know n h isto rian an d a u th o r o f Tarlkh F\roz Shahl, Z ia 3 ud-d in B arm , says th a t once he happened to rem ain w ith th e K h w aja from early m o rn in g till a little before noon. D uring this.period quite a good num b er o f people took the bacit on the hands o f th e K h w aja. I t o ccu rred to h is m in d th a t the ea rlie r m ystics used to be very cautious in taking disciples h u t the K h w a ja p erh ap s allow ed everybody to take the befit o u t o f his generosity an d largeheartedness. H e says th a t he thought o f asking the reason for it from th e K h w aja h u t his d o u b t was revealed to th e K h w aja by divine g race who atonce asked : M au lan a Zia* u d -d ln , you ask a ll sorts o f questions b u t you have n ever asked m e why I accept everybody as m y d isc ip le? ' T aken aback, Z ia 5 ud-d ln touched th e feet o f th e K h w aja and said th a t th e d oubt h a d struck his m in d o n several occasions and a few m om ents before he h ad th o u g h t o f asking about it but G od h ad revealed his secret to him . T hereu p o n the K hw aja replied : ( D ivine w isdom endows every age w ith a singularity w ith the result th a t th e characteristics, h ab its and m anners o f th e people in every age, b a rrin g , o f course, a few persons, differ from th e ir predecessors. T his is a m atter o f expe rience. T h e purpose b ehind th e baHt is th a t a disciple expels from his h e a rt everything except G od an d gets
1. Siar-ul-Aidia*, p. 224

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ab so rb ed in th e vastness o f D ivine presence as you find it explained in th e books on m ysticism . T h e mystics o f the old n ev er accepted anybody u n d e r th e ir spiritu al paternity unless they w ere satisfied th a t th e intending disciple had cleansed his h e a rt o f a ll earth ly objects and desires. But Sheikh S a if u d -d ln B akharzl, Sheikh A bu Sat eed A bul K h a ir, Sheikh S hah ab u d -d ln S u h a rw a rd l an d Sheikh F arid u d -d ln accepted everyone desirous o f spiritual purification u n d e r th e ir surveillance. I do not lay a claim to the same spiritu al excellence as those elevated souls h ad attained, but, I w ould like to explain why I do not take the sam e p recau tio n as th e ea rlie r Sheikhs used to take. O ne o f the reasons is th a t I have been inform ed by a large num ber o f persons th a t good m any o f my disciples com pletely tu rn a new leaf, abstain from sins an d begin offering prayers reg u larly . Some even d ev o te considerable tim e in recollec tion o f G od. N ow , if I w ere to m ake sure th a t they have com pletely disentangled th e ir hearts from the w orldly desires before I ad m in ister bacit to them , they w ould be d ep riv ed o f w hatever spiritual u p lift they a tta in through it. T h e o th e r reason is th a t m y Sheikh p erm itted me to take disciples w ithout m y asking for it o r even en tertaining a desire fo r the sam e. W hen I see a M uslim com ing to m e w ith b a te d b reath , in all hum ility a n d subm ission to m ake rep en tan ce for his sins, I accept his statem ent an d ad m i n ister him th e bali t ; for, I a m told th a t m any o f them really abju re th e ir evil practices a fte r taking the oath o f fealty. 1
Reform ative Endeavour

Whalt was the effect o f th e discipleship o f K h w S ja N iz lm u d -d ln , so generously extended to all, the nobles an d the com m oners, th e officials an d the tra d e rs, on th social an d m oral life o f th e people ? D elhi was th en the flourishing capital
1. Siar-ul-Aulid3, pp. 346-48 ; Husrat Namuh, p. 13

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o f a pow erful em pire whose pom p an d pag ean try had a ttrac te d a ll the m eans o f am usem ent th a t w ealth a n d pow er could purchase to d iv ert the atten tio n o f the people from the path o f piety and fear o f G od. T h e celebrated h istorian o f th a t age, Z ia ud-d ln BarnI, rejates how the K hw aja was able to aw aken deep religious longing lo find G od in every h e a rt w hich guided th e people to betake th e p a th o f virtue. H e says : T h e th ree lum inaries o f *the m ystic o rd e r d u rin g the tim e o f cA la 5 ud-dln K h ilji. w ere Sheikh-ul-Islam N izam u d -d ln , Sheikh-ul-Islam A la u d -d ln a n d Sheikh-ul-Islam R u k n ud-dln. A v ast m u ltitude had pledged devotion to these spiritual guides.- Countless people repented from th e ir sins an d tu rn e d from evil, took to prayers and devotional exercises, expelled w orldly desires, covetousness an d greed from th e ir hearts an d inculcated a deep religious yearning for the fellowship o f G od. T h e exam ple set by these spiritual preceptors th ro u g h th e ir spirit o f hum anity, virtuous living an d u p rig h t behaviour charg ed the atm os phere w ith a genuine religious spirit w hich helped the people to becom e tru th fu l and genuinely religious. The* piety an d righteoutness o f these G od-m oved souls a ttra c te d divine blessings; n a tu ra l calam ities like fam ines an d pestilence ceased to visit the lan d , an d , the M ongols, who were the scourge o f the w orld, w ere b rought to a sham eful ru in . All these blessings, to w hich every m an in th e days o f these th re e saints w ould b ear witness, becam e a m eans for the ascendancy o f Islam . T h e rules o f the Shaff-ah as well as th e d o ctrin e o f the mystics gained popularity am ong the people. H ow blessed w ere th e last ten years o f S u lta n Ala* u d -d ln s reign w hen h e h a d p rohibited the use o f all intoxicants an d th e ways o f im m orality a n d sensual gratifi cation ! ...O n th e o th e r side, Sheikh-ul-Islam N izam u d -d ln h a d opened w ide th e gates o f sp iritu al p re c e p to rsh ip ; encouraged th e sinners to repent for th e ir sins ; a n d allow ed all, the rich an d th e poor, the king a n d th e slave, the learned an d th e illiterate to cleanse th e ir souls th ro u g h his

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spiritual guidance. Everyone who pledged allegiance to the Sheikh considered him self spiritually attached to him an d gave up m any o f his vices. I f anybodyevfir com m itted a sin, the Sheikh allow ed him to offer penitence and renew his baHt. T hus, a ll those who took the pledge to walk along the pathw ay o f purity w ere saved from m any vices an d w ere g rad u ally led, th ro u g h em ulation o f the Sheikh, to prayers an d litanies. Every m an and wom an, w hether ten d er in years or bent, w ith age, regularly offered obligatory prayers and vied w ith each o ther in the per form ance o f voluntary devotions. F ro m the city to G h iy atb p u r, people h ad m ad e arrangem ents for the way farers to take rest an d offer th e ir prayers. M achinations o f th e d evil w ere eschewed by th e people who took m ore interest in ascertaining the nu m b er o f rak^ats perform ed on different occasions and th e chapters o f the Q u ra n recited in them by th eir spiritual m entors. N um erous people had enthusiastically taken to m em orise the Q u ran . A favourite pastim e o f th e S heikhs disciples, was to instruct each other in th e ways o f m ystic tho u g h t a n d practice and to relate the stories o f those who h ad taken to a life o f propinquity w ith G od. T hey n ever talked o f the earthly desires nor longed for pow er a n d pelf. M any am ong the attendants an d servants, chiefs a n d grandees o f the K ing w ho had been united in th e bonds o f spiritual paternity w ith the Sheikh, perform ed voluntary prayers a n d kept superarogatocy fasts. T h e re was not a city block o r w ard in w hich people d id not h o ld re g u la r gatherings for the rem em brance o f G o d , d ev o tio n al p ractices o r auditions. A num ber of th e S heikhs disciples recited the en tire Q u ran d u ring th e tra m h an d kept vigil in the m osques d u rin g R a m a d h a n or even on F rid a y nights o r on th e occasion o f oth er festivals. M any o f them spent tw o-thirds o f th e ir nights in the nocturnal prayers o f tahajjud a ll round the year and some even p erfo rm ed the m orning p ray er w ith the ablution they h a d h a d for the oriso n o f cishS:> . I know o f a few disciples

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o f th e Sheikh who h ad been blessed w ith m iraculous pow ers u n d er th e spiritual guidance o f th e Sheikh....... S u ltan A la u d -d ln a n d his household m em bers w ere devoted to the Sheikh. T h e nobles as w ell as th e com m oners had taken to righteous, ways. T ransgression o f the law like im m ora lity, gam bling, drunkenness an d o th e r vices w ere unheard o f d u rin g the last few years o f cA laJ u d -d ln s rule. People h a d begun to equate heinous sins w ith apostasy. No M uslim d a re d to charge interest o r indulge in hoarding. - T h e trad ers h a d given up the h ab it o f barg aining, shortw eighing an d ad u lteratio n . M ost o f the students and disciples an d num erous o th er people who kept com pany w ith th e Sheikh h a d grow n fond o f studying mystical tracts like Qoot-ul-Qulub, IhyaP-ul-Uloom, cAwarif, Kashf-ulMahjub, Sharah T carruf, RisUtah Quskiri, Mirsad ul-cAbad, MaktUbut-i-cAin-ul~Qfldhat, FauiaPd-ul-Fuwad an d Lewalh wa Lawamtk w hich w ere in g reat d em an d in those days. M ost o f th e people sought m ystical treatises from the book sellers. In fine, G od h ad m ade Sheikh-ul-Islam N izam ud-dln a pu re-h earted soul like Sheikh Ju n a id and Sheikh Ba-Yazld o f th e bygone ages. 1
The Love M art

I t was th e tim e w hen the potent influence exerted by the K h w aja h ad b ro u g h t a healthy change in the life o f the people in every w alk o f life including even th e inm ates o f th e Im p erial Palace o f T housand Pillars. V anity an d self-conceit, m entaldisquietude an d depression o f spirits, the end-products of free living an d self-indulgence h ad given place to the fervour o f lo v e-d iv in e; the w hole atm osphere seem ed to be surcharged w ith the sp iritual love w hich arises from the h arm ony o f souls. M ir K h u rd relates in Siar-ul-Aulia 5 : T hose w ere th e days w hen everyone soaring to the h ig h er dom ains o f spirituality was d raw n tow ards th e tilting notes, harm onious melodies,
1, Tarihh Firoz Shahi} pp 46 and 341

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love-exciting tales a n d verses. Sincerity, hum ility, kindness an d solace w ere th e winsom e qualities o f the Sheikhs w hich m ad e everyone bow his head in reverence to th em . 1
Training o f the Disciples

K h w aja N iz5m u d -d ln h a d taken special cafe to tra in his disciples w ho w ere to diffuse the yearning o f eternal love far a n d wide. T h ro u g h prayers an d litanies, education and edifi cation he guided his spiritual successors on the p ath o f his m ystic o rd er. F or those who possessed th e capability but were n o t le a rn e d he a rra n g e d for th e ir education, reproved those who w ere keen on debates a n d polem ical disputations and p rom pted others w ho preferred penance and prayers to enter collective life and b e a r w ith equanim ity the high-handedness an d oppression o f th e people. H e p a id p a rticu la r attention to each one o f his disciples to p rep are h im for the g reat task o f spreading piety an d sp iritual gifts an d m o ral reform ation o f the people. H e spared no pains n o r allow ed any obstacle to stand in th e way o f th e m ental an d spiritual developm ent o f his disciples. I t has been stated in th e Siar-ul-Aulidc>th at once a few o f his disciples, belonging to O u d h , decided to m ake a jo in t request to th e K h w aja to p e rm it th em to have a d eb ate on certain religious o r ju ristic issues. T hese disciples being scholars, p erhaps, w anted a little respite from the continuous prayers an d rem em brance prescribed by th e K h w a ja for them . M a u la n a J a la l u d -d ln was th e ir spokesm an, but w hen they a rriv ed in th e presence o f the K h w a ja , th e reflection o f D ivine grace rad ia tin g from his countenance, m ad e everyone dum bfounded. At last M a u la n a J a la l u d -d ln g ath ered his courage an d asked w hether they could occasionally devote a little tim e in debates am ong them . T h e K h w a ja replied, W h a tsh o u ld I say? I have to take an o th er w ork from you ! 2
1. S i a i - u l - A p. 510

" 2.

Ibid., p. 306

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Saiyid N aslr u d-dln M ahm Q d, who was la te r to becom e the spiritual successor o f th e K hw Sja and whose fam e travelled to the four corners o f the country as Chiragh-i-Dehli (the L am p o f D elh i), intensely desired to lead th e life o f a recluse in a fa r off hill o r w ilderness. H e com m unicated his wish to the K hw aja throu g h A tn ir K h u sru but got the reply : T ell him th a t he has to live am ong the people an d to b ear the insolence and illbehav io u r o f th e people and to req u ite it w ith generosity and sacrifice. 1 N % K hw aja N izam ud-dln was followed by a long line o f em inent suf i successors who acquired great rep u tation for piety an d spread th e Chishtiyah fratern ity all o v er the country. A fter N aslr ud-dln M ah m u d Chiragh-i-Dehli who, like his spiritual m entor, kept his b an n er aloft an d continued to exert a potent influence over the capital for 32 years, one o f his disciples, Saiyid M u h am m ad Gesu D araz (d. 825) established him self at G ulb arg a in D eccan. His oth er noted disciples w ere K am al ud-dln cA U am ah, Sheikh A bul M u q ta d ir K in d i, Sheikh A hm ad T h an esri, S heikh.Jalal u d-dln H usain, also known as MakhdUm Jahanian JahUn Gashl,, w ho becam e g reat leaders o f the Chishtiyah o rd e r. T hey all contributed to th e revival o f Islam in In d ia and infused sp iritu al ferv o u r am o n g th e people. T hey easily w on th e fav o u r o f th e m ultitudes, w hile a num ber o f th e ir sp iritual successors becam e influential guides o f the sovereigns, not only in sp iritual b u t in political affairs as well.

Siar-ul-Aulia*, p .

237

VII
Religious and Moral Revival
In th e m oral-spiritual guidance o f his disciples, th e K hw Sja was always cautious, discreet an d w atchful. O n e o f K hw Sja N izam u d -d ln s disciples,M ucid u d -d ln held a responsible post in th e co u rt o f Sultan A la3 u d-dln K h ilji. Soon A fter pledging devotion to the K hw aja, M ucid u d -d ln resigned his office and becam e a n inm ate o f the K h w ajas m onastery. An able and com petent officer th a t Mu*Id u d -d ln w as, Sultan ud -d ln keenly felt his absence an d conveyed his displeasure to th e K h w aja th ro u g h one o f his courtiers. I t seems th a t the Sheikh w ants to m ake everybody like h im , said th e K ing. T h e K h w aja sent the reply, N ot like m e, b u t b e tte r th a n m yself. 1 T h e K h w aja not only guided his disciples to advance on the p ath o f spirituality th ro u g h prayers, litanies an d m editations but also infused in th em an a rd e n t zeal for p reaching and upholding righteousness w ith am azing perseverance. T h e spiritual preceptorship o f the K h w aja m ade his disciples so bold th a t they could d arin gly a n d unhesitatingly put forw ard w h at they consi d ered to be rig h t before th e kings and despotic rulers. O f a tru th , a m an o f G od can never be in tim id ated , cowed o r discourag ed, for, tim id ity is b o rn out o f a desire to avoid o r escape a m a te ria l d etrim en t o r disadvantage. But a m an w ho has alread y expelled all w orldly desires and longings also casts off
1. Siar-ul-Aulia*, p. 311

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th e em otion excited by a th re a t to his person o r belongings. T h e m ystical yearning for ecstatic illum ination o r th e strivings to a tta in th a t perfect know ledge o f G od w hich is know n by the nam e o f Tawhid or U nity o f G odhead invariably leads to th e explusion o f fear fear o f everything except G od. T o a m an attain ing th a t stage the dem onstration o f w ealth an d pow er a n d the g ran d an d stately cerem onials o f royalty begin to ap p ear to be no m ore th a n th e c h ild s play. N othing in the w orld can then d e te r such a m an from speaking out the tru th in the face o f h au g h ty and despotic em perors.
Fearlessness

E very student o f history is aw are o f th e unbounded p rid e a n d p om p o f S u ltan M u h am m ad T u g h laq . O nce th e S uit i n happened to cam p n e a r H an sl. M ukhiisul M ulk N izam u d -d ln N a z a rb a ri was d ep u ted by S u lta n M u h am m ad T u g h la q for inspection o f th e fo rt a t H ansl. W hen th is m an , know n fo r his heartless cruelty, happened to pass by th e house o f Sheikh Q u tb u d-dln M u n aw w ar, one o f th e K h w ajas disciples and sp iritu al successors, he expressed surprise th a t the Sheikh h a d not com e to p ay his respect to th e K ing. O n re tu rn in g fro m his e rra n d h e b ro u g h t th e m a tte r to th e notice o f th e K ing. T h e S ultan, enraged by th e rep o rt, o rd ered H asan S ar B arahna, a n o th e r m an o f despotic ch aracter, to p ro d u ce the Sheikh before h im H asan com m unicated th e royal sum m ons to the Sheikh and also told him in reply to a query m ad e by th e Sheikh, th a t he h ad no choice b u t to tak e th e Sheikh w ith him . T h e Sheikh thanked God th a t he h a d not to seek th e audience o f the K in g o f his own accord. T hen, com m ittin g th e m em bers o f his household to the c are o f G od, he set o n foot w ith H asan w ith his staff in his han d a n d th e p ray er m a t o n his shoulder. H asan offered a carriag e b u t th e Sheikh p re fe rred to w alk o n foot. W hen he reach ed the cam p o f th e K in g , h e was o rd e re d to proceed to D elhi. O n entering th e royal co u rt a t D elhi, he found th e grandees an d the chiefs, atten d an ts a n d g u ard s a rray ed to th e rig h t a n d left o f th e im p erial throne. T h e Sheikh was accom panied by his son

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N flr u d -d ln w ho got overaw ed by th e pom p a n d pageantry o f th e royal court. T h e Sheikh atonce said loudly to his s o n : B aba N flr u d-dln, G reatness a n d M ight belongeth to G od alone. NBr ud-dln la te r told th a t as soon as h e heard those w ords, his frig h t disappeared an d he felt th a t the K ing and his courtiers w ere as m eek as goats. W hen the K in g saw the Sheikh appro ach in g him , he feigned occupation in archery but as th e S heikh got n e a r him , he got up to shake hands w ith him . T h e Sheikh firm ly grip p ed his h and w ithout exhibiting the least traces o f fear. T h e K in g said : I w ent to your neighbour hood, b u t you d id n o t com e to guide m e on the p a th o f rig h te ousness n o r d id you honour m e by your visit. A recluse th a t I a m , replied the Sheikh, I do not co n sid e r m yself w orthy o f m eeting th e K ings. Betaking m yself to a c o rn e r o f your kingdom I spencfr m y days in praying G od for th e w elfare o f th e K in g a n d the M uslims. I need to be exem pted from all form alities. Pleased w ith the reply given by the Sheikh, the K in g asked his b ro th e r F iro z Shah to d o w h atev er the Sheikh liked. T h e Sheikh p re fe rred to re tu rn to H a n sl an d was allow ed to do so. L a te r on , th e K in g told his courtiers th a t he h a d m et m any divines but none h ad d a re d to shake h an ds w ith him so firmly as d id Sheikh Q u tb u d-dln M unaw w ar. H e gripped my han d so firm ly as if he h ad no speck o f fear in his h e a rt, observed S ultan M u h am m ad T u g h laq . Before Sheikh Q u tb u d -d ln M u n aw w ar left D elhi thp K in g sent F iro z S hah a n d Z ia 3 u d -d ln B arnI w ith a purse o f one lakh T an k as.1 T h e Sheikh refused to accept th e present saying th a t tw o seers o f rice an d a dang* o f ghee* w ould be enough for a m en d ican t like him . T h e K in g th en o rd e red to let him h av e fifty thousand T ankas. T h e Sheikh refused th a t too. U ltim a tely th e am ount was b ro u g h t dow n to tw o thousand T ankSs, but
1.. Tanka, derived from Turkish vocabulary m e a n tW hite and was the silver coin o f those days. 2. A unit of weight '

3. Clarified butter

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w hen th e Sheikh ag ain refused the present, F iroz S hah and Z i8 3 u d -d ln B arn I p rev ailed upon th e Sheikh to accept th e p re sent lest th e K in g should ag ain get annoyed and p u t h im to harm . T h ereu p o n th e Sheikh accepted th e am ount b u t d istri buted it to th e p oor an d needy before leaving D elhi.1 A t th e tim e S ultan M u h am m ad T u g h la q d ec id ed -to tran s fer th e inhabitan tsio fD elh i-te- eV ag iri, he h a d also conceived th e id e a o f cap tu rh ig T u rk istan a n d K h u rasan to exterm inate th e progeny o f C henghlz K h a n . H e h a d o rd ered th a t all the em in en t doctors o f religion should be invited to deliv er serm ons in o rd e r to arouse th e people for tak in g p a r t in his projected holy w a r. In th is connection a few o f th e K h w a ja s em inent disciples, such as M a u la n a F ak h r u d -d ln Z a rra d l, M au lan a Sham s u d -d ln Y ahya an d Sheikh N aslr u d -d ln M ahm O d w ere also asked to ap p e a r before th e K in g . M au latia F a k h r u d -d in Z a rra d l was first b ro u g h t before th e S ultan although he very m uch detested to see th e K in g a n d often used to re m a rk th a t he saw his h ead ro llin g on th e g ro u n d in th e royal court. W h at he m ean t was th a t he w ould in any case speak o u t th e tru th a n d th e - K in g w ould have h im beheaded. H ow ever, w hen M a u la n a F a k h r u d -d ln e n tered th e royal court, one o f th e K in g s secretaries a n d a disciple o f th e M au lan a, Q utb u d -dln D a b lr took u p his shoes an d stood behind h im like a servant. T h e K in g s a i d : I propose to w ipe out the progeny o f C henghlz K h a n fro m th e surface o f th e e a rth . W ould you help m e in accom plishing this task ? Insha Allah ( if G od so w ills), replied th e M aulana. B ut y o u r reply bespeaks o f your 4 o q h t. reto rted the K in g . T h is is w h a t one should say ab o u t th e fu tu re , the M a u la n a rep lied calm ly. A lrig h t, te n d e r m e y our adv ice th e K in g said ag ain angrily. S ubdue your a n g e r, was th e reply given by M au la n a
1.
Siar-ul-Aulia*, pp. 253-55

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Z a rra d l. S till m o re en rag ed , th e K in g asked, W hich a n g e r? A nger th a t behoves w ild b easts, prom ptly replied the M au lan a. T h e tovfering fury th a t swept aw ay th e K ing was now visible fro m his face, b u t he kept quiet. A fter a short w hite he o rd e re d th e servants to b rin g food. T he K in g invited M au lan a Z a rra d l to take food w ith him . T h e tw o shared th e ir m eals fro m th e sam e dish . T h e king presented pieces o f m eat w ith his ow n h a n d s b u t th e M au la n a took very little o f it as if he d id n o t like to h av e food w ith th e K in g . B efore giving a send off to th e M au lan a, th e K in g presented a robe o f honour a n d a p urse to h im . But before M au lan a Z a rra d l could refuse these, Q u tb u d -d ln D a b lr stepped a h e a d a n d took the presents from th e K in g on b e h a lf o f th e M au lan a. A fter th e M au lan a h a d d e p a rte d , th e K in g called for Q u tb u d -d ln D a b lr an d s a i d : W h a t a treacherous m a n you a re ! F irst you took up his shoes a n d th e n th e presents. Y ou thus saved h im fro m my sw ord b u t exposed yourself to d a n g e r. Q u tb u d -d ln D a b lr replied, M a u la n a F a k h r u d -d ln Z a rra d l is m y teach er a n d the succes sor o f m y sp iritu al m en to r. I oug h t to have ca rried his shoes on m y h e a d r a th e r th a n in th e a rm p it; w h at to speak o f the present? you m a d e to h i m ! T h e K in g th re a ten ed to have h im p u t to sw ord. L a te r o n w henever th e n am e o f M a u la n a F a k h r u d -d ln Z a r r a d l was m entioned to th e K in g , h e used to r e m a r k : Alas, he escaped from m y sw o rd . 1
Guidance o f Adm inistration

n i\ T h e precursors o f th e Chishtiyah o rd e r h a d , f r o m th e very beginning, k ep t them selves a lo o f fro m th e ru lin g elite but thejjj w ere never u n m in d fu l o f p ro v id in g necessary guidance to them* W henever they w ere called upon to te n d e r th e ir advice o r w h o i ev er they got a n o p p o rtu n ity to exercise th e ir influence o v er tfil ru lers, they alw ays trie d to show th e m th e p a th o f com passid|
1. Siar-ul-Aulia*, pp. 271-73

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an d h u m an itarian ism . M any am ong th e kings o f In d ia and the governors o f provinces held these sp iritual guides in th e highest reg ard o r w ere often united w ith th em by o a th o f fealty w ith the result th a t they pursued, u n d e r th e benign guidance o f th eir Sheikhs, policies designed to m itig ate th e sufferings o f th e ir sub jects, enforced ju stice an d acted on th e injunctions o f the Sharjah. O nly a few ru lers o f In d ia could co m p are w ith a king so ju st, m ild , kind -h earted a n d respectful o f th e injunctions o f the S h a ffn h as S ultan F iro z Shah T u g h la q . Sham s-i-Siraj eA flf a n d Z ia5 u d -d ln B a ro i speak o f th e achievem ents o f th is good n atu re d Sultan. T h e au th o r 6 f Tilrikh-i-Firishta, A bul Q&sim H in d u Shah, w r ite s : H e was a learn ed , ju st, graciobs an d softhearted ru le r. H is subjects as well th e arm ed forces, w ere well-pleased w ith him . D u rin g th e reig n o f this sovereign no ty ra n t could oppress th e w eak. 1 T h is noted h isto rian h as en u m erated th re e characteristics o f his ru le unm atch ed by th a t o f o th e r rulers o f the age. F iro z S hah never h a d to take recourse to the m ethods o f chastisem ent for his benevolence a n d generosity left no room fo r it. T h e land revenue w as fixed by him acco rd in g to th e paying Capacity o f the people a n d all th e tithes an d taxes unjustly im posed by the form er rulers w ere abolished. H e n ev er en couraged anyone to m ake false reports to h im ab o u t his subjects. A nd, lastly, he appointed G od-fearing a n d sym pathetic governors to ad m in ister the provinces w ho em ulated th e K in g in th e ir k in d tre a tm e n t o f the people.* B ut only a few persons a re a w a re o f th e fa ct th a t S u ltiti F iro z S h s h ow ed his accession to th e th ro n e to K h w aja N aslr u d -dln M ahm Q d Chiragh-i-Dehli.* S ham s-i-Siraj A fif grap h ically relates h ow F iroz S h ih as cended she throne. H e says : Sheikh N aslr u d -d ln accom panied

1. Tirtkh Firishta, Vol. 1, p . 278 2. H U ., Vol. I, p. 271 3. Ibid., p. 259

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S ultan M u h am m ad T u g h la q w hen he w ent to suppress the revolt in T h a th a . T h e S ultan d ie d 1 an d F iroz Shah called a m eeting o f th e nobles an d courtiers. Sheikh N aslr u d-dln, how ever, sent th e w o rd to Firoz Shah w hether he would dispense ju stice to th e people o r he should p ray G od fo r another ru le r fo r th em ? F iroz Shah sent back th e reply : I shall be ju s t a n d kind to th e creatures o f G 6 d .5 T h ereu p o n the Sheikh rep lied ; I f you w ould do w hat you prom ise, then I would request G od A lm ighty to g ra n t you forty y ears.5 A nd the S ultan really ru le d for forty y ears. 2 S ultan M u h a m m a d Shah B ahm anl (759>-776 A .H .) was acknow ledged as th e ru le r a fte r the d eath o f his fath e r A la5 u d -d in B ahm an S hah3 by all th e m ystic Sheikhs o f D eccan w ho took o a th o f allegiance to h im b u t Sheikh Z ain-ud-dln (d. 801 A .H .) refused to take th e p ath oh the ground th a t the K in g Was a d ru n k a rd an d indulged in acts d eclared unlaw ful by th e S h a rja h . I n 767 A .H ., w hen th e S u lta n \cam e to D au latab a d , b e d em an d ed th a t Sheikh Z a in u d -d ln should either personally c a ll upon h im o r acknow ledge his suzerainty in w riting. T h e reply given by th e Sheikh was : O nce a religious scholar, a Saiyid a n d a n eunuch happened to fall in th e hands o f c e rta in heathens w ho offered to sp are th e ir lives only if they p ro strated before th e ir idols. T h e scholar p ro strated b efore th e idol acting on th e perm ission given by th e Shari1ah to save ones life in such circum stances. T h e Saiyid too follow ed suit but the eunuch said th a t since he h a d spent his w hole life in transgressing the co m m an d m en ts o f G o d a n d h a d n o hope o f Salvation like the sch o lar o r th e S aiy id , it w ould be b e tte r fo r h im to give his life in th e w ay o f G od. T h u s he p re fe rre d d e a th to pro stratio n be-, fo re idols. I a m also p re tty m u ch like tb a t e u n u c h ; I shall
1. Sul ti n M uham m ad T ughlaq died on 21st M uharram 752 A. H . (Sunday, 20th M arch 1351 A. D .). 2. Sham s-i-Sirij Afif, p. 28 , 3. Firishtc reports th at he died in Rabi'ul-Awwal, 759 b u t according to TSrikh- ul-Mutuk Bahman died in 761 A. H .

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b e a r eyery h ard sh ip b u t w ould n e ith e r call upon you n o r take the o ath o f alleg ian ce." T h e S ultan got enrag ed a n d o rd e re d th e Sheikh to leave th e city atonce. Sheikh Z a in u d -d ln took only his p ra y e r m a t an d set out to th e shrine o f his spiritual guide Sheikh B urhan ud-din. H e sat dow n th ere an d to ld the em issaries o f th e K in g th a t nobody could m ove h im fro m th a t place. F ailin g in his effort, th e K in g sent a m essage to the Sheikh th ro u g h one o f his m inisters w hich said : I a m thine, be thou m in e . Sheikh Z ain u d -d ln replied : I f the S u lta n G hazI upholds the laws o f th e Sharfah, closes dow n all w ine shops th ro u g h o u t his dom inion, gives up d rin k in g an d follows in th e footsteps o f his fath er in charg in g th e Q a z ls, c Ulama an d th e governors to ensure th a t th e p a th o f righteousness is betaken an d th e ways o f sin forbidden, then he shall not find anybody a b etter frien d and w ell-w isher th a n m e. T h e tw o couplets Sheikh Z ain u d -d in w rote concluding his letter to th e K in g w ere : So long as the chain o f b reath keeps us living ; N othing shall we do but chaste as m orning. F o r those w ho cast on us a glance b e lig h tin g ; F ro m us a w orld o f good shall they ever be getting. T h e S u ltan was so pleased to find him self addressed as G h azl by th e Sheikh th a t he issued an edict th a t henceforth it should form p a rt o f his royal title. T h e re a fter Sultan M u ham m ad Shah B ahm anl im m ediately retu rn ed to G u lb arg a, p roclaim ed the b a n on sale o f liquor, enforced S h a ifa h as the law o f the lan d an d m ad e energetic efforts to root out theft, b u rg lary and robbery. T h e S u lta n took about six m onths in com pleting his reform s but, in the m eantim e, h e kept corres ponding w ith Sheikh Z ain u d -d ln a n d seeking his advice about the Conduct o f his ad m in istrativ e policy.1 In oth er p arts o f th e country, too, w here th e Sheikhs o f Chishtiyah o rd e r h ad set up th e ir m onasteries, they continued to guide the rulers to keep th em on the straight an d even path
1.
Tarikh Firishta, Vol. I, pp. 560-62

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ch alk ed o u t by th e SharV-ah. T h e fam ous Chishtiyah m onastery o f P a n d w a h in B engal was a source o f strength for the M uslim K in g d o m in th a t p a rt o f th e country. Professor K h a llq A hm ad N izam i has related , in Tarlkh Masha? ikh-i-Chisi, how the saints o f Chishtiyah o rd e r helped to re-establish M uslim rule in Bengal.1 N u r Q u tb i-cA lam was w rites P ro .N iz a m i, the son o f Sheikh t A la, -ul-H aq. D u rin g th e p erio d he was holding charge o f the m onastery, B engal was passing th ro u g h a political crisis. R a ja K an s, a local Z a m in d a r belonging to B hitoriah in R ajshahi district, u su rp ed th e th ro n e p f th e R a ja, a vassal o f D elhi, and trie d to d riv e aw ay im perial forces. N u r Q utb - i- cA lam estab lished contact w ith S ultan Ib rS h lm S h arq i, as well as m ade efforts th ro u g h S aiyid A sh raf J a h a n g ir S am nanl to persuade the S u ltan to in v ad e Bengal. T h e collection o f letters w ritten by S aiyid A sh ra f J a h a n g ir S am n an l giving the details o f th e then political situation obtaining in Bengal are particularly instruc tive. T h e le tte r w ritten by Saiyid A sh raf J a h a n g ir S am nanl in reply to th e com m unication sent by N u r Q u tb i-^Alam sheds considerable light upon the efforts m ad e by the su fi saints o f B engal. 2 H ere w e have given but a few exam ples to illustrate the p a th o f m ysticism tro d d e n hy th e saints o f Chishtiyah o rd er w hich d id not m ean m erely a w ith d raw al from the w orld for penance a n d p ra y e r a n d purification o f th e ir souls but also burdened them w ith th e d u ty o f diffusing righteousness, speaking out the tru th in th e face o f au to craft a n d ty ran t rulers, putting th eir lives a t stake to check grossness an d , above all, keeping the m asses as w ell as the ruling elite on the rig h t p ath.
The Preaching o f Islam

F ro m th e very first day the sufi sheikhs o f Chisliyah o rd e r entered In d ia they rem ain ed itin eran t preachers o f Islam . T h e

1. 2.

For fu ller details see Riyaz-us-Salatin {Tarikh Bengalah) by Ghul&m H usain Salim .

Tarikh Masha?ikh-i-Chisht, pp. 201-202

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accessions to Islam th ro u g h K h w aja M ocIn u d d in C hishtl w ere quite num erous. Ju s t how m uch was th e success achieved by him can never be m easured in the absence o f records kept by his contem poraries. I t is, how ever, an established fact th a t the spread o f Islam in In d ia was the fru it o f th e K h w a ja s piety and religious zeal. A larg e n u m b er o f people w ere attracted a n d inspired by th e sp iritual pow er an d divinely endow ed popularity enjoyed by th e K h w aja. In d ia has alw ays h ad quite a num b er o f w andering m endicants who h a d developed occult pow ers w ith th e help <Ayoga. N o t unoften these su fi saints w ere challenged by th e w onder-w orking yogis who soon discovered th a t th e superior sp iritual pow ers an d th e undoubted piety o f the Chiskti mystics was som ething quite different from the m agical feats perform ed by them . T h e Chishti sheikhs also won the confidence o f the masses because o f th e ir pious an d frugal living, sim ple a n d straig h tfo rw ard religious a n d social precepts, love o f suffering hum anity, selfless service a n d d isreg ard o f the b arriers o f caste an d creed an d h ig h an d low w hich h ad been for centuries th e blight o f a n oppressive caste-ridden social ord er in the Qountry. T h e biographies a n d m em oirs o f th e mystics m ention numerous- incidents o f confrontation betw een the yogis an d s u f i saints. These cannot be substantiated by the records o f historians o f the kings an d em perors b u t the prevail ing taste fo r w onder-w orking an d credulous m in d o f the then In d ia an d th e convergence o f spiritually elevated souls in A jm er d u rin g th e tim es o f K h w aja M ocin ud-d in C hishtl leave little dou b t about th e veracity o f th e stories to ld in th e tracts o f the mystics. But, in tru th an d reality, it was not th e spiritual pow er alone possessed by th e K h w aja th a t won conspicuous success but his p u rity o f h e a rt, g ra n d e u r o f holiness a n d simple way o f life which w ere som ething new for th e inhabitants o f In d ia. K hw aja F a rid u d-dln Ganjshakar occupies an em inent place am ong the spiritual successors o f K h w S ja cMoXn u d -dln because o f his excessive zeal to spread the m essage o f Islam in the country. K hw aja N izam u d -d ln A ulia says th a t people

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belonging to every caste and creed, m endicants a n d non m endicants flocked to listen to his serm ons. K h w aja F arid u d -d ln possessed such a hypnotic spiritual influence th a t th e claim m ade about his causing considerable num ber o f non-M uslim s to tu rn to Islam does not seem to be at all exaggerated. A num b er o f M uslim clans an d fam ilies settled in th e Punjab, specially aro u n d Pakpattan, still trace the conversion o f th e ir ancestors to th e efforts o f K hw aja F a rid uddln. T h o m as A rnold w rites in T h e Preaching o f Islam th at the conversion o f the inhabitants o f the western plains o f the Punjab is said to have been affected th ro u g h the preaching o f B aha al-H aq q o f M u ltan 2 an d Baba F a rid al-D ln o f Pakpattan, w ho flourished about th e end o f the th irteen th and beginning o f the fourteenth centuries. A b iographer o f the la tte r saint gives a list o f sixteen tribes who w ere won over to Islam th ro u g h his p reaching, b u t u nfortunately provides us w ith no details o f this w ork o f conversion. 3 K h w aja N izam u d -d in was a zealous p reach er o f Islam but he also held th e view th a t m ere preaching was not enough to win over anyone fro m his ancestral religion, p articularly w hen it was doubly g u a rd e d by caste taboos a n d age-old social customs. In his opinion it was necessary th at one should be afforded the opportunity o f intim ate acquaintanceship an d fellow ship for a considerable p eriod for w inning h im over to a new faith. T h e re is little doubt th a t the K hw aja, d u rin g his spiritual preceptorship o f about h a lf a century in the capital o f the em pire, w hich was visited by in num erable persons on erran d s o f com m erce an d ad m inistrative business, an d very m any o f w hom , b o th M uslim s an d non-M uslim s, would have deem ed it a privilege to pay th eir respect to the renow ned saint, must have succeeded in w inning over a large n u m ber o f converts to his faith. T o the south o f G hiy ath p u r lies the district o f M ew at

1. 3.

Faiva3id-ul-Fuicad, p. 5 O therw ise known as Sheikh Baha5 al-Dln Zakariyya The Preaching of Islam, p. 281

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whose contum acious people always harassed the in h ab itants o f D elhi and invited chastisem ent by G hiyath u d -d ln B alban. A lthough it is difficult to obtain Accurate inform ation b u t the successful penetration o f Islam in a g reater p a rt o f this are a was m ade possible by the potent influence exerted by K h w aja N izam ud-dln. T h e m oral excellence a n d godliness a n d th e spirit o f hum anity and fratern ity exhibited by these Chishtl m issionaries m ust have inspired th e population around th eir m onasteries as a revelation from on H igh. T o the credulous niinds looking forw ard to perform ance o f m iracles as a p ro o f o f spiritual pow er, the developed Spirituality and m iraculous deeds o f the mystics m ust have certainly been a source o f attractio n and opened their way for entering th e new faith. A ll these causes explain the conversion o f larg e num bers aro u n d th e m onasteries o f P andw ah in Bengal an d those in A hm ad ab ad and G ulbargah in th e south. S h a h K a llm ullah , an em inent C hishti preceptor o f the eleventh century was ever vigilant, as his letters to his sp iritu a l vicegerent Sheikh N izam ud-d ln o f A u ran g ab ad 1 show, about the m issionary w ork o f his disciples. In a letter to Sheikh N iz3 m ud-d in his spiritual m entor asked h im to try to w iden the sphere o f Islam by w inning over people to it. * I n another letter Shah K allm u llah exhorted h im to continue his endeavour to spread the w ord o f G od an d to shed the lig h t o f tru th from east to w est."3 Prof. K h a liq A hm ad N izam i w rites th a t efforts m ade by Sheikh N izam u d -d in b rought a larg e nu m b er o f nonM uslim s w ithin th e fold o f Islam . A lthough a few o f th em did not declare th e ir conversion for th e fear o f th e ir relatives, they h a d em braced th e faith in all sincerity.* U nfortunately no carefu l records o f th e individualistic m issionary activities o f Chishti sheikhs could be kept b u t alm ost
H e belonged to O u d h , his birth-place being village N agram in Lucknow d istric t. 2. Maklubat-i-fCaltmi, lettei No. 76, p. 60 3. Ib id , No. 80. p. 62 4. Tarikh Mashrfiikh-i-Chisht, p. 303 1

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of

I s l a m ic

s p ir it

all th e historians a re unanim ous on the point th a t these m en o f G od endow ed w ith piety an d religious zeal h ad , through th e ir ow n personal interest in th e spread o f Islam , and inspired w ith a divine call, succecded in converting a large num ber o f Indians to th e faith o f th e Prophet. T h ere is also little doubt th at this g reat display o f m issionary zeal was the h an d iw o rk o f the early precursors o f th e Chishtiyah o rd er in In d ia .
Educational Endeavours

The im portance accorded to the acquisition o f knowledge by K h w aja N izam ud-d ln and his other disciples is illustrated by th e in terest shown by K hw aja F a rid ud-dln in the edification o f his sp iritu al vicegerants. K h w aja N izam u d -din A ulia5 as well as Sheikh S iraj u d -d ln t U th m an o f O u d h , the founder o f the fam ous C h ish ti m onastery of Pan d w ah , never conferred the h a b it o f spiritual successorship on any disciple until he had attain ed the requisite educational sta n d a rd . T h e result o f it w as th a t th e edification o f soul was accom panied by th e cultiva tion o f m in d a n d this process continued till the Chishtiyah o rd e r itself showed signs o f decline. An em inent disciple o f K hw aja N izam u d -d ln was M au lan a Sham s ud-din Y ahya w ho was an accom plished scholar o f his tim e. In a couplet Sheikh N aslr u d-din Chiragh-i-Dehli s a y s : W ho gave thee life eternal, I enq uired from learning ; Stiam s u d -d in Y ahya, she cam e out h astening. A m ong the disciples o f Sheikh N aslr ud-din Chiragh-i-Delhi, Q azI A bdul M u q ta d ir K in d i (d. 791) was a n eru d ite scholar who left such renow ned m en o f learning as M au lan a K hw ajgi of D elhi (809 A .H .) an d Sheikh A hm ad o f T h anesw ar (d. 820 A .H .) an d Sheikh S hah ab u d -d ln A hm ad ibn U m a r o f D aulatabad (d. 849 A .H .), a u th o r o f Sharah Kafiyah, who occupies a em inent place am ong the scholars o f m edieval In d ia . T h e last m entioned was a student o f both M au lan a K hw ajgi and Q azI 1A bdul M u q ta d ir K in d i. Com m entaries o f Sharah Kajiyah were la te r w ritten by such renow ned scholars as cA llam a G azrum and M ir G hiyath ud-dln M ansur S hirazi. W hen Sheikh Shahab

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u d -d ln fell seriously ill, Sultan Ib ra h im S h arq l took a cup o f w ater as a token o f sacrifice an d prayed thus to God : M y L ord, this prince o f scholars is the p rid e o f m y kingdom . I f T h o u has o rd ain ed h im to die, accept m y life in his. b e h a lf. A nother distinguished m an o f learning belonging to the ChishUjah o rd e r was M au lan a Jam al-ul-A ulia Chishtl o f K o rah (d . 1047 A .H .) A m ongst his students th e most noted for their learning w ere M au lan a L u tf u llah o f K o ra h , Saiyid M u ham m ad T irm izl o f K alp i, Sheikh M u h a m m a d R ash id o f Ja u n p u r a n d Sheikh Y asin o f B anaras. M au la n a L u tf u llah was succeeded by such illustrious scholars as M a u la n a A h m ad o f A m ethl (also know n as M ulla Jeew an ), Q a z l A lim u llah an d M a u la n a cAli A sghar o f K annauj. T h e edu catio n al sem inary o f th e T lla M asjid in Lucknow , once fam ous thro u g h o u t In d ia , was headed by Shah P lr M uh am m ad (d, 1085 A .H .) w ho was also spiritually united to the Chishtiyah o rd e r. Sim ilarly, the o rig in ato r o f JViiSmiyah curriculum enjoying w orldw ide fam e was M u lla N izam ud-d ln o f F iran g l M a h a l (d. 1161 A .H .) whose followers an d descendants belonged to the Chishtiyah fra tern ity . T hese Chishii scholars, o f w hom m any w ere o f such m erit an d stature as to be reg ard ed m en o f o utstanding m erit am ong the scholars o f th e ir tim e, strengthened the trad itio n s o f deep learning an d caused it to spread fa r a n d w ide w ithin th e country. T h e chroniclers o f In d ia have acknow ledged th e v aluable co n trib u tion m ad e to the cause o f education by th e Chishtiyah m onastaries o f Pandw ah, G ulb arg a, M anikpur, S aloan an d o th er places w hich also find a m ention in the letters w ritten to th e ir contem poraries by N u r Q jitb -i-c A lam , J a h a n g ir A sh raf S am nani and Shah K allm u llah o f J a h a n a b a d .
The Decline o f the Chishtiyah Order

Before we conclude this fascinating story o f th e golden era o f Chishtiyah o rd e r in In d ia , it appears necessary to throw light on its decay w hich was set in w ith th e passage o f tim e, as was the case w ith oth er intellectual an d reform ative m ovem ents. T he Chishtiyah o rd er, a n d , for th a t m atter,: every other m ystical

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ord er, cam e into existence through a deep attach m en t o f m ind and h e a rt to w ard G od. These m ovem ents tended to gather them selves aro u n d m en o f piety a n d spiritual gifts, but, in course o f tim e, they degenerated into a cold form alism o f custom ary rituals a n d form ulas. In this case too, the m ovem ent w hich started w ith th e cultivation o f religious experience through lovedivirje an d piety, spirit o f sacrifice an d hum anity, m editations and p ray er a n d m issionary zeal was ultim ately overtaken by these three-fold e rra tic tendencies. (1) An exaggerated belief in the doctrine o f pantheistic m onism , form ulation o f its intellectually subtle defini tions an d th e ir propagation. (2) F req u en t m usical recitations accom panied by w hirling and ecstatic transports. ,(3) E v er increasing celebrations o i t Urs on the occassion o f d e a th anniversaries o f th e saints w hich transgressed the lim its o f Sharicah. T h e very un-Islam ic customs an d creeds w hich w ere sought to be reform ed by the early reform ers o f indefatigable m issionary spirit an d zeal hailing from th e fa r off com ers o f I ra n and T u rk istan becam e, indeed, by a n irony o f fate, such a n insepar able p a rt o f the later-d ay mystic rituals th a t it has now becom e difficult fo r the non-M uslim s to distinguish them from the religi ous practices o f other polytheistic creeds. T h e unalloyed m onotheism or Tawhld, th e corner-stone o f Islam , w as trans form ed into pantheistic m o n ism ; the p ath o f the P rophet zea lously tro d d e n by th e Chishti precursors becam e a sign and symbol o f those follow ers o f orthodox Islam w ho w ere bran d ed as form alists a n d opponents o f m ysticism. T h e Sharfah and m ysticism m ark ed such a com plete p a rtin g o f th e ir ways th at the tw o cam e to be re g a rd e d as opposed to each other. T he use o f m usical instrum ents, fo rb id d en by th e early Chishti saints, w ere introduced in m usical recitations by the late r mystics but th e d eep a n d re a l sp iritu al experience th ro u g h absorption in the rem em brance o f G od took flight from th eir concourses. R enunciation o f w orldly desires an d appetites, chosen by the

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anchorites o f old as th e ir distinctive m ark, gave place to the pomposity o f g ran d an d stately cerem onials. A nd, perhaps, an even g reater tragedy, resulting from these corrupting influences has been th a t th e sublim ated souls who h a d dedicated th e ir lives to bring the errin g h um anity back to the overlordship o f God from the entanglem ents o f w orldly desires an d m aterial benefits them selves becam e th e objects o f w orshipful ad o ratio n fo r th e ir m isguided followers. T he om niscient L ord has really addressed a w arning to these very m isguided folk in these w ords o f th e S cripture : I t is not (possible) for any hu m an being unto w hom A llah h a d given th e Scripture an d w isdom an d the prophet hood th a t he should afterw ard s have said unto m ankind : Be slave o f m e instead o f A lla h ; but (w h at he said w a s ) : Be ye faith fu l servants o f th e L o rd by v irtu e o f your con stant teaching o f th e S cripture an d o f youi constant study thereof. A nd he com m anded y o u not th a t ye should take the angels an d th e prophets for lords. W ould he com m and you to disbelieve a fte r ye h a d su rre n d e re d (to A llah) ?n

1. Q.. 111:79-80

MAKHDUM.UUMULK

SHEIKH SHARAF UD-DIN ifAHJfA MANERI

Makhdum-uI-Mulk

SHEIKH SHARAF UD-DIN YAHYA MANERI

I From Birth to Adulthood

K now n popularly as M akhdtim -ul-M ulk B iharl, his nam e w as A hm ad ibn Sheikh Y ahya, title S h a ra f ud-din, a n d he claim ed his descent from one o f the P rophets uncles, Z u b air ibn A bdul M u ttalib , belonging to the H ashim ite clan o f the Q u ra ish o f M ecca. H is g ran d fath er, M a u la n a M u h am m ad T a j u d -d ln , a contem porary o f S hah ab ud-d ln G hori, was a celebrated scholar an d mystic w ho h ad em igrated to M an y ar1 in B ih ar from the tow n o f A l-K h alll2 in Syria. M au lan a T aj u d -d ln rem ained for some tim e a t M aner, w here he succeeded in converting quite a large num ber o f persons to I s la m ; but he ultim ately retu rn ed to A l-K halll, leaving his fam ily a t M an er. T h e m ate rn a l g ran d -fath er o f A hm ad S h a ra f u d -d ln , Sheikh S hahab u d-din Ja g J j I (T h e light o f the w orld) was also a
1. T h e town is presently know n as M aner, b u t IbrS him Q aw w Sm FSrUqi, w ho w role Farhang Ibrahimi betw een 862 A. H . a n d 879 A. H , gives its nam e as M anyar. A l-K halil, draw ing its n am e from th e P ro p h e t Ib rah im (A braham ) who is s ta te d to be b u ried th ere , is a t a distance o f a bout 24 kilom etres from Jeru salem T h e tow n now form s p a r t o f Jo rd a n .

2.

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renow ned m ystic Sheikh of Suharwardiyah order. Belonging to K ashghar, he had come dow n to Ja th li,1 a village about 5 kilom eters from P atna. A spiritually anim ated soul reputed for his pietyj he too cam e o f the lineage o f Im am Husain. A hm ad S h a ra f ud-dln was thus a lineal descendant o f the Prophet from his m others side also. A hm ad S h a fa f u d -d ln was born on the last Friday o f S h a'ab an , 661 A. H . a t M aner. H e had three o th er brothers whose nam es w ere Sheikh K halil u d-dln, Sheikh J a lil ud-din an d Sheikh H ab ib u d -d ln .
Early Education

T h e system o f education followed in those days required th e students o f prim ary stage to cram the text o f the prescribed books including some short lexicons so as to enable them to store up a copious vocabulary in th e ir m ind. T h e system, however, entailed unnecessary labour an d wastage o f the tim e o f children. A hm ad S h a ra f u d-dln deplored the system in Mcadan-ulMcFarii: W hen I was a child my teachers got m e to learn by h eart a num ber o f books like those on infinitive nouns, the first p a rt o f Mifiahul~Lughnt, and sim ilar o th e r books. W e were required to learn these w ord by w ord and repeat them . Instead o f these books, they could have better got the Q u r an fixed in our m em ory.5,4 U nfortunately his memoirs o r the biographical accounts n eith er preserve th e nam es o f his earlier teachers nor the books A hm ad S h a ra f ud -d ln h ad to study at M aner. 'I t seems th a t he com pleted his education up to secondary stage in his
1. The author of Sirat-us-Sharaf writes that the place was captured by the Muslims in 576 A. H ., 12 years before SultSn ShahSb ud-din Ghori won the final battle against Prithviraj at Tarain. This raises the question whether Muslims had extended their settlements to the bounds of Bihar and Bengal even before SultSn ShahSb ud-dln Ghori laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India. The question, however, needs a deeper probe by the historians. 2. Mafad an-ul Ma(anl, p. 43

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h o m eto w n .
Further Education

Before A hm ad S h a ra f ud-dln could leave M an er for fu rther education elsewhere, Providence afforded him an opportunity to come in contact w ith a reputed scholar and pedagogue o f hi* tim e, M aulana S h a ra f ud-din Abu T ow am ah, w ho had to leave Delhi because o f the K in g s displeasure somehow incurred by him . It is stated th a t certain academ icians, jealous o f M aulana S h a raf ud-dln, had brought him into discredit w ith Sultan G hiyath u d -d ln Balban. M au la n a S h a ra f ud-dln decided to m igrate to the b o rd er town o f Sonargaon1 on the eastern fringe o f the then M uslim K ingdom in India. O n his way to Sonargaon he stopped for a few days at M aner. T h e inhabi tants o f M aner, on com ing to know of the Maulana*s worth and ability flocked to pay respect to him . Y oung A hm ad S h a raf ud-dln was also highly impressed by the piety and learning o f M aulana S h a ra f ud-dln.3 H e requested his pat ents to let him accom pany the M aulana to Sonargaon so as to undergo his schooling a t the feet o f th e M aulana. Speaking o f his teacher, in Khivan-i-Pur Ni'amat, write* A hm ad S h a ra f ud-dln : M aulana S h araf vtd-din was an erudite scholar, without a peer, whose fam e had travelled to the four corners o f In d ia . 3 S h3h Shucaib F ird au si relates in Manaqib-ul-Asfia th a t A hm ad S h araf u d-din w as so assiduous at his studies th a t he did not like to spend a m om ent aw ay from it. As the repast w ith others norm ally took a little m ore tim e which A hm ad S h araf ud-din loathed to waste, his teacher h a d to perm it him
I SonSrgaon was tlien the seat of the Provincial Government of East Bengal Now an insignificant place across the river Braharnputra in Dacca district, and known by the name of Painam, the ruins of its dilapidated buildings and mosques tell the story of its past splendour. T he famous national high-way constructed by Sher Shsh Suri term ina ted in the east at SonSrgaon. 2. Manaqib-ul-Asfia 3. KhwSn-i-Pur M*amat, p. 15

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to take his food alone in his own room .1 I t has been reported th a t he was so occupied in his studies th a t he never went through th e letters sent to him by his family m em bers, lest these m ig h t cause him some Anxiety o r distraction from his studies.2 H av in g tau g h t him all the then prevalent sciences, religious a n d discursive, M a u la n a S h a ra f u d-dfn suggested him to learn som ething about alchem y too, but A hm ad excused him self by say in g : E ducation o f religious sciences would suffice f o r m e . M au lan a S h a ra f u d -d ln h ad such a high regard for his talented disciple th a t he offered the h and o f his d aughter to him . D uring A h m ad s stay a t SonSrgaon, his wife gave birth to a son whom he nam ed Zakl ud-din.
Ahmad Returns Home

A hm ads fath er, Sheikh Y ahya M anerl died on the 11th o f Shacaban , 690 A. H . H aving received the news at Sonargaon, A hm ad S h a ra f ud-dln hastened back to M aner with his son Z akl ud-dln. As th e au th o r o f Manaqib-ul-Asfia says, Ahm ad left his son u n d er th e care o f his own m other and begged h er to allow h im to leave the place for good. H e m ade his way to D elhi w ith the intention o f gaining spiritual insight under the su fi sheikhs at D elhi. I t was th e y ear 690 A. H . o r 691 A .H . w hen A hm ad S h araf u d -d in set out fo r D elhi w ith his brother Sheikh Ja lll ud-din. I t seems th a t th e careful guidance o f his learned teacher had enabled A hm ad S h a ra f ud-dln' to recognise the w orth o f the mystics by th e ir piety an d spiritual attainm ents. H e paid visits to nearly all the th en su fi divines o f D elhi but was impressed by none except K hw aja N izam ud-dln A ulia3. F or the other mystics o f D elhi, his com m ent w a s : I f this is spiritual preceptorship, I, too, can claim to be a mystic m entor. 3 K hw aja N izarn ud-dln A ulia5 showed due courtesy to A hm ad. They

1. Manaqib-ul-Asjid, pp. 131-32 2. Strat-us-Sharaf, p. 46 ; Nuzhat vl-Khauatir, Vol. II , p. 9 S. Manaqib-ul Asfia, p. 321

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h a d discussion on some lite ra ry topic a n d th e K h w aja was im pressed by A h m a d s replies to the questions asked by him . H ow ever, as his b iographers rep o rt, th e K h w aja rem arked, aftei A hm ad h a d tak en leave o f h im : H e is a haw k soaring high in th e sky, b u t fate has not earm ark ed h im to my lo t. 1 A hm ad S h a ra f u d -d in then d irected his course to P anipat w here he m et Bil cA ll Q a la n d a r. b u t he left h im saying : An attra c te d devotee th a t he is, he cannot guide others. 2
Sheikh N ajib ud-diu Firdausi

A hm ad S h a ra f u d -d in cam e back d ish eartened from D elhi an d P anipat. H is eld er b ro th er Sheikh J a lll u d-din, how ever, suggested him to see K hw aja N ajib u d -d ln F ird au si a n d told him ab o u t the distinctive features o f his o rd e r. A hm ad rep lied : T h e one w ho is th e pivot o f spiritu al perfection a t D elhi (m eaning K hw aja N izam u d-dln AuJia5) sent m e back w ith a tra y o f betels. W h at shall I g ain by m eeting othfers ? But, on th e insistence o f his b ro th er, he m ade u p his m in d to betake h im self to D elhi once m ore. As he related la te r on, he found h im self in a flutter, a n d profusely persp irin g w hen he got near K h w aja N ajib u d -d ln F irdausi. H e says th a t he h a d never h a d a sim ilar experience e a rlie r on m eeting any o th er mystic. As soon as K hw aja F ird a u si saw A hm ad, be s a i d : C hew ing betels an d carry in g betel-leaves in your h an d k e rc h ief you have com e to see m e, an d still you presum e yourself to be a n spiritual g u id e ! A hm ad em itted th e betel he was chew ing a n d sat dow n bew ildered as i f suddenly aw akened to a n unthought-of tru th . A fter a w hile, he requested K hw aja N ajib ud-dln to accept h im u n d e r his sp iritu al preceptorship. T h e K hw aja graciously agreed to his reqnest b u t sent h im back a fte r taking th e befit from h im .3.

1. Maniqib-ul-Asfia, p . 321 2. Ibid., p. 132 3. Ibid., p. 132

II
The Firdausiyah Order in India
Sheikh Shahab ud-dln Umar Suharvvoidi, the celebiated author of the Awarif-ul-Mal'atif and founder o ithe Suhmwordijah oider of stifism, pursued his fitst studies of mysticism under his uncle Kltwaja Zia ud-din Abul Najlb *Abdul Qadir Suhaiwardl (tl. '>63 API.). Born at Khwarazm, the latter occupied an eminent place amongst the mystics of his time. One of his piotnincnt disciples, wlto had also been favoured with the habit of spiritual succession by his mentor, was Ahmad ibn Umar. Popularly known by the name of Khwaja Najm ud-dln K ubrl, Ahmad il>n ( Ujnar, too, was a venerable man of God, to whom Sheikh Shahab ud-dln Suharwardi presented his famous mystical tract which is qo this day a source of inspiration for travellers on the path of (mysticism. It is related that Khw&ja Najm uddin Kuhra blessed the work and prayed to God to grant it im mortal fame. Immersed in rapturous love and divine contemplation, Khwaja Kajm ud-din Kubra possessed a natural gift of express ing the deepest mysteries of sufism with unrivalled insight and power. The author of Manhqib-ul~Asftn writes : He uscd to expound the <ubtle points and delicate prob lems of Tawkld (Unity), Ma'-iifat (knowledge), Tarlqat (pathway if mysticism) and Haqiqut (truth). He has left many works, both in pro>e and poetiy, in the Arabic and Persian languages of which one entitled Tubsaiah and another a tract explaining

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the aids necessary to conduct the traveller on the path o f m ysti cism a re popular in In d ia . 1 Shucaib F irdausi has quoted, in the Manaqib-ul-Asfia, a Pew odes o f K hw aja N ajm ud-din K u b ra w hich, with the inner light o f a tru e mystic, sing the song o f the sweet call o f the Beloved. K hw aja N ajm ud-d in K u b ra died as a m artyr fighting bravely against the invading Mongols on the 10th o fja m a d a -u lU la, 610 A .H . In the line o f his spiritual successors Sheikh M ujid ud-din B aghdadi,2 Sheikh Safad ud-din H am uya, Baba K am al Ju n aid l, Sheikh S aif ud-dln cAli L anah, Sheikh S aif uddin Bakhirzi, Sheikh Najm ud-din R azi, Sheikh Ja m al u d -din M ubkl and M a u la n a B aha5 ud-din attained prom inence. T he auth o r o f ManSqib-ul-Asfiu relates th a t K hw aja F a rid ud-din A ttar, the famous Persian poet, was also united in the bond of spiritual allegiance to K hw aja N ajm ud-dln K u b ra.3
Ingress o f Kubraviyah Order in India

K hw aja N ajm ud-dln K u b ra s o rd er o f mysticism gained entrance in In d ia through three distinct sources. T he progress o f Islam was greatly advanced in K ashm ir with the a rriv al o f A m ir Saiyid All H am adani,* in 780 A .H ., when the g reater p a rt o f its population em braced Islam .5 Sheikh H am ad an i was the spiritual vicegerent o f Sheikh S h araf ud-din MamQd ibn A bdullah who was connected to K hw aja N ajm ud-din K u b ra thro u g h four connecting links. T he mystics o f the o rd er o f Saiyid All H am ad an i flourished in K ashm ir by the end o f the eleventh century a fte r H ijrah. Sheikh Yakub S a rfi (d. 1003 A .H .), belonging to th e H am a d a n i o rd er, was an accom plished scholar o f exegesis an d T rad itio n s and the teacher o f Im am R ab b a n i M ujadid A lf T h an i. Mystics o f the H am ad an i order are still to be found in K ashm ir.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Manaqib-ul-AsfiS, p. 95 Author of Nlirsai-ul-*Abad Manaqib-ul-Asfia, p. 99 Died in 786 A. H The Religious Quest of India : pp. 55-56

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Saiyid Q,utb ud-din M uham m ad M ad m (d. 677 A .H .), another disciple o f K hw aja N ajm ud-dln K ubra, cam e to In d ia during th e reign o f S u ltan Q u tb ud-dln A ibak (or, according to certain annalists, in th e tim es o f S ultan Shams ud-din Iltutm ish) and was appointed Sheikh-ul-Islam at D elhi. L ater he conquered K a ra (M anikpur) and settled there.1 In the line o f his disciples Sheikh cA la ud-dln J iu rl propagated the order und er the n am e o f Junaidiyah in D eccan where its followers are still to be found at certain places. T h e th ird line o f th e spiritual descendants of K hw aja N ajm ud-dln K u b ra m ade its debut in In d ia through K hw aja Badr u d -d ln o f S am arkand, a noted disciple o f K hw aja S aif ud-din Bakhirzi, whose spiritual preceptorship took its nam e from his vicegerent Sheikh R ukn u d-dln Firdausi.
K h w ija Badr ud-dln Samarkand!

T he m ystical o rd er o f K hw aja B adr ud-dln which found entrance into the religious life o f In d ian Muslims through him laid stress, as its c h ie f characteristic, upon an all absorbing divine contem plation, annihilation o f the self, renunciation o f the w orld an d all it stands for, and concealm ent o f m iraculous powers. W hen K hw aja B adr ud-din cam e to In d ia, the Chish tiyah o rd e r was rapidly gaining popularity in the country to becom e the m ajor spiritual o rd er in In d ian Islam . K hw aja Q u tb u d -d ln B akhtiyar K aki was then the most celebrated saint an d a centre o f attraction for the vast m ajority o f In d ia n M uslims. I t was an extrem ely difficult task to gain adherents for a n o rd e r which dem anded concealm ent o f ones spiritual light from the public gaze. Shu4a ib F irdausi who belonged to th e Firdausiyah o rd e r has given, in Manaqib-ul-Asfia, the teach ings o f his Sheikh designed to gain a w arm mystical yearning
1. His lineal descendants include many divines, scholars and defenders of Islam such as ShSh (Alam ullah N aqshbandi, spiritual successor of Saiyid Adam Binnaurl, Saiyid Ahmad Shahid, KhwSja Ahmad of NasirSbSd and Maul&nfi Syed 'Abdul Hai, the author of Nuzhat-ulKawatir.

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and fellowship w ith G od in these words. He followed the w ay o f intim ate and personal love o f G od, and em phasised th e cultivation o f religious education as a bounden duty o f the mystics. H e dem anded th a t the injunc tions o f th e Sharfah should be acted upon for the sake o f gaining propinquity to God ; for, he used to say th a t knowledge w ithout action is valueless and action w ithout sincerity fruitless. H e advised his followers : N ever look forw ard to possess m iracu lous powers ; for unflinching submission to God constitutes the real blessing a n d opens the way to ecstatic illum inations.* T he Firdausiyah o rd er was founded and its aids an d rules form ulated in In d ia by K hw aja B adr ud-din S am arkandl an d his disciples. T h e laity as well as th e elect, before him , excepting those few whom God had w illed to be discerning, regard ed the Working o f m iracles as a pre-requisite o f spiritual preceptorship. As everybody knows, quite a num ber o f mystic saints w ere th ere in In d ia during th e tim es o f K hw aja Q u tb ud-dln Bakhtiyar K akl, as, for exam ple Sheikh-ul-Islam Baha* ud-dln Zakariya, Sheikh N ajm ud-dln Sughra, the Sheikh-ul-Islam o f D elhi, K hw aja B adr ud-dln S am arkandl, Sheikh-ul-Islam M o 'ln u d d ln SajazI, th e spiritual guide o f K hw aja Q u tb ud-dln Bakhtiyar K akl. . God m ay bless the souls o f all these saints but the popular regard o f th e masses enjoyed by K hw aja Q u tb ud-dln Bakhtiyar K akl was not shared by any one else. T h e reason for it was th a t the K hw S ja too often called forth spiritual powers' an d worked m iracles. 1 Explaining th e p ath of mysticism followed by the Firdausiyah order, Shuaib F ird au si adds : T h e way o f K hw aja B adr ud-dln S am arkandl differed from th at o f the other sufis o f In d ia. Some o f them were inspired and illum inated souls w hile others took to th e path o f spiritual travails an d contem plations, p rayer and penance. But the way o f K hw aja B adr ud-dln could be described as the State o f Love. A bsorbed, engulfed and self-effacing, and acting on
1. M anaqib-ul-A sfia, p. 122

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the mystic m axim to consider oneself dead even before the cessation o f life, these travellers o f the lovers path and w ander ers o f the spiritual realm cast aside all worldly relations and over step the ring o f existence a t the very first attem pt. T he way they put th e ir life at stake requires the traveller to be o f indo m itable courage and valour and only those who are ready to put off m ortality can tread this p ath . 1 K hw aja Badr ud-dln Sam arkand! took recourse to recitational auditions and occasionally fell in ecstatic transports. He died in the seventh century, perhaps a t the time when K hw aja Niz&m ud-din A ulia was still alive, but the year o f his death has not been m entioned by any biographer.2
Khwaja Rukn u d - d i n Firdausi

K hw aja R ukn ud-dln Firdausi was the favourite disciple an d vicegerent o f K hw aja B adr ud-dln Sam arkand!. K hw aja F irdausi pursued his studies o f mysticism from his very child hood u n d er th e care o f K hw aja Sam arkand!, and attained per fection in religious as well as m ystical disciplines. It was under him th a t the mystic o rd er o f K hw aja Sam arkand! cam e to be known as the Firdausiyah order. His was also a soul illum ined by divine effulgence an d rapturous transports, and like his spiritual guide, he too bade farewell to this fleeting world during th e life-time o f K hw aja N izam ud-din Aulia5.
Khwaja Najib ud-din Firdausi

Being the nephew o f K h w aja R ukn ud-dln Firdausi,

1. Manaqib-ul-Asfia, p. 123 2. The year of his death given in Khazinatul Asfia is 716 A. H. but the author of Jfuzhatul Khw&tir does not consider it to be correct, for he had died, according to him, earlier before the close o f the seventh century. 3. The author o t fChazin/ilui Asfia gives the year of his death as 724 A.H. but this does got appear to be correct, as his spiritual successor Sheikh Najib ud-din Firdausi died in 691 A.H. MaulanS *Abdul H ai appears to be correct in holding the view expressed in Nuzhatul Khawatir that KhwSja Rukn ucl-d>n died by the close of the seventh century after Hijrah-

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K hw S ja N ajib ud-d ln h a d rem ained u n d e r the p ate rn a l tutelage o f his Sheikh from his childhood an d , a fte r th e d ea th o f his m entor, continued to keep alight th e lam p o f Firdausiyah o rd e r as his successor. H e not only atta in e d an em inence in the practice o f spiritual life b u t also guided and re a re d a disciple w ho reached the highest degree o f sanctity, propagated the religious o rd e r o f his spiritual guides over h a lf a century in the eastern p a rt o f the country an d , th ro u g h the excellent precepts o f his conduct, -interior illum ination an d intellectual attainm ents proved him self a peer o f such elevated souls as c A in-ul-Q udhat H am a d a n i, K hw aja F a rid u d -d ln A ttar an d M au lan a J a la l udd in R um i. S h u 'aib F ird au si writes about K hw aja N ajib udd in in Matiaqib-ul-Asfia D isdaining fam e and popularity, he kept him self concealed behind the veil o f obscurity. V erily, those who have reached the highest degree o f sanctity keep themselves so h id d en from the public gaze th a t nobody except God knows anything about them . H e (K hw aja N ajib ud-din) had m any a disciple who h ad reached the stage o f inw ard illum ination. M au lan a t A lam ,1 the au th o r o f FalSwah Talarkhaniyah, was his disciple who has penned beautiful odes g iving expression to the u n fathom able depth o f D ivine Essence, T h e spiritual attainm ents o f K hw aja N ajib ud-din F ird au si are hidd en behind a mysterious veil. 2

1.

MauISn5 Farid ud-din 'S iam o f Indrapat. H e wrote Fatawdh Tatarkkanijiah in 777 A .H ., but named it after his friend Amir TatSr KhSn. Firoz ShSh winded the book to be named after its author, b u t Farid ud-din preferred to remain a ghost writer. He died perhaps in 786 A.H. 2. Menagib-ttl-Asfiii, p. 126

Ill
Life of Self-Discipline
Im m ediately a fte r taking the pledge o f allegiance to K hw aja N ajjb ud-din F ird au si, says the author o f Mariaqib-ulAsfiB, S h a ra f ud-d ln was g ranted perm ission to propagate the religious discipline o f the Firdausiyah order. H ow ever, S h araf ud-dln im plored the K hw aja . I have not had the opportunity to rem ain w ith you even fo r a few days nor have I h ad any train in g o f the mystic discipline from you, then, how would I be able to shoulder this onerous responsibility? But the K hw aja assured him th a t since the robe o f vicegerency has been conferred on h im th ro u g h a divine presage, he w ould be guided in his p ath by divine inspiration. T h ereafter the K hw aja bade him farew ell and said, W hatever news you get in the way, do not retu rn to m e. O nly a few days a fte r S h a ra f ud-din h ad betaken the journey, he received th e news th a t K hw aja N ajib ud-dln had p u t off his earthly body. H ow ever, as alread y bidden by his m entor, S h a ra f u d -d in continued on his journey to M aner.1
State of Love

W hen S h a ra f u d -d in d ep arted from K hw aja N ajib ud-din he felt his h e a rt ren t by a disquietude o f spritual agony. It appeared th at the fire o f love, a violent affection o f God had
1. Manaqib-ul-Asfia, pp. 132-33

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penetrated into th e recesses o f his very being. H e says : N o sooner th a n I m et K hw aja N ajib ud-dln, an agonising disquiet seated itself in m y h eart and it w ent on increasing w ith the passage o f tim e. 1 W hen S h a ra f u d -d ln reach ed Behiah,'- he happened to h e a r the trill of a peacock, w hich so stirred the feeling o f divine love in him th a t he breathlessly betook him self to a jungle. H is brothers an d friends, who accom panied him on his way back hom e, m ad e a vigorous search but could not find any trace o f him . At last, they retu rn ed w ith the w a rra n t o f vicegerency issued by K hw aja N ajib ud-d ln and other sacred relics given to him by the K hw aja and m ade these over to his m other.8
In the R ajgir Forest

Sheikh S h a ra f ud-din rem ained in the forest o f Beliiah b u t nobody w as able to know his whereabouts. T h ereafter, he m oved on to th e R ajg ir4 forest, w here he was seen once o r tw ice but none o f his acquaintances ever succeeded in m eeting

1. Maniqib-ul-AsfiS, p. 133 2. Behiah is about 48 kilometers from Maner, to the west of Arrah in Shahabad district. 3Manaqib-ul-Asfia, p. 133 4. The RSjglr hills consist of two parallel ranges which run from south west to north-east, and seldom exceed 1C00 feet in height, are for the most part rocky and covered with a low jungle. (The Imperial Gazetteer of-India. Vol. X X , p. 54). T he place was identified by Dr. BuchnanHamilton with Rajagriha, the residence of Buddha and capital of ancient Magadha, and by General Cunningham with Kusa-Nagarapura (the town of Kus grass) visited by Hiuen TsUn and called by him Kiu-slu-lo-pu-le. Hiuen Tsiang gives an account of the hot springs found at this place. O f the five hills, first is identified by General Cunningham as Wehbars mountain of Pali annals, on the side of which was the famous Sattapani Cave, where the first Buddhist synod was held in 543 BC. The second hill R atnagiri, is th at called by Fa H ian The Fig Tree Cave where Buddha m editated. (The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. X X I, Oxford, 1908, p. 72.)

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him. T he forest and hills o f K ajglr have always been ,a favourite resort o f recluses o f India. G autam B uddha had selected these very forests for his m editations. D uring th^ days o f Sheikh S h a ra f u d -d ln s stay in R ajglr, a num ber of H indu yogis and herm its h ad gone into seclusion to this place. T h e biographers o f Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln have given accounts of the discussisHs- Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln had w ith these yogis. A closet by th e side o f a hot w ater spring, known as M akhum K und, can still be seen in this forest. A lthrough the period o f twelve years Sheikh S h araf ud-dln lived in the forest, he had given him self up to austerities, intense m editation and arduous religious observances. Passing his days in a state m arked by excitation o f heart, agitation and bew ilderm ent, he appears to have totally lost the consciousness of his own self by drin k in g deep the cup o f love divine. T he leaves o f the trees were all he ate in those days. Speaking o f the most austere acts to w hich he had given him self up in those days, he once told his disciple Q a z l Z ahid : T h e mortifications I h ad undergone would have m elted even the hills, but o f w hat use h ad these been to S h a ra f ud-dln. 1 It seems th at he was not satisfied with the utility o f w hat he had achieved by these arduous disciplines. O nce he said th a t d u ring the w inter season, when it was biting cold, he took bath in cold water, instead o f taking advantage o f the leave granted by the S k a 'f ah for such occasions, and the result was th a t he fell unconscious and missed the daw n prayer. S tay in B ih ar D uring the days Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln was still residing in the R ajg lr forests, a disciple o f K hw aja N izam ud-dln A ulia5 bearing the nam e ol his m entor but known as M aulana Nizam M aula, cam e to know about S h araf ud-dln from certain persons who had m et the Sheikh in th at forest. H e m et Sheikh S h a raf ud-dln along w ith a few o f his disciples. G reatly impressed by
1. Sirat-us-Sharaf, p. 72

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the Sheikh, M aulanS N izam M aula often used to repair to the jungle to visit the Sheikh In view o f the inconvenience M aulanS N izam M aula and his friends had to put up, Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln suggested to them : Your visit causes m e a lot o f anxiety for the forest is too dangerous. You people should b etter rem ain in the city w here I would come on Fridays fo r prayers and meet you. T he proposal was accepted and the Sheikh thus used to have a b rief sitting with M aulana Nizam M aula and others on each Friday. A fter some tim e, the adm irers o f the Sheikh decided to construct a hut a t the place th e m onastery exists now , w here Sheikh S h a raf ud-dln used to take rest for a w hile after F rid ay prayers o r stayed for a day or tw o sometimes. M aulanS Nizam M aula got the thatched hut converted into a building. W hen the construction was com pleted M aulana N izam M aula invited his friends to a feast and requested Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln to grace the, alta r carpet. T he Sheikh accepted the request but re m a rk e d : Friends, your rendezvous has led me to this pantheon. 1 T he monastery was constructed between 721 to 724 A. H. d uring the reign o f G hiyath ud-din Tughlaq.* Sultan M uham m ad T ughlaq ascended the throne after his fath er in 725 A. H . H im self an accomplished scholar, he was always too desirous o f m aking the sufi saints come out o f their seclusion for bringing about m oral upliftm ent o f the populace. H e forced K hw aja N asir ud-din Chiragh Dehli to accom pany his forces in his last expedition. H e also forced other disciples o f K hw aja Nizam ud-d ln A ulia, M aulana F akhr ud-dln Z a rrad i, M aulana Shams u d -d in Y ahya and others, to deliver sermons a n d urge th e people to participate in the holy wars. H e even m ad e Sheikh Q u tb ud-dln M unaw w ar of Hansi to come all the w ay from his m onastery to Delhi. W hen he cam e to know of Sheikh S h a ra f u d-dlns abandoning his seclusion after years of retirem ent in (he R ajg lr forests, he sent an order to the
1. 2. Man&qib-ut-Asfia, p. 134

Sfrat-us-Shrtrnf, p. 81

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G overnor o f Bihar, M ajad-ul-M ulk, th a t a monastery should be got constructed for him an d the pargana o f R ajg ir given to him for the upkeep o f the monastery and his disciples. T h e king sent a B algharian1 prayer-m at to the Sheikh and ordered the G overnor to force Sheikh S h araf ud-din to accept the royal g ran t, in case he was not inclined to accept the offer. M ajad-ul-M ulk took the im perial edict to the Sheikh and said, I d are not force your honour to do w hat the K ing has ordered but if you do not accept his offer, it would be construed as my insubordination and incompetence. Everybody is aw are o f the K in g s tem peram ent and only God knows w hat he would do w ith m e. T aking pity on the perplexity o f M ajad-ul-M ulk, the Sheikh yielded to his request, albeit unw illingly, but when Firoz Shah T u g h laq m ounted the throne, he returned the jS g lr.1 H ow ever, the construction o f the m onastery was taken in hand, an d , to borrow the w ords o f Z am ir ud-dln in Slrat-us-Skaraf; T h e construction o f the m onastery was started and it was completed w ithin a short period. M ajad-ul-M ulk invited all the mystics and disciples o f K hw aja N izam ud-dln A ulia5 and num erous other friars for a sitting o f m usical recitation which continued for pretty long tim e in the assembly hall. In another portion o f the m onastery, containing a gallery and a room, arrangem ents were m ad e for seating the elite. O n the Balgha rian prayer-m at sent by the K ing, M akhdQm Y ahya M aneri was seated. W hen a w andering friar who happened to be there came n ear S h a ra f ud-dln, the latter said : I t s all for you. I had simply to comply w ith the orders o f M ajad-ul-M ulk, for I had no choice but to obey him who wields the authority. W hatever you see here is for the m endicants and, so far as I am concerned, I do not consider m yself even w orthy o f Islam , m uch less to grjace this p ra y e r-m a t. T h e m endicant re p lie d : M akhdum , who cares for this m onastery an d the prayer-m at? W hatever respect one pays
1 A town in the north of Turkistan 2. Manaqib-ul-Asfia, p. 135

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to you, it is because ot the T ru th . W e have com e here on account o f your latent spiritual qualities and' for your sake alone. Islam will flourish here an d gain strength through your blessings. T o this M akhdum S h a ra f ud-din Yahya. M aneri replied : W hatever these m endicants say finds the acceptance o f G o d .5 T hen he added : W hoever is him self a Prince com m ands and th e task is accom plished.
Spiritual Guidance of the People

F or m ore th a n h a lf a century (from 724 A .H . to 782 A .H ., when he died) M akhdGm Y ah y a M aneri continued to inspire spiritual and m oral zeal in the people. A ccording to the esti m ate o f Sheikh- H usain M uciz Shams o f Balakh, m ore th a n a hun d red thousand persons united themselves in the bond o f his spiritual paternity o f whom not less than th ree hundred attained spiritual illum ination and reached the highest degrees o f sanctity. N um erous yogis, it is related , w ere guided by him on the path o f mysticism after they had em braced Islam at his hands. T he congregations held by th e Sheikh, which were attended by per sons d raw n from all creeds and classes, as was the custom pre vailing in those days, served as lecture rooms providing guidance and instruction to the people. Persons desiring an exposition o f perplexing issues, raised questions in these m eetings an d got satisfactory answers. T hese gatherings never had any pre determ ined subject for discussion o r discourse ; the sufjs began th e ir sermons on w hatever issue they happened to be contem plating or the topic raised by others. But, alm ost always these discourses shed light on the hidden m eanings o f recondite truths an d intricate problem s o f mysticism. Z ain B adr A rabl, who has com piled the discourses o f Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln, says in his intro duction to the collection : In every gathering an d alm ost on each occasion, the disciples o f the Sheikh o r others attending the m eetings requested him to elucidate a certain issue p ertaining to th e Sharjah o r m ystic discipline. H a z ra t M akhdQm replied to every question in a very pleasant and convincing m anner, an d expounded the pith an d essence o f th e facts o f m ute

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reality. H e answ ered th e questions according7to th e ability o f the in q u irer in such a b rig h t an d cheerful way th a t it agreeably occupied the m ind o f th e listeners an d ad u m b ra ted those subtle facts w hich a re beyond the grasp o f hum an senses. 1 Som etim es a theological or mystic tract was read in these gatherings. M ak h d u m Y ahya M aneri used to throw light upon points o f special difficulty durin g th e course o f such readings. In this way he used to expound intricate issues pertaining to jurisprudence, T rad itio n s, exegesis and mysticism which were found instructive even by the learned disciples. A nother m ethod employed by h im for the m ental and m oral development o f his disciples, especially the learned ones, was to w rite them letters. Perhaps no other spiritual guide, except M ujadid A lf T h an !, has taken recourse to this educative m edium for the m ental edification and spiritual ennoblem ent o f the people. T h e forceful style o f M ak h d u m s w ritings, com bining giace and elegance, assigns a conspicuous place to his letters in the theo logical literature. In these he has expounded th e kernels or factors o f higher significance denoting the in ner sense o f unseen divine content o f things. H e exerted thereby a strong and potent influence an d inspired the people w ith a longing to attain the state o f exalted sp iritual integrity. In th e ir effectiveness, gracefulness and forcefulness o f expression there would perhaps be few compositions w orthy o f com parison w ith these letters in the entire Persian literatu re. T hus, in ad d itio n to those fortu nate persons to whom these letters were addressed, thousands have read them w ith interest dow n th e centuries a fte r the days o f M akhdum Y ahya M a n e r i; in the m onasteries these letters have been studiously perused and discussed, and they still hold the attention o f those who muse over th em in search o f the new dim ensions o f intuitive insight an d illum ination o f heart. It would be difficult to exaggerate the strength and vigour o f these letters w hich, notw ithstanding the lapse o f several centuries when they w ere w ritten , still preserve th eir freshness an d emo tional appeal.
1.

M a* a dan-ul-M a*am

IV
Character and Deportment
A conspicuous tr a it o f M akhdGm Y ah y a M an erls sublim e ch aracter was th e an n ih ilatio n o f his self in lovethe rew ard o f his austere devotional acts and religious trav ailsreflecting a deep, satisfying an d intim ate love w hich effaces the very exis tence o f the lover. Every w ord o f his letters and discourses signifies the earnest desire and passionate love o f G od thus des cribed by K h w ija N aqshband : W h at I desire most is to have no desire a t a ll. T his was th e p atrim ony o f the mystic o rd e r founded by K h w aja N ajm ud-d ln K u b ra , whose most w orthy successor was Sheikh S h a ra f u d -d ln Y ah y a M an eri. Shucaib F ird a u si relates th a t in a m eeting o f celebrated su.fi saints every one expressed th e desire cherished by him . W hen th e tu rn o f M akhdtim Y ahya M an eri cam e, he said : W hat I desire is th at I should rem ain unknown in this world as well as in th e w orld beyond. M akhdGm Y ah y a M a n e ri once gave expression to his own self-abandonm ent in these w o rd s : W holly overtaken by the illusions o f Satan, I know n eith er anything about my own self n o r find any trace o f Islam in m e. In a letter which M akhdtim Y ahya M aneri w rote to a friend, he laid em phasis on th e im portance o f shedding tears over o n es own vicious self. T h e letter, quoted here, perhaps th ro w s light on the conflagration consuming his own heart.

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T h e gnostics sw ear to G od th a t nothing is d e are r to God th a n bew ailing o f a m a n o v er th e failings o f his ow n se lf: therefore, let us le a rn how to lam ent an d bem oan from the precursor o f tru e faith, K h w a ja O w ais Q arn I, whose soul m ay be blessed by G od. H e who lam ents not always over his ow n self, O brother, is a claim ant oblivious o f th e D ay o f R e q u ita l; he is ju st a dead m eat whose h eart is crushed by h is longings. A nd w hat wistful longings have cast th e ir shadows over every h e a r t : everybody yearns for glory an d riches, au thority and pow er, pleasure and satisfaction, fam e a n d h o nour an d , along w ith all these, propinquity to G od as w e ll., But, by G od, this is impossible. 1 A nother letter w ritten by -M akhdum Y ahya M aneri to show th e way o f self dem olition depicts his ow n p o rtrait, for, the mystic saints w ere g o t hypocrites to preach w hat they themselves d id not practise., Since they strictly followed the Q uranic in ju n ctio n : N ever say w hat you d o not practise yourself, this letter m ust have been w ritten by M akhdum after attaining th e entelechy o f sp iritu al life. * Since you have reached the threshold o f yo u r L ord, your self should be cleansed o f all earthly defilements a n d desires. Even i f you don a thousand crow ns o f royalty, how w ould you conceal th e reality 9 f your selfyour beggarly countenance and forlorn com plexion. D ust th a t settles o v er a thing gets always washed aw ay : but th e gloominess o f your sublim inal self can never change itself, * In yet an o th er letter he plainly lam ents thus over h im self: W e a re ill-starred, afflicted an d abased ; greedy as hogs, we a re m ad a fte r o u r d e sire s; attuned to force o f h ab it, we are the negligent a n d heedless who witlessly m ove in a g ro o v e ; we are really listless an d th o u g h tless; and o u r presum ption th a t we follow Tawhld o r th a t w e tre a d the p ath of G od-m oved souls is sim ply a n indication o f o u r tem erity a n d crass ignorance. Even th e Jew s ai*d fire-worshippers, cathedrals and pantheons feel
1. U th letter 2. 27th letter

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asham ed o f us. 1 A supplication often recited by him expresses, in all inten sity and colour, his innerm ost thoughts an d feelings. A w eakling in T hy p a th I am , m y G od ; L ike a crippled an t, in a w ell I plod. W ithout any achievem ent, strength o r w ealth ; I have n eith er th e h eart to bew ail n o r patience to repose. D eprived o f faith , even th e w orld took leave o f m e ; Im poverished o f the soul, I cling to exterior form . N either a M uslim n o r a heathen, I w aver in m inds tw o ; Forlorn an d ab andoned, I know not w hat to do. I shed tears an d bem oan a lot, my L ord. E m pty-handed th a t I am , burdensom e is the task. In this prison o f bodily fram e, I have suffered a l o t ; Feckles has been m ade by exertion my labouring h e a rt. F ettered I sit in this prison (o f desires and s in s ) ; W ho else save T h ee can give m e a helping h a n d . C lear the obstacles (th a t block the) p a th o f m y s o u l; And let m y h eart be cleansed through flood o f tears. O n T h y p a th I have set my foot, though im m ersed in s in ; M ercy, m y G od, though I h ail from th e prison o f sin. H aving arriv ed a t the point o f an n ihilation w hich effaces the existence o f the lover, he was unconcerned w ith the acclam a tion and condem nation o f the people. In a letter he says : W h at have th e ecstatic's to lose o r g ain by th e ad ulation or denunciation o f the m u ltitu d e ? T o them these m ake little difference. T hey d o n o t consider him w orthy who is acclaim ed by the people n o r a fellow villified by th e masses is reg ard ed by them as w ic k e d : to them only he is virtuous who meets the ap p ro v a l o f the L ord a n d only he is vile who is censured by G od.
1. 31st letter

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As a m tu ra l outcom e o f his intoxication a n d losing his self in love divine, he was rew arded w i t h m iraculous powers like

other ecstatics. Incessant m iracles were worked bv him but he ever entertained an aversion for >iiacles o r the exhibition of s i mi l a r other acts w hich could be adduced as a proof o f his a t t a i n i n g the heights o f sanctity. Sliucaib Firdausi writes in Manaqih-id-Asfia' H is m iraculous powers very often called forth w onderful acts clearly beyond the operation o f n a tu ra l laws, but he was always so averse to m iracles th at he pleaded his incompetence to pei form such acts'. I f anybody insisted upon his help for the fulfilment o f his needs he used to refer him to M ila n Jalal D iw a n a . 1 T his was the tim e when credulous masses considered the m iraculous powers possessed by a saint as the only touchstone o f his sanctity and godliness. It is reported th at once a few persons brought some dead flies to him and said : A wellknown m axim runs : the Sheikh bestows life and death. T here fore, cause these flies to come to life a g a in . M akhdum Y ahya M aneri re p lie d : I am m yself helpless. H ow can I restore life to others ?
Excellent Morals

T he inspiration d raw n by the su fi saints from the prophetic light has ever been the most vital elem ent in shaping the life and ch aracter o f these m en o f God : the w arm th o f personal feeling fo r a prophet thus praised by God ; Lo ! Thou a rt of excellent ch aracter,2 linked them to him by a close personal affinity w hich transfigures all thoughts and governs all actions. It was this loving reg ard o f M akhdum Y ahya M an eri for the P rophet o f Islam w hich has been testified in these words by his b io g ra p h e r: T h e m o ral conduct of Sheikh S h ara f ud-din was the very im age o f the P ro p h ets ch a ra c ter. '*
1.
M nita q ib -id -A sfld , p . 137

2.
' > .

Q.. L X V I I I : 4
M andqib-ul-A .sfid, p. 13V

ch ara cter and u epo r tm en t

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And how m uch M akhdum Y ahya M aneri considered it essential to cast ones m orals and behaviour in the m ould of Prophets character is revealed by his letters w hich, in fact, bring forth his ow n m oral precepts and rules.of conduct. In tru th and reality virtuous conduct consists o f the m oral code followed by th e learned am ong the followers o f mystic path. T hey ad h ere to the injunctions of the Shan1ah and m easure the excellence o f th e ir perform ance w ith the yardstick o f Pro p h e ts conduct. W hosoever does not m ake a search for the rules o f the Sharf-ah can never hope to attain anything through the p ath o f m ysticism . 1 In another letter he says th a t the m ore one follows the path chalked out by the Shar\(-oh, the m ore one becomes virtuous in c o n d u c t; and the m ore one attains m oral excellence, the m ore one is loved by G od. F o r m oral rectitude is the bequest o f A dam and a gift fro m G od, th ere is nothing goodlier for the believer tlian virtuous code o f conduct nor an adornm ent as exquisite as this. Good m oral conduct really m eans acting on the precepts o f God an d th e Sharf-ah b rought by His P ro p h e t; for, the behaviour a n d deportm ent o f th e Prophet, on w hom be peace an d blessings, werie winsomely pleasing. W hoever claims to follow th e Prophet, should p a tte rn his life after h im . 2 T h e life sketch o f M akhdGm Y ahya M aneri depicted by his biographers shows th a t th e Constant aim o f his endeavours was to follow the Prophet o f Islam . In m oral conduct and behavi our, brotherly love an d compassion for his fellow beings, regard for the interests o f oth er people an d in consoling the broken h e arte d he had all the earm ark s o f the Prophets character.
Kindli ness

H e possessed a kindliness of heart th a t extended to all men, w hether friends or foes, in prosperity or in distress. In a letter w ritten by him he calls it an inborn virtue and m otivating
1. 2. 5 9 t h li t t e r I hid

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pow er o f th e gnostics an d m e n o f G od, perhaps, because he had him self im bibed this quality in the journey o f his spirit. D epicting the characteristics o f a tru e mystic he says : L ike th e glorious lam p o f the heaven his benevolence goes out to all, young an d old ; he rem ains hungry a n d unclad but feeds and clothes others. H e cares not for the injustice done to him n o r for the m alevolence o f those w ho are h ard upon him . Instead, he intercedes for them , repays goodness for evil and gives thanks for abuses. D o you know why does he do so ? Being him self saved an d secured, his h eart is filled w ith a desire to do good to all. Like th e sun w hich shines over m ountains and vales, his benevolence encompasses friends and foes alike ; in hum ility he is like the earth trodden by a l l ; in generosity he is like th e riv er whose lofty surge benefits the friends as well as enemies. Independent o f every attachm ent, the dow npour o f his benignity showers over the E ast as m uch as over the West. H e finds everything indw elling in God as m anifestations o f the sam e C reator and endued w ith qualities assigned by H im . W hoever lacks these qualities o f spirit cannot lay a claim to be a traveller on th e p ath o f mysticism. 1 M akhdum Y ahya M an eri was, like other mystic preceptors, an em bodim ent o f charity and benevolence. O verflow ing with th e m ilk o f hum anity he considered it a grievous sin to injure th e feelings o f others. O nce, when he was keeping a voluntary fast, a certain per son brought some present and begged him to partake it. M ak h d u m took it a n d said : O ne can m ake up for the broken fast but not for the broken h e a rt. H e always concealed the blemish o f others and if he was ever told o f the lapse o r m isdem eanour o f someone, he im m edi ately cam e out w ith an explanation on beh alf o f the person reported to have com m itted the misdeed. It has been related in Manaqib-id-Asfia th at once he had to jo in a congregational p rayer led by a m an who was a drunkard.
1. 24th letter

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Som ebody com plained about it but M akhdfim Y ahya M an eri replied : H e should not be d ru n k all the tim e. T h e com> plainant s a id : Yes, he ever rem ains drunk. But not durin g R a m a d h a n , was the reply given by M akhdum Y ahya M an eri.1
Severance of Worldly Ties

M akhdum Y ahya M an eri h a d reached th e stage w here the h e a rt is so full o f D ivine love th a t it displaces the love p f every t h i n else. H e h ad accepted the jaglr g ranted by Sultan M uham m ad T u g h laq in o rd e r to save M ajad-ul-M ulk from the w rath o f the S u ltan . H e retu rn ed the jsg ir as. soon as Sultan Firoz Shah T ughlaq ascended th e throne. I f the story related by Z am ir ud-dln in Sirat-us-Sharaj on the authority o f MBnis-ul-Qulub is correct, M akhdum Y ahya M aneri went all the the way from M aner to D elhi to retu rn th e royal edict granting the fief to him an d thereafter he never took any interest in the extension or renovation o f th e m onastery Sultan M uham m ad T u g h laq got constructed for him . Sheikh H am id ud-din was a close friend o f M akhdum Yahya M aneri. O nce be cam e to M akhdum in the m idnight. M akhdum cam e out an d sat dow n in the courtyard with him . A fter a w hile Sheikh H am id ud-d ln said, T h e courtyard w ill look nice i f this platform is extended. M akhdum Yahya M aneri im m ediately got up a n d replied, I thought th at you h ad come in th e dead o f night to seek solution o f some religious problem but I find th a t I was w rong. You w ant the platform to be extended. Actually you ought to have suggested th at this idol-house should be b rought to ru in s.2
Lofty Ideals

T he lofty ideals worthy o f a lifes endeavour upon which

1. 2. M anaqib-td-Asjia, p . 141 Sirat-us-Sharaj, p. 123

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M akhdum Y ahya M an eri h ad always had his eyes set, w ere the spur th a t m ad e him achieve true piety o f the soul. T his is am ply born e out by h is letters t o his friends a n d disciples whom lie always told .n at only those whose aim s w ere w orthy, aspira tions high, designs wise an d purposes steadfast could hop# to reach th e goal o f a soaring am bition. H ere is a letter in which he w rote to one o f his disciples : Howsoever spiritless you m ight be, my b ro th er, you ought to have courage to look upw ard. T here is nothing in th e w o rld th at can dam pen the eager desire o f a m an : the lofty aspirations o f m an are really too burdensom e even fo r the earth and heaven, em pyrean and th e m ighty T hrone, heaven and h e ll; and th at is why a poet says : N either fear they hell nor long for heaven ; M ad e o f a special texture is this group o f men. T hey have th eir grip on the Divine B ein g ; W hatever else is there, is below th e ir feet. Unless th e way is swept with the broom o f N o t ; H ow can ye find a way to the m ansion o f God. T h e exalted ideal o f a m an o f God needs the height o f heavens and the space o f universe for its flight o f am bition, and there is nothing m ore lofty and consecrated th an the am bition to attain the gnosis o f Suprem e Being. The am bition o f these God-m oved souls does not peram bulate round the K acaba or Bait-ul-Muqaddas n o r does it lim it its flight to the heaven and earth. Holiness be to God : W hat a noble task is this ! T he m an is sitting w ith his feet on the ground, his head testing on his knees, but the height o f his am bition passes beyond the limits o f universe. Wrh at a lofty aspiration is this th a t no other created being except m an m ade o f w ater a n d clay can fancy. 1 Z am ir ud-din has m ade a correct assessment of M akhdum Yalvya M anevis lofty and insatiable am bition in S ir a t - u s - S h a r a f. He h a d , says Z am ir ud-din, always his gaze fixed on w hat was still to be achieved, for w hatever he had already achieved
4th letter

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lost its im portance in his eyes. His soaring am bition and cour age always spurred him to a tta in still higher a n d h igher stages o f sanctity. And he desired th at others too should have the sam e cour age and lofty aspiration. In a la tte r he says : Supposing both the w orlds w ere brought at your threshold and you were told th at a ll these belong to you, and th at you m ight d o w hatever you like w ith them . You should, however, be careful not to lose sight o f th a t which is beyond this world and the next an d which constitutes the only m eans to reach the R eal Beloved. T h is is why th e gnostics have said : T his w orld is a torm ent an d the other one an snare of a v a ric e ; I shall never have the tw o, even if an oat w ere their p rice. In another letter he advised his disciples : V erily, the dauntless spirit o f resolution encompasses ev ery th in g ; w hereas indeterm ination allows everything to fall out. This is a m atter o f p rim ary im portance for adopting the m eans to reach the real goal.

Separation and Iso la tio n

In their swift flight of th e spirit the ecstatics soar to those higher dom ains o f spirituality w hich a re com pletely beyond the reach of the uninitiated. I t is difficult even to conceive o f the effulgence o f D ivine love an d the source o f know ledge w hich is laid open before them . L eading a cloistered life w ithin the society, their spirits are roving w hen they appear to be quiescent. T o those who have never h ad th e opportunity to betake the path o f mysticism, the ecstatics appear to b e engaged in the edification and guidance o f th eir followers a task imposed on them as th e vicegerents o f the Prophetb u t th e stages through w hich they have to pass before attaining the perfection o f interior spirit can be m ade known only by those who have already attained inw ard illum ination. R enunciation o f the worldly desires is considered by some as the only essential discipline for th e real cognition of

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D ivine Essence, but in the passage quoted here M akhdum Yahya M an eri explains some o f its higher stages through w hich the gnostics have to find their way before attaining th eir cherished goal. H e say s: Separation involves renunciation o f all worldy desires an d relationships whereas isolation means th at the lover is isolated from all, including his ow n self, to attain propinquity w ith th e Beloved. W ithout a care to trouble his heart, o r a concern dependent on interest, o r a solicitude involving an elem ent o f desire, o r anxiety to distract his attention, his aspiration soars high beyond the em pyrean to m eet his longed-for Beloved. H e feels no pleasure w ithout his Beloved even i f this w orld an d the w orld beyond w ere placed at his feet, nor has he any longing for th e e a rth o r heavens in the presence o f his True-love. Someone has truly said th at w ith God there is no anxiety and w ithout G od there is no pleasure. T h a t is why it has been asserted by th e gnostics th a t w hoever is away from God is afflicted even though he m ay hold the key o f the treasures o f all the la n d s ; w hile a penniless m endicant having com m union w ith G od is th e king o f both the w orlds even if he hasnt enough to fill his belly. 1 In another letter he writes :* T h e F rien d is nigh even if he is aw ay and th e stranger is aw ay even if he be present with you. But this would happen only w hen you ab an d o n the w orld an d attain th e reality o f your own self, and cast o ft your h eart as d id the com panions o f the cave. You should m ake th e h eart a cave for thyself, offer your funeral prayers therein an d throw aw ay the anim ality o f your desires out o f your inm ost self. O nly then the secrets o f spiritual realm will be m anifested unto you as was done to the compa nions o f th e cave. (T hen you would witness w h at has been stated thus in the Q u ra n ) : I f thou h ad st observed them closely thou hadst assur edly tu rn ed aw ay from them in flight, and hadst been filled
1. L e tte r No 72 2. Sirat-us-Sharqf, p. 144

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w ith aw e o f th em . 1

E njoining th e R igh t C ourse

M akhdum Y ahya M aneri h ad renounced all w orldly desires an d relationships an d passed beyond the stages o f separation a rd i isolation, which m eant abandonm ent o f all cares and w orries, but he was, nevertheless, always solicitous o f the w elfare o f the p oor an d afflicted. W e find him corresponding with the then sovereigns to restore justice to whom it h ad been denied and asking the kings and rulers to betake the p ath o f virtue and equity. O n e K hw aja cA bid o f Z afarab ad , who h ad been deprived o f his property, approached M akhdum Yahya M aneri. H e w rote a letter to S u M n Firoz Shah S harq l in w hich he first quoted the T raditions o f the Prophet and his companions express ing concern to see th a t justice is done to everybody. T h ereafter h e w rote : T hanks be to G od th at today he graces the throne who is th e hope o f the oppressed and the m iserable an d who is handing out even justice to everyone. It is fo r this sublime tra it th a t the Prophet has said th a t a m om ent spent in dispensing justice is b e tte r th a n sixty years given out to p ray ers. 2 M akhdOm Y ahya M a n e ri h a d received his education at Sonargaon an d th erefore he was particularly interested in the affairs o f B engal an d the w elfare o f M uslim s in th a t region. A letter w ritten by M au lan a M uzaffar o f Balakh to Sultan G hiyath u d -d in o f Bengal shows how keenly interested was M akhdum Y ahya M an eri in th e well-being o f Bengal. H e says : I find Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln always extrem ely eager for th e prosperity o f this country. O f a fact, G od has favoured this land w ith the presence o f this Legion o f the L o rd on its soil.

1. Q . X V III: 18 2. Sirat- us-S/mraf, p. 144 3. tM . , p. 125

286
Following the Prophet

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT

T he w ayfarers o f the path o f purity come to know, as they proceed ahead on th e ir spiritual journey, how essential it is to follow th e exam ple o f the Prophet in its m inutest detail. Also, th e reality daw ns on them th a t the mystic state o f composure can never be reached w ithout following the Prophet w holeheartedly an d adapting ones life in complete harm ony w ith the way o f the Shatt-ah. H ow convinced was M akhdum Y ahya M an e ri o f this essential doctrine o f mysticism can be seen from his letter given here. H e begins it w ith a quotation from the Q u ra n : Say, (O M uham m ad to m ankind) : I f ye love A llah, follow m e, A llah will love yen*. 1 These words o f G od put a seal o n the tru th thus expressed by someone. Seek not a new path,- his w ord is gospel, Seal your lips an d stop all p rattle. W h atee r says he, saith the L ord, W hatee r he does, is an act o f God, Be dust unto him to w ear the crow n, T o have your way, first knuckle down. Like th e dust o f his way, if not is he, H ell lick th e dust, even if an angel be he. T his shows th a t those foolish and ignorant people who do not follow in the footsteps o f the Prophet out o f th eir vanity, ignorance or im m odesty, can never find the glimpse o f enlighten m ent. V erily, it is impossible to find the correct way to the higher dom ains o f spirituality without a guide. T h a t is why someone has saidth e blind can never find his way w ithout a staff in h a n d ; the way is long an d full o f hazards, therefore, have a pathfinder, O la d . 2 M akhdum YahyS M aneri followed this rule scruplously all through his life. T h e day he died, a t th e age o f one hundred and tw entyone years, he perform ed the last ablution, despite his illness an d weakness, as graphically described by Sheikh Zain
1. Q.. 111:31 2. 50th letter

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B adr cA rabi. H e took off- his gown and asked for w ater, rolled up his sleeves and cleansed his teeth. T hereafter he started perform ing ablution with the p r a y e r : I begin in the nam e o f God, the most Com passionate, the most M erciful. H e recited diffe rent prayers before beginning to wash different parts o f his body. W hen he was washing his elbows, Sheikh K halil rem inded him th at he had forgotten to wash his face. H e then began the ablution afresh, perform ing every act even m ore carefully. Q azI Z ahid tried to help him in washing the right foot, but he forbade him . A fter perform ing the ablution, he asked for a com b and prayer m at. H aving com bed his beard he perform ed two rakf-als o f p ray er. 1 Because o f his a rd e n t desire to follow the exam ple o f the Prophet, he ab h o rred every innovation in religion. H e was so careful in this reg ard th a t once he instructed bis disciples : W henever you find th a t any action o f the Prophet has been so m ixed up w ith an innovation th a t your action can be cons trued as acting on the innovation, then it is better to forgo the action to follow th e Prophet instead o f doing something th at strengthens the innovation in religion. 2

1. Wafat Namah, p. 12 2. Khwan Pur Minimal.

V
Oft the Death-bed
T h e description o f the life and spiritual attainm ents o f Sheikh S h a ra f u d-dln M akhdum Y ahya M aneri left by his contem poraries and biographers are fa r too m earge to bring out in any d etail all o f his qualities o f toind and h eart. N everthe less, even i f these sketchy accounts were not available, the vivid p o rtrayal o f MakhdOms departure from this fleeting world given by his chief disciple and spiritual successor, Sheikh Zain B adr cA rabl, who was in th e service o f his m entor all through the p eriod, would have been sufficient to leave an unforgettable impression o f this prince am ong the men o f God. T h e biogra phical literatu re o f the M uslim saints an d the elects contains graphic accounts o f their deaths portraying the greatness o f these souls, th eir strong attachm ent to God and the. intensity o f their faith a n d conviction, w hich, by th e sam e token, furnish a p ro o f o f the highest reaches o f religion to which Islam is capable o f elevating th e m ortals. Also, the M uslim annalists a re unique in preserving the death-bed accounts o f th e ir co-religionists in such large num bers w hich a re not only faith inspiring but also provide a glimpse o f the inmost recesses o f these m en a t the m ost critical m om ent o f th e ir life. T h e description o f M akhdum Yahya M an eris last m oments und er the shadow o f d eath would show the strengh o f his faith in G od, his vigilant care to follow the path o f Shari1ah, his anxiety for the w elfare o f Islam and its followers, his confidence

ON T H E DEATH-BED

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in the m ercy o f God and his concern for the salvation o f his ow n soul. Sheikh Z ain B adr cA rabl w rite s: It was W ednes day, th e 5th o f Shaw w al, 782 A. H . when I w ent to pay/ my respect to the Sheikh. H e was sitting on a carpet, leaning against a pillow, after perform ing the daw n prayers in/the new room constructed by N izam ud-dln K hw aja M alik. His b ro th er Sheikh J a lll ud-dln, Q azI Sham s ud-dln and several other relations and disciples who h ad been attending him all through the previous night w ere present there. T he Sheikh said : T here is no pow er, no m ight but from A llah, the G reat and asked us to join in the recital. A fter a while he said smilingly : Holiness ,,be to G od. Even a t this m om ent the devil still wants to create doubts in my m ind about the U nity o f God but to no av ail. H e kept him self busy in the praise o f G od, often repeating joy fully : It is a favour from my L ord, it is a favour from my L o rd . An hour or so before noon the Sheikh cam e out in the courtyard an d sat dow n on a carpet taking the support o f a pillow . H e held out his hands as if he wanted to bid farewell to us. First cam e forw ard Q a z I Sham s ud-dln whose hands he kept holding for a while. T aking the hands o f Q azI Z ahid, he placed them on his chest and said : We are the same lovelorn. But no, we are not b etter than th e e a rth beneath th e ir feet. H e sum m oned all o f us turn by tu rn , kissed our hands and beards, bade us to p in our hopes in th e m ercy and forgiveness o f G od saying: D espair not o f the m ercy o f A llah, W ho forgiveth all Sins.1 And then he recited the verses which m e a n t: O G od, stream o f thy mercy flows for all, O nly a d rop from it is all I want. T hen, turning to us, he began reciting the C reed : *1 b ear witness th a t th ere is no deity but A llah, W ho is w ithout a partner, and I bear witness that M uham m ad is H is servant an d A postle....... I am agreeable to A llah as our
I. Q,. X X XIX : 53

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L o rd , Islam as o u r religion, M uham m ad as our Prophet, Q u ra n as o u r canon, K acabah as our Qiblah, the believers as o u r brothers, H eaven as the rew ard a n d H ell as the punishm ent (by G o d ). T hereafter he called up several o f us one'by one. Some he encouraged and com forted w ith the hope o f deliverance on th e D ay o f J u d g e m e n t; others he asked never to abandon ho^>e in th e m ercy o f G od an d to be carefu l p f th eir faith. I stepped ah ead an d kissed his hands. Thereupon he asked : W ho is it? I t is a beggar a t your threshold, said I , desirous o f being accepted as thy serf. H e replied, I accept^ you an d your entire househpld. I f G od helps m e I shall never forsake you. You a re o u r m en to r, I said agaip, w hile I expect even your servants to be in the good grace o f G od. Yes, there is m uch to be hoped, he replied. By th a t tim e Q a z i Shams u d -d ln cam e up to him . M au lan a Sahab u d -d ln H ilal asked, M akhdQm , w hat about Q a z l Shams u d -d ln ? H e is h ere. H e replied, W h at have I to say about him . H e is m y son and brother. I have already conferred on h im the h ab it o f m edicants. I t was only for his sake th a t I w rote so m uch, otherw ise who would have cared to w rite all th is. ( T h en he tu rn ed to Sheikh K halil u d -d ln and said, jfffcike heart, K halil. Scholars an d friars shall never tu rn th eir backs upon you. W hen M alik N izam ud-dln K hw aja comes to you, convey m y respects to h im an d tell him th a t I am dep artin g from th e w orld well pleased w ith him . H e will never forsake you. Sheikh K h alil u d -d in gave way to tears but MakdOm consoled him. In the m eantim e other disciples a n d attendants cam e to pay th e ir respect. F o r each he invoked divine blessings and com m ended them to have faith in the benignity and forgiveness o f G od, S ultan Shah, th e ad m inistrator o f p arg an a R ajglr, brought some m edicine for h im b u t M akhdOm Y ah y a M aneri declined to accept the present and returned it w ith thanks. A m ir S h a h ib u d-dln cam e to pay a visit w ith his son.

OH TH S DEA.TH-BKD

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MakhdUmYahyS Maneri asked the boy to recite any five verse* of the Qjirfo bat the boy being too young could not recite the verses. Another boy, son of Saiyid Zahir ud-dln, was also present i t th< S- time and he recited the last portion of Surat-ulFoth. At soon a rth e boy began reciting the Qur*an, Makhdtim got up to sit ftia reverential posture. The time for afternoon prayer was drawing near. MakhdlUtttook off his gown and asked to fetch water for him. rife tolled op the sleeves of his shirty cleansed his teeth and started perfbrming ablution in the name o f God. He carefully recited the different supplications prescribed for each act but forgot to wash JiS face. On being reminded, he started the ablution afresh. The ablution completed, he asked for a comb and prayer mat; combed his beard and performed two r a ta ls of prayer. He took a Kttle test after the1prayer and then per formed the maghri& feveaing) prayer. Feeling exhausted, MakhdGm lay down on a cot surround ed by his disci>l&. and friends. After relaxing for a few minutes, he started reelting: I begin in the aanje of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. There is no God save Theej. Be Thou.Glorified! L o ! I have been a wrong-doer.' I begin in the name o f Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. I bear witness that there is no deity but Allah Who is without a partner, and I hear witness that Muhammad is His Servant and Apostle. There is no power, no might but from Allah, the most High, the Great. Thereafter he repeated the formula : I begin in the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful several times and came out With all his heart: M uhamm ad.........M uham mad.......... M uhammad......O Allah I Shower Thy blessings on Muhammad
U

Q,. X X I: 87

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an d th e descendants o f M u h am m ad . T h is he followed u p w ith the recitation o f the fallowing verses o f Suralnl- U a P d a : 0 A llah, L o rd o f us ! Send dow n fo r us a table! spread w ith foo(d from heaven, th a t it m ay be a feast for us, for the first o f us an d fo r the last o f us, an d a sign from Thee, G ive us sustenance, for I'h o ii a r t th e Best o f Sustainers. A llah said : L o ! I send it dow n for you. A nd whoso disbelieveth o f you afterw ard , liinf .surely w ill I puniih with a punishm ent w herew ith I have not punished any o f(M y ) creatures. A nd w hen A llah saith : O Jesus, son o f M ary ! D idst thou say u n to m a n k in d : T ak e m e and my m other for two gods beside A lla h ? lie s a ith : Be glorified ! It was not m ine to Utter th a t to w hich I h ad no right. I f I used to say it,,th e n T h o u knowest it. T hou knowest w h a t is in m y m in d , an d I know not w hat is in T h y M ind. L a 4 .' T h o u , only T h o u , a rt th e K n o w er o f jThings H id d en ? 1 speak tinto them only th a t w hich T h o u com m anded m e, (saying ) : W orship A llah, my L o rd a n d your L ord. I was a witness o f them w hile I dw elt am ong them , and when T hou tookest m e T hou wast the W atcher over them . T hou a rt W itness over all things. I f T h o u ,p u n ish them , lo ! they are T h y slaves, and if T h o u forgive them (lo ! they are T hy slaves)1 . L o ! T hou, only T h o u , a r t th e M ighty, the W ise. A llah saith : T his is a day in which th e ir truthfulness' profiteth the tru th fu l, for theirs a ie G ardens u n d ern ea th w hich rivers flow, w herein they a re secure for, ever, Allah; taking pleasure in them an d they in H im . T h a t is th g reat triu m p h . I U nto AlJah belongeth the Sovereignty p f heavens a iff the e a rth and w hatsoever is therein, and H e is A ble to d$ a ll things.'
1. Q ..V : 114-120

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Arid then he began to d e c la im : I am agreeable with A llah as o u r L o rd , Islam as our relgion an d M uham m ad as o u r Prophet. H e recited thrice th e creed o f M uslim faith from the bottom o f his h eart an d then began th e invocation : O L ord o u r G od guide th e followers o f M uham m ad (on th e rigjit p a th ) ; O A llah, h av e m ercy on th e followers o f M u h a m m a d ; O A llah, forgive th e followers o f M uham m ad, O A llah, be lenient to th e followers o f M u h a m m a d ; O A llah, help th e followers o f M uham m ad ; O A llah, u p h o ld him w ho stands by the religion o f M u h a m m a d ; O A llah, increase the followers o f M uham m ad an d let them not d e c re a se ; O A llah, debase those who wish to hum iliate th e religion o f M uham m ad, on whom be T h y blessings, O M ost-M erciful. W ith these w ords his voice failed b u t he continued to r e c ite : T h ere shall no fear com e upon them neither shall they grieve............T h ere is no deity bu t A llah .. . . . . . ..I begin in the nam e o f A llah, the Beneficent, the M erciful. No sooner had he u ttered the last w ord his soul took flight to its celestial abode. T his was the night o f T hursday, the 6th o f ShawwSl, 782 A. H . w hen the tim e for UshtP prayer h a d ju st begun, 1 T h e death o f M akhdum Y ahya M aneri answers description o f the last journey o f a sublim ated soul portrayed beautifully by Ibn Y am lnl in these verses. Dont see the heart o f lb n Y am ini dipped in blood ; Lo ! when he bid farew ell to this fleeting world. Scripture in hand, foot on stirrup and eyes fixed on the friend, W ith a smile on his lips, he set off with the angel o f death.
Funeral Service

T h e funeral prayer 1. Wafat Nimah.

was led by Sheikh A shraf Jah an g ir

SAVIOURS OF ISLAkUC 8PUUT

S am n an l. As related in LataHf Ashraff, the b ier o f MakhdGm w as kept on th e w ay as instructed by him . Sheikh A shraf J a h a n g ir, on his w ay from D elhi to P andw ah in Bengal, w here he was going to pay a visit to th e renow ned C hishtiyah Sheikh A la ul-H aq o f L ah o re, a rriv e d at B ihar S h a rif ju st w hen the b ier h a d been placed th ere for someone to come an d lead the fun eral service as desired by the d ep artin g m entor. Sheikh A sh raf J a h a n g ir S am nanl led th e funeral service and lowered the bier in th e grave.* : T h e g rav e was m ad e o f m u d an d u n b u rn t bricks, an d no dom e was built on it. D u rin g the reign o f SGrl dynasty, a m osque, a ta n k an d some residential apartm ents w ere constructed ro u n d th e grave b u t no tom b w ith stones and b u rn t bricks was built in deference to th e injunctions o f Sharf-ah followed so m eti culously by M akhdGm Y ahya M aneri.
D isciples

M akhdG m Y ahya M an eri left, according to Siral-us-Sharaf, m ore th a n a h u n d red thousand souls Who h a d taken oath o f allegiance to h im but notw ithstanding the possible exaggeration by Syed Z a m ir u d -d in , th ere is no doubt th a t a very large num ber o f people w ere spiritually united w ith him . O f these, th e nu m b er o f those who h a d been endow ed w ith inw ard illum ination o f th e soul runs into hundreds.
Writings

T h e list o f works rep o tted to have been p u t into w riting by M akhdGm Y ahya M a n e ri is quite extensive b ut, unfortunately; only a few o f these survive today. T h e books still preserved a r e : f&hal ul-Qjtl&b, cAjwtba, Fawa>id-i-Rukni, IrshSd ul-Talbln, Irshad ul-Salkli, Risihh Makkiyah, Magadan ul-Mal anl, hharal-i-Mukhul-M ifirii, KhwBn Pur JfPamat, Tuhfah-i-Ghaibi, RisUlah Dar

1. A biography o f Sheikh Ashraf JahSngtr SamnSnl by his disciple Nizam*, ud-dln Yamtnl, alias N izlm H aji Gharib-ul-Yaminl. 2. Lat& if Ashraft, p. 94

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Talah-i-Taliban, MilfUzHl, Z&d-i-Safar,1AqaHd-i-Sharafi, Fawa^id Aduridln, Bahr-ul-Mcf-a.nl, Safar-ul-Muzaffar, Kanz-ul-Malnm, Ganji-Utyafna, M Bm -ul-M arldin an d Sharah Adab-ul-Mur\din.1 How ever, still m ore significant com position bearing witness to his literary gifts an d giving an insight into the inner light o f his spirituality is th e collection o f his letters compiled u n d er the nam e o f MaktUbnt-i-Seh Sadi.

1. Sirat-us-Sharaf and Nuzhal-ul-Khawatir

VI
Makhdum's Letters
A living m onum ent o f M akhdum Y ahya M aneri reflectinghis deep knowledge and spiritual enlightenm ent is the collection o f his letters. In th eir depth o f ideas, rem arkable critical expression, exposition o f subtle issues, acuteness o f observation, correct u n d erstan d in g o f the spirit o f religion, insight in the revealed tru th an d light o f divine knowledge along w ith the single-m inded devotion to G od an d veneration o f the Prophet, th e letters o f M ak h d u m Y ahya M aneri and M ujadid A lf T hanl occupy a place o f distinction in th e Islam ic literature. These letters show th e sublim ity o f intuitive vision and the exalted spiritual integrity o f th eir writers who have successfully unfold ed the living seed o f faith in G od, intuitively grasped ideas, the aids to purification o f self, and the m ethods o f stim ulating and enriching the spiritual life. T hey give us a glim pse o f the lofty dom ains o f spirituality to w hich these m en o f G od h ad gained a n access. But a p a rt from exhibiting an insight into the contents o f ; spirit an d religion, these letters w ritten in a d irect and lim pid > style w ithout sacrificing elegance an d grace have all the simpli city o f a g reat a rt, and contain passages th a t can take th e ir , place am ong th e m asterpieces o f literature in any language o f i the w orld. It is, how ever, an irony o f fate th a t the composi tions o f only those have been acknowledged as falling w ithin the purview o f literatu re who had exclusively devoted themselves foS

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the pursuit o f belles-iettres or the literary a rt, th a t is, aesthetic ra th e r than inform ative o r scientific branches o f learning. In the bygone ages norm ally th e court am anuenses or those writers who displayed th eir linguistic attainm ents through rhetorical ingenuities gained recognition as litterateurs. T he result o f it was th a t in the history o f A rabic literature Abdul H am id al-K atib, A bu Ish aq as-Sabl, Ib n u l-tA m id, ^ a h e b Ibn cA bbad, A bu Bakr K hw arzam i, Abul Q asim H a riri and Q azl F adhil becam e the big nam es as w riters w ith distinctive style although a g re a te r portion o f th e ir rhym ed an d cadenced com positions reflect artificiality as w ell as lack o f vigour a n d effec tiveness. C om pared to these w riters, A l-G hazall, Ib n al-JawZI, Ibn Shaddad, Sheikh M u h l ud-d in ibn c A rabl, AbQ H ayyan T aw h ld l, Ib n Q ayyim a n d Ib n K h ald u n have a g re ater claim to our esteem as knights o f th e plum e for th e ir smoothness and facility o f argum ents, m asterly handling o f the subjects, attra c tive style o f expression an d portray al o f ten d er susceptibilities and affections. But, unfortunately, their only fault w as th at they chose to w rite on religion o r some other serious subject instead o f applying themselves to the works w ritten m erely to please the ear or to display their com m and over language. It is interesting to see a w riter often taking the peri in hand for producing works o f tw o kinds, one displaying rhetorical ingenuities and flowers o f eloquence an d the o th er a m odel o f sim ple an d direct p ro s e ; th e form er is deem ed adm irab le by his contem poraries an d the w riter him self con siders it to be his lofty an d ennobling a tta in m e n t; b u t the latter work is highly esteem ed by the subsequent generations which consign the form er to the shelves o f th e libraries a n d grace the others w ith a lasting fam e. T h e book Ib n al-jaw zl was so proud o f th a t he nam ed it Al-Modahish o r W ondrous Strange is unheard o f today but his m iscellanea o f personal experiences and events w ritten in a p lain an d simple language and totally devoid o f rheto rical ad o rn m en t, to w hich he perhaps attached little im portance, is now prized in the literary circles. I f we go th ro u g h the history o f Persian literatu re, w e would

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Of ISLAMIC

SPIRIT

find ZahQ rl, A bul F ad h al a n d Nicam at K h an All dom inating th e style o f Persian prose. H ow ever, i f a n atu ral and unaffect ed expression o f emotions and n arratio n o f plain, plum p facts w ere to be reg ard ed as th e yard-stick for perfect m odel o f prose w riting, then very little o f th e ir w ritings, m arred as they a re by florid an d verbose style, rh etorical artifices^ and verbal conbeits, would stand th e test o f stan d ard prose. As against these, th ere would be num erous o th er works always ignored by the critics and historians o f Persian literature which w ould m easure up to th e criterion o f a perfect m odel o f prose w riting. W e w ould find th a t the g re a te r p a rt o f the letters w ritten by Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln Y ahya M aneri, M ujadid A lf T h an l, Sheikh A hm ad FarQ qi an d A urangzeb A lam glr and parts o f Izalatul K h ifa 5 o f S hah W all u llah an d Tuhfa* A thna A shriyah o f Shah A bdul Aziz as unrivalled in th e style and structure o f sentences. B ut it seems th a t in alm ost every language certain lim its have been set Which circum scribe literary w ritings and discourage th e search o f m asterpieces w ritten in a different style a n d diction on other serious subjects. A nd, th e result has been th a t for centuries in n u m erab le jew els o f elegance and grace h av e been lying beneath th e dust unknow n, unnoticed. L iterary critics m ore often overlook th e fact th a t effectiveness o f a w riting, w hether prose o r poetry, w hich im parts it an enduring fam e, is th e outcom e o f an inm ost craving o f its w riter to express the tru th know n o r felt by him . A softhearted friend o f hum anity gifted w ith the loftiness o f tone an d state liness o f language, an d m oved by an earnest longing to convey a h eartfelt reality, infuses a touch o f tenderness and feeling to his w riting th a t m akes a d en t in every h eart. Such a w riting preserves its uniqueness w ithout end. L iterary critics have ever discussed the rules and patterns o f eloquence a n d th e w ritings o f a poetical o r literary cast as W ell as th e styles an d attributes th a t b ea r a correlation w ith fluency an d gracefulness b u t seldom have they recognised th a t it is really the sincerity a n d alutrism o f a speaker o r a w riter w hich transm its vigour, freshness an d sharpened sensibilities

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to his compositions. I f someone w ith a g reater sense o f realism and w ith an eye on th e charm , effectiveness an d cachet o f the literary works w ere to attem pt th eir re-classification, he w ould perhaps find them falling into tw o categories : one would be those expressions o f inm ost feelings a n d heartfelt realities w hich a re w ritten neither for w orldly g ain n o r to display the com m and o f la n g u a g e ; th e works falling in tfite o th e r category would b e those w ritten to please one's ears o r to find favour w ith the potentates w hich, unfortunately, m akes th eir composers m ore o f flatterers an d artfu l courtiers th a n accom plished poets an d litterateurs. H e w ould find a w orld o f difference betw een th e tw o. O ne being a n earnest craving o f h e a rt penetrates the h eart o f the readers an d retains its fervidness an d appeal f o r a long tim e to come. A nd i f th e w riter happens to be a seeker afte r tru th , fathom ing th e mysteries o f m ind an d h e a rt to establish th e validity o f real an d eternal values o f life, h e lfeaves a deep an d lasting im pression on th e h e a rt o f his readers. O n th e o th er h and, the w ritings o f th e other type, although receiv ing m om entary applause o f th e read ers for th e ir flowers o f eloquence an d rhetoric ingenuities n ev er m ake a d u ra b le im pact upon th e ir readers. T h e form er follows a style sim ple an d d irect, concise an d convincing w hile the la tte r is m a rre d by florid an d verbose style lacking pathos an d feeling. T h e difference betw een th e tw o has been succinctly b rought out by som eone in a parable. A hound was asked : W hy cant you catch u p 'w ith th e d e e r in your chase. Because, replied die d o g , he runs for his life an d I for m y m aster. M uch in literatu re th a t is beautiful an d sublim e in thought a n d artistic in construction consists o f th e songs o f th e beauty o f star-filled sky in th e night, tw inkling sm ile o f the stream s, the colours o f th e daw n a n d dusk an d th e gentleness o f th e m orning breeze because these h av e ever elevated an d inspired the im agi n ative feelings o f m an by providing inner com posure, peace o f m ind an d harm ony o f spirit. But the elevation Of spirit attained through m ystical experience an d the state o f ecstasy produced by absorption in the Absolute Being delivers oneself from

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dependence on external stim uli required to aw aken the fancy o r im agination o f th e poet. -Their hym n-tunes and love songs spring from th e inner contentm ent o f h ea rt and swift flight o f the spirit to th e sublim e heights o f love-divine. K hw aja M ir D a rd , a fam ous U rd u poet, has alluded to the sam e reality in this v e rs e : W hy go to ta v e r n ,O D a rd , for the ruddy c u p ; W ith m y h e a rt intoxicated, I feel pretty puffed up. So, this was th e state o f com posure, penetrating conscious ness, sp iritual illum ination an d altru istic urge for the m oral upliftm enl o f others coupled w ith a com m and o f language and refined aesthetic sense w hich m ade Sheikh S h a raf u d -din a literary genius. H e created an altogether new style, lucid and delightful, for th e expression o f his heartfelt realities and diffu sion o f virtues in his readers. In their vigour an d effectiveness his letters a re thus unm atched not only in Persian prose alone b u t in the entire Islam ic literature.

M akhdSm s L etters an d th eir A d d resses

T h e m ost celebrated am ong the collection o f M akhdtim s letters is the one published und er the title o f Maklubat Hazrat Sheikh Sharaf ud-din YahyU Maneri, w hich is also know n as Maklubat Sadi o r Seh Sadi Maklubat. T his collection contains one hundred letters addressed to Q a z I Shams ud-din o f Chausa w hich w ere com piled by th e ch ief disciple o f M akhdum Yahya M an eri, Sheikh Z ain B a d r'A ra b l. In his introduction to this collection Sheikh Z ain B adr cA rabl writes : Q,3zl Sham s u d-dln o f Chausa, a disciple o f the Sheikh, m ad e repeated requests in his letters to him th a t since he had to stay a t a place far aw ay from him an d was precluded from attending his discourses, som ething to guide him on his journey o f spirit m ig h t be com m itted into w riting. T h e Q S zI im plored M akhdum Y ahya M an eri so earnestly th a t his petition ulti m ately m et the approval o f th e Sheikh who started w riting about the various stages an d states undergone by the seekers after tru th in th e ir quest o f th e perfection o f divine know ledge. I t was

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thus th a t num erous profound yet inscrutable details relating to spiritual contrition an d effulgence, U nity o f G odhead and know ledge o f divine attributes, essence an d dynam ism o f love, stages o f attraction an d endeavour, separation an d isolation, blessings an d blem ish, preceptorship a n d discipleship along w ith the accounts o f earlier precursors o f th e p ath o f p u rity were p u t into Writing. These letters were sent on different occasions d u rin g th e year 747 A .H . from B ihar to the tow n o f Chausa. Several attendants and in m ates-o f th e m onastery kept copies o f these letters an d com piled th em for the benefit o f the seekers o f spiritual purification. A nother slim volum e o f th e letters o f M akhdfim Y ahyS M an eri was also published u nder the title o f Maktubat-i-Jawllbl w hich was later incorporated in the Miktubat-i-Seh Sadi brought out from L ahore. T his collection contains the letters, not p u b lished earlier* Which w ere w ritten in reply to the petitions sub m itted by Sheikh M uzaffar to solve th e difficulties experienced by th e travellers o f the p ath o f m ysticism. T hese letters give us a glimpse o f th e h ig h er reaches o f intellectual an d spiritual attainm ents o f Sheikh M uzaffar who had m ade a w ill th at these letters should be b u ried w ith h im after his d eath . F o rtu nately, some o f his disciples, w ho happened to read them got th eir copies m ad e out. T h is collection contains 28 letters o f M akhdQm Y ahyS M an eri. T h ere is yet a th ird collection o f M ak h d u m s letters con tainin g 153 o f them w ritten to different persons betw een Ja m a d a al O lS an d R a m a d h a n Qf the y ear 769 A.H.

Subject M atter o f th e le tte r s

Anybody w ho goes th ro u g h these letters w ould not fail to v a lis e th a t the splendid details a n d essence o f realities n o t per ceptible to th e o u tw ard eye, expounded by M akhdQm Y ahyS M an eri, a re neither th e fruits o f his incisive intelligence nor could these be h ad by deep study o r cultivation o f know ledge, b u t could only be experienced by a h e a rt in its loftiest stage o f sp iritu a l exaltation.

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W liat M akhdOm says about the sublim e majesty an d excel lence o f D ivine Being, H is m ight and om nipotence. H is beauty a n d perfection, th e feelings o f aw e, hope a n d a rd e n t love taking root in th e h eart o f tru e believers and gnostics, th e need for alter n ate states o f effulgence an d contrition experienced by th e travel lers o f th e mystic p a th an d repentence on oneis sin w hich opens th e floodgates o f D ivine compassion point out th a t the w riter, soaring in h ig h er dom ains o f spirituality, is fam iliar with the inn er content o f abstruse realities. T h e exalted position occupied by m an am ong the sentient beings, his lofty aspirations, his desire to achieve the impossible, his determ ination an d firmness o f m ind, the g ran d eu r and beauty o f his h e a rt an d th e unfathom able essence and n a tu re of love described in a graceful and vigorous language by M akhdOm Y ahy S M aneri deserves to be given a place in the finest pro duction o f hu m an m in d in a ll lands and ages. Sim ilarly, the unethical form s o f n atu ral propensities o f hum an m in d , his ow n self-deceptions an d th e ruses o f Satan, transgres sions th a t often take th e shape and colour o f vices an d hinderances obstructing th e p a th o f the devotees expounded by M akhdQm speak o f his keen observation and deep knowledge of practical ethics. H ow ever, in o rd er to fully appreciate th e faults and dangers besetting the p a th o f mystics and the w arnings sounded by M akhdQin to avoid these pitfalls, his exhortation to follow the injunctions o f the Sharfah an d the com prehensive treatm en t o f the exalted position o f piophethood vis-a-vis the state o f saintship it would be necessary to understand th e religious thought and different su fi systems o f the tim e w hen these letters w ere w ritten. H ere we w ould be giving a few excerpts from th e letters o f M akhdQm Y ahya M an eri dealing w ith some o f the m ore im portant gnostic problem s to acquaint the readers w ith the style an d tenor o f these letters.

VII
GOD The Absolute Being
D escribing th e absolute will an d authority o f the Suprem e Being, MakhdQm Y ahyS M anerJ refers to Q u ran ic d e c la ra tio n : H e w ill n o t be questioned as to T h a t which H e d o eth ,1 where as m an being accountable for every action o f his they w ill be questioned.2 E verything belongs to G od, explained M akhdQm, for there is nothing to w h ich m an can lay a claim . H e m ay bestow w hatever favours he desires on a m a n and debase w hom He desires. H e says th a t none can question the authority o f G od because w hatever exists in th e w orld is the bounty o f A lla h ; w hich H e giveth unto w hom H e w ill.8 I n a letter* h e w rites : W ho has a rig h t to raise th e question why has G od bes towed w ealth an d riches on one an d not on others. W e see a king appointing a m a n as his m inister an d another as his atten d an t or usher. Sim ilarly, G od favours one w ith w ealth o f faith, picks out a m an from th e p a th o f vice o r draw s u p a fellow out o f the tyrants an d w rongdoers, hum ble an d the low. But who has the nerve to dem and : A re these they whom Allah favoureth am ong

1. Q.. X X I: 23 2. Ibid 3. Q, L X n : 4 4. Letter No. 3

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us ?* H e ordains to a d m it in his presence Fuzail ibn c Ay Sdh, a d read ed bandit, and directs Balcam Baur* who sat on his prayer-m at for four hun d red years to be turned out. H e ele vates U m a r, th e idol-w orshipper, and debases cA zazll, the adorer engaged in divine service for seven thousand years. Verily, H e will not be questioned to th a t which H e doeth.3 I f H e casts a benevolent glance on us, our errors shall tu rn into goodness, o u r im perfections into soundness and our ugliness into comeliness. O -b ro th e r, a h an d fu l o f earth was lying insignificant, tro d d en beneath the feet, b u t no sooner had H e pity on it, an announcem ent was m ade w ith the flourish o f tru m p e ts : L o ! I am about to place a viceroy in the e a rth . * In another letter5 he explains how lordly* im perious and unconcerned G od i s : H ark , O b ro th er, an d take a lesson. Pay attention to the distress o f A dam , th e lam entation o f N oah, the pangs of A braham and th e w ailing o f Jacob. Behold Joseph being pushed into th e well, Z a c h a riah being sawed into tw o and John being put to sw ord. R ecall to your m ind the deep anguish and excruciating g rie f o f M uham m ad, on whom be peace and bless ings, an d recite th e verse : Everything w ill perish save His countenance. 6 As for th e sublim e majesty o f G od, M akhdOm writes in another le tte r : M y bro th er, see th e light, for we can never gain access to His m ajestic court w ith these counterfeit coins. H ow can the
1. Q,. V I: 53 2. Bal'am of Cannanite race whose story is related in the Bible (Num. 22-24). The story does not find a place either in the Quran or the Traditions but was adopted by the early exegetists. Eal(am thus achieved a prov erbial fame as a learned Israelite who was beguiled by the SatSn. 3. Q,. X X I: 23 4. Q.. I I : 30 5. Letter No. 36 6. Q,. X X V III: 88

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305

fodder o f a haw k be digested by th e sparrow ? H ow can the robe o f honour m eant for one g reat an d exalted, fit in on our low -statured bodies ? ' But, as M akhdQm says, th e m agnificence and- m ajesty o f God inspires not only aw e, w onder and reverence but also gives hope to the insignificant an d dow n-trodden p e o p le ; for, the generosity an d kindness o f G od takes no tim e in raising the m ean and ignoble to the highest pinnacle o f fam e and honour. To quote his w o rd s : T h is is the w ealth to w hich nobody can prefer his claim : it can be h ad only th ro u g h th e benevolence o f G od. W ere it to be claim ed as a m a tte r o f rig h t, then, I sw ear to G od, you and% I w ould never have got anything. But, H is favour not being contingent on o u r entitlem ent, the profane and defiled can hope for His benevolence as m uch as the pious an d pure o f h e art can do o r even m ore th a n them . N o Wonder ! H e can m ake the throne o f kings out o f the heap o f rubbish w here dogs loiter. But G od has, in His wisdom , appointed certain causes for every contingent. I f you w ant to achieve som ething noble and great, you shall have to push forw ard daringly w ith the Sharjah as your guide an d T ru th as your m eans, for your tra it is profane a n d rebellious. * T h e sam e point was elab o rated by M akhdum in this letter. T h e benevolence o f God depending entirely on H is sweetw ili, confers favour on one w hile H is justice punishes another. H e retrieved U m ar from the idol-tem ple to bless him but H e left A b d u llah ibn U bai to be accursed w ithin the m osque. A poet has spoken the very tru th in this w a y : T hou destroyeth one but know eth how to renovate, W hom thou redeem eth, T h o u know eth also to lay w aste M y brother, we have to do w ith a n Absolute an d All-power ful G od. H e is capable o ftu rn in g th e heaven into hell and th e he!
1. Letter No. 41 2. Letter No. 50

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into heaven ; m aking a pantheon o f the K aca b a an d turning the K aca b a into a tem ple o f idol-worshippers. N othing makes any difference to H im . W ho is it th a t is not stunned and stupefied by H is aw e-inspiring pow er ? T herefore, be always awe-struck and terrified lest His chastisem ent appears as a bolt from the blue. His benignity is as independent p f causation as his harshness. I f H e sometimes calls for a blasphem ous sinner to wash off his sins an d holds off a devoted and pious believer to let him taste the pangs o f separation, H e does it to let everybody know th a t His benevolence and severity both ad m it o f no restraints at all. H e occasionally causes a ' wicked ty ran t to take care p f a prophet and sometimes sets a prophet to look a fte r an unw orthy m alefactor. H e often makes a dog sit w ith the saints, an d a saint to go to the dogs, b u t who soever is approved by H im is never rejected and whosoever incurs H is displeasure is doom ed for ever. T h e unlim ited au thority o f G od is thus described in a letter by him . Always pin y o u r fa ith in the beneficence and absplute authority o f G od. I f H e so wills, a thousand tem ples and churches would tu rn into K a l aba and Bait-ul-M uqaddas* and innum erable sinners an d wrongdoers into pious believers and friends of G od. N o cause or force intervenes betw een H is will an d the effect desired by H im . H e can cause tens o f thousands o f disbelievers to em brace Islam and tu rn polytheists into m ono theists. H e requires no tim e to convert the accursed mischiefm akers into sanctified souls glorifying H is nam e. But nobody has th e h e a rt tp ask how does it all come to pass. 3 In yet an o th er le tte r b e propounds the om nipotence o f God in these w o rd s:

He does what He likes: He never cares who is runied or saved. A map dies of thirst in a wilderness and says: How
1. L etter No. 59 2. The Dome o f Rock in JeruM km 3. L etter No. 72

god,

Th e

a b s o l u t e b e in g

307

m any stream s gush out to overflow b u t I am dying o f th irst I1 -H e im m ediately gets a reply from on H igh : W e b ring a thousand devotees to a dreadful forest an d k ill th em all w ith th e sw ord o f O u r will so th at some o f O u r vultures and beasts m ay fekston th eir carrion. I f anybody gives tongue to dem and : W h y fo r ? H e m akes him tongue-tacked w ith th e reply : H e will not be questioned as to th a t w hich H e d o eth .1 T h e devotees a re O urs, and so are th e beasts an d th e bird s. W hy should one question in O u r affairs? 2 In a letter M akhdum tells the addressee th a t nobody knows w hat the wheel o f fortune has in store for him . H e m ight be saved o f doom ed as the possibilities o f both exist evenly. M y brother, your destination is long,' long aw ay, the p a th is unsafe, the object o f your affection u n attainable, your body is weak w hile your own h eart, w eakened an d wasted, is e x d te d by a passionate desire for the Beloved. A poet has said i ! No o th er prize T h o u seeketh, save th e life o f lover, T h a ts why few m ake bold to be T hy wooer. T h ere are innum erable hearts th rille d and intoxicated by His love but their life-long endeavours, a t the last m om ent, pre sent the picture o f w hat th e Q u ra n depicts thus A nd W e shall tu rn u n to the work they d id and m ake it scattered m otes. A nd, in the hour o f death, how m any hearts apparently w rapped up in H is love find from th eir L o rd , that w herew ith they never reckoned.4 H ow m any faces tu rn in th e ir graves from th e side o f Qibla*, how m any ad o rers a re b ran d ed u n am icableon the day they first m eet th e T ru e lo v e ; b u t m any a re there v\ho are re assured w ith the w o r d s : Sleep thou as a b rid e . But, ju st the opposite, m any are forew arned w ith the intim ation 'Sleep thou as a n ill-starred w retched. A nd they a re thus rejected never to

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Q,. X X I: 23 L etter No. 56 Q , X X V : 23 Q,. X X X IX : 47 T h e K a 'a b a

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be redeem ed, O n e not fitted to consort w ith G od, Vicious then becomes his virtuous a c t ! But th ere a re also those whose every sin is p ardoned. T h e R edeem er effaces all evils from th eir hearts to,
b le s s ,|

W hom H e m akes undefiled by faults, pure and blam e- .

le ss.,

Behold, O bro th er, K h alil1 com ing out o f the pantheon; and re c ite : H e b rin g eth forth the living from the dead ;* spot G anat an8 deserving N oah an d recall to your m in d : He, bringeth forth th e dead fro m th e L iving.4 H e raised A dam to, the sublim e heights from w hich he did not come d o w n despite his transgression but H e pulled dow n Iblis6 to those depths; w hich rendered all his litanies an d prayers valueless. T here a re g lad tidings6 for some w hile others are threatened w ith the foreboding : O n th a t Day th ere will be no glad tidings for the guilty. H e gives hope to som e with the w o rd s : T he m ark o f them is on th eir foreheads from the traces o f prostration* and d riv es others to despair w ith the th r e a t: T he guilty will be known by th eir m ark s.8 A poet has truly said : D ont be forgetful o f y o u r self like an ignorant dolt, E arn some m erit here before you give up the ghost.1 M akhdum explains th a t God is both Severe as well as F orgiver, U nlim ited a n d U nrestrained, just as the D ivine A ttributes a re in th e ir o p e ra tio n ; both o f these take effect;

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Abraham, the friend of God Q.. X : 31 Son of the Prophet Noah Q,. V I : 95 Satan Q,. X X X IX : 17 Q.. X X V : 22 Q . X L V III: 29 Q.. L V :4 J Letter No. 77

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sim ultaneously and independently w ith th e result th a t a believer has ever to rem ain in a state o f suspense betw een fear and fortitude, hope and despair. R eferrin g to the Q u ranic verse D oer o f w hat H e w ill ,1 M akhdOm throw s light on the m ajestic m ight and absolute auth o rity o f G od in these w o rd s : *H is benevolence often sum m ons u p m an to p artak e Hi? g r a c e ; at times H e tu rn s the e a rth b eneath the paws o f a dog into collyrium for th e eyes o f th e pious an d th e pure hearted. Sometim es HeTiestows an im m o rta l fam e on a dog by saying thus : th e ir dog sk e tc h in g 'o u t his paws on th e threshold2 ; at times H is w rath w arns us th a t this is th e place w here the teacher o f angels worshipping H im for sevifcn h u n d re d thousand years w as m ad e accursed in th e tw inkling o f an e y e ; H e calls for the idol-w orshipper U m a r to m ake h im a bosom f r ie n d ; not seldom H e ;tu rn s aw ay a Balam Ba*ur endow ed w ith D ivine know ledge, from the tem ple an d then his likeness is as the likeness o f a dog, if thou attackest h im h e panteth w ith his tongue out. an d if thou leavest h im he panteth w ith Tiis tongue o ut.,J At times H e receives one w ith th e most1- distinguished m arks o f honour, deputes a thousand angels o f light to receive H is guest an d bestows on H is friend treasures unbounded, but oftentim es H e turns back th e beg g ar em pty b a n d e d ; sometimes one is m ade to grace th e H eaven o f heavens, but often H e allows not One to rem ain standing a t H is threshold. K now ledge and reason a re dum bfounded h ere an d saints and devotees a re things Of n a u g h t; h ere is the sally o f D oer o f w hat H e. w ill,* an d th e effulgence o f th e Suprem e Pow er. H e does w hatever H e wills an d decides w hatever H e desires. 5
Grace and M ercy o f God

M akhdtim describes th e m ight an d lordly com m and o f God

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Q.. L X X X V : 16 Q.. X V III: 18 Q.. V I I : 176 Q ..L X X X V : 16 L etter No. 78

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so vividly th a t it m akes ones blood run cold. But, following in the footsteps o f th e prophets o f God who come not m erely to th reaten but also to com fort an d console lest the m ankind g^ts frightened an d loses its h e a rt, he gives w ords to portray the tenderness an d m ercy o f th e C reator w ith the same vigour and effectiveness. I f M akhdum tells his disciples, on the one h and, how im m easurably a n d etern ally exalted G od is, in the totality o f H is om nipotent an d om nipresent attributes, acknowledging no rule, sta n d a rd , o r lim it, save His own sole and absolute will, to w hom belongs the dom ain, and the excellency, and the pow er an d the m ig h t ; he also explains to them , on th e o ther, the m ercy, and: th e bounty, an d the all compassing munificence o f th e C reator a n d S ustainer W ho declares M y m ercy em braceth all things, 1 an d consoles th e afflicted w ith the revelation : " 0 M y sla v e s who have been prodigal to their ow n h e a r t ! P esp air not o f the m ercy-of A llah, W ho forgiveth all sins. Lo ! H e is th e Forgiving, th e M ercifu l. ? In a letter M akhdum Y ahya M aneri thus defines the D ivine a ttrib u te o f m e rc y : O m y b ro th er, w hen the encircling wave o f A llahs m ercy surges fo rth it washes aw ay all th e sins and vices o f H is slaves. T h e n all th e ir failings tu rn into goodness for the vileness and baseness o f m an a re transient w hile the m ercy o f God is end u rin g , eternal. H ow can a thing fleeting and unenduring hold its own against th a t which is infinite and everlasting. V erily, the sole cheerful expectation o f m an, a speck o f m ortal dust, lies in, th e com passion o f God. W hat else is there, besides th e benevolence o f G od, to produce a glim m er o f hope in m an sunk in vice an d co rru p tio n ? H ow m any dem oralised and debased a soul is th ere whose face has been blackened by tile infirm ity o f his ow n base desires a n d predilections, b u t the h arb in g er o f D ivine m ercy suddenly appears to announce th at th e E tern al D ispenser conveys His greetings a n d desires to
1. Q.. V I I : 156 2. Q.. X X X IX : 53

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311

converse w ith thee. 1

Invitation to All

M akhdtim held out hope to those w hom he addressed his epistles, encouraged them to reform themselves a n d partake in the D ivine bounty as if it w ere a repast for all a n d sundry, a free and public pothouse w here everyone could go and slake his thirst. H e told th em th a t ther was absolutely no question o f anybody being tu rn ed back, denied and dejected, for the E ternal Beloved H im self rem oves th e veil from the h e art o f a seeker after tru th and draw s him n eat. H ad it n o t been so, argues M akhdQm . th en how a created an d contingent being, ignorant and transgressing, could approach th a t perfection o f Beauty free from every lim itation an d blem ish for N aught is as H is likeness.* H ere is a letter in w hich M ak h d u m describes the unbound ed bounty o f God in w ords o f lasting beauty* T he doors o f H is generosity a re Wide open. I t is a banquet for one and all. H a rry up, come a n d get i t ! Brother, how m uch o f H is bounty can a m an take in, w hereas His unlim ited bounty allows neith er th e m aster no r the slave, neither the ric h n o r the poor to rem ain deprived. T h e glorious lam p o f the H eaven rises everyday, but the entire hum an race cannot g ra b a particle o f its rays. Still, it lights up the palaces Of kings and grandees as it shines upon the sheds an d cribs o f the beggars. .Never m ind about m an, th e conglom eration o f w ater and dust, but have your eyes fixed on the loving grace Of G od who says : lie loveth him who loves H im ,3 A llah is the Pro tecting Friend of those who love H im 4 an d H e prom ises to rew ard H is servants t h u s : Y our endeavour (upon e arth ) has found acceptance.5 T his is a distinction not enjoyed eVen by
1. L etter No. 56 2. Q.. XL11: 12 3. Q.. V : 54 4 . Q.. I I : 257 5. Q,. LXXVI : '1

312

SAVIOURS O F I8LAMIO SPIR IT

the angels. T h e heavenly hosts are n earer to God, im peccable, celestial an d holy an d a re ever engaged in the glorification o f God but the blushing honour bestowed on m an is something quite different.
Divine M ercy

M akhdum . invites attention tow ards the benignity, gracious ness an d clemency o f God w hich is ever a t the look out to do the highest possible good, to the offenders. H e says th a t no m atter how grievous ones sins m ay be, a sincere repentance and com plete turning aw ay from the sin would let him pass w ithout any resentm ent, blam e o r punishm ent. H e cites the exam ple o f those irredeem able sinners who were pardoned by divine favour in a trice, their sinfulness was changed into virtuousness and they becam e the fount whence honour springs. M akhdum rem inds th a t how soever num erous ones besetting sins, faults and failings m ay be, th e grace and m ercy o f G od is limitless an d em braces all things, g reat an d sm all. In a letter he shows th e ways o f D ivine mercy. Howsoever sunk in corruption you m ight be, my brother, repent on your sins an d become eligible for the grace o f God. You a re npt steeped in iniquity m ore th an the w izards o f P haraoh nor a re you filthier th an the dog o f the com panions o f the c a v e ; neither have you a heart m ore stony th a n the rocks o f M ount S in a i1 n o r a re you m ore worthless th an the H un n an ah .- A n ig g ar is brought from Abyssinia to be sold as a slave, but who can object if his m aster calls him K afG r.3
M ount Sina (Sinai) on which God gave Tablets o f Law to Prophet Moses. 2. The log supporting the thatched roof of the Prophets mosque The Prophet used to lean on it while delivering the Friday sermons. After the pulpit was erected in the mosque and the Plrophet began delivering sermons therefrom, the log was heard making a cracking sound as if wailing in separation. 3. Lit. Camphor, meaning white. One, KafOr Akhshidi, Abyssinian by race, was the ruler o f Egypt. The famous Arab poet, M utannabi, was his poet-laureate. 1.

GO D, T H E ABSOLUTE BEING

313

W hen the angels said to the L o rd , W e do not have strength to vie w ith this m an m ade o f clay in spreading corruption on e a rth ; the Lord replied, R eject him , if W e send him to your th re sh o ld ; dont purchase i f W e ever sell him to you. D o you fear th a t his corruption would exceed O u r m ercy or th a t his iniquity shall stain O u r perfection? T his is the lum p o f clay w hom W e have exalted and blessed with O u r grace. W hat have W e to lose by his vileness. 1
Repentance

T he sorrow for ones sins w ith self-condem nation implies a change in conduct an d helps in the upw ard ascent o f spirit. T h e essential conditions for such a repentance have been explained in a letter by M ak h d u m quoted here. T h e befit entails repentance o v er ones sins expressed by the disciple before his spiritual guide. In the language o f mystics this is called gardish or d etour w hich signifies a change in th e position o f th e person doing penance, for it takes him from pollution to purity, from profanity to sa n c tity ; i f turns the pantheon o f his h eart into a m o sq u e; elevates him from a brute to a hum an b e in g ; transform s him from worthless dust to g o ld ; takes him from darkness to lig h t; an d then, the glorious lam p o f faith illum inates his h e a rt and Islam o r surrender to God guides him on the path o f D ivine gnosis. *

1. Letter No. 2 2. L etter No! 29

v iii
D ignity of M an
A considerable p a rt of the letters o f MakhdQm YahyS M aneri, exhibiting a m asterly blend o f vigour and flexibility, poetic em otion and m atter-of-fact description, re-state the tru th o f h um an dignity, the richness and sublimity o f hum an h eart an d the swift flight o f spirit to its source attained through dynam ic love o f m an fo r,th e U ltim ate T ru th . T h e poetic creations o f H akim San SI1, K hw aja F arid udd ln A ttS r and M a u la n a J a la l ud-din R u m i have, undoubtedly, ; Sung o f the nobility o f m an, but, in Persian prose, the letters o f M akhdum occupy a singular pre-em inence by virtue o f their style, the m anner o f presentation and vivifying elements of confidence and tru st in th e w orth arid dignity o f m an. T hey sound a new note, inspire m an w ith expectation and courage and open new vistas o f vision to the lofty heights attainable by hum an spirit. T hese racy and sparkling essays contradict the pessimistic view in reg ard to hum anity unfortunately propagated by most o f the th en mystics through their m isguided interpreta tio n o f fa n s or an nihilation o f the self. T o these mystics the life o f m an was a vale o f tears, another nam e o f vain expecta tions from which one ought to seek refuge through total affacem ent o f th e self itself, w hich was lying and crafty, deceitful and fiendish. T he self o f m an h ad thus com e to be regarded as the greatest stumbling block in th e way o f m ans spiritual, develop m ent. Such a pessimistic view o f hum anity had shaken .the faith

DIGNITY OF MAN
1_ - .

.....

. .V . .

. .__

. ---- ..

---------- .

. A..

315

o f m an in him self who, asham ed o f his own existence, h ad begun to look upon the celestial beings as the shining examples o r m odels o f spiritual ascent. H e h a d forgotten th a t it was A dam , the progenitor o f m an, an d not an angel, before whom these heavenly creations h a d b |e n m ad e to bow dow n low. I t was to contradict these ill-conceived notions, to dispel this surrounding gloom, th a t M akhdOm Yahyfi M afterl gve his clarion call to re-affirm m a n s nobility an d em inence, his deputyship o f God an d th e love a n d confidence reposed in him by the L ord an d C reato r o f th e universe. M akhdOm repeatedly em phasised this p o in t in his letters, in different ways an d on different occasions, to restore confidence an d hope in hum an destiny which incites m an to construct new dream s and to aim for higher achievements. K t*n, t h e F a v o u r ite o f Giod In a letter writes M akhdum : T h e creations o f G od a re m any an d varied, but none finds favour in. the.eyes o f G od like this clod o f dust blended w ith w ater. W hen God w illed to create m an out o f clay, w hom H e desired to crow n w ith his vicegerency, th e angels said : W ilt T h o u place therein one who, will do h a rm therein an d will shed blood ?1 T h e reply received by th e angels was m eant to convey th at a rd e n t love needs no advice; for love an d precaution neyer get together. T h e reply., g iv fn by Gjod dropped the b in t: O f w hat tise is your p rayer an d glorification, i f not acceptable to Us ? W h at is th e h a rm done by the sins if O u r grace wipes out the slate cle a n ? W e have alread y o rdained : A llah will change th eir e v il deeds to good deeds.* Surely, said Gq^, to .the angels, you betake the right path w hile they can go astray but whenever W e shall desire p u r m ercy shall unfold' the p a th o f virtue fo r them an d blot ^ u t the s^jns o f transgression fro m th eir faces t You very well know th a t W e are the object o f their
1. Q , I I : 3 0 2. O -X X V : 70

316

SAVIOURS O f ISLAMIC SPIRIT

passionate yearning, but w hat you do nbt know is th at W e also love th e m ! A poet has correctly said : D ear to O nes h e a rt, w hen com m its a mistake, A thousand commeriil&tions his virtues make.'*1
Tru*tees o fD ivin e Love

O th er sentient beings, says M akhdOm in another letter, have h ard ly anything to do w ith love-divine, for they do not possess an aspiration so high and noble (as you do). You see the celestial beings treading always the sam e beaten track be cause the message o f love is not m eant for them. But, if m an has a Hard ro ad to trav el it is because he plunges into love. Thus, whosoever happens to have a taste o f love, he ought to bid good-bye to his own self fo r love does not put up with any th in g save itself. O love, thou hast m ade a d ru n k ard o f me, Secure I Was, rolling in th e lap o f luxury. W hen the star o f A dam s good fortune rose high, th e entire universe was all a f lu tte r ; some com plained th a t th eir prayers o f countless years have been overlooked an d a clod o f earth exalted over them . T h e n , cam e th e re p ly : N ever m ind the clay h'e is m ade of, cast your eyes upon the essence o f love infused in h i m : for, H e loveth w ho love H im . * T h is is our com m and arid his h eart is glow ing w ith the fervour o f love. * In yet another le tte r M akhdQm unfolds the rom ance o f m a n s glory in this m anner. G od created eighteen thousand w orlds b u t each one o f them rem ained indifferent to th e yearning o f love, nor d id any o n e o f them ever try to get even a fraction o f i t ; Wherefore m an alone could lay a claim to th is w ealth. All th e o ther creations rem ained unblest w ith th is glory. A nd th a t is why someone has
1. 36th letter 2. Q,. V : 54 3. 46th letter

DIQ^XTY OF MAN

317

s a id : T h o u a rt highest o f th e high an d lowest o f the lo w ; , N ot a creation is there on even term s w ith T hee. 1
Purposeo f Creation

T he distinction accorded to m an, explains M akhdum , is be cause he is tlve purport an d aim o f t h e . creation o f entire universe, F o r m an is the centre o f all creations, the tender affection o f love an d devotion reflects his worthiness. T his clod iof earth is not, less distinguished, nor is A dam and his progeny less dignified, m y bro th er. T h e Em pyrean and the T h ro n e, th e T ab let an d th e Pen, the heaven and the earth w ere all created for his sake. As Sheikh Abfl cAll has said God nom inated A dam as his deputy,2 chosc A brah am for His frierd,* selected M oses for H im self4 and announced the glad tidings o f H e loveth who love Him, to th e believers. V erily, the h eart o f m an w ould have been listless an d m an him self like the rest of m ute creation if this spiritual affinity h ad not been an indwelling attrib u te o f bis n atu re. 8
Responsibility o f Faith

T h e nobility and greatness o f m an and the distinction enjoyed by him is because he agreed to assume the Divine T rust. T h e heavens and the earth an d the hills shrank from bearing the D ivine T ru st but m an, ig n o ran t a n d transgressor, agreed to shoulder th e b urden although he was feeble an d weak. H e was foolish enough to think th a t being no m ore th a n a speck o f dust, he h ad nothing to lose i f he was unable to prove equal to the T ru st reposed in him . T o w hat low er depth could he be scaled dow n i f he failed, so he thpught. E ndow ed with courage and
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 59th letter Q,. I I : 80 Q.. I V : 125 f t . X X : 41 Q,. V : 54 X X : 41

318

SAVIOURS OF1 ISLA IttC S P l R t f

self-respect he is still exclaim ing: ;;Is there any m ore to com e. 1 1 M akhdum throw s light on the exauea position enjoyed by m an over all other beings an d creations in, a letter ji^ h ^ .ff jrc e ful and impressive style G lorified is this lum p o f earth and high are his aspiratidns although huinble an d m iserable he is in his composition. W hen the offer o f D ivine T rtik Was* thundered forth, the celestial beings erigaged in glorification o f God for seven hundred thousand years an d raising the slogan W e hym n T hy praise an d sanctify T hee* ' refused to b ea r th at b u rd en . T h e sky prided iti its Ibfty height ; the earth pleaded th at duSt was its garthent; the m ountain m ade the plea th a t it stood as a w atchm an, firm and stable ; the jew els ekpresfeed the feair' o f losing ther'r lustte and b rillia n c e ; B u t,' the ig h o raijt' speck o f dust stretched forth its hands subrtaWsively and took the D ivine T ru st to its-heart. 1I t feared not anything like the heavens and ea rth , for, w hat had the lovve&i: o f the low to lose in takiiig th a t risk. A nything debased an d degraded, so it thought, is throw n in the dust, but h&w the dust can be put to sham e ? I t stepped a h e ad u n d au n ted an d undertook the b urden unbearable to the seven heavens and earth an d yelled w ith d e lig h t: Is there any m ore to come ? *
Glory o f the Dust

N ow listen to w hat M akhdtim says about the glory o f m an. N ever belittle th e clod o f dust anid the drop o f Water that m aketh a m an, fo r w h atev er is there in the w orld comes Oiit o f th e t w o ; w hatever you see h ere proceeds from earth an d w ater an d w hatever you find h ere besides these is a figm ent o f yotir im agination. As they say, the love took wings from it* hom e

1. Q,. L : 30 2- Q,. I I : 30 3. Q,. X X X I I I : 72 4. 49th letter

DIGNITY OF MAM

319

o f honour, saw the em pyrean, sublim e an d exalted, and passed by i t ; crossed the T h ro n e, splendid and m agnificent; forded the sky, elevated and to w erin g ; then it cam e down to the earth w hich was plunged in toil, and trouble an d descended to make* its nest th ere. 1 , ] . A gnostic poet has m ade an im m ortal verse o f the same idea in these w ords : . v H eaven o r . ^ r t h , w hat can suffice T hy vastness? , M y h e a r t ' alone can accom m odate T hy goodly precious. In one o f his letters M akhdfim spells out the distinctive place occupied by m an in the eyes o f his G reater. O brother, m an has been specially favoured by the Lord. I t is related th a t w hen th e Angel o f D eath is deputed to carry o ff the soul o f any believer, he is instructed first to convey the greetings o f C od and then take his soul aw ay. You would have read in the Q u ran th a t the w ord from a M erciful L ord (for them ) is Peace2 on the D ay o f R eckoning. In tru th , there is no deity except A llah, the Everliving, and so is His w ord and H is greeting. > H ad not the condescending favour o f God been conferred on m an on th e day he was created, he would not have been accosted w ith salutation a t His first m eeting.3
Many the Confidant o f Divine Secrets

But, why has m an been allow ed to occupy th e most distin guished place o f honour ? T h e reply given by M akhdum to this question i s : O f all the beings inhabiting eighteen thousand w orlds created by G od, none was bestowed an am bition higher th a n th a t o f m a n ; no other being was told : I have fashioned him an d breathed into him o f M y s p irit;* no apostle was raised

1. 2. 3. 4.

50th letter f t . X X X V I: 58 51*t letter Q , X X X V III: 72

320

------------------------ ---------i - a e from am ongst any other c re a tu re ; n o r a book conferred on o n e : ' !O n o r yet God sent H is salutation on any one o f them . I t was m an alone whose ard en t love m ade the pangs o f separation unbearable for h im a n d th a t is why his heart was allowed to subsist by the,'1 Essence o f D ivine Beauty in this w orld and > 1 perm itted to behold H im in the next. M an has nothing d earer to his h eart th a n the love o f God in this w orld and no other longing th a n fo w j t n ^ H is ra d ia n t countenance unveiled in tlie 'it /. w orld to come. 'Khiaiis the lesson m an has learnt from the Q u ran ic v e rs e : T h e eye turned not aside nor yet was over bold.1 *
M an, Superior to Angels

SAVIOURS O F ULAM IC SPIR IT

I t was assuredly m uch too precious, writes M akhdam , th a t m ad e the angels prostrate before m anthe creature envied by the heavens. H ow soever ignoble and earth-born a m an m ay appear to be, he is so holy an d consecrated in his essential natu re th a t neither the celestial intelligence nor hum an reason is capable o f plum bing b is secrets. W hen the lustre o f his true being radiates, the angels a re bew ildered and the heavens dum foun d ed . H e is m odest an d meek yet others are terror-sm itten w ith his awe. I f thy essence, th e angels w ere to behold ; P rostrating w ould they arriv e a t T h y threshold. 3
The Cognizant Heart

M akhdOm m aintains th a t the value, excellence and super iority o f m an springs from his heart which is the abode o f invaluable w ealth bestowed on him . In a letter he w rote o f the hum an h e a r t : T h e L o rd created the em pyrean and com m itted it to the care o f heavenly h o sts ; fashioned the paradise and appointed

1. Q,. L I I I : 17 ?. 53rd letter 3. 58th letter

DIGNITY OF MAN

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Rizwfin1 to guard it; m ade the hell and deputed Malik* to k e e p w atch over i t ; but when H e chiselled the h eart of the believer, H e cam e out with the an n o u n cem en t: his heart is between the two fingers o f the M ost M erciful. 3 H ere is another letter w ritten by M akhdum Yahya M aneri throw ing light on the w orth o f this ad m irab le gift o f God. H ad there been anything m ore worthy and precious than the h eart o f m an, then God would have assuredly laid the jew el o f H is gnosis in that. A T rad itio n o f the Prophet speaking of G ods will says : N either M y heavens can contain M e nor My e arth ; but if anyw here there isro o m for M e, it is the heart o f a believer; H eavens a re unable to store up the perfection o f D ivine knowledge and the earth is incapable o f bearing its b u rd e n . T hus, the heart o f the believer can alone bear this heavy charge. A stud could c a rry a m an like Rttstarn but when the sun o f D ivine R ad ian ce shines over a m ountain, th an which there is nothing m ore massive an d Solidly pitched in the earth , it comes crashing dow n* below. But this very sun o f eternal Beauty shines day in and day out on the heart o f the believer who raps out the cry : Is there any m ore to com e1 ' and greedily seeks . still m ore o f it, to quench his unqcenchable th irst. 0 T h e B ro k e n -H e a rte d W hatever is broken into pieces becomes valueless, but a dis consolate and broken h eart is th e only exception ; for, it becomes m ore precious in the eyes o f its C reator. M akhdum expounds this tru th in these words : A h b rother, breakage renders everything w oithless but a h eart becomes m ore valuable if it is m ore m elancholy and broken. Moses once w hispered : W here should I seek T h ee.
1 2 3 4. 5. 6. Name of the angel guarding the Paradise Angel guarding the Hell 43rd letter Q . V I I : 143 Q . L :3 0 Q . 38th letter

322

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC SPIRMF

W ith those. cam e th e reply, whose hearts a re ren t for rrrf sake. : : ";r
Realm o f Love

' 'f

T he most precious w ealth a heart possesses is lovea love th a t encompasses all the spheres and states and whose authority extends over this w orld as m uch as over the next. MakhdOm vividly describes how love signifies thfe highest reach o f m ankind. ' rl Love e'nwraps the en tire d u ratio n o f tim e, the past, pre sent and future. I t encircles the first and the last, whence an d whither:. A gnostic has said th at this w orld as well as. the world beyond are for preferring a dem and. I f some one asserts th a t the other w orld is not m eant for dem anding he is abso lutely wrong. C ertainly there would not be fasting a n d prayer in the w orld to come b u t one would beseach G od for things still higher an d nobler. O n the D ay o f Judgem ent the Law will be abrogated, no doubt, but, th e two thingsLove for G od and Praise o f Godshall ever rem ain . 2

1. 6th letter 2. 46th letter

IX
Intuitive. Insight
: T he letters o f Sheikh S h a ra f ud-d in Y ahya M aneri shed light on some of the m ost in tricate problem s and highest m ani festations o f in tu itiv erelig io u s perception experienced by*highly evolved and elevated, sensitive a n d self-conscious souls; T h e gnostic im agery and mystical tru th s vivid ly d escrib ed a t different places and in different contexts in; these letters b ear an eloquent testim ony to the h igher plane o f consciousness attained by M ak hdum th ro u g h prayer an d ' penance - a n d his researches into the in ner content o f religious experience as also his endeavour to com bine speculative reason w ith th e intuitive experience. These indescribabletruths given form s o f expression by M akhdum so enchant and evoke rapturous joy as a few poetical com posi tions or'elegan tly w ritten tracts can claim to produce;
Unity of Manifestation

T he w ritings o f M akhdum contain certain concepts and doctrines w hich a re generally believed to have been articulated a few centuries after him . O ne such m ystical doctrine know n as U nity o f M anifestation ( Wahdat-us-Shahvd), was propagated in th e eleventh century o f th e Islam ic e ra by M ujaddid A lf T h a n I to contradict the then prev alen t concept o f U nity o f Being ( Wahdoiu! WojUd) It is tru e th a t M u ja d d id A lf T h am was par txctlhtice the greatest exponent o f th e doctrine o f the U nity o f M anifestation but one is surprised to see th a t M akhdGm Y ahya

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M an erl, too, had clearly delineated the fundam ental position o f this concept about fwo an d a h a lf centuries before it was revived by th e M u jad d id M akhdum has explicitly stated in his letters, in the light o f his personal religious experiences and intuitive knowledge, th a t w hat was commonly known by U nity o f Being o r annihilation o f every created being in the D ivine Essence was really no m ore than a state o f eclipse o f other beings and objects in the presence o f D ivine light exactly in the same way as the dim light of the stars is deprived of its brilliance before the lum inuous lam p o f sun; H e succinctly describes the process by pointing out th at the extinction o f any object is altogether different from its becom ing invisible. H e explains th a t the tenuity and evasiveness o f the im m anentist feeling deludes m any an elevated soul in the ecstatic state of D ivine effulgence unless grace o f G od and guidance o f a n illum inated' teacher give shoulder to lead h im on the right path. T h e effulgence o f D iv in e Essence is so m anifested before the traveller o f spirit th a t its rad ian ce blots out every other object an d being from his view. T h e tiny particles o f dust a re p u t out o f sight in th e light o f the sun but it does not m ean th at these particles becom e extinct o r g et absorbed in the sun. W hat it actually m eans is th a t these m inute atom s cover up th eir faces in sham e before th e lum inuous lam p o f heaven. M an never becomes God for God is E xalted, G lorious .and G reat. N or is ever a created being sw allow ed up, incorporated o r united w ith the D ivine Essence. Becoming extinct is quite different from being invisible. A gnostic poet has lent articulation to this tru th in these words. F o r the E tern al O ne nothing is old o r n e w ; All others are insignificant, H e is th at H e is. W hen you look into a m irro r, you get absorbed in the reflection o f your own self a n d forget the m irro r : then you do not a v e r th a t the m irro r has becom e extinct o r th a t it has turned into your reflection o r th a t your reflection has m elted into m irro r. T his is the substance o f annihilation in Divine Oneness w hich m anifests itself in a like m anner

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H e talks funny who speaks o f it, but does not know T o set a lim it between ones annihilation and H is refulgent glow. T his is the tenuous path w here m any have slipped. No trav eller o f spirit can forge ahead unless the grace o f God and the guidance o f an elevated m entor, who h a d him self w aded through the billows rage o f this furrow ed sea, help him to find out his w ay. 1
Transformation of Attributes Alone

H ere it m ight be contended th a t a lam p brought before the sun loses its lustre so completely th a t its existence becomes m erely illu so ry ; for, nothing can be existent and nonexistent both at one and the same tim e. M akhdOm says that such a contention is not correct'because the transform ation undergone by the lam p is o f attrib u te and not o f essence. H e writes in a le tte r: Some say th a t when the sun shines the lam p practically loses its entity : the sun is then the only, reality that exists. W hat is th e use o f a lam p, they say, w hich melts into nought, for its entity and light rest on an even-keel. I f anybody con tends th a t th e existence and non-existence a re each o th e rs a n ti thesis an d the tw o cannot be found at one and the same tim e, then he ought to know th a t we a re talking about the attributes and n o t about the essence. T h e essence does not undergo a change but the attrib u te does. T h e sun .hiries over a stream and w arm s its w ater. Its quality is changed but not its n a tu r e ; the rays o f sun act on the attrib u te an d not on the essence. T h ere is no contradiction a t a ll in it. 2
Upward Ascent of Spirit

T h e spiritual ascent o f those who have attained the pinnacle rem ains, quite often, hidden from th eir com panions and friends.
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T h e prophets o f G od an d such > o f the illum inated souls w h# have reached th e stage o f A cquaintance, are gifted with courage, endurance and a soaring am bition. They neither w hirl no f shout, n o r yet they work m iracles or lay a claim to it. They always try to conceal th e ir attainm ents from the public gaze. M akhdum writes in a letter th a t th e higher is this upw ard, progress o f spirit, th e less it is noticed by the people around tR* mystic. T h e faster the speed, the m ore its movement becomes im perceptible. D ont you see th a t when the stone o f the wind*, m ill gains speed, it appears th a t th e m ill is not w orking. Some* body asked Ju n a id B a g h d a d !: W hy dont you stir during the m usical recitatio n s? In reply lie recited the verse from th e Q u r an : And (O M an ), th o u shalt see th e m ountains, which thou thinkest a re fixed firm ly, shall float (in the air) even as clouds.1 Y ou cannot see sw ift speed. W hen it goes ahead a t full speed, it cannot be seen. O ften the zephyr moves so gently th a t nobody notices its speed. *
Control o f Carnal Desires

T h e developm ent o f c h a ra c te r an d spirit, according to some, depends on com plete extinction o f carn al desires. T his, says M akhdOm , is not correct. H e holds th a t th e aim should not be to stam p out the desires o f flesh but to put bridle on them . G h azali too has explained , in Ihydf-ul-Ulaom, th at the reform a tio n o f a m an does not req u ire com plete suppression o f vices like anger, m alice etc. but in subduing these .natural propensities and hold in g them in leash. M akhdflm s treatm ent o f the subject is inspiring an d creates a profound impression on the readers H e w rites in a letter : H e is an ignoram us an d d o tard yvho considers th a t th< Shan1oh dem ands sm othering o f th e carn al appetites an d n a tu ra instincts o f m an. H e has not given thought to w hat the Prophei
I .. Q . X X V II ;8B 2. 4th letter

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said : I am a m an and sometimes I get an g ry . Sometimes his indignation becam e ap p aren t on his face. T h a t is why God loves those who con trol their w ra th 1 and not those who do n o t possess th a t em otion a t all. H ow can th e Sharf'oh dem and extinction o f sexual d esire.w hen th e P rophet contracted nine m arriages. I f some one has lost his sex-urge, he ought to take m edical treatm ent so that this n a tu ra l instinct is restored. F o r the loving care o f ones fam ily m em bers a n d children, anger over the enemies o f G od in fighting against them and preserva tion and propagation o f ones race spring from the natural instincts m an possesses, even the apostles o f God have shown eagerness for these. T hy longed to have th e ir line o f progeny unbroken. T h e Sharjah only dem ands th a t these instincts should be kept u nder strict com m and o f the L aw . A h unter needs a steed an d a w ell-trained dog which go a fte r the chase on his bidding. T h e horse, if untrained, will th ro w away the rid er and the wild dog will pounce a t him . It is thus essential th at the horse an d the dog should he w elt-trained for hunting. So a re the instincts o f sex an d anger needed for capturing the rew ards o f H ereafter. But, your aids should be under your c o n tro l; for i f they gain a control over you, your ru in is inevit able. T h a t is why p rayer and penance seek to bring these under ones com m and. *
The Idol o f Miracles

I t h as been stated elsewhere th a t the w orking o f m iracles by the saints had become so popular durin g the tim e o f M akhdum th a t it h a d come to be regarded as an indisputable evidence o f ones piety an d sainthood. H ow ever, M akhdum m aintained th a t indulgence o f certain mystics in preternatural acts constituted a veil and signified th e ir interest in objects other th an those leading to Divine propinquity. It was also an idol, in his vjew, which req u ired to be rejected and given up
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altogether, if need be, for the health of soul.

T he working o f m iracles, writes MakhdOm in letter, is nothing short o f idolatiy. T h e unbelievers w orshipping idolk deny the overlordship o f God but no sooner do they give them up and m ake a public announcem ent o f their rejection o f idols: , they turn into His friends. So is the m iraculous pow er wielded by a gnostic : his journey o f spirit gets beclouded and suspended if he is satisfied with w onder w orking ; but, if he gives it up he is elevated an d rew arded w ith nearness. As a gnostic poet has said : T h e ir gaze fixed on the heaven, the pious are ; Sm acking their, lips in the lock-up, the lovers are. His m eicy is for all, noble and laity,.good and bad, Bold and intrepid one has to be, to bear his w rath. This is the reason why when God bestows m iraculous powers on an elevated soul, be becomes m ore G od-fearing and hum ble. H e becomes unpretentious, meek and yielding and inculcates a g reater aw e of. G o d .
Ill-disposed Miraculous Powers

It is possible, says M akhdum , that the secret truths revealed to certain God-m oved souls through D ivine grace or penetrating intellect or prognostication o f coming events may be denied to some m en o f G od, but that does not signify any defect in the em inence o f spiritual attainm ent o f the latter group. Defect or fault lies in deviation from the rig h t path. T h e secrets revealed to the blessed ones increase th eir faith, strengthen their virtues an d m orals and lead them to glorifica tion o f the L ord. But if such pretern atural powers are enjoyed by a m an who transgresses 1the injunctions o f the SharV-ah, then, in very tru th , they becom e the means o f lead ing him a fa r from the path of virtue. H e is then deluded and befooled for he begins to regard others as his inferiors and underlings. At li mes he even forsakes Islam a n d Marts d e n y i n g the lim its set by ]. oth

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God for the perm issible and prohibited, lawful an d unlaw ful. H e begins to consider recollection o f God as the only way o f His glorification and discards the way o f the Prophet, and this ultim ately leads him to infidelity and apostasy . 1
Social Service

Explaining the m erits o f social service M akhdum writes in a letter : , R endering social service is highly meritorious for the seeker after tru th , for, it helps to inculcate those virtues which cannot be produced by any other form o f litany and p ray er. It deadens the love of self, expels pride an d vanity, produces modesty and humbleness, beautifies the m orals, teaches one to follow the p ath q f the Prophet an d th at o f the blessed mystics, elevates the spirit and illum inates his ego from w ithin and without. These are the ennobling gifts o f service. O nce a seer was asked : How m any ways a re there to attain fellowship o f God ?.' As many as the atom s this w orld contains, replied he, bijt none m ore straight and easier th a n consoling the broken hearted . : I have attained G od th ro u g h this way an d I bid my followers to do the sam e. T h ere are others, too, whose devo tions to God attain a higher virtue because o f their selfless service to th eir fellow beings . 2
Criterian for Self-purification

T h e criterion for self-purification prescribed by the mystics is sufficiently high. In fact, it is so high that one can never be sure w hether all vestiges o f self-conceit, earthly desires and sexappetite have been completely eradicated from ones self. O ne can never confidently claim to have reached that stage o f self purification where ones spiritual ascent takes wing unfettered by his base desires. H ow ever, in M akhdOm s view, a m an reaches the desired stage o f self-purification when he gives up
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acting according to his ow n predilections and wishes an d begin* to pursue, in all seriousness, th e p a th chalked out by the Shar1**11 In th e letter quoted h ere M akhdum sets forth jthe essential requisites for self-purification. M y bro th er, th e S elf o f m an is deceitful and treacherous^, I t always boasts and brags a n d makes false claims. It always advertises th a t it has p u t a b rid le on its cravings and appetites, b u t it ought to be asked to furnish the proof o f its claim . And th e only evidence sufficing to establish its claim is th a t it does n o t take a step o f its ow n b u t acts according to the injunctions o f the L aw . I t is tru th fu l, i f it acts z&tfully on injunctions o f th e Skorit ah, b u t if it avails o f th e leave or interprets the Law to suit its longings, it is assuredly a blasted slave o f its desires. I f it is a helot o f anger, it is a dog in the g arb o f m a n ; if it is a serf o f its appetite, it is a b e a st; if it is a captive o f its despicable desires, it is a greedy h o g ; if it is enthralled by style and taste, it is effeminate. But the m an who adorns his Self w ith the com pliance o f the Shartah, puts it to test from tim e to tim e, gives the reins o f his desires in th e hands o f the L aw a n d m oulds him self in its cast, then alone can he claim to have gained control over his Self, its propensi ties an d inclinations. T o th a t end only prudent and sagacious m en, enlightened w ith the core o f tru th , bridle th eir Self with the chains o f righteousness a n d -fear o f G od . 1

1. 96th letter

X
Defence of Faith
It was undoubtedly a great achievem ent o f Sheikh S h a raf ud -d ln Yahya M a n e rlth a t he guided a large num ber o f people on th e p a th o f G od, purified an d anim ated th e ir spirits, created a longing in their hearts for attain in g th e knowledge o f D ivine Being, lit the flame 6 f love-Divine in them and expounded the intricate an d subtle realities o f intuitive experience in an elegant, m oving and heart-w arm ing diction like other great reform ers and renovators o f th e faith. But this was not all. H e protected the purity o f faith as th e earlier revivalists and defenders had done, against th e antifiom ian tendencies an d pantheistic monism im ported by m isguided sSfl cults w hich eluded every effort to tie them dow n by th e classifications and definitions o f th e Sharf ah. H e also endeavoured to eradicate the influence o f B atinite an d philosophical concepts im bibed and propagated through neo-Platonist pursuits o f religious expe rience. In a country, like In d ia , Where the people d id not have a direct access to the D ivine'revelation an d the T raditions o f the Prophet, th e rapidly grow ing popularity o f th e heterodox belief and practices had sharpened th e conflict between them arid the sound and puritan ical faith o f Islam . M akhdGms letters refuted, in a peculiarly vivid an d direct way, this incredible confusion, m ultiplicity, an d often absurdity 6 f ideas. H e fell ba'dk on th e S crip tu re and the Sunnah and rejected all hvfellectual c6 nsthictions and intuitive subtleties which cam e in

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conflict w ith the authorised in terpretation o f the Q u r an and the Sunnah. He also balanced and corrected the intuitive im agination and m ystical experience o f his tim e by accommo d atin g these in the fram ew ork o f fundam ental religious attitudes. T h is was m ade possible solely because o f his own spiritual insight gained through personal ecstatic experiences and illum i nations which m ade him not only an exponent o f mysticism but also an authority on the subject whose interpretations and experiences could not be brushed aside by o ther mystics.

P rophethood and Sainthood

An erra tic concept prevalent for quite a long tim e am ong th e th en mystics was th a t sainthood occupies a place m ore exalted and sublim e th an prophethood : the saints being always attracted to D ivine perfection severed all relationship w ith the w orld and sentient beings around them w hile the prophets mission being to p ro p ag ate an d expound the revealed tru th , the la tte r had , very often, , to rem ain in contact w ith th eir fellow beings. A nd, since, the fellowship o f Got} was a task m ore consecrated than th e fellowship of hum an beings, the saints held, a m ore elevated an d hollowed place than the prophets did. Som e other mystics, how ever, m ade a distinction between the two states o f th e prophets when they w ere absorbed in D ivine propinquity and w hen they w ere busy dissem inating the divine message am ong th eir fellow beings, an d thereby concluded th a t the prophets in th e ir form er occupation enjoyed a higher position than when tlity perform ed the function o f th eir m inistry. Even this view signified an inferior position o f the prophethood and its mission by a lig n in g a m o re exalted status to th e engrossm ent in D ivine Being, the ch ief pursuit o f the saints^ , T hus, how ever interpreted, this blasphemous proposition was derogatory to prophethood and involved im pairm ent o f th a t exalted office besides paving the way to agnostic and irreligious way o f thinking. W ith characteristic vividness and vigour o f his w ritings an d discourses, MakhdOm Y ahya M anerl

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set in to give the lie to th e nonconform ist belief o f the mystics and established, through his clear and logical reasoning, th at th e prophethood, in all its states and stages, was infinitely higher th an sainthood. -He dem onstrated th a t the shortest span o f prophetic existence, a single breath o f any prophet,- -was decidedly m ore blessed and sacred th an a whole life-time spent in th e state o f saintliness. T h e argum ents brought forth by M akhdum -to clinch his point were draw n m ore fr6m the higher reaches o f his ecstatic illum inations th an cold an d logical form ulations o f discursive reason. M akhdum writes in reply to a letter w herein Shams ud-dln h a d sought a clarification in re g a rd to the position o f prophethood. Sham s ud-dtaj my d ear brothers you ought to know th at there is a consensus o f opinion am ong all the mystics tr.eading the path o f spirituality th at the saints, in all states and stations, are subordinate to the prophets who a re always superior to the saints. W hat is incum bent on th e saints to translate into action is the guidance vouchsafed by th e , apostles o f G od. All the prophets are saints, but no saint can claim the honour o f being a prophet. T here is not the least difference o f opinion in this reg a rd am ong th e doctors, o f divinity bearing allegiance to, the w ayif Ahl-USunnat Wal-Jwriefal. A sect am ong th e renegades* howevef, claim s th a t th e saints surpass the prophets on the ground th a t th e latter, are ever engrossed in effulgence s>f the T ranscendent Being w hile the prophets are busy ever and anon in the pursuit o f their mission of preaching the message o f God to the hum an beings. T hus, they argue that a m an who is totally effaced and lost in beholding the Beauty of the Lord takes precedence over one who seldom engages h is-m in d -in contem plating the presence o f G od. A nother group which venerates the saints and claims to be their followers goes even fu rth er to assert th a t th e saints a re higher-up than the prophets for the reason th a t form er a re in itiated into the divine m ysteries w hereas the latter have access only to the knowledge revealed to them . They infer from it that th e saints are acquainted with

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the secrets nbt known to the prophets. T hey avouch th a t th e saints have intuitive know ledge not possessed by the prophets. T hey d ra w th isin feren ce from the story o f Moses and K h id h r and assert th a t K h id h r was a saint and Moses a prophet* who got revelations from the L ord. T h e la tte r was unable to fathom th e secret o f any mysterious event unless a revelation descended from on H igh. But, K h id h r the saint, endow ed w ith intuitive know ledge could im m ediately plum b the secret o f every mystery in as m uch as Moses h ad to subm it him self as a disciple o f K h id h r. This, they say, clearly proves their point, for, a disciple is'always an u n derling o f th e m entor....... But one should never lose sight o f th e fact th a t all the precursors o f righteous p ath o f religion, o n whom reliance can be placed, have vehem ently protested against such sacrilegious creeds and ideas. T h ey have never accepted this profane dftctririe th a t any saint can ever excel o r even be a m atch to a prophet o f G od. As for the story o f Moses and K h id h r, the latter was granted a m om entary prim acy by virtue o f his intuitive know ledge on a p articu lar occasion w hile MoSes enjoyed an enduring param ountcy an d . as you know, abiding suprem acy cannot be overshadow ed by a passing pre-em inence. T ake M ary, for instance, who was g ran ted a tem porary ascendancy over other women because o f the b irth o f h er child w ithout being touched b y a m an, but this tem porary advantage could not eclipse the p erd u rab le superiority o f Ayesha and F atim a an d th eir illim it able suprem acy over all wom en for all tim es to come. H ark y e ! m y b rother, the. entire life spent in litanies and prayers, transports and illum inations by all the s a in ts 'o f all times shall com e short o f a step taken by a prophet. W hat the saints endeavour to achieve th ro u g h penance, and devotion, flight o f spirit an d diving into the treasure o f D ivine m ysteries; that know ledge is attain ed by th e prophets straightaw ay. T hey are charged w ith th e responsibilities o f their apostolic m inistry a fte r being illum inated by th e lam p o f sanctity and th a t is the reason w h y th e y are able to aw aken the zeal for fellowship o f God in thousands o f th e ir followers.

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H ence, a breath o f the prophets outw eighs the entire life o f saints. T h e saints are able to cast off th e ir hum anly veil and speak o f th e secrets o f spiritual existence only a fte r attaining the highest degree o f sanctity b u f they still rem ain under the shadow o f the weaknesses hum an flesh is heir t o ; but the prophets, on the other h an d , find th e secrets o f nature unveiled before them on th e very first step o f th eir m inistry. T he last lap o f the saints is the starting point o f th e piophets o r, to be tru th fu l, even th e destination o f saints cannot com pare w ith the outstart o f th e prophets. O nce someone asked K hw aja Bayezld al-B istam l: W h at do you say about the life o f the prophets'. H eaven f o r b i d h e replied we can never gain entrance in th eir realm . T h e way th e stations an d stages o f sainthood rem ain hidden from th e eyes o f uninitiated masses, the exalted reaches o f prophethood are beyond th e im aginative flight o f the saints. Prophets take to strides w hile saints s tro ll: one rides the skies w hile th e oth er creeps on th e earth . In clarity and purity o f spirit, virtue and sanctity the entire bodily fram e o f th e prophets is lik e th e head an d heart o f the saints, intoxicated w ith th e love o f G od. T h ere is thus a great; difference between the m en w ho have found en tran ce to th e place which, for others, is th e goal o f th eir h e arts yearning.1
Param ouatcy of Sksri sh

A nother indecorous thinking th a t h ad gained popularity am ong certain mystics t>f th e day w as th a t the established religious institution could be brushed aside by them , for, according to them , one needs to follow th e com m andm ents o f th e Shan'-ak up to a certain s ta g e ; but w hen he reaches th e stage o f A cquaintance and attain s the fellowship o f D ivine Essence, he could reject th e dem and for external conform ity to the Shartf-ah. T h e w ide diffusion o f this e rra tic idea h a d given reins to m any illiterate an d m isguided mystics w ho, acting as
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impious ministers o f evil, were spreading infidelity and irre li giousness am ong the superstitious masses. Even cet ta in educated persons had started citing the Q uranic v erse: A nd worshipthy L ord until there com eth unto thee th e d eath . 1 to support this contention. T hey arg u ed th at the Sharfah need be follow* ed in letter an d spirit until one attains the stage o f certitude of; th e transcendental T ru th , but once one reaches th a t stage the chains o f Law fall to pieces for him . MakhdOm Yahya M anerl raised his voice in defence o f th e authentic religious view and dem onstrated th e fallacy o f th e antinom ian practitioners o f sufism. H e set forth argum ents to show th a t w hatever stage o r station m ay be attained by a trav eller o f spirit, he has to follow the rules o f th e Shari1ah to th e end o f his lifes journey, for they are never suspended o r superseded by the elevation o f spirit. ' T h e following quotation from one o f his letters will show th a t MakhdOm severely taxed those who opposed the authority o f \h e established religious institution finding expression in the laws o f th e Shari1ak. B rother Shams ud-<din ought to be aw are o f the subtle ways of th e D evil w ho sometimes makes the mystics believe th a t the object o f renouncing sin is to weaken the natural hum an desires an d inclinations so th at the rem em brance o f God overcomes them and cleanses the heart o f its impurities- T he whole o f this endeavour is m eant, the D evil tells them , to attain the perfection o f D ivine K now ledge, and so is also the Sherfah a m eans to arriv e at the sam e goal. T hus, if a m an already reaches th a t destination, w hat has he to do with the luggage and means o f transport. T h e prescribed forms o f liturgical service w ould then become a veil for him . O ne already beholding E ternal Beauty needs no piostrations, devotions and orisons as these are the aids for attuning the strings o f ones

I.

Q,. X V : 99Almost all the eminent commentators of the Q u rSn hold the view that the word Taqtn, in the Arabic text, means death in this verse while certain mystics interpreted the word to mean spiritual enlightenment.

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337

h ea rt w ith th e m elody o f D ivine Essence. They claim th a t they find themselves engulfed by celestial glory and the reign o f spirit But, in tru th and reality, they give expression to what Satan h a d felt when he was asked to p rostrate before A dam , iteing aw are o f his station he thought th a t nothing would he gain by bending low before a being low er th an him . G od has not referred to this story in the Q u ran as a m yth or fable but to serve as a w arning for those w ho are given to the ruses o f S atan. G od w anted to tell them th a t nobody should dare flout His L aw . V erily, the precursors o f faith have correctly em pha sised th a t th e p ath chalked out by th e Short-ah is th e only w ay to atta in th e fellowship o f God. H ere Satan has kept an im portant point concealed from the view o f this m isguided group. H e has persuaded them to believe th at the only purpose o f th e Sharjah is to a ttain proxim ity o f the L ord. But this is w rong for the Shafpah is m eant for a lot m ore th a n th at. Take for instance, the prayers prescribed for five times a d a y ; these are like five poles supporting a canopy o f hum an perfection ; if the poles are taken aw ay, th e canopy will fall to th e ground as Iblis 1 him self fell from h is exalted position. N ow , if you w ant to know how the prayers lend th eir support to m ake a m an v irtu o u s ; my brother, this is som ething beyond y our lim ited intellect to conceive. T hese a re like the properties o r characteristic qualities o f m edicines o r o th er substances, o r the attractin g power o f the m agnet but nobody can find out th e reason why these properties have been em bedded in these substances.

P ra ctica l W isdom o f th e S h a r ja h
T h e p ractical wisdom o f th e Sharjah, utility o f its practical functioning an d th e way it g uards an d enhances the faith and m o ra l virtues o f the believer and links his spirit to the D ivine Essence has been set out by M akhdQm Y ahya.M anerl in one o f his letters.' H e shows th ro u g h an allegory how disregard for
1. The

name o f Satan

338

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SM

the rules o f the Sharfah leads a m an to the destruction w rought by the devil w ithin him . Suppose a m an constructed a p alatial house on the top o f a hill and provided every m eans o f com fort w ithin it. W h$n the tim e cam e to q u it this w orld, he bade his son to make w hatever alterations he m ight desire in the house, but to leave untouched an arom atic grass planted by him in a portion o f the courtyard even if the grass becam e dry. W hen spring camp) the h ill and vales w ore the look o f em erald green, flowers o f num erous varieties blossom ed forth and filled the a ir w ith th e ir i frag ran ce and the sweet smell o f the old grass was overcom e by ' redolent smells. T h e boy thought th a t his father had planted th a t old spicy grass m erely for fragrance and therefore it was of no use to let it be there any m ore. H e, therefore, ordered his servants to pick out th e grass. But w hen th e grass was throw n aw ay, a black serpent cam e out o f a hole and b it the boy. T h e arom atic grass planted by his father h ad tw o properties, first, to keep the house filled w ith its arom a, and, secondly, to keep aw ay the snakes. I t h a d an antipathic smell to the reptiles. T h e boy was so proud o f his knowledge th at he considered everything not know n to h im to be nonexistent. Being ignorant o f the D ivine revelation th at o f knowledge ye have been vouchsafed but little,* th e poor fellow was brought to ruin. S im ilar is th e case w ith those m isinform ed mystics who think th a t th e wisdom an d secrets o f the Sharfah laid open to them a re a ll th a t is w orth know ing about it. T his is a g reat m istake they have m ade like m any oth er travellers o f spirit w ho have fallen a prey to this fatal belief. T hey h ad th o u g h t th a t the Sharicah h a d only one objective an d thus they could never think o f its other aims an d designs w hich w ere m ore im portant for attain in g the best ends. T hey could never conceive th a t if the Sharfak intended to achieve only the end they h a d in view, then why d id the Prophet spend his nights standing in prayer u n til his feet used to swell up. T h e Prophet ijever said th a t
1. Q, X V II; 85

D EFEN CE O F FA ITH

339

the'prayer^w as incum bent on his followers but He was exem pt from it . 1 In another letter on th e subject M akhdOm says : All those doctors o f divinity, sufa and saints w ho had a tta in e d th e height o f sanctity have h eld th e vieW th a t every ru le a n d condition laid dow n by the Islam ic doctrine o f duties is im perceptibly related to some spiritu al m erit beneficial for D ivine blessing in th e H ereafter. All o f them have scrupulously followed th e discipline o f these laws till the end o f th eir life. O nce a n a tte n d a rit o f Sheikh J u n a id B ag h d ad i, w ho was helping him in perform ing ablution, forgot to pass his fingers through his b eard . T h e Sheikh caught hold o f his h an d an d rem inded him to do so for it was a Sunnak o f the Prophet. Some persons present on th e occasion asked : Is it not permissible to om it these voluntary details especially w hen one is unable to perform the ablution by him self? T h e Sheikh re p lie d : I have been blessed by G od solely because o f acting on th e Sumah o f the PrOphet. T his was the w ay tro d d e n fay those w ho h a d been blessed w ith in terio r illu m in a tio n ; but, alas, those \yho a re m isinform ed a re so easily throw n off the false scent. T hey think th a t w hatever is beyond th eir u n d erstan d in g o r not know n to them , does hot exist a t all. Filjr has tw o raklats o f p ray er, Zuhr has four, casr has again four, maghrib has three an d fAa5 has four o f them , an d th en each raPat is com pleted by a genuflexion and tw o prostrations. E ach o f these has its Own m erit propitious for atta in in g the entelechy o f spirit. T h e w orth an d excellence o f all these acts are m anifested as soon as a j n a n breathes his last. T h e n he knows th a t no perfection, no exaltation o f spirit is d f an y use to h im i f t h e stipulations o f th e Shari^ah a re taken ou t o f th em . Every w ayfarer o f mysticism who" will leave this w orld i n th a t condition would find him self utterly ruined an d th e n he Would cry o u t : W h at has happened to th e perfection o f spirit attain ed by m e ? T h en th e reply he would get will b e : T h e plank o f your perfection was n o t nailed to your
1. 7 0 th le t t e r

340

SAVIOURS O F ISLAW Q S

coffin an d so it has been blow n aw ay in the sam e way as a ll tife| m erits an d perfections o f Iblts w ere reduced to dust for a single transgression o f the D ivine com m and . 1 1 M akhdtim Y ahya M a n e ri was so rig id ly opposed to tfc$ sSfis d isregard o f religious duties th a t in a letter he lashes o a t a t th eir practice in these w ords : T his is absolutely w rong and th e creed o f renegades w ho say th a t one (mysticism) is perm is sible w ithout the o^her (L aw o f Islam ). T hey assert th a t when some one attains the T ru th and is rew arded w ith illum inations a n d beatifications, th e Law becomes superfluous for , him . F ie upon such beliefs an d creeds. *

S ign ifican ce o f th e S harl'ah

M akhdtim held th a t th e p a th o f mysticism was a m isnom er w ithout acting on the precepts o f the Shafpak. Say* h e : N obody can get any th in g out o f mysticism if he does not obey th e precepts o f th e SharVah. I t is only the renegades and apostates who hold th a t one is perm issible w ithout the other. T hey m aintain th at th e Shari^ih becomes needless after one has found the essence o f T ru th . D am n this b e lie f! Sharilak is the o u tw ard expression o f faith , but w ithout inw ard credence it is h y p o cricy ; an d the b e lie f w ithout external im perative is apostasy. T h e exterior o f th e Shari'-ah w ithout interior faith is a d efect: the faith concealed in th e h eart w ithout outw ard expression is no m ore th a n avarice. T h a t w hich is m anifest is so integrated w ith its inner content th a t th e tw o can never be separated . 8

E m u lation o f th e P rophet
In his letters M akhdOm Y ahya M aneri always expounded th e view th a t n eith er salvation could be achieved n o r . any per? fection o f spirit, or, for th a t m atter, nor the fellowship o fE te rn a Being can be attain ed w ithout following in the footsteps o f th*

1.
2.

26th letter
Ibid

D EFEN CE OF FA ITH

341

beloved Prophet o f G od. C om m enting upon th e Q u ran ic verse : Say, (O M uham m ad to m a n k in d ): I f ye Love A llah, follow m e, A llah w ill love you .1 M akhdum gave expression to his in m ost feelings and the ard en t love for th e Apostle o f G od in these verses o f a gnostic p o e t: Seek not a new p ath , his w ord is gospel, Seal your lips an d stop all prattle. W hatever says he, saith th e L o rd , W hatee r he does, is an act o f God. Be dust unto him to w ear th e crow n, T o have your way, first knuckle dow n. Like the dust o f his way, i f not is he, H ell lick the dust, even i f an angel be he . 2

1. Q.. 111:31 2. 50th letter

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Chronological Table
A.H. A.D. Events and Personalities

93 136-158 198-218 208 339 409/411 416 421 428 5.3.8 563 569 571-588 571-602 584 586-87 588 595 602

712 753-774 813-833 824 950 1017/1020 1025 1030 1037 1143 1168 1173 1175-1192 1175-1205 1188 1190-91 1192 s 1198 ! 1206

M uham m ad ibn Q asim T aq affi captured Sind R eig n o f C aliph M ansur R eign o f C aliph A l-M am un Saiyida N aflsa (d.) Abu N asr A l-F arabi (d.) K hw aja A bu M uham m ad C hishtI (d.) S ultan M ah m u d attacked S om nath S ultan M uhmQd o f G hazni (d.) AbO A il S in a (d.) M uham m ad Ja ru lla h Z am akhsharl (d.) K hw S ja Zia? u d -d ln Abul N ajlb A bdul Q a d ir F irdausi B irth o f K hw aja F a rid ud-dln B akhtiyar K aki R eign o f Prithviraj Chauhati Expeditions o f Shahab ud-dln M u h am m ad G ori against In d ia K h w aja F a rid ud-din meets K hw aja Q u tu b ud-din S hahab ud-dln M uham m ad G hori de feated by P rithviraj P rithviraj defeated by M uh am m ad GhorJ Ib n R ushd (d.) S h a h a b ud-dln M uham m ad G h o ri (d.)

352

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC -S P IR IT

A.H.
606
10 th Ja m a d a ul-tJla

A.D.
1209

E\

id personalities

M ongols attack on In d ia repulsed

27th K hw aja N ajm ud-dln K u b ra (d.) Septem ber 1213 1230 1235 1236 1239 1240 1249 1249 1252 1254 1257 1259 1260 1260 1263
22 nd J a n u a ry 1263

610 627 632 633 636 638 647 647 650 652 655 657 658 658 661
10 th R abi-ulAwwal, 661

K hw aja M o 'in ud-dln C hishtl (d.) Ib n A l-Fariz (d.) K hw aja Q u tb ud-dln Bakhtiyar K aki (d.) B irth o f K hw Sja N izam ud-dln Auliya M uhJ u d -d ln Ibn A rabl (d.) A l-M alik al-Salah AyyQb (d.) cIzz u d -d ln Aibeck ascends the throne H asan ibn M uham m ad As-Saghanl (d.) A bul Barkat M ajd u d -dln ibii T aim iyah (d.) NOr ud-dln cAli ascends the throne S a if u d -d ln K atz deposes Nfir ud-dln All S a if ud-dln K atz slain R ukn u d-dln Baibers ascends the throne B irth o f Sheikh S h a ra f ud-dln Y ahya M aneri B irth o f Ib n T aim iyah

5th 17th M u h a rra m O ctober, 664 1265 672 677 678-689 682 683 1273 1278 1279-1290 1283 1284

K hw aja F arid ud-dln (d.)

N aslr ud-dln Tflsi (d.)

Saiyid Qutb ud.dln M adnl (d.) Reign of Al-Malik al-N4sir Qalawoon Shahab ud-dln Abdul Halim Ibn Taimiyah (d.) Ibn Taimiyahs first speech

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

353

A.HL
684 690 691 692 694 696 697 698 699

A .D .
1285 1291 1292 1293 1295 1297 1298 1299 1300

E vents and p erso n a lities

Sheikh K am al u d -d ln Z ahid (d.) Sheikh Y ahya M aneri, father of M akhdQm ul-M ulk (d.) Sheikh N ajib u d -d ln F irdausi (d.) Ib n T aim iy ah goes for Haj Conversion o f G hazan to Islam M ongol hordes Inv ad e In d ia L an d R eform s by H osam ud-dln L aieer T u m u lt kicked u p against Ib n T aim iyah E gyptian forces com e to a id o f D am ascus

Battle betw een al-M alik al-N asir 24th 27th R abi-ul- D ecem ber, M uh am m ad ibn Q alaw oon and G azan Aw w al 699 1299 3rd R abi-ulT h an i, 699 699 700
2 nd

28th D ecem ber, 1299 1299 1300

D am ascus em issaries m eet G hazan

Ib n T aim iy ah joins Aqoosh A l-A fram in his expedition against heretics T a q l ud-din Ib n D aq iq ul-cId meets Ib n T aim iy ah Second b attle o f Sultan al-M alik alN asir w ith T a rta rs A l-M ujahid Ib ra h im ibn Q a tta n pro duced before Ib n T aim iyah Second sects expedition against heretical

20 th R am ad h S n , April, 1303 702

704 Z il H ijja, 704

2 nd

1305 J iy , 1305

25th M u h a rra m , Ju ly , 1305 705

T h ird expedition against heretical sects

27th 9th C om plaint lodged by R a fa 'iy ah s against Ja m a d a -u l N ovem ber, Ib n T aim iyah 1305 U2S 705

354

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIRIT

A.H.

A.D.

Events and personalities

2 1 st 5th R am ad h an M arch, 1306 705 2 2 nd 7th R am a d h a n , A pril, 705 1306 3rd 30th R a m a d h a n , A pril, 1307 706 15th 14th August, S afar, 1307 707 22 nd 23rd Septem ber, R a b i ul1307 Awwal, 707 July, Safar, 1309 709 16th 13th Shat abSn, Jan u ary , 1310 709 8 th 7th Z il Q a cad a , A pril, 1310 709 16th 4th N ovem ber, R ajab , 1311 711 1312 712

Ib n T aim iy ah summoned to Egypt

Ib n T aim iyah reached Egypt

Ib n T aim iyah offered to be released from ja il Q azI B adr ud-dln J a m a 'a h meets Ibn T aim iy ah in ja il A m ir H osam ud-dln M ohanna ibn Isa 5 takes out Ib n T aim iyah from jail

Ib n T aim iy ah s internm ent in A lexandria N aslr ibn Q_alawoon captured D amascus

Baibers A l-Jashanghir executed

Ib n T aim iyah m anhandled by riff-raffs

February, Shaw w l, 1313 712 7th 5th M ay, R abi-ulA w w al, 718 1318

R oyal edicts issued on the advice o f Ib n T aim iyah R eports o f T a rta r invasion Ib n T aim iyah forbidden to give juristic opinion on divorce

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

355

A.H.

A.O.

Events and personalities

10th 9th Ib n T aim iy ah released from preventive M u h a rra m , F eb ru ary , detention721 1321 721 721-24 721-26
20 th

1321 1321-24 1321-26

Q u tu b U d -d ln M ub arak S h ah killed by KhusrO K h S n C onstruction o f M akhdflm s m onastery Ib n T aim iy ah devotes his tim e to teaching signed by

Z ilhijia, 724 725

8 th W arrants o f vicegerency D ecem ber, K hw aja Nifcam ud-din 1324

1323

S ultan M uham m ad T u g h laq ascends the throne K hw aja N ieam u d -d ln (d.)

18th R a b i ulA khir, 725

3rd A p ril, 1325

7th 9th Shal a b a n , J u iy 726 1326 9 th Ja m a d a ul-A khra, 728

22 nd ZilQ a*ada, 728 2 1 st

Ibn T a im iy a h placed und er detention

A pril, 1328

W riting m aterial tak en aw ay from Ib n T aim iyah

28th Ib n T aim iy ah (d.) Septem ber, 1328 1333 1351 1358-1375 1366 1378 Ibn Saiyid-in-N Ss (d.) Sultan M o h am m ad T u g h la q ( d ) Sultan M uh am m ad Shuh B ahm anl Sultan M u h am m ad S h 5 h B ahm anl entered D au latab ad Saiyid All H a m a d a n ls arriv al in K ashm ir

734 752 759-776 767 780

356

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC SPIR IT

A.H .
6 th

A.D.

E vents and pewwm aliti**

Sheikh S a ra f ud-dln Y ah y a M an eri (d.)

10 th Shaw w al . Ju n e, 782 1380

786 786 791 801 808 809 820 825 849 874 986 1003 1034 1047 1052 1085 1161

1384 1384 1389 1399 1406 1406 1417 1422 1445 146? 1578 1595 1624 1637 1642 1673 1747

A m ir Syed All H am adanI (d.) M aulSnS F a rid u d -d ln 1 A lam (d.) Q a z I cA bdul M u q ta d ir K in d i (d.) Sheikh Z ara u d-dln (d.) Ib n K haldfln (d.) M au lan a K hw Sjgl o f D elhi (d.) Sheikh A hm ad o f T han esar (d.) Saiyid M uham m ad GesQ D araz (d.) Sheikh S hahab ud-dln bin *Uma*-(d*) M u h am m ad ib n Q u tb (d.) M uham m ad T a h ir Patni (d.) Sheikh YaqQb S h a ra fl (d.) Sheikh A hm ad S rahindi (d.) M a u la n a ja m a l ul-A ulia C hishti (d.) Sheikh A bdul H a q M u h ad d ith D ehlavi (d.) Shah P lr M uham m ad o f Lucknow (d.) M u lla N izam u d -d ln (d.)

Glossary of the Arabic and Persian Terms

A hl-i-Suonat W at Jam afat A te rm generally applied to a sect o f M uslim s who acknow ledge, in ad d itio n to th e Q u r an, the Sunnah o r p a th o f the Prophet to be th e correct version o f Islam . T h e Sunnis i. e. one o f th e p ath , em brace by fa r the g re ater portion o f th e Islam ic w orld. T hey believe th e f ir s t fo u r C aliphs to have been rig h tfu l successors o f the P rophet an d belong to one o f th e four schools o f jurisprudence founded by Im Sm AbO H an ifa, i m i a i ash-Shafe*!, Im am M alik o r Im S m A hm ad ib n H anbal. See Sunnis. A llali-O -A k liar Lit. G od is g re a t. A n ejaculation w hich is called Takbir. Ito c c u rs fre q u e n tly in th e litui^fcal form o f w orship an d Mauds f o r th e d eclaratio n o f God-s absolute overlordship over th e w orld. A sh 'arite A sect form ed by A bul H asan *All ibn Ism aftt al-Ashca rI, b o rn 206 A. H . (873-74 A. D .) A shlar it es h o ld th a t th e attributes o f G od a re d istinct from His essence, yet in subh a w ay as to forbid any com parison betw een G od and H is creations. A sh'arites trav erse th e m ain positions o f the M uctazilites, denying th a t tn a n c a n b y his reason atone, rise to the know ledge o f good a n d evil. T h ey ad o p t th e m iddle course betw een th e M u*tazilites an d th e H anbalites. U nlike the form er they n eith er accept th e claim o f reason to be com pletely free to d iscern m etaphysical realities and deliver its verdict ab o u t th e content a n d n a tu re , attrib u tes a n d Character istics o f th e Suprem e R eality n o r do they agree w ith the H anbalites w ho reject th e claim o f reason to have any say in expounding th e revealed T ru th .

358

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC S P IR IT

*A srT h e tim e for obligatory prayer offered m idw ay when, th e sun has begun to decline an d sunset. A s s a s s i n s C orru p tio n o f hailshijah o r haslsh-eater. A sect o f the Batinites who undertook to kill treacherously their enemies. A y a h Lit. a sign o r m iracle. T he term is also used for one o f the sm aller p ortions o f the ch apter o f the Q u ran o r a verse. B a ci t O a th o f allegiance taken by ihe people for rem ain ing faithful to th e h ead o f a M uslim State o r any o th er person acknow ledged as spiritu al guide. , , B a tin ite (or Balinxyah). Lit. inner, esoteric. They m aintained th a t only a symbolic interpretation w ith gradual initiatio n by an illum inated teacher could reveal the real m eaning o f the Q u ran . T h e w ord, they claim ed, was like a veil, h iding the deep occult m eaning never attainable to those clinging to literal explanation* Being a Shica ite theological school o f thought, they also upheld the doctrine o f < th e divine source 01 Im am ate (the spiritu al leadership o f an /mam) a n d o f the transm ission o f indefeasible rig ht o f Prophets vicegercncy by divinely o rdained hered itary succession o f Caliph tA ll. T h e w idespread Ism a'llite sect an d its offsprings like Q arm atians, FStim ides, Assassins, etc. belong to the sphere o f Batinite thought. ' C h is h tiy a h T h e o rd e r o f mysticism founded by K hw aja M oin ud-dln C hishti Sajazl. I t is the most popular S $ fi o rd e r in In d ia . D a rn ] H a d i t h An institution o r faculty for higher studies o f th e science o f T rad itio n s. D r u z e Also D a ru z i;; A sect founded by an em issary o f the sixth F atim id e caliph, A l-H akim l A m r illah. t F a j r T h e tim e for obligatory prayer p erform ed after daw n but before sunrise. F iq a h T h e d ogm atic theology^ o f Islam am plifying the Islam ic, ideals o f ethical precepts in day-to-day . affairs o f-th e believers. ; ,

GLOSSARY O f T H E ARABIC AND PERSIAN TERMS

339

Fatimide A Shicaite dynasty o f 13 Caliphs or Imams in N o rth A frica (9 J 1-1171) an d in Egypt (969-1171). U nlike other heads o f th e larg er or sm aller States em erging w ithin the sphere o f cAbbasid C aliphate or w hich conceded to the Caliphs, a t least to save appearance, th e Fatim ides challenged the cA bbasids for both the tem poral and spiritual power. Beyond its political significance, how ever, it fulfilled the apocalyptic belief in the reign o f M ah d i, as essential tenet o f th e Ism at ilite branch o f Shi'aism . F ir d a u s iy a h T h e mystic o rd er founded by K hw aja Badr ud-dln o f S am arkand. T h e o rd er laid emphasis on c 6 ntem plation, renunciation o f the w orld, annihilation o f the self and concealm ent o f spiritual powers. T h e o rd er laid particular emphasis on following the injunctions o f the Sharp ah. H ad ith See Sunnah. H a fiz A person who has com m itted to his m em ory the entire Q u ran. Haj T h e pilgrim age to M ecca perform ed in the m onth o f Z il-H ijja o r the tw elfth m onth o f M uslim year. I t is the fo u rth pillar o f Islam ic religious observances, and an incum bent religious duty founded upon express injunctions o f the Q u ran. H ajee A person w ho has perform ed the H aj o r pilgrim age to M ecca d uring the appointed days. H ajib An official appointed by the T a rta r converts to Islam to settle or ad ju d icate upon th eir personal disputes according to Tasaq, the M ongol code. H akim ites A sect o f Fatim ides founded by the sixth Fatim ide C aliph A l-H akim , w ho asserted th at he was the express im age o f G od. A l-H akim ascended the throne a t th e age o f eleven years in 996 A. t) . and was assassinated in 1021 A. D . Halalah T h e iriarriage o f a divorced woman w ith another m an who m ust consum m ate th e m arriag e a n d 'd iv o rce ' her, before th e re-m arriag e o f such a w om an to h er first husband. Hanafite Those following the juristic school o f ; Im a m Abu H an ifah an-N ulm an (80-150 A. H./700-767 A. D ), the g ie a t Sunni Im a m an d jurisconsult. T h e H anafites, spread

360

SAVIOUR? OF ISLAMIC SPOUT

over T urkey, A fghanistan an d In d ia n sub-continent, form the g reat m ajority o f the M uslims. H a a b a lites Follow ers o f Im am A hm ad ibn H an b al ^SO BS') A. D .), founder o f one o f the four orthodox sects o f the Sunnis. T h e m odern W ah ab is claim to follow the teaching of A hm ad ibn H anbal. H anbalites asserted the param ount auth o rity o f .the Q u r an w ith the T raditions as against superiority o f reason over faith. R a q i q a t U t. T ru th . T h e essence o r m eaning o f a thing. A stage in th e m ystic jo u rn ey o f th e >/ where he is supposed to receive a n inspiration o r illum ination o f the tru e nature o f G odhead, th at is to a rriv e at th e T ru th . H lflbat-n llalt Lit. the P arty o f A llah M A com m on nam e fo r Id-ul-Pitr, the festival o f fastbreaking a t th e end o f th e m onth o f R am ad h an an d Id-ul~Adha o r the feast o f sacrifice celebrated on the tenth day o f Zil-H ijja. I f t ir Lit. B reaking o f fast in the evening after sunset. Ijm ca Lit. Collecting o r assem bling. In Islam ic jurisp ru d en ce Ijmla expresses the unanim ous consent o r con sensus o f the m en o f learning an d piety over any ju ristic issue. Im am Lit. O ne w ho leads i. e. a norm al guide o r a m odel. I t com m only denotes in tlie Sunnite creed the lead er o f the congregation in p ray er who should be conversant with the ritu a l. T h e term is also applied to one learned a n d pious and capable o f m aking logical deductions on a legal o r theological question. In the Shi* a h d octrine, how ever, the te rm covers an entirely different notion. T o them the /mam is th e faultless an d infallible lead er, an offspring o f All, to whoxii spiritual leader ship is supposed to have been passed o n from the Prophet th ro u g h his son-in-law and th e fourth C aliph eAli. I m i m a t T h e office o f Iniam. Im am Bara A b u ild in g in w hich the festival o f Muharram is celebrated by th e Shi ahs to com m em orate the m artyrdom o f H usain, son o f C aliph All. cI h a T he tim e for th e last o f the daily obligatory prayers, p erform ed w hen the nig h t has closed in.

GLOSSARY O F T H E A RA BIC AND PERSIAN TERMS

361

I s h r a q A voluntary p ray er perform ed w hen th e sun has w ell risen. Ism acilite s o r Ismaciliyah. Also called seveners (Sabaijah), they form ed the group o f extrem ist Shicahs originating from a schism w hich took place in th e Shica h com m unity tow ards th e end o f th e eighth century about th e question o f the succession o f the seventh Imam Ism a 'll. T h e sixth fmSm, J a ca far al-Sadiq, h ad disinheritd Ism acll in favour o f his younger son M usa al-K azim but a faction o f th e S h ia h s rem ained faithful to Ism a 'll. L ater, the Ism a(llites proved th e ir vitality u n d e r such different aspects as th e terrorism o f Q arm atians sectaries, the caliphate o f th e F&timides, th e B rethren o f Purity and the once so d re a d e d Assassins (also see Batinites). Jih ad L it. a n effort o r striving. A religious w ar w ith those unbelievers who attack the M uslim s o r a re inim ical to them . I t is a n incum bent religious duty, established in the Q u ran a n d th e T rad itio n s as a div in e institution, an d enjoined specially for th e defence o f a M uslim land an d repelling evil from th e M uslims. J iz y a h T h e capitation tax Realized from th e non*Musllm subjects in lieu o f protection afforded to them by a M uslim State. Such non-M uslim subjects, called sim m is, a re exem pted from m ilitary duty in defence o f th e realm b u t enjoy full citizenship rights like other M uslim s, w ho, besides paying Z flkat, not levied on non-M uslim s, are also liable to be d rafted for dative service. K M lafat N am ah T h e w a rra n t o f vicegerency conferred by a s$fl saint on his disciple w ho is thus allow ed to preach an d a d m it others in th e m ystical o rd e r o f his m entor. K h w S r ljA sect w hich denied th e authority o f the C aliphs a n d believed th a t commission o f a m ajo r sin condem ned one to eternal torm ent in th e H ell. T h ey seceded from th e arm ed forces o f C aliph A ll after th e w ar o f Siffln m 13 A. H . as a protest against th e appointm ent o f arb itrato rs to decide th e issue o f caliph ate betw een All and M u aw iyah. M a d a m An educational institution, specially for

362

SAVIOURS OF ISI.AM1C SPIRI;|

teaching o f religious sciences. M aghrib Lit. west. T h e tim e for obligatory prayer offered ju s t after the sunset. M a x n lu k Lit. Slave, the designation o f the im ported T u rk slaves serving in, the arm y. Mcarifat M cori f ah o r D ivine gnosis is a stage in the mystic journey o f spirit w herein the sufl, after-occupying him self w ith contem plation and investigations concerning the nature, attrib u te and works o f G od, attains the knowledge o f these. Maulana Lit. a lord o r m aster. A term generally used for a learned m an. M nazzin O ne who gives the call to prayer. M ustaufi-ni-Mamalik T he A ccountant G eneral o f the realm . M u'tazilites o r Mu'-lazdah. Lit. T he Separatists. A school o f thought founded by W asil ibn A ta5, who separated from the school o f H asan al-Basrl. T h e chief tenets o f the school w ere : ( 1 ) T hey rejected all eternal attributes, o f God saying th a t eternity is the proper or form al attribute o f His essence; th a t God knows by His essence, and not by His know ledge ; th a t to affirm these attn b u tes ijs the sam e thing as to m ake m ore eternals th a n one ; an d th at the U nity o f God is inconsistent jwith such an opinion. (2) T hey believed the word o f G od (Q u ran) to have been created, and w hatever vwas created was also an accident, and liable to perish. (3) T hey held th a t if any M uslim is guilty o f grievous sin, and dies w ith out repentence, he will be eternally dam ned. (4) T hey also denied th e vision o f God i n Paradise by the corporeal eyevand rejected all comparisons or, sim ilitudes applied to God. . D uring th e re ig n ^o f.th e A bbasid C aliphs al-]^I|iji,un (8138 33),. al-M uct ^ i m ^833-842} nl-W ath\q (842-847) the M uctazilah were in high favour. , Naqsbbandiyab T h e jn y s tic pr.der founded by K hw aja P ir M uham m ad iNaqsht^nci (d. 719/1319). T hey usually perform ^ikr-i-K a ft or sil.eist devotions by. way o f the rem em b rance o f God.

GLOSSARY O F T H E ARABIC AND PERSIAN TERMS

363

N iz a m iy a liT h e o rd e r o f mysticism followed by the disciples and,follow ers p f Khv^sya N izam ud-din A ulia9. N u s a y r l s - Also Nusajri. A sect o f the Shilahs founded by Ib n N usair (d. 873 A. D.)> a follower and em issary o f the eleventh Shicaite Im am al-H asan al-Askari. T hey lived in J a b l N usairiyah an d num bered about 2,50,000. P i r Lit. A n eld er. T h e term denotes a spiritual leader. Q ,a d ir iy a h T h e Qjtdiriyah o rd e r o f mysticism sprang up from the celebrated Saiyid A bdul Q a d ir Jil&nl (1 0 5 8 -llli) w hose shrine is in B aghdad. Q ,a r iO ne who reads the Q jiran correctly and is acquainted with the science o f pronouncing the w ords o f the scripture faultlessly. Q a ? i Sometimes w ritten as C adi. A Ju d g e o r adm inis tra to r o f law appointed by the ru le r o f a M uslim State. Q ib ia h T h e direction in w hich M uslim s offer prayer. Q iy a g T h e analogical reasoning o f the learned w ith re g ard to the teaching o f the Q u r an, Had'ith an d IjnuP. T he essential conditions f o r such an analogical reasoning a re th a t ( 1 ) the precept or practice upon w hich it is founded should be o f com m on an d not o f special application, ( 2 ) the cause o f the injunction should be known and understood, (3) the decision m ust be based upon either th e Q ur^an, th e Hadltk, or th e IjndP an d (4) th e decision arriv ed a t m ust not be contrary to anything expressly enjoined elsewhere ip the Q u ran and the Hadith. R a f iz f Lit, A forsaker. Synonymous w ith Rafizfth. A term used for a body o f soldiers, belonging to a sect o f Sliicahs, w ho jo in ed Z aid , the son o f lA ll ibn H usain. T hey dem anded th a t Zaid. should abuse AbQ B akr a n d 'U m a r , the first tw o Caliphs, but on his refusal to d o so, they left him to th e m ercy o f H ajjaj ibn Yusuf. Z aid fought bravely w ith the handful p f his rem aining com panions who all fell a g a in s t. the vastly superior enemy. R a k ca t (PI. Rakcah). A u n it o f p ray er consisting o f one genuflection an d tw o prostrations.

364

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC SPIR IT

R a fi'iy a h A mystic o rd e r founded by S aiyid'A hm ad b in 4All bin Y ahya ar-R afa1! al-H asnl A bdul * AbbSs (512*578 A H ./1 118*1182 A. D .) in Ira q . A uthor o f a num ber o f books, Saiyid A hm ad ar-R afa1! is reported to have one hundred eighty thousand disciples. T h e dom inant feature o f the o rd er was em phasis on service o f hum anity, self effacement, gracious b ehaviour an d severe m oral an d spiritual discipline. L ater on, how ever, an extrem ist group o f his followers took to w onder w orking an d developed antinom ian tendencies. S a b cI n i y a h A pantheistic sect o f sufis who believed th at everything is G od, and o f the same essence. Sadr-i-JabuniT h e officer charged w ith the responsibility o f enforcing Islam ic rules and regulations and disbursing stipends to M uslim divines, scholars an d m en o f piety. Sahihaio Consists o f the two books o f T raditions consi d ered to be th e most correct books. J. Bunhari o f M uham m ad Ism a 'il al B ukhati (d. 256 A.H.).' 2. Muslim o f M uslim ibn al-H ajjaj (d. 261 A. H .) . S a h Q rT h e m eal w hich is taken before daw n while keeping fast. S h a f e 'it e s followers o f one o f the four juristic schools o f orthodox Islam . T h e founder o f this school was Im am M uham m ad ibn Id ris as Shafe*!, who Was b o m at A sqalon in Palestine (95/714). *The Shafe^ites are found In South In d ia and Egypt. S h a r 'i a h Lit T h e w ay. T h e law, including *b6 th the teachings o f th e O u tra n an d the T raditions o f the Prophet. It has been .defined as the way o r ro ad in the religion o f M u h am m ad , w hich G od has established for the guidance o f H is people, both for th e w orship o f God and for the duties o f life'. S h e ik h A title accorded to the venerable doctors o f religion. It is used in addressing theological scholars and divines who have acq u ired a certain spiritual prom inence, w ithout necessarily hold in g a religious office.

GLOSSARY O P T H E ARABIC AND PERSIAN TERMS

365

S h e i k h 's l - I d a m ^ 'T h c highest ecclesiastical office under a M uslim State. S h ica h Lit. Split an d also follow ers. A general desig nation covering various sects o f M uslim s not following the conform ist o r orthodox faith. T h e schism whose origin goes back to th e early years o f Islam h a d its beginning in, the rivalry for th e caliphate between th e U m m ayyad an d A lid clans a fte r caliph A lls death an d M uaw iy ah s accession to the C aliphate. T h e A lid party m ain tain ed th a t this highest office o f Islam was a prerogative o f th e P rophets house. T hey also m ain tain ed th a t All was th e first legitim ate /w aw o r successor o f th e P rophet a n d th erefore rejected th e first th ree successors o f th e P rophet. T h e belief in this reg ard later developed into a faith th a t th e Prophets God-w illed sp iritu al a n d secular guidance h a d passed from him to A ll w ho, h im self a n in carn atio n o f the D ivine Spirit, h a d bequeathed his mission to a sequence o f h ereditary Imams o f his progeny. O n this soil was set up a theological fram ew ork w hich left am p le room for th e most varied opinions, some o f w hich h a rd on th e borderline o f Islam . S h ir k Lit. A scribing p lurality to th e D eity o r associat ing partn ers to G od. I t consists o f ascribing divine knowledge to others; th a n G o d ; ascribing divine powers to others th an G o d ; offering w orship to created b ein g s; and, the perform an ce o f cerem onies w hich im ply reliance on others th a n G od. S ik ak -vs-S ittak T h e following a re th e Sihah Sittah, or six. correct books o fT ra d itio n s, received by Sunni Muslims. (1) Al-Bukhari, o f M uham m ad Ism ail al-Bukari (d. 256

A .H .). (2) Muslim, o f M uslim ibn al-H ajjaj (d. 261 A. H .).
(3) Al-Tiim izi, o f AbQ Is5 M uham m ad al-T irm izl (d. 279

A .H .). (4) Ata Di*Sd, o f Aba D iud as-SajistSnl (d. 275 A. H .). (5) An-Ni&P, o f Abu Abdur Rahm&n an-NisSiJ (d. 303 A. H .).

366

SAVIOURS

o r 1SLAMI0 SPIRIT

( 6 ) Ibn M&jah, o f A bu AbdullSh M uham m ad Ib n M ija h (d. 273 A. H .). S a fiO ne who professes the mystic principles for attaining the gttbsis o f G od. T h e principal occupation a f*(A * s m editation on the U nity o f G od, the rem em brance o f G odS nam es and the progressive advancem ent m spiritual life to a tta in propinquity o f God. Suharwardiyah A p o p u lar o rd e r o f mysticism founded by Sheikh Shahab ud-dln S u h arw ard I o f B aghdad (d. 602/ 1205). S n n n a h As opposed to th e Q u ran which is a d irect reve lation from G od, the Prophet also received w hat is regarded as an unrtad revelation w hich enabled him to give authoritative declarations on religious m atters. T he A rabic w ord used for these T raditions is Hadith an d Sunn/th fa saying o r a custom ). T h e Prophet gave very special instructions respecting the faithful transm ission o f his sayings. G radually, how ever, spurious T raditions also gained currency for which a n elaborate canon o f subjective and historical criticism was evolved fo r the acceptance o r rejection o f th e T raditions. T h e Sunnali represents an authentic interpretation b f the Q u ran , a valuable Source o f law an d an infallible g u id e for the overw helm ing m ajority o f the M uslims-in every situation o f th eir spiritual and secular life as opposed to Bid1ah (innovation) in religion. S u n n i Lit. O ne o f the p ath . A term generally applied to a ll M uslims who consider the Sunnah o f the Prophet, m ani fested by his sayings, acts or tacit approval and transm itted by the com panions o f th e Prophet, as the infallible guide o f the faith fu l and an authentic interp retatio n o f the Q u r an. T he1 -Sunnis em brace by fa r the g reater portion o f the M uslim w orld. i, T a h a jju d A voluntary p rayer o(ft*red after m idnight. T a l i q T h e sentence o f divorce^ T h e Islam ic law o f divorce or release from th e m arriag e tie is founded upon express injunctions contained in the Q u ran, as well as, the

O I.OSSARY O F T H E A R A B IC A N D P E R S IA N TER M S

367

T raditions and exhaustively treated in the works on ju ris prudence. T a r a w i h T he p lu ra l o f Tatwlh i . tfe. rest. T he prayers, o f usually tw enty rakcats, recited at nig h t d uring the m onth of R am ad h an ; so called because the congregation sit down and rest after every fourth rakcai. T a u h i d A term used to express the U nity o f the God head, which is the great fundam ental basis o f Islam . T he teaching o f th e Q u ran and th e Prophet as to the n atu re o f God, H is U nity, without any associate o r p artn er, His absolute Power and th e oth er essential attributes o f an E tern al and A lm ighty Being is the most im portant p a rt o f the Islam ic faith. T ariq at A p ath . T h e Tanqah 01 spiritual path which is usually known as lasawwuf o r mysticism, is the inner and esoteric dim ension o f Islam and like th e Sharlfah has its roots in the Q u ran and prophetic practice. Being the actual nature o f spiritual path, the traveller on the p ath o f Tarlqat seeks to em ulate the life o f the Prophet who is th e prototype o f spiritua lity and thus realises the m eaning o f unity or Tauhid in its fullness. cU la m a P lu ral o f Aalim. O ne who knows, learned 5 a scholar. In the plural form the w ord is used as the title o f the learned doctors in Islam ic theology and law. U r s A term used for the cerem onies observed at the anniversary o f the d eath o f any celebrated saint. Walayet Lit. Sainthood or state o f spiritual elevation. W a ll(Pluarl Aulia ), T h e term is applied to a saint o r holy m an who has attained a high state o f sanctity by virtue of his divine illum ination and pious life. Yoga H indu system o f philosophic m editation and asceti cism designed to effect the reunion o f th e devotees soul w ith the universal spirit. Yogi O ne who practises yoga. Z im m i A m em ber o f th e Ahl-uz-^ummah a non-M uslim subject o f a M uslim G overnm ent, belonging to the Jew ish, C hristian or Sabean creed, w ho, for th e paym ent o f poll or

368

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC S P IR IT

capitation-tax, enjoys security o f his person, p ro perty and religious observance in a M uslim country w ithout bearing the responsibility o f defending the realm . Z nhrT h e tim e for afternoon obligatory prayer.

INDEX
*
A ban ibn S a'eed ibn al-cAas, 133 A b b ls, 85, 133 * A bdul Aziz, S hsh, 298 'A b d u l H a i, M aulSnS Syed, 264, 266 Abul H a jja j A l-M izzI, 60, 138 Abdul H am id al K Stib, 297 cA bdul H a q M uhaddith Dchlavi, S heikh, 221, 'A b d u l H a ian A l-A ih'axi, Im Sm , 26 'A bdullSh az-2arafee, 59 ' 'A bdullSh ibn M uhib, 59 'A bdullSh ibn U bai, 305 'A bdullSh, S h a ra f u d -d ln , 60 A bui L aith'S am arkand i, Faqih, 155 'A bdul Q S dir Jila n i, Sheikh, 45 A bdur R ahim , K h w ija , 197 'A b d u r Rahm fin, Z ain ud-din, 43, 56, 59, 60 Abu A hm ad C hishti, K hw Sja, 149 AbO 'A li SinS, 95, 96, 103, 104, 105, 106 Aba fA m ar, 77, 78 AbO Bakr, H azrat, 132, 133 AbQ Bakr K harrS ta (Qaww Sl), 168 A b a Baqr B aqillani, Q iz i, 26 AbQ H a ft Aushi, M aulSnS, 155 A bo H a n ifa , Im lm , 194, 212 A bu HayySn T aw hidi, 297 AbQ IshSq a s-S tb i, 297 AbU I*hSq Sham i, Khw Sja, 149 A bul BarakSt BaghdSdi, 95 A bul F adhal, 154,298 Aba M uham m ad C hishti, K h w ija , 149, 150 A bul M u q ta d ir K in d i, Sheikh, 237, 250 Aftul Q iiim H a riri, 2 ? / AbulQfisim H indu S hsh, 243 AbQ Sa<eed Abul K hair, Sheikh, 23* AbO ShakOr Salm i, 173 . . _ AbQ Sufyan ibn al-H Srith ibn Abdul M u ttalib, i 33 A ba Z ahra, 32, 39, 45, 49, 53, 55, 57, 118 Abyssipi^, 3.IJ5 A dam B innauri, Saiyid, 264 . A dam , H a zra t, 23, 279, 304, 308, 315f, 337 Adi ibn MusSfir Amawi, Sheikh, 45 , AdnSn, Z ain ud-din ibn, 38, A fghanistan, 150 A hm adabad, 249 A hm ad F am qi, Sheikh, 298 A hm ad ibn cA li, 166 A hm ad ibn M uhainm ad as-SaghSnJ, Sheikh, 220 Ahm ad ibn Sheikh Yahya See S h a ra f ud -d in A hm ad ibn 'U m a r, 262 A hm ad K h w aja, 264 A hm ad ThSnesw ri, Sheikh, 237, 250 Aibeck, (Izz ud-d in , A l-T urkm ani, 11 ^in-i-Akbari, 154 Ain Jalut, 11 A in-ul-Q udhSt H am adani, 267 A jm er, 151f, 247 A jodhan, 160, 164, 168, 171f, I76f, 182, 188 Ajweba, 294 Akhbar-ul-Akhyar, 157, 162 A l-A khanP, Q a z I T aq l ud-din, 81 A l-A kK n& ifahfii 'A lam ud -d ln al-BarzilT, 48, 61, 135

370

lAVlOURS OF ISLAMIC SPIR IT

(Alam u llah N a q ih b an d i, S h lh , 264 fAW> ud-dln *Ali S tb ir, Sheikh, 158; 1C?, 165 *AMP u d-dln Babm an S h fh , Sue Sham*-i-SirSj A tlf Ala* ud -d ln J iu rl, Sheikh, 264 fAlS* ud-dln K h iljl, 148,186, 189, *90, 1 9 1 ,1 9 3 ,2 1 6 ,2 3 3 , 235, 238 AH u d -d in , Sheikh-ul-Islam , 233 Ala* ud-din UsDli, MaulSnS, 167 <AlS>-ul-Haq, 246, 294 'A lexandaria, 46, 47, 48 (A li Asgliar, M a u lS n l, 251 Ali, H a zra t, 35, 63, 77, 89, I33f, 136 'A lim ullah, Q i z i, 251 'A ll Sikizzi, Sheikh, 157 'A llam a G azru n i, 250 A lpharabius, See Al-FarSbi Am erica, 149 A inelhf, 251 A m ir B u lli1, 32 A m ir H a jl, 216 A m ir H asan fAla* S ajazl, 170, 185, 188,204, 207,217,227 A m ir HosSm ud-din M a h a n a ibh *Is5, 44 A m ir K husru, 180, 183, 184, 191, 192 195, 197, 216, 221 A m ir Q airb ek , 215 A m ir S aif u d -d in JaghSn, 28 A m ir Saiyid (Ali H a m a d in i, 263 Am ir T u za u n , 29 A nandpU , 151 A n a l ibn M ilik , 9 A ndluji, SSy'id, 93 A n o raj, 151 tAqc?id-i-SharaJil 295 Aqil, 133 Aqoosh al-A fram J a m il u d-din, 33, 34 A rabi, M uhi ud-din ib n , 41, 42 Aristotle, 18, 93f, 98, 102, 103, 111, 115

Arjawish, S3 Arkiin, 125 Arrah. 269

A shraf J a h in g lr Sam nSni, Saiyid 246, 251, 293, 294 Asqalfini, Ib n H ajar, 67 Asrar-i-Ktmdt, 2 fl 'A ta J ullah, K h w aja. 205 A tliar us-San5did, 183, 170 Aurangabad, 249^

Aurangzeb, *Alamgir, 298 Aush, 154 Auza % 52 Averroes, See Ibn Rushd Avicenna, See AbQ fA!i S i n t tAwSrif, 235 tAwdrif-nt-Macarif, 173, 174. 262 'Ayesha, 334 AyyUb, Al-Malik al-Saleh, 11 AyyObi, Sultan Salah ud-fiin, 23 Ayyfib Najm ucWin, 11 Az6d, Ghulam *Ali, 153 AzSzil, 304 A zh n tiya h , 141

Baba Farid al-D in, 24fl Badr ud-din Ish iq , M aulanS , 164, 172, 174,217 Badr ud-dln, K haw *ja, 264, 265, 266 Badr u d-din, M a u la n t, 161, 182 Badr u d-dln Sulsim Sn, Sheikh, 165 J Baghdad, 10, 13, 39, 59, 141,147,155,

195

: "''."' I

B aha al-H aqq, 248 Bahi* ud-dln ibn az-2aki a s-S h ife ^ , Q a z i, 25 B aha9 ud d in M a u ltn S , 263 B aha u d -d in Z akariya M ultani, Sheikh. 108, 195, 201, 265 Baha* u d-dln Z akarya, 162 Bahr-ul-Ma*Sm, 295 (, ^

Baiber-AI-Malik al-Zahir 1, 12, 13, 15 Baibers, Rukn ud-dln, 11 Bait ul-Muqaddas, 50,282, 306 Al-Bakrl, Sheikh 'A ll Ibn YfaqBb, 81 BakhtiySr Kaki, K hw ija Qjjtubud-din. I54f, 163, 182, 264, 265 Balakb, 273, 285 Al-Balasi, Muhammad al>Khabbz, 38 Bal*am Ba'nr, 304, 309 Balban, GhiySth ud-din, 161, 168, 183, 188,249,259 Banr An-Nadhlr, 40 Band Abd M unaf, 133 Barni, Zia* ud-dfh, 148 Batinites, 5-6 Bayariah, 190 Ba-Yazid, Sheikh, 235 Bayeztd ai-Bistml, 335 At-BazzKr, Sjraj ud-din Aba Hafk, 67, 71,72 Behiah, 269 Benaras, 251 Bengal, 222, 246, 249, 258, 259,285, 294 Bibi Fatimah, 165 Bibi NastQrah, 165 Bibi Sharifah, >65 AI Hidayah wan-Niyayah, 12 Bihar, 257, 258, 270, 272, 294, 301 BiqillSni, Abu Bakr, 94 Bil M ufid, See ibn Noaman, AbO 'Abdullah Muhammad Bisgldeo, 151 ~ BishniJah, 183 Brahamputra, 259 Brahma, 151 BO *Ali Q alandar, 261 Budaun, 166, 180 Buddah, 269, 270 Bughra Khan, 183 BukhSrS, 147

BukhSri, 55 /'r l [ B urhin ud-dln 1-Maiginitnf, 70 " v B urhin ud-dtn 169 Burhan ud-dln, Sheikh, 245

m : ..

Cairo, 12, 47, 53, f t , 89* 90 C anasta, 308 Chand BardSi, 131 Chauift, 306, 301 Chenghi* Khan, 16, 29, 39, 133, 155. 241 China, 60 Cordova, 148 Cunningham, General, 269 Cyprus, 5, 39

Dacca, 259 Damascui, 10,14, 19, 20, 21, 29* 31f, 39,46, 47, 49, 50, 55, 59, 77, 17* Daniel, 125 DStS Ganj Baksh, Tom b of, 89 Daulatahad, 196, 244,250 David, the prophet, 24, 103, 122, 126 Deccan, 264 Delhi, 148, 151, 154f, 159, 160, 166, 168, 170f, 177f, 87, 191f, 201, 211, 216, 217, 223, 237, 239, 240, 241, 246, 249,250, 259, 260, 261,264, 265, 271, 281,294 Devagtri, 196, 197, 241 Dialectic*, 3, 5 DrOzes, 6

Edeoa, 19 Egypt, I t , 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 20,23, 26, 29, 32, 34f, 42f, 62,65, 71, 73, 77, 78, 122, 141, 312 Etah, 183

372

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC STOUT

Euclid, 93
10,V2

Ezra, 73, 120

'

**v

Fa H ian, 269 lakhr ud-dTn ZarrlHf MaulfinS, 194. 199,222*241, 242,271 Falasafalul lkhtaq fil Islam wo Silmluha bil Fatsafalil IghripSk, 66 A1 FarSbi, AbQ Nasr, 95, 103, 105 Farghane, 154 Farhang Ibrahimi, 257 Farid ud-dln Slam, MauISnS, 267 Farid ud-dln *Attar, KhwSja, 263,

Firoz S h ih TUghJaq, 240f, 267, 272 281 Al-Fttrq&n, 41 FusTis ii-flekam, 41 , FiUihai-i-AfaWyah, 41 Fuzatl ibn (Ay4dh, 304

- ' O
Galen., 93 Ganj-i-LSyafna, 295 Ganjshakar, See Farid-ud-din Ganjshakar Gaza, 42 Gaznavi, Sheikh Badr ud-din, )63 Gaznavi, MahraQd, 149,150 Gazfin, 29, 30, 31 32 Al-GhazSH. Imam AbQ H b n id , 66. 95, 97, 107, 111, 209, 210,297, 326 Ghazni, 150,159 GhiyithpBr. 180, 182f, J9 I, 704,234, 248 GhiySth ud-din Mansur Shirizi, M ir, 250 GhiySth ud-din Tughlaq, SultSn, 19? 193, 196,221, 222,271,285 Ghor, 150 G hori, ShahSb ud-din Muliammad, , 1491,257,258 Ghost, Holy, 118, 119, 22, 123 GhulSm Husain SaRm, 246 Gospel, 119, 120 Greece, 93,101, 103,110 Gulbarga, 237, 249,251

267

,c .

:{.

Farid ud-d!n Ganjshakar, KhwSja, I58f, 168, 170, 172f, 177, 178, 182, 202,,211, 218f,' 230, 232, 247, 248 FSrOqi, Ibrahim, QawwSm, 257 Fsih ud-din, 203 , Fatiwah Ibn Taimiyah, 52 Falawnh Shtikh-ul-Islam ibn Taimiyah. p 141 Faliiwah Titarkhiniyah, 267 Falimah, Hazrat, 135, 334, FawSHd-i-Rukni, 294 FawaHd Muridin, 295 Faw&id-ui-Fawid, J69f, 174, 175. 177, 179, 180,182, 186,m 207, 211, 212,217, 222, 224f,235 At-Fih, 57 Fihrist ibn Nadim, 94 FirangT Mahal, 251 Firdausi, KhwSja N ajlb ud-dln, 266f Firdausi, ShSh Shtfaib, 259, 264, 265, 267,275,278 Firdausi, Sheikh N ajib ud-dln, 261 Firdausi, Sheikh Rukn ud-din, 264, 266 Firoz S hih Sharqi, S ulttn , 285

H
Habaldcuk, 125 H abib ud-din, Sheikh, 258 HajjSj ibn YOsuf, 53 , H ajw airi, Syed *Ali, 89 HalSkfl, 39, 96 Haldl-i-Suttan-ul-Mash&ikh, 163 Haleb, 10, 21, 29,39

373

HamSdSn, 147 :'s ;, ;a Hamah, 29 ' f Hamid ud-din Nagauri, Q azi, 159,195r

Iw K athir, II , U . W, 41, 43, 47f, 53* 54, 56, 60. IbaK haH tkfc 5? ,, f i Ibn M illk, S7-. , Ibn Mukhluf, <^izj,,46, 7 , IbnNomStfc AbO* Abdullah , Muln*nad, 7ft Ibn QaryyirnvHifiK, 5 2 ,5 5 ,6 3 , 297 Ibn Rajpb, (50 Ib n R ushd,96, 103, 111 Ibn Sab'ain, 41 Ibn Saiyid-in-Ni>, 64 . Ibn Shaddid, 297 Ibn SmS, 103, 113 Ibn Taimiyah, 3, 10,11, 13, 17, 18, birth & childhood, 1925, 26, 28, 30, 31f, 41, in Egypt, 42-49, 50f, 58, last days, 59-60, intellectual Brilliance, 61-63t Courage, 64-68, literary achievements, 69-72, 73, 79, 81f, 90f, 96f142 Ibn Taimiyah, Abul Barkat M ajd uddfn, 19, 20 Ibn Taimiyah ShahSb ud-din 'Abdul Halim, 19, 20 , Ibn Taimiyah, Sheikh Sharf ud-din, 47 Ibn Taimiyah, Sheikh T aqi ud-din, 40 Ibn Taimiyah, ain u d -d in 1Abdur Rahman, 55 Ibn ul-'Amid, 297 Ibn us-SalSh, 60 Ibn Yarning 293 s. ' ] / Ibrahim, H azrat, 33, 75, 77, 257, 304 308, 317 . Ibrahim Sharqi, Sultan, 246, 251 Ighathalallohjan, 52 luyaJ-u^Uloom, 66, 235, 326 Iltutmish, Sultan Shams ud-djn, 1541', 166,264, 269 . Imadul-Mulk, See Rawat 'A rz. Imam Shafa*!, 196

2T 2 - *
Hamid ud-din, Sheikh, 281 Hamilton, Dr, Uuchnan, 269 HSnsi, 159, 160, 177, 182, 239, 240,271 Hauz Qatlaglt K han, 182 1 . H aftan. 10, 19, 20 Hasari. I^hclij 216 Hasan, ImSm, 77, 135 Hasan Sar Uarahiia, 339 Ha.mil Hamah, 195, 232 S ' H auran, 34 Hejan, 13 ' - ! Al-He-kaui, 45 ,. AI-Hifli, ibn-ul-Mutahhir, 127,134, 135 Hims, 30 * Al-Hindi, Sheikh' Safi ud-din, 7:1 -: Hindustan, See India ; si. ; Hippocrates, a < Hisar, 20,4 , . H iueu Tsiang,-269 ! _< HosSm ud-din Far jam , 193, 194,105 Had, 126 Humaidi, Imam, 22 a Huinaun, 183 HunninaU, 312 . Husain, ImSm,89 135, 258

"'"7 i

"

Iblis, 308, 337 Ibn AbbSs, 82 l b n Abd ud-DSyam al-M aqdisi, 22 Ibn'A bdul H id i, 22 i Ibn al-Athir, 60 Ibn al-Faridh, 45 Ibn al-Jawzi, 297 Ibn 'Aqeel, 107 Ibn AsSkir, 60 Ibn Ata* ullah Iskandari. Sheikh, 45

374

SAVIOURS O F ISLAMIC S P IR IT

Im fm ul-Harmayh, 26 lndrapt, 26? India, 14<f, 157f, 177, 178, 18 ,190, 221, 237, 243, 247, 25fl, 25J. 258, 259, 262f, 269, 270, 33 f Iqbal, 191, 197, 206, 2 Iqtidhi3 Siral-ul-MusIa//lm Mnkhilufola AshSk id-Jahim, 69, 139; 140 Iran, 13,29,148, 150, 166. 252 Iraq, 10, 13, 19, 29, 32,63. 148 Inhad al-Salkiii, 294 lrth ad ul-TSlbn, 294 Ish iq ibn Rabuwalh, 52 Iihiral-i-Mukhul-Muf ard, *^94 l w h , 125 Iikandaria Alexandria UiimicTheughl, rigidity, 8 Istnailitrs, 6

Al-JSshangir, 46, 67, 48 Jathli, 258 Jaunpur, 251 Al-Jowab-vl-Suhih li-man Baddala Din ilMasih, 70, I17f, 127, 139 Jauamre-id-Kulii. 1B2, 255 Jazirah, 19 Jerusalem , 50, 54, 257, 306 Jesus Christ, 73, 76, 77, 86, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125,126, 29, i35, 292 Jhajjii, 204 John, 304 J o rd a n ,257 Joseph, 304 Al-JubbS - , AbU All, 94 Junaid, Sheikh, 195, 235, 326, 339, Ju rd , 39

Jzalelul

298
* Ka>aba, 5 4 ,6 4 , 74, 282,289, 306,! 307 K aab ibn MUJk, 175 Kabul, 159 K a f. r Akshjdi, 312 K ahenw it, 159, 160 K aikabid, 183 Kalim ullah, Shah, 249, 251 Kalpi, 251 Kalyar, 158 K am il Junaidi, B aba, 263 K am il ud-dln A llim ah, 237 K am il ud-uln al-Zamalkanl, Allama. 24 K am il ud-din ibn al-A nji, Sheikh, 30, 31 K tm U ixM iii ibn Azmalikiini, 138 Kama) ud-dn Z iliid Muhammad ibn Ahmad M arlkati, M au lin a, 220 K a m il ud-dln Z&hid, Sheikh, 169 Kannauj, 151, 25 Kans, Raja, 246 Knxz -ul-Mo'mn , 295 Kara, 264

(Izz ud-din, Malik, 153

Jacob, 304 J a h in ib ld , 251 J a i Chand, 151 JaU l ud-din. Husain, Sheikh, 237 J a lil ud-din K hiljl, 188 J a l 11 ud-dfn, M aulin*. 23ft JaU l ud-din, 8*1,194, 195 J a l il ud-din R um i, 213, 267 JaU l ud-dln Sheikh. 28 Ja U l ud-din, Tebrezl, Sheikh. 167 J a l il ud-din. Sheikh, 258, 260,261, 289 J a g rtl ud-din ibn al Q ilit'isi, QSzt, 48 J a m il ud-din K hatib, Sheikh, 159 Jam al ud-dln, M auU nI, 177 Jatafcl ud-din M ubkt, Sheikh, 263 Jam il-uI-AuBi* CMtfttf, MauUr,*, 25/ J i t n i , M aulina, 150 JanI Majkl, 166, 184 At J tw fo 6a,'n-uSSaMieiii, 22 Jard, 33.

Karbala, 79

Ka^Sni, KtadUfiiS; 213-

Kashf-ul-Mnhjii, 235 Kashghar, 258 Kashmir, 263 Kmhxtiif, 220 K asiw in, 33 K a itr, 159 Al~Kawikibu4-Dutriyah> 20, 22, 2*, 25. 31,44, 56, 62f, 67, 71,72 Khaibar, 63, 64 Khnir-ul-Majilii See Siraj-ul-MajStts Khalid ibn Sa'ecd ibn al-fAas, 133 Al-Khalll, 257 K halil ud-dln, Shefth, 258, 287, 290 Khall<| Ahmad NizBml, Professor, 246, 249 Kham.sa-P-Mizami, 221 Khaifmtnl A ifil 154, 165, 177, 266 K hidhr, 334 Khili/M-nAltalt, 177 . Khfer K h in , 106, 188, ISM K hurasan, IS, 150, 166,241 Khusru Khfiis, 192, 193 Khutat-i-Misr, 16, 46 K h w ija Xbid, 285 ? KhW ija Alt, W6,;:167 KhwSja *Arab 166 KhwSjgi, M aulSn*,2S0 Khtvan-i-Pur ttfam at, 259, 287, 294 K hw irtim i 14?; 26^ KhwSrxatni, AbJ Bakr, 297 KitSntjuh, 141 * , Kilokharl, 155, 183 A i-r c n H ,n

Lajeen, Hoiam ud-dln, 15 L akm uti;822

L a tJ tf,d ik y t,2 9 4 '

Lauaih urn Lawatneh, 235 : Lucknow, 203,246Lutfullah, M aulifi*, 25L LuqtnSn, 103 L u tfi Jam 'ah , 96 " m Ma'adaii-ut- Ma'anl, 258, 274,294 Ma'arij tU-Watil, 98 Maulhnr-it-Kiram, t52, 153 Magadha, 269 Mahmud, See G hazan MahmQd J a r ullah Zamakhsharl, 221 Majad-ul-Mulk, 272, M l Al-Majnfia Bain Rai-il-Hakimam, 95 *Alujm'a-'rur-Rasa*il at-Kubn?, 26 Al-Majm'a :il-Ilmi-ul-cAiH, 57 Majmuf-a Rasa*'d, 86 Makhdum JahSnian J e h in Gashi Htt JalSI ud-dln Husain Makhdum-ul-Mulk Bihar?, (See Sharaf ud-dln) Makhdum Kund, 270 - . Maktu64t-i-tAin-ul-Qadhi(,2'i5 Makthbit Hazrat Sheikh Marqf-iuWln Tehyi Marten, M , 3Qt MaklSKSl-i-Jfeuiiii, 301 MaktuhSt-i-Kalhni, 249 MtkrabU-i-Sek Satft, 295 M d f u ti t, 295 M alik, 321 Al-MSlik-al-Muix, I t Al-MSHk al-ZShlr, II, IS, 15, 17 M5lik G h S il S * Kfcu*U KhSn M ilik , ImSni, 83 MSlik NaiJb (or K ifu r ), (A , 170 M alik d a r a Bcg, 190 MStiki, Q i z i ibn M*khluf, 43 Al-Mambijl, Sheikh N aan, 42

Kmu-Naiuutl,<to,IS*
KitSb Hl-Arfiwad-Deyjtmti,^ KiUi m-RaM-i-talal Mmtaffjrbij 66 K orth, 251 Kusa-Nagarpura, 269

t
Lahore, 98, 159, 166, 264, 301

376

SAVIOURS OF ISLAMIC SPOUT

A l-M m in, the Caliph, 93, 94 , Maniqib-ul-Asfia, 259f, 269, 27), 272. 278,280,28' MtmSsik H ajj-ut-M asH Sud,n M anazir A hsanG ilanl, 175, 178,186,192 M anikpur, 251, 264 Mansarowar, 151 Mans_.r, the C aliph, 93 Mantqqi-ul-Akhbir, 19 Mantiq m SldfS,, 95, 96 Manyar (or M aner), 257, 258; 259,268, 281 Maqimat H arhi, 169 Maqasid-i-Falasifak, 111 MaqbtufisrSifyah, 60 * ' Al-M aqrizt, 12, 23. 47 Marv, 147M ary, 86, 123,292 Mashariq-ul-Antoi r, 169,170, 220, 221 Masjid-i-Aqsa, 54 Masjict M lri, 19J Mas* d See F atid ud-dln Ganjshakar M atthew , 120 s. M aulana Ahmad, 251 M aulana Muzaffar, 285 Mecca. 79, 135,257 ; M edina, 79, 135 Memluk*, 11, government, t i - 14, tocial conditions, 14-15 Meshhad, 79 v ls * Messiah, 123 M ewat, 248 Miftahul Luglidl, 258 Al-Milal-a:an-Jfamal, 95 Minhaj-H- Wasui ila-'Ilitl-il- UiVl, 140 MinftSj ud-din, M aulana 59 M inhaj ud-dln C U thrnan Jltuzjan i , Q5Z|, 15Q , ; Minhaj-ul-Karamah, 121-, 134,136. Minhaj-m'-Sunnah, 10 , 12 If, 136, 3 9 M lran Jalal D iwana, 278 M ir Oard, K hwaja, 300

M ir Khurd, 180,194, 20Q, 203, 206, 209, 215, 218, 220, 227, 235 Mirsad-ul-*Abdd, 235, 263 Misbah-ul-Hiiayat, 213 Mishk&t, 221 Al-Modahish, 297 Moln ud-dn Chishti. K hw aja, 149, 150, 152f, 156, 158, 163,187,216, 247,265 Moses, 77, 122, 126, 128,129,312, 317, 334 M u'Swiyah/Ainair, 35 Mufassal, 220 M uhatntnad, 181,317 , M ohammad as-S^gharu, Allama Hasan ib n , 169 Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafei, 77 Mubatnmad ib n .Q S w n T teq affi, 149 , Muhammad ibn-Q utub, 203 Muhammad L u tf Ja m ah, U,1 Muhammad Q a jira B ija p u rl, 196 Muhammad Rashd, Sheilch, 251 Muhammad Shah Bahm anl, 244 245 Muhammad T ahir Patnl, 221 M uham mad, the Prophet, 5, 74, 117, 118 125f, 133, 285, 289f, 304, 341 , Muhammad T a j ud-dln, M aulana, 257 M uhammad Tuglaq, Sultan, 164,194 201,239,244,244,281 Muhammad Yusuf M usa, Dr. 66 M uhl ud-dln ibn Arabi, Sheikh, 297 , M uhl ud-din K S ih an i, Q^azi, 194, 195 M uid ud-din, 238 . 4 M u'iz Shams, Sheikh, Husain, 273 M utz ud-din Kajkbad, Sultan, 183,188 Mujaddid AJf-i-Thanv Set Shqikh Ahmad Sarhindl M ujid ud-din Baghdadi, Sheikh, 26J . Mukhbirul Wasilin, 165 , , , Mulla Jeewan See M auian Ahmad M ultan, 149, 160, 161, 168, 201, 248 Munis-id-Maridin, 295

in
Munis-ul-Qulut>, 281 *' * V, * v Al-Mtmgidh min az-Zatai, 210 Munlakfiab'ul-Taivarikh, 48, 150 Muqaddmah Jbn Khaldun, 114 M ..sa, K hw aja, 217 Muslim, 55, 58 Musnad Imam Ahmad, 22, 55 Al-Mustafa, III Al-Mustansir b'illSb, 12 Al- Mu' labor, 95 M utannabi, 312 N i'Sm at K b ln Alt, 2 9 8 ''1 Nicholson, 211 Nit* R , U '?J> ^

'

Nfohipur, 147
Nizam H aji Gharib-ul-Y*mlnl, Su r Nizam ud-dln Yamlnl
Nisam-i- T St an, 176, 179, 186, 187^192, 216 41 NizSm Maula, MaulSnS, 270,271 Nizam ud-dln, 251 Nizam ud-diti Aulfya, K h w f j , 147 158, 161,164, 165, early Atfsi 166, in Delhi, 168, briilidnt student, 169-170', in Ajodhari, 171*, 17*182, in Giyathpur, 182-196, (hstmtidn o f Delhi, 196-197,198, end ofttis jottrney, 199-201, Character; G? achievements, 202-210,21 If, 228,229,230, disciples, 23l-232f, 238f, 247f, ?60, 261, 26#, 270,271,272 v Nizam ud-dln KhwSja Malik, 289 Nizam ud-dln Nazsirbarl, 239, 249 Nizam ud-dln Y am lnl, 294 Noah, The Prophet, 304, 308 Ailfhat ul-Uns, 150 N ur Cbitub4-X ttm , 2 # , 251 N urT urk, MaulanS, 160 < N ur ud-dln, 240 Nur ud-dln Ali, II5' ' Nusayrls, 6 ; % . Nuzhat-ul Khawatir, l \ , 166, 260, 264; 266, 295

Nabak, 30 ^ An-Nabuitdt, 104, 106, 107 A l-N atbva,^ An-NSfeh, 159

$agra jjj, ?49.s

Najaf, 79, 8$ Najlb ud-din, Sheikh, 171. 172. 174 Najm ud-din K ubra See Ahmad ibn 'U m ar, 263^ 264,275 Najm ud-dln R azl, Sheikh, 263 Najm ud-dln Sughara, 155, 265 Nakhee, 52 Naqdh-ul-Mantiq, 99, 102, 103, 108,..... Ill, 114 Naqshbandi, K hwaja, 275 N aiirabad, 264 Naslr ud-dlt>'Ab4 Yusuf, K hw aja 149 Naslr ud-dln C h irighD ehli, K hwaja, 185, 193, 199, 204, 207, 237, 243, 244, 250, 271 N aar ud-dln Mahmud, Sultan, 161,, 162, 168, 241 Nasir ud-dln Tusl, 96 Nasr al-M am bijl, Sheikh, 46 Nasr ud-dln Naar ullah, Sheikh 165 Naubakhtl, Hasan, ibn Musa, 94. Nawavi, Imam. 12. 14 Nazzam, 94

.P..,
Orfa, 19 Oudh, 249, 250 Owais Q arnl, K hw aja, 276 Oxford, 269

Painam, 259 Pakistan, 160

378

SAVIOURS O f ISLAMIC SPIR IT

Pakpattan, 160, 248 Palestine, 5, 6, 120 Pandawa, 246, 250,251, 294 Pan ipat, 261 Panjab, 248 Patbagorai, 103 Patna, 257 Paul, .t , 118 Pentateuch, 120 Pharaoh, 122 P ir Muhammad, S h ih , 251 P ith o ra rij, 152 PUto, 18. 93, 97, 103 P rith v iraj, 150.151,152, 258 Prithidr'ij Riisa, 151 Produt, 95 Psalms, 122,123 Ptolemy,:93 Pushkar, 151 . * '

Q abjuk, Saif ud-dln, 31, 33 Qai'doh, 83,84 Q aliw oon, al-Malik al-Manur Saif ud-dln, 12,13 Q alaw oon, al-Midik a M iislr M ubam sud ibn, 13, 29,34, 3t>, 42, 48, 67 Qalawoon, M ansur, 13 Qalawoon, N isir ibn, 46 Q artabl, S a id , 110 Qasr-i-Hut&r Siluit, 193 QatsiifH, 54 a l-Q attin , 1-Mujtfad Ib rlh im ibn, 38 Al-Qfiul-il-Jolt, 62 Q a z lA bdulAbbas, 31 Q iz i Abdullah ibn al-Akhnii5, 57 Q a z l Badr ud-dln ib n ja m 'a h , 44 Q i z i Fadhll, 247 Q i z i ibn M ukhK f M iliki, 4$ Q i z i M ughith ud-dln, 190 Q a z l M untajab, 177

Q S zl Shams ud-dln, 289,290, 300 . Q S zl Shuaib, 159 Q a z l Z ih id , 270, 287, 289 QSzwin, 147 Al-Qiyis, 140 Qpnl-ul-Qtilub, 235 Qudoorl, 167 Qfllut, R. 39 Q utb -ud-dln Abdul M a'all alAsharl, 23 Q utb ud-dln Aibeck, 166, 264 Q utb ud-dln Aush, <55 Q u tb ud-dln Dab'S-, 241, 242 Q utb ud-dln Maudud, K hwaja, 150 Q utb ud-dln M nbirak S h ih , 191, 193 Q u tb ud-dln Muhammad M adnl, Saiyid, 264 Q u tb ud-dln Munawwar, Sheikh, tdS 239,240,271 Q utb ud-dln N iq ta, 169 Q utb ud-cfln R azl, 96 Qjutb ud-dln S h irizl, 96

**,
R abiah Basri, 227 Rabi-a ibn al-H Srithibn 'Abdul M uttalib, 133 Ar-Radd al-Aqwam, 41, 42 Ar-Raddtfalal Akhn&l, 89 Ar-Roddo'alat-Bakri, 74f, 89, 90,97, lt(3 Ar:Raddo'alal Maniatfiyin, 98, 100, -186, A,-Raid td-WSJir, 62,63, 65, 66, 67 R a f iiyah>,40 R af1 ud-dln 208, 209 Rdhat-ul-Qulub, 159,294 Rajagriba, 269 R ijg ir, The fibred, 269, 270, 271, 272 290 Rajshahi, 246 R ak S b d ir, 181

INDEX
. i m j . i in i i ' i i f t : '. n >

379

Ratnagiri, 209 R iw at *Arz, 180 ..... 1 Ray, 147 Razi, Imam, 95, 96, 106, 107 R iiih h Dor T/ilat-i-Tilibin, 295 Risilah-i-Hamu iyah, 141 Ris&lah Makkiyah, 294 Risalah Qushiri, 235 Rijjz-us-Sulilin, 246 Rizwan. 321 Rohilkhand, 166 Rukn ud-dln fiaibrfs al-Jashangir, 42 Rultn'ud-din Firoz Shah, 166, 201 Rukn ud-din M au lin a, 220,233 Rum i, J a l il ud-din, 3 Rum See Turkey. Rustam, 321

Saiyida N afuah, 77 ISO . Sttikiya, 39

ailih, UK

- '

Saad ibn M a'az, 63, 64 Sa ad ud-din Ifamuya, Sheikh, 263 Sab'iniyah, 47 Sad K ig zi, 181 Sadr ud-rfn, Sh'-ikh, 181 Pahab ud-dln H ilil, M a p la n i, 290 Saheb ib n 'A b b id 297 Saif ud-din AH L in a h , Sheikh, 263 Saif ud-din B*Hiirzi, Shfikh, 232, 263, 269 : Saif ud-din Katz, 11 Saiyid Afi Hamadani, 263 Sfiyid Ahmad Shahid, 264,296, 296, 383, 324 Saiyid Husain K irm ani, 199, 200, 201, 209 . Saiyid K iita m h Ihn Saiyid Muhammad K irm Sni, 221 Saiyid Muhammad Gesii D a rit, K bw ija, 224, 237 Saiyid Muhammad M ubirak K irm lnl, 180 Saiyid Muhammad Tirraizl, 251

s ito a n .is i S a ^ k a n d , 147, 264 Saraswaii, 151 Sarhangl, 159 S a ra? Mila B azir orN atnak ki Bazir, 180 S aitap in i, tha cave, 269 Saudi Arabia, 141 Sek Sadi M akluiH , 30 0 ,S6f S h ld i GulSbi, 181 Shahabad,289 Shahib ud-din Ahtnad ibn Umar of Daufauabad, Sheikh, 250 Shahib ud-din Jag Jo t, Sheikh, 257 S hahib ud-din, Sheikh, 165, 174; 195, '250 S hahib ud-dm Suharwardi, Sheikh, 173, 232, 262 Shahib ud-din, S ultin, 150 Shah M ina, Set Muhammad ibn Qulub S babrshtinl, 'Abdul Kai'Im, 95 Shams-i-Siraj 'A flf, 243, 244' Shams ud-din ax-Zahabi, 138 Shams ud-din D am ghbn, 201 Shams ud-diti ibn Muslim, Q *zi, 53 Shams ud-din KhwSrzarai, M a u lin i, 68 220 Shams ud-din S harab-dir, 18! Shams ud-din Y ahyl, M aut&ft, 241, 250,271, 333, SS6. ' Sbams-ul-Mulk, KhwSja, 1$9 Sharaf ud-din, KhwSja, 207, 208 S haraf ud-dl n Mahmud ibn Abdullah, Sheikh, 263 S haraf ud-din, M a u lin i, 259, 260 Sharaf ud-din Yahya M aneri, Sheikh, 254, Birth and Edacatua..- 257261, 262, in Bihar, 270f Cuidmct o f the

>,

sAvtoinu or m juac
people-273275, Character, 275280 Last days, 288f, 291, 2 9 V 294, Disr cipUs & Writings, 294. 295 His Utttrs 296f, 303, 304, 305, 307f, 313, 315f, 322f, Teachings, 327f,_33t, 332, 333, 336, 337, 339, 340, 341 Shauk&nl, 19 Shtrok AjabrulrMurldi! ,295 Sharah hbahamiyah, 141 Sharah Kafiyih, 250 , , Sharah T^airuf, 235 , Sheikh Ahu fAll, 317 : Sheikh Abu Z u h n , 118 Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, 224, 263,274. Sheikh Mttzaflar, 301 Sher Shah Sun, 259 ShiMj, 195 Shir**, 148 , Shu'aib, 126 Shuil?I,jImam 129 Sitar-ul-Aqtab, 154, 212 Siar-id-Arifiny 163, 205, 208, 223 Sitp-vl-Aulia, 152, 153, 155, 156, 158, 160-73,17779.1 8 U -8 5 ,18890. 19599, 201, 204209, 212 18, 22021, 223, 225, 231, 232, 2S5 37 Sibawaih, 22, 66 SihaA-us-SUta, 22, 222 Sinai, M t. 512 Sind, 149 SirSj Baqqll, 180 SirSj ud-dln, Hafiz, 65 SirSj ud-dln, Sheikh, 222,223,250 V irdj-ul-Majdlis, 163, 167, 185,193,

trnar .

Somnath, 150 Sonargaon, 299,260,285 Sot, R, 166 Sudan, 12,, 13 Suhaib ibn Sinan, 58 Suharwardi, 103 Suq-al-Khalil, 60 Syed Sulaiman Nadwi, 115 . Syria, 5 ,6 , 11 15, 22, 23,26,28, 29, 3136, 39,40, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 54, 55, 60, 6 3 ,6 5 , 71, 78, 103, 133,195,257

227
W

, .

as-Sharaf, 258, 260, 270, 271, 272, 2ftl, 282, 284, 285,294,295 Sir Saiyid, 183 Socretes, 103 Soloman, the prophet, 103, 126 Someshwara, 151

TabqSt-ul-Atibba, 4 Tabqit-ul-Hanibilah, 60 Tabq&l-i~Nasiri, 150 TabqSt-us Shqfe'iyaln. 12, 17, 68 TabqSt-ul-Umanf, 9 i, 94 ; Tadmiriyah, 141 \ v Tafiir Surah IM a i, 91, 98, (02, 10S Tafsir Surat-un-Nur, 23 Tahafut-al-Falasqfah, 95 T a ju d -d in , Sahcb, 64 T a j ud-dln at-Fazari, Sheikh, 25 TatnUd, 171 T a q l ud-din ibn D aqlq ul-id , 62 T aqi nd-dln ibn al-5ubki. 63, 138 . Tarain, 150, 151, 152,258 Targhi, 193 Tarikh AkhlSq, 66 Tdrikh Fmshta, 150, 155, 157, 196, 2+3, 245 Tarikh Firoz S h ik , 148, 190, 231,235 Tarikh Mashaik-i-Chisht 246, 249 TZrikh-i-Jfdsirt.^tt Trikh-ul-Muluk, 244 T arta n , Social condition, 15 16 . T artfo KhSn, 267 Al-fawasstd wal- Wassilah, 83 Tazkirahd Ashqin, 165 Thanesar, 151

INDEX

381

Thaqafat il-Islamiyah fil Hind, 221 Thaqhab, 36 Thatha, 244 Thauri, 52 Thomas Arnold, 246 Tigris, R , 10 Tila Mosque (Lucknow) 251 Tilangana, 189 Tilmisani, 41, Tilodni, See Tarain Tirmiit, 9 Tiyamna, 39 Torah, 120, 122,123 TowSmah MaulSnS Sharaf ud-dln Abu ,?59 Tripolis, 12 Tughlaq, Malik Ghazi, 148 Tuglaq MSmah, 192 Tuhfah Athna Ashriyah, 298 Tuhfah-i-Chaibt, 294 TurSn Shah, 11 T iis l, Muhaqiq, % , 97

Warangai, 189, 190 Al- Wastah Bnin-ul-khalq wat-Halq, 87, 88 Wastiyah, 141 Wehbars, mt. 269

V
Yakub Sarfi, Sheikh, 263 Yaman, 60, 133, 148 Yaqoob, Sheikh, 165 Yasii), Slieikh, 251 Yunus Qaisi, 76

Z
Zachariah, 304 Zad-i-Safar, 295 Z5d-ul-MaU . 52, 63, 64 Zafrabad, 285 Al-Zahabl, Shams ud-dln, 62, 63, 64, 65,66 Zahidan, 150 Zahir, ud-dln, Saiyid, 291 Zahuri, 298 Zainab, Hazrat, 89 Zain Badr Arab!, Sheikh, 273, 286, 288, 289, 300 Zain ud-dln ibn al M unja Hanbali, 25 Zain ud-dln, Sheikh, 244, 245 Zaki ud-din, 260 Az-Zamalkani, Kamal ud- din, ibn, 62 Az-Zamalkani, Sheikh Jam al ud-dln, 67 Zanj, 147 Z im ir ud-dtn, 272,281, 282,294 Zaranj, 150 Ziarat-ul-Quboor, 86 Zia ud-dln Abdul N ajlb 'Abdul Qfidir Suharwardi, KhwSja, 262 Zla* ud-dln Barnl, Qazi, 189,190,195, 231, 233, 240. 241,243 ZiS ud-dln Ruml, Sheikh, 191 Zubair ibn Abdul M uttalib 257

U
Al-Ubab-uz-Zaihir, 169 Uchh, 161 Umar, H azrat, 68, 132, 133,228, 304, 305 Al-XJqnd-ud-Durtiyah, 21, 23, 56 Uthnaan HarwSni, Khwaja, 150 Uthman ibn Affan, 133, 250 U ttar Pradesh, 166

V
VigrahrSj, 151

W
Wafat Nimak, 287, 295 Wafyat-al-'Ayan, 57 Whahdat-us-Shahud, 323 Whahdat-ul-W ajud, 323 Wali 'ullah Shah, 295 Waqa'iq, 95