notes written in the period of
253270 A.D.
compiled and edited by his pupil Porphyry
Preface to the electronic edition
It is with great satisfaction that I present to you this electronic edition of the
great philosopher Plotinus. His Enneads, compiled by his student Porphyry, has
exerted a considerable influence on Western civilization, including our present
time. Plotinus himself was taught by Ammonius Saccas, the "theodidactos", or
Godtaught philosopher in Alexandria who brought several philosophical
systems together in his NeoPlatonic School.
'They called themselves "Philalethians" lovers of the truth; while others
termed them the "Analogists," on account of their method of interpreting all
sacred legends, symbolical myths and mysteries, by a rule of analogy or
correspondence. ' as indeed one can find in the writings of Porphyry.
"Ammonius' chief object ... was to extract from the various religious teachings,
as from a manychorded instrument, one full and harmonious melody, which
would find response in every truthloving heart". The central idea of his eclectic
theosophical school was that of a "single Supreme Essence, Unknown and
Unknowable". (quotes from this article)
As regards the Divine essence and the nature of the soul and spirit, modern
theosophical schools believe now as Ammonius' Ancient School did.
Much of what Plotinus writes undoubtedly has its source in the above mentioned
School. He was also influenced by the Stoics, and other philosophers.
In his Enneads he treats of the following topics:
First Ennead: Human or ethical topics;
Second and Third Enneads: cosmological subjects or physical reality;
Fourth Ennead: about the Soul;
Fifth Ennead: knowledge and intelligible reality;
Sixth Ennead: Being and what is above it, the One or first principle of all.
May the light of the Enneads permeate your soul
Martin Euser
meuser.awardspace.com
www.scribd.com/meuser
My free ebook on integrative philosophy
Directory of contents
THE FIRST ENNEAD.
I: The animate and the man
II: On virtue
III: On dialectic [the upward way]
IV: On true happiness
V: Happiness and extension of time
VI: Beauty
VII: On the primal good and secondary forms of good
[otherwise, on happiness]
VIII: On the nature and source of evil
IX: The reasoned dismissal
THE SECOND ENNEAD.
I: On the kosmos or on the heavenly system
II: The heavenly circuit
III: Are the stars causes
IV: Matter in its two kinds
V: On potentiality and actuality
VI: Quality and formidea
VII: On complete transfusion
VIII: Why distant objects appear small
IX: Against those that affirm the creator of the kosmos and the kosmos itself
to be evil:
[generally quoted as against the gnostics]
THE THIRD ENNEAD.
I: Fate
II: On providence (1)
III: On providence (2)
IV: Our tutelary spirit
V: On love
VI: The impassivity of the unembodied
VII: Time and eternity
VIII: Nature contemplation and the one
IX: Detached considerations
THE FOURTH ENNEAD.
I: On the essence of the soul (1)
II: On the essence of the soul (2)
III: Problems of the soul (1)
IV: Problems of the soul (2)
V: Problems of the soul (3). [also entitled on sight]
VI: Perception and memory
VII: The immortality of the soul
VIII: The soul's descent into body
IX: Are all souls one?
THE FIFTH ENNEAD.
I: The three initial hypostases
II: The origin and order of the beings. following on the first
III: The knowing hypostases and the transcendent
IV: How the secondaries rise from the first: and on the one
V: That the intellectual beings are not outside the intellectualprinciple: and
on the nature of the good
VI: That the principle transcending being has no intellectual act. what being
has intellection primally and what being has it secondarily
VII: Is there an ideal archetype of particular beings
VIII: On the intellectual beauty
IX: The intellectualprinciple, the ideas, and the authentic existence
THE SIXTH ENNEAD.
I: On the kinds of being (1)
II: On the kinds of being (2)
III: On the kinds of being (3)
IV: On the integral omnipresence of the authentic existent (1)
V: On the integral omnipresence of the authentic existent (2)
VI: On numbers
VII: How the multiplicity of the idealforms came into being: and upon the
good
VIII: On freewill and the will of the one
IX: On the good, or the one
Ennead I
First tractate: The animate and the man
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Pleasure and distress, fear and courage, desire and aversion,
where have these affections and experiences their seat?
Clearly, either in the Soul alone, or in the Soul as employing
the body, or in some third entity deriving from both. And for
this third entity, again, there are two possible modes: it might
be either a blend or a distinct form due to the blending.
And what applies to the affections applies also to whatsoever
acts, physical or mental, spring from them.
We have, therefore, to examine discursivereason and the
ordinary mental action upon objects of sense, and enquire
whether these have the one seat with the affections and
experiences, or perhaps sometimes the one seat, sometimes
another.
And we must consider also our acts of Intellection, their mode
and their seat.
And this very examining principle, which investigates and
decides in these matters, must be brought to light.
Firstly, what is the seat of SensePerception? This is the
obvious beginning since the affections and experiences either
are sensations of some kind or at least never occur apart from
sensation.
2. This first enquiry obliges us to consider at the outset the
nature of the Soul that is whether a distinction is to be made
between Soul and Essential Soul [between an individual Soul
and the SoulKind in itself]. *
* All matter shown in brackets is added by the translator for
clearness' sake and, therefore, is not canonical. S.M.
If such a distinction holds, then the Soul [in man] is some sort
of a composite and at once we may agree that it is a recipient
and if only reason allows that all the affections and
experiences really have their seat in the Soul, and with the
affections every state and mood, good and bad alike.
But if Soul [in man] and Essential Soul are one and the same,
then the Soul will be an IdealForm unreceptive of all those
activities which it imparts to another Kind but possessing
within itself that native Act of its own which Reason manifests.
If this be so, then, indeed, we may think of the Soul as an
immortal if the immortal, the imperishable, must be
impassive, giving out something of itself but itself taking
nothing from without except for what it receives from the
Existents prior to itself from which Existents, in that they are
the nobler, it cannot be sundered.
Now what could bring fear to a nature thus unreceptive of all
the outer? Fear demands feeling. Nor is there place for
courage: courage implies the presence of danger. And such
desires as are satisfied by the filling or voiding of the body,
must be proper to something very different from the Soul, to
that only which admits of replenishment and voidance.
And how could the Soul lend itself to any admixture? An
essential is not mixed. Or of the intrusion of anything alien? If
it did, it would be seeking the destruction of its own nature.
Pain must be equally far from it. And Grief how or for what
could it grieve? Whatever possesses Existence is supremely
free, dwelling, unchangeable, within its own peculiar nature.
And can any increase bring joy, where nothing, not even
anything good, can accrue? What such an Existent is, it is
unchangeably.
Thus assuredly SensePerception, DiscursiveReasoning; and
all our ordinary mentation are foreign to the Soul: for sensation
is a receiving whether of an IdealForm or of an impassive
body and reasoning and all ordinary mental action deal with
sensation.
The question still remains to be examined in the matter of the
intellections whether these are to be assigned to the Soul and
as to PurePleasure, whether this belongs to the Soul in its
solitary state.
3. We may treat of the Soul as in the body whether it be set
above it or actually within it since the association of the two
constitutes the one thing called the living organism, the
Animate.
Now from this relation, from the Soul using the body as an
instrument, it does not follow that the Soul must share the
body's experiences: a man does not himself feel all the
experiences of the tools with which he is working.
It may be objected that the Soul must however, have Sense
Perception since its use of its instrument must acquaint it with
the external conditions, and such knowledge comes by way of
sense. Thus, it will be argued, the eyes are the instrument of
seeing, and seeing may bring distress to the soul: hence the
Soul may feel sorrow and pain and every other affection that
belongs to the body; and from this again will spring desire, the
Soul seeking the mending of its instrument.
But, we ask, how, possibly, can these affections pass from
body to Soul? Body may communicate qualities or conditions
to another body: but body to Soul? Something happens to A;
does that make it happen to B? As long as we have agent and
instrument, there are two distinct entities; if the Soul uses the
body it is separate from it.
But apart from the philosophical separation how does Soul
stand to body?
Clearly there is a combination. And for this several modes are
possible. There might be a complete coalescence: Soul might
be interwoven through the body: or it might be an IdealForm
detached or an IdealForm in governing contact like a pilot: or
there might be part of the Soul detached and another part in
contact, the disjoined part being the agent or user, the
conjoined part ranking with the instrument or thing used.
In this last case it will be the double task of philosophy to
direct this lower Soul towards the higher, the agent, and except
in so far as the conjunction is absolutely necessary, to sever the
agent from the instrument, the body, so that it need not forever
have its Act upon or through this inferior.
4. Let us consider, then, the hypothesis of a coalescence.
Now if there is a coalescence, the lower is ennobled, the nobler
degraded; the body is raised in the scale of being as made
participant in life; the Soul, as associated with death and
unreason, is brought lower. How can a lessening of the life
quality produce an increase such as SensePerception?
No: the body has acquired life, it is the body that will acquire,
with life, sensation and the affections coming by sensation.
Desire, then, will belong to the body, as the objects of desire
are to be enjoyed by the body. And fear, too, will belong to the
body alone; for it is the body's doom to fail of its joys and to
perish.
Then again we should have to examine how such a coalescence
could be conceived: we might find it impossible: perhaps all
this is like announcing the coalescence of things utterly
incongruous in kind, let us say of a line and whiteness.
Next for the suggestion that the Soul is interwoven through the
body: such a relation would not give woof and warp
community of sensation: the interwoven element might very
well suffer no change: the permeating soul might remain
entirely untouched by what affects the body as light goes
always free of all it floods and all the more so, since,
precisely, we are asked to consider it as diffused throughout
the entire frame.
Under such an interweaving, then, the Soul would not be
subjected to the body's affections and experiences: it would be
present rather as IdealForm in Matter.
Let us then suppose Soul to be in body as IdealForm in
Matter. Now if the first possibility the Soul is an essence, a
selfexistent, it can be present only as separable form and will
therefore all the more decidedly be the UsingPrinciple [and
therefore unaffected].
Suppose, next, the Soul to be present like axeform on iron:
here, no doubt, the form is all important but it is still the axe,
the complement of iron and form, that effects whatever is
effected by the iron thus modified: on this analogy, therefore,
we are even more strictly compelled to assign all the
experiences of the combination to the body: their natural seat is
the material member, the instrument, the potential recipient of
life.
Compare the passage where we read* that "it is absurd to
suppose that the Soul weaves"; equally absurd to think of it as
desiring, grieving. All this is rather in the province of
something which we may call the Animate.
* "We read" translates "he says" of the text, and always
indicates a reference to Plato, whose name does not appear in
the translation except where it was written by Plotinus. S.M.
5. Now this Animate might be merely the body as having life:
it might be the Couplement of Soul and body: it might be a
third and different entity formed from both.
The Soul in turn apart from the nature of the Animate must
be either impassive, merely causing SensePerception in its
yokefellow, or sympathetic; and, if sympathetic, it may have
identical experiences with its fellow or merely correspondent
experiences: desire for example in the Animate may be
something quite distinct from the accompanying movement or
state in the desiring faculty.
The body, the livebody as we know it, we will consider later.
Let us take first the Couplement of body and Soul. How could
suffering, for example, be seated in this Couplement?
It may be suggested that some unwelcome state of the body
produces a distress which reaches to a SensitiveFaculty which
in turn merges into Soul. But this account still leaves the origin
of the sensation unexplained.
Another suggestion might be that all is due to an opinion or
judgement: some evil seems to have befallen the man or his
belongings and this conviction sets up a state of trouble in the
body and in the entire Animate. But this account leaves still a
question as to the source and seat of the judgement: does it
belong to the Soul or to the Couplement? Besides, the
judgement that evil is present does not involve the feeling of
grief: the judgement might very well arise and the grief by no
means follow: one may think oneself slighted and yet not be
angry; and the appetite is not necessarily excited by the
thought of a pleasure. We are, thus, no nearer than before to
any warrant for assigning these affections to the Couplement.
Is it any explanation to say that desire is vested in a Facultyof
desire and anger in the IrascibleFaculty and, collectively, that
all tendency is seated in the AppetitiveFaculty? Such a
statement of the facts does not help towards making the
affections common to the Couplement; they might still be
seated either in the Soul alone or in the body alone. On the one
hand if the appetite is to be stirred, as in the carnal passion,
there must be a heating of the blood and the bile, a well
defined state of the body; on the other hand, the impulse
towards The Good cannot be a joint affection, but, like certain
others too, it would belong necessarily to the Soul alone.
Reason, then, does not permit us to assign all the affections to
the Couplement.
In the case of carnal desire, it will certainly be the Man that
desires, and yet, on the other hand, there must be desire in the
DesiringFaculty as well. How can this be? Are we to suppose
that, when the man originates the desire, the DesiringFaculty
moves to the order? How could the Man have come to desire at
all unless through a prior activity in the DesiringFaculty?
Then it is the DesiringFaculty that takes the lead? Yet how,
unless the body be first in the appropriate condition?
6. It may seem reasonable to lay down as a law that when any
powers are contained by a recipient, every action or state
expressive of them must be the action or state of that recipient,
they themselves remaining unaffected as merely furnishing
efficiency.
But if this were so, then, since the Animate is the recipient of
the CausingPrinciple [i.e., the Soul] which brings life to the
Couplement, this Cause must itself remain unaffected, all the
experiences and expressive activities of the life being vested in
the recipient, the Animate.
But this would mean that life itself belongs not to the Soul but
to the Couplement; or at least the life of the Couplement would
not be the life of the Soul; SensePerception would belong not
to the SensitiveFaculty but to the container of the faculty.
But if sensation is a movement traversing the body and
culminating in Soul, how the soul lack sensation? The very
presence of the SensitiveFaculty must assure sensation to the
Soul.
Once again, where is SensePerception seated?
In the Couplement.
Yet how can the Couplement have sensation independently of
action in the SensitiveFaculty, the Soul left out of count and
the SoulFaculty?
7. The truth lies in the Consideration that the Couplement
subsists by virtue of the Soul's presence.
This, however, is not to say that the Soul gives itself as it is in
itself to form either the Couplement or the body.
No; from the organized body and something else, let us say a
light, which the Soul gives forth from itself, it forms a distinct
Principle, the Animate; and in this Principle are vested Sense
Perception and all the other experiences found to belong to the
Animate.
But the "We"? How have We SensePerception?
By the fact that We are not separate from the Animate so
constituted, even though certainly other and nobler elements go
to make up the entire manysided nature of Man.
The faculty of perception in the Soul cannot act by the
immediate grasping of sensible objects, but only by the
discerning of impressions printed upon the Animate by
sensation: these impressions are already Intelligibles while the
outer sensation is a mere phantom of the other [of that in the
Soul] which is nearer to AuthenticExistence as being an
impassive reading of IdealForms.
And by means of these IdealForms, by which the Soul wields
single lordship over the Animate, we have Discursive
Reasoning, SenseKnowledge and Intellection. From this
moment we have peculiarly the We: before this there was only
the "Ours"; but at this stage stands the WE [the authentic
HumanPrinciple] loftily presiding over the Animate.
There is no reason why the entire compound entity should not
be described as the Animate or LivingBeing mingled in a
lower phase, but above that point the beginning of the veritable
man, distinct from all that is kin to the lion, all that is of the
order of the multiple brute. And since The Man, so understood,
is essentially the associate of the reasoning Soul, in our
reasoning it is this "We" that reasons, in that the use and act of
reason is a characteristic Act of the Soul.
8. And towards the IntellectualPrinciple what is our relation?
By this I mean, not that faculty in the soul which is one of the
emanations from the IntellectualPrinciple, but The
IntellectualPrinciple itself [DivineMind].
This also we possess as the summit of our being. And we have
It either as common to all or as our own immediate possession:
or again we may possess It in both degrees, that is in common,
since It is indivisible one, everywhere and always Its entire
self and severally in that each personality possesses It entire in
the FirstSoul [i.e. in the Intellectual as distinguished from the
lower phase of the Soul].
Hence we possess the IdealForms also after two modes: in the
Soul, as it were unrolled and separate; in the Intellectual
Principle, concentrated, one.
And how do we possess the Divinity?
In that the Divinity is contained in the IntellectualPrinciple
and AuthenticExistence; and We come third in order after
these two, for the We is constituted by a union of the supreme,
the undivided Soul we read and that Soul which is divided
among [living] bodies. For, note, we inevitably think of the
Soul, though one undivided in the All, as being present to
bodies in division: in so far as any bodies are Animates, the
Soul has given itself to each of the separate material masses; or
rather it appears to be present in the bodies by the fact that it
shines into them: it makes them living beings not by merging
into body but by giving forth, without any change in itself,
images or likenesses of itself like one face caught by many
mirrors.
The first of these images is SensePerception seated in the
Couplement; and from this downwards all the successive
images are to be recognized as phases of the Soul in lessening
succession from one another, until the series ends in the
faculties of generation and growth and of all production of
offspring offspring efficient in its turn, in contradistinction to
the engendering Soul which [has no direct action within matter
but] produces by mere inclination towards what it fashions.
9. That Soul, then, in us, will in its nature stand apart from all
that can cause any of the evils which man does or suffers; for
all such evil, as we have seen, belongs only to the Animate, the
Couplement.
But there is a difficulty in understanding how the Soul can go
guiltless if our mentation and reasoning are vested in it: for all
this lower kind of knowledge is delusion and is the cause of
much of what is evil.
When we have done evil it is because we have been worsted by
our baser side for a man is many by desire or rage or some
evil image: the misnamed reasoning that takes up with the
false, in reality fancy, has not stayed for the judgement of the
ReasoningPrinciple: we have acted at the call of the less
worthy, just as in matters of the sensesphere we sometimes
see falsely because we credit only the lower perception, that of
the Couplement, without applying the tests of the Reasoning
Faculty.
The IntellectualPrinciple has held aloof from the act and so is
guiltless; or, as we may state it, all depends on whether we
ourselves have or have not put ourselves in touch with the
IntellectualRealm either in the IntellectualPrinciple or within
ourselves; for it is possible at once to possess and not to use.
Thus we have marked off what belongs to the Couplement
from what stands by itself: the one group has the character of
body and never exists apart from body, while all that has no
need of body for its manifestation belongs peculiarly to Soul:
and the Understanding, as passing judgement upon Sense
Impressions, is at the point of the vision of IdealForms, seeing
them as it were with an answering sensation (i.e, with
consciousness) this last is at any rate true of the Understanding
in the Veritable Soul. For Understanding, the true, is the Act of
the Intellections: in many of its manifestations it is the
assimilation and reconciliation of the outer to the inner.
Thus in spite of all, the Soul is at peace as to itself and within
itself: all the changes and all the turmoil we experience are the
issue of what is subjoined to the Soul, and are, as have said, the
states and experiences of this elusive "Couplement."
10. It will be objected, that if the Soul constitutes the We [the
personality] and We are subject to these states then the Soul
must be subject to them, and similarly that what We do must
be done by the Soul.
But it has been observed that the Couplement, too especially
before our emancipation is a member of this total We, and in
fact what the body experiences we say We experience. This
then covers two distinct notions; sometimes it includes the
brutepart, sometimes it transcends the brute. The body is brute
touched to life; the true man is the other, going pure of the
body, natively endowed with the virtues which belong to the
IntellectualActivity, virtues whose seat is the Separate Soul,
the Soul which even in its dwelling here may be kept apart.
[This Soul constitutes the human being] for when it has wholly
withdrawn, that other Soul which is a radiation [or emanation]
from it withdraws also, drawn after it.
Those virtues, on the other hand, which spring not from
contemplative wisdom but from custom or practical discipline
belong to the Couplement: to the Couplement, too, belong the
vices; they are its repugnances, desires, sympathies.
And Friendship?
This emotion belongs sometimes to the lower part, sometimes
to the interior man.
11. In childhood the main activity is in the Couplement and
there is but little irradiation from the higher principles of our
being: but when these higher principles act but feebly or rarely
upon us their action is directed towards the Supreme; they
work upon us only when they stand at the midpoint.
But does not the include that phase of our being which stands
above the midpoint?
It does, but on condition that we lay hold of it: our entire
nature is not ours at all times but only as we direct the mid
point upwards or downwards, or lead some particular phase of
our nature from potentiality or native character into act.
And the animals, in what way or degree do they possess the
Animate?
If there be in them, as the opinion goes, human Souls that have
sinned, then the AnimatingPrinciple in its separable phase
does not enter directly into the brute; it is there but not there to
them; they are aware only of the image of the Soul [only of the
lower Soul] and of that only by being aware of the body
organised and determined by that image.
If there be no human Soul in them, the Animate is constituted
for them by a radiation from the AllSoul.
12. But if Soul is sinless, how come the expiations? Here
surely is a contradiction; on the one side the Soul is above all
guilt; on the other, we hear of its sin, its purification, its
expiation; it is doomed to the lower world, it passes from body
to body.
We may take either view at will: they are easily reconciled.
When we tell of the sinless Soul, we make Soul and Essential
Soul one and the same: it is the simple unbroken Unity.
By the Soul subject to sin we indicate a groupment, we include
that other, that phase of the Soul which knows all the states and
passions: the Soul in this sense is compound, allinclusive: it
falls under the conditions of the entire living experience: this
compound it is that sins; it is this, and not the other, that pays
penalty.
It is in this sense that we read of the Soul: "We saw it as those
others saw the seagod Glaukos." "And," reading on, "if we
mean to discern the nature of the Soul we must strip it free of
all that has gathered about it, must see into the philosophy of it,
examine with what Existences it has touch and by kinship to
what Existences it is what it is."
Thus the Life is one thing, the Act is another and the Expiator
yet another. The retreat and sundering, then, must be not from
this body only, but from every alien accruement. Such
accruement takes place at birth; or rather birth is the coming
intobeing of that other [lower] phase of the Soul. For the
meaning of birth has been indicated elsewhere; it is brought
about by a descent of the Soul, something being given off by
the Soul other than that actually coming down in the
declension.
Then the Soul has let this image fall? And this declension is it
not certainly sin?
If the declension is no more than the illuminating of an object
beneath, it constitutes no sin: the shadow is to be attributed not
to the luminary but to the object illuminated; if the object were
not there, the light could cause no shadow.
And the Soul is said to go down, to decline, only in that the
object it illuminates lives by its life. And it lets the image fall
only if there be nothing near to take it up; and it lets it fall, not
as a thing cut off, but as a thing that ceases to be: the image has
no further being when the whole Soul is looking toward the
Supreme.
The poet, too, in the story of Hercules, seems to give this
image separate existence; he puts the shade of Hercules in the
lower world and Hercules himself among the gods: treating the
hero as existing in the two realms at once, he gives us a
twofold Hercules.
It is not difficult to explain this distinction. Hercules was a
hero of practical virtue. By his noble serviceableness he was
worthy to be a God. On the other hand, his merit was action
and not the Contemplation which would place him
unreservedly in the higher realm. Therefore while he has place
above, something of him remains below.
13. And the principle that reasons out these matters? Is it We
or the Soul?
We, but by the Soul.
But how "by the Soul"? Does this mean that the Soul reasons
by possession [by contact with the matters of enquiry]?
No; by the fact of being Soul. Its Act subsists without
movement; or any movement that can be ascribed to it must be
utterly distinct from all corporal movement and be simply the
Soul's own life.
And Intellection in us is twofold: since the Soul is intellective,
and Intellection is the highest phase of life, we have
Intellection both by the characteristic Act of our Soul and by
the Act of the IntellectualPrinciple upon us for this
IntellectualPrinciple is part of us no less than the Soul, and
towards it we are ever rising.
Ennead I
Second tractate: On virtue
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Since Evil is here, "haunting this world by necessary law,"
and it is the Soul's design to escape from Evil, we must escape
hence.
But what is this escape?
"In attaining Likeness to God," we read. And this is explained
as "becoming just and holy, living by wisdom," the entire
nature grounded in Virtue.
But does not Likeness by way of Virtue imply Likeness to
some being that has Virtue? To what Divine Being, then,
would our Likeness be? To the Being must we not think? in
Which, above all, such excellence seems to inhere, that is to
the Soul of the Kosmos and to the Principle ruling within it,
the Principle endowed with a wisdom most wonderful. What
could be more fitting than that we, living in this world, should
become Like to its ruler?
But, at the beginning, we are met by the doubt whether even in
this DivineBeing all the virtues find place MoralBalance
[Sophrosyne], for example; or Fortitude where there can be no
danger since nothing is alien; where there can be nothing
alluring whose lack could induce the desire of possession.
If, indeed, that aspiration towards the Intelligible which is in
our nature exists also in this RulingPower, then need not look
elsewhere for the source of order and of the virtues in
ourselves.
But does this Power possess the Virtues?
We cannot expect to find There what are called the Civic
Virtues, the Prudence which belongs to the reasoning faculty;
the Fortitude which conducts the emotional and passionate
nature; the Sophrosyne which consists in a certain pact, in a
concord between the passionate faculty and the reason; or
Rectitude which is the due application of all the other virtues
as each in turn should command or obey.
Is Likeness, then, attained, perhaps, not by these virtues of the
social order but by those greater qualities known by the same
general name? And if so do the Civic Virtues give us no help at
all?
It is against reason, utterly to deny Likeness by these while
admitting it by the greater: tradition at least recognizes certain
men of the civic excellence as divine, and we must believe that
these too had in some sort attained Likeness: on both levels
there is virtue for us, though not the same virtue.
Now, if it be admitted that Likeness is possible, though by a
varying use of different virtues and though the civic virtues do
not suffice, there is no reason why we should not, by virtues
peculiar to our state, attain Likeness to a model in which virtue
has no place.
But is that conceivable?
When warmth comes in to make anything warm, must there
needs be something to warm the source of the warmth?
If a fire is to warm something else, must there be a fire to
warm that fire?
Against the first illustration it may be retorted that the source
of the warmth does already contain warmth, not by an infusion
but as an essential phase of its nature, so that, if the analogy is
to hold, the argument would make Virtue something
communicated to the Soul but an essential constituent of the
Principle from which the Soul attaining Likeness absorbs it.
Against the illustration drawn from the fire, it may be urged
that the analogy would make that Principle identical with
virtue, whereas we hold it to be something higher.
The objection would be valid if what the soul takes in were one
and the same with the source, but in fact virtue is one thing, the
source of virtue quite another. The material house is not
identical with the house conceived in the intellect, and yet
stands in its likeness: the material house has distribution and
order while the pure idea is not constituted by any such
elements; distribution, order, symmetry are not parts of an
idea.
So with us: it is from the Supreme that we derive order and
distribution and harmony, which are virtues in this sphere: the
Existences There, having no need of harmony, order or
distribution, have nothing to do with virtue; and, none the less,
it is by our possession of virtue that we become like to Them.
Thus much to show that the principle that we attain Likeness
by virtue in no way involves the existence of virtue in the
Supreme. But we have not merely to make a formal
demonstration: we must persuade as well as demonstrate.
2. First, then, let us examine those good qualities by which we
hold Likeness comes, and seek to establish what is this thing
which, as we possess it, in transcription, is virtue but as the
Supreme possesses it, is in the nature of an exemplar or
archetype and is not virtue.
We must first distinguish two modes of Likeness.
There is the likeness demanding an identical nature in the
objects which, further, must draw their likeness from a
common principle: and there is the case in which B resembles
A, but A is a Primal, not concerned about B and not said to
resemble B. In this second case, likeness is understood in a
distinct sense: we no longer look for identity of nature, but, on
the contrary, for divergence since the likeness has come about
by the mode of difference.
What, then, precisely is Virtue, collectively and in the
particular? The clearer method will be to begin with the
particular, for so the common element by which all the forms
hold the general name will readily appear.
The Civic Virtues, on which we have touched above, are a
principle or order and beauty in us as long as we remain
passing our life here: they ennoble us by setting bound and
measure to our desires and to our entire sensibility, and
dispelling false judgement and this by sheer efficacy of the
better, by the very setting of the bounds, by the fact that the
measured is lifted outside of the sphere of the unmeasured and
lawless.
And, further, these Civic Virtues measured and ordered
themselves and acting as a principle of measure to the Soul
which is as Matter to their forming are like to the measure
reigning in the overworld, and they carry a trace of that
Highest Good in the Supreme; for, while utter measurelessness
is brute Matter and wholly outside of Likeness, any
participation in IdealForm produces some corresponding
degree of Likeness to the formless Being There. And
participation goes by nearness: the Soul nearer than the body,
therefore closer akin, participates more fully and shows a
godlike presence, almost cheating us into the delusion that in
the Soul we see God entire.
This is the way in which men of the Civic Virtues attain
Likeness.
3. We come now to that other mode of Likeness which, we
read, is the fruit of the loftier virtues: discussing this we shall
penetrate more deeply into the essence of the Civic Virtue and
be able to define the nature of the higher kind whose existence
we shall establish beyond doubt.
To Plato, unmistakably, there are two distinct orders of virtue,
and the civic does not suffice for Likeness: "Likeness to God,"
he says, "is a flight from this world's ways and things": in
dealing with the qualities of good citizenship he does not use
the simple term Virtue but adds the distinguishing word civic:
and elsewhere he declares all the virtues without exception to
be purifications.
But in what sense can we call the virtues purifications, and
how does purification issue in Likeness?
As the Soul is evil by being interfused with the body, and by
coming to share the body's states and to think the body's
thoughts, so it would be good, it would be possessed of virtue,
if it threw off the body's moods and devoted itself to its own
Act the state of Intellection and Wisdom never allowed the
passions of the body to affect it the virtue of Sophrosyne
knew no fear at the parting from the body the virtue of
Fortitude and if reason and the IntellectualPrinciple ruled in
which state is Righteousness. Such a disposition in the Soul,
become thus intellective and immune to passion, it would not
be wrong to call Likeness to God; for the Divine, too, is pure
and the DivineAct is such that Likeness to it is Wisdom.
But would not this make virtue a state of the Divine also?
No: the Divine has no states; the state is in the Soul. The Act of
Intellection in the Soul is not the same as in the Divine: of
things in the Supreme, Soul grasps some after a mode of its
own, some not at all.
Then yet again, the one word Intellection covers two distinct
Acts?
Rather there is primal Intellection and there is Intellection
deriving from the Primal and of other scope.
As speech is the echo of the thought in the Soul, so thought in
the Soul is an echo from elsewhere: that is to say, as the uttered
thought is an image of the soulthought, so the soulthought
images a thought above itself and is the interpreter of the
higher sphere.
Virtue, in the same way, is a thing of the Soul: it does not
belong to the IntellectualPrinciple or to the Transcendence.
4. We come, so, to the question whether Purification is the
whole of this human quality, virtue, or merely the forerunner
upon which virtue follows? Does virtue imply the achieved
state of purification or does the mere process suffice to it,
Virtue being something of less perfection than the
accomplished pureness which is almost the Term?
To have been purified is to have cleansed away everything
alien: but Goodness is something more.
If before the impurity entered there was Goodness, the
Goodness suffices; but even so, not the act of cleansing but the
cleansed thing that emerges will be The Good. And it remains
to establish what this emergent is.
It can scarcely prove to be The Good: The Absolute Good
cannot be thought to have taken up its abode with Evil. We can
think of it only as something of the nature of good but paying a
double allegiance and unable to rest in the Authentic Good.
The Soul's true Good is in devotion to the Intellectual
Principle, its kin; evil to the Soul lies in frequenting strangers.
There is no other way for it than to purify itself and so enter
into relation with its own; the new phase begins by a new
orientation.
After the Purification, then, there is still this orientation to be
made? No: by the purification the true alignment stands
accomplished.
The Soul's virtue, then, is this alignment? No: it is what the
alignment brings about within.
And this is...?
That it sees; that, like sight affected by the thing seen, the soul
admits the imprint, graven upon it and working within it, of the
vision it has come to.
But was not the Soul possessed of all this always, or had it
forgotten?
What it now sees, it certainly always possessed, but as lying
away in the dark, not as acting within it: to dispel the darkness,
and thus come to knowledge of its inner content, it must thrust
towards the light.
Besides, it possessed not the originals but images, pictures; and
these it must bring into closer accord with the verities they
represent. And, further, if the IntellectualPrinciple is said to be
a possession of the Soul, this is only in the sense that It is not
alien and that the link becomes very close when the Soul's
sight is turned towards It: otherwise, everpresent though It be,
It remains foreign, just as our knowledge, if it does not
determine action, is dead to us.
5. So we come to the scope of the purification: that understood,
the nature of Likeness becomes clear. Likeness to what
Principle? Identity with what God?
The question is substantially this: how far does purification
dispel the two orders of passion anger, desire and the like,
with grief and its kin and in what degree the disengagement
from the body is possible.
Disengagement means simply that the soul withdraws to its
own place.
It will hold itself above all passions and affections. Necessary
pleasures and all the activity of the senses it will employ only
for medicament and assuagement lest its work be impeded.
Pain it may combat, but, failing the cure, it will bear meekly
and ease it by refusing assent to it. All passionate action it will
check: the suppression will be complete if that be possible, but
at worst the Soul will never itself take fire but will keep the
involuntary and uncontrolled outside its precincts and rare and
weak at that. The Soul has nothing to dread, though no doubt
the involuntary has some power here too: fear therefore must
cease, except so far as it is purely monitory. What desire there
may be can never be for the vile; even the food and drink
necessary for restoration will lie outside of the Soul's attention,
and not less the sexual appetite: or if such desire there must be,
it will turn upon the actual needs of the nature and be entirely
under control; or if any uncontrolled motion takes place, it will
reach no further than the imagination, be no more than a
fleeting fancy.
The Soul itself will be inviolately free and will be working to
set the irrational part of the nature above all attack, or if that
may not be, then at least to preserve it from violent assault, so
that any wound it takes may be slight and be healed at once by
virtue of the Soul's presence, just as a man living next door to a
Sage would profit by the neighbourhood, either in becoming
wise and good himself or, for sheer shame, never venturing
any act which the nobler mind would disapprove.
There will be no battling in the Soul: the mere intervention of
Reason is enough: the lower nature will stand in such awe of
Reason that for any slightest movement it has made it will
grieve, and censure its own weakness, in not having kept low
and still in the presence of its lord.
6. In all this there is no sin there is only matter of discipline
but our concern is not merely to be sinless but to be God.
As long as there is any such involuntary action, the nature is
twofold, God and DemiGod, or rather God in association with
a nature of a lower power: when all the involuntary is
suppressed, there is God unmingled, a Divine Being of those
that follow upon The First.
For, at this height, the man is the very being that came from the
Supreme. The primal excellence restored, the essential man is
There: entering this sphere, he has associated himself with the
reasoning phase of his nature and this he will lead up into
likeness with his highest self, as far as earthly mind is capable,
so that if possible it shall never be inclined to, and at the least
never adopt, any course displeasing to its overlord.
What form, then, does virtue take in one so lofty?
It appears as Wisdom, which consists in the contemplation of
all that exists in the IntellectualPrinciple, and as the
immediate presence of the IntellectualPrinciple itself.
And each of these has two modes or aspects: there is Wisdom
as it is in the IntellectualPrinciple and as in the Soul; and there
is the IntellectualPrinciple as it is present to itself and as it is
present to the Soul: this gives what in the Soul is Virtue, in the
Supreme not Virtue.
In the Supreme, then, what is it?
Its proper Act and Its Essence.
That Act and Essence of the Supreme, manifested in a new
form, constitute the virtue of this sphere. For the Supreme is
not selfexistent justice, or the Absolute of any defined virtue:
it is, so to speak, an exemplar, the source of what in the soul
becomes virtue: for virtue is dependent, seated in something
not itself; the Supreme is selfstanding, independent.
But taking Rectitude to be the due ordering of faculty, does it
not always imply the existence of diverse parts?
No: There is a Rectitude of Diversity appropriate to what has
parts, but there is another, not less Rectitude than the former
though it resides in a Unity. And the authentic Absolute
Rectitude is the Act of a Unity upon itself, of a Unity in which
there is no this and that and the other.
On this principle, the supreme Rectitude of the Soul is that it
direct its Act towards the IntellectualPrinciple: its Restraint
(Sophrosyne) is its inward bending towards the Intellectual
Principle; its Fortitude is its being impassive in the likeness of
That towards which its gaze is set, Whose nature comports an
impassivity which the Soul acquires by virtue and must acquire
if it is not to be at the mercy of every state arising in its less
noble companion.
7. The virtues in the Soul run in a sequence correspondent to
that existing in the overworld, that is among their exemplars
in the IntellectualPrinciple.
In the Supreme, Intellection constitutes Knowledge and
Wisdom; selfconcentration is Sophrosyne; Its proper Act is Its
Dutifulness; Its Immateriality, by which It remains inviolate
within Itself is the equivalent of Fortitude.
In the Soul, the direction of vision towards the Intellectual
Principle is Wisdom and Prudence, soulvirtues not appropriate
to the Supreme where Thinker and Thought are identical. All
the other virtues have similar correspondences.
And if the term of purification is the production of a pure
being, then the purification of the Soul must produce all the
virtues; if any are lacking, then not one of them is perfect.
And to possess the greater is potentially to possess the minor,
though the minor need not carry the greater with them.
Thus we have indicated the dominant note in the life of the
Sage; but whether his possession of the minor virtues be actual
as well as potential, whether even the greater are in Act in him
or yield to qualities higher still, must be decided afresh in each
several case.
Take, for example, ContemplativeWisdom. If other guides of
conduct must be called in to meet a given need, can this virtue
hold its ground even in mere potentiality?
And what happens when the virtues in their very nature differ
in scope and province? Where, for example, Sophrosyne would
allow certain acts or emotions under due restraint and another
virtue would cut them off altogether? And is it not clear that all
may have to yield, once ContemplativeWisdom comes into
action?
The solution is in understanding the virtues and what each has
to give: thus the man will learn to work with this or that as
every several need demands. And as he reaches to loftier
principles and other standards these in turn will define his
conduct: for example, Restraint in its earlier form will no
longer satisfy him; he will work for the final Disengagement;
he will live, no longer, the human life of the good man such as
Civic Virtue commends but, leaving this beneath him, will
take up instead another life, that of the Gods.
For it is to the Gods, not to the Good, that our Likeness must
look: to model ourselves upon good men is to produce an
image of an image: we have to fix our gaze above the image
and attain Likeness to the Supreme Exemplar.
Ennead I
Third tractate: On dialectic [the upward way]
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. What art is there, what method, what discipline to bring us
there where we must go?
The Term at which we must arrive we may take as agreed: we
have established elsewhere, by many considerations, that our
journey is to the Good, to the PrimalPrinciple; and, indeed, the
very reasoning which discovered the Term was itself
something like an initiation.
But what order of beings will attain the Term?
Surely, as we read, those that have already seen all or most
things, those who at their first birth have entered into the life
germ from which is to spring a metaphysician, a musician or a
born lover, the metaphysician taking to the path by instinct, the
musician and the nature peculiarly susceptible to love needing
outside guidance.
But how lies the course? Is it alike for all, or is there a distinct
method for each class of temperament?
For all there are two stages of the path, as they are making
upwards or have already gained the upper sphere.
The first degree is the conversion from the lower life; the
second held by those that have already made their way to the
sphere of the Intelligibles, have set as it were a footprint there
but must still advance within the realm lasts until they reach
the extreme hold of the place, the Term attained when the
topmost peak of the Intellectual realm is won.
But this highest degree must bide its time: let us first try to
speak of the initial process of conversion.
We must begin by distinguishing the three types. Let us take
the musician first and indicate his temperamental equipment
for the task.
The musician we may think of as being exceedingly quick to
beauty, drawn in a very rapture to it: somewhat slow to stir of
his own impulse, he answers at once to the outer stimulus: as
the timid are sensitive to noise so he to tones and the beauty
they convey; all that offends against unison or harmony in
melodies and rhythms repels him; he longs for measure and
shapely pattern.
This natural tendency must be made the startingpoint to such a
man; he must be drawn by the tone, rhythm and design in
things of sense: he must learn to distinguish the material forms
from the AuthenticExistent which is the source of all these
correspondences and of the entire reasoned scheme in the work
of art: he must be led to the Beauty that manifests itself
through these forms; he must be shown that what ravished him
was no other than the Harmony of the Intellectual world and
the Beauty in that sphere, not some one shape of beauty but the
AllBeauty, the Absolute Beauty; and the truths of philosophy
must be implanted in him to lead him to faith in that which,
unknowing it, he possesses within himself. What these truths
are we will show later.
2. The born lover, to whose degree the musician also may
attain and then either come to a stand or pass beyond has a
certain memory of beauty but, severed from it now, he no
longer comprehends it: spellbound by visible loveliness he
clings amazed about that. His lesson must be to fall down no
longer in bewildered delight before some, one embodied form;
he must be led, under a system of mental discipline, to beauty
everywhere and made to discern the One Principle underlying
all, a Principle apart from the material forms, springing from
another source, and elsewhere more truly present. The beauty,
for example, in a noble course of life and in an admirably
organized social system may be pointed out to him a first
training this in the loveliness of the immaterial he must learn
to recognise the beauty in the arts, sciences, virtues; then these
severed and particular forms must be brought under the one
principle by the explanation of their origin. From the virtues he
is to be led to the IntellectualPrinciple, to the Authentic
Existent; thence onward, he treads the upward way.
3. The metaphysician, equipped by that very character, winged
already and not like those others, in need of disengagement,
stirring of himself towards the supernal but doubting of the
way, needs only a guide. He must be shown, then, and
instructed, a willing wayfarer by his very temperament, all but
selfdirected.
Mathematics, which as a student by nature he will take very
easily, will be prescribed to train him to abstract thought and to
faith in the unembodied; a moral being by native disposition,
he must be led to make his virtue perfect; after the
Mathematics he must be put through a course in Dialectic and
made an adept in the science.
4. But this science, this Dialectic essential to all the three
classes alike, what, in sum, is it?
It is the Method, or Discipline, that brings with it the power of
pronouncing with final truth upon the nature and relation of
things what each is, how it differs from others, what common
quality all have, to what Kind each belongs and in what rank
each stands in its Kind and whether its Being is RealBeing,
and how many Beings there are, and how many nonBeings to
be distinguished from Beings.
Dialectic treats also of the Good and the notGood, and of the
particulars that fall under each, and of what is the Eternal and
what the not Eternal and of these, it must be understood, not
by seemingknowledge ["senseknowledge"] but with authentic
science.
All this accomplished, it gives up its touring of the realm of
sense and settles down in the Intellectual Kosmos and there
plies its own peculiar Act: it has abandoned all the realm of
deceit and falsity, and pastures the Soul in the "Meadows of
Truth": it employs the Platonic division to the discernment of
the IdealForms, of the AuthenticExistence and of the First
Kinds [or Categories of Being]: it establishes, in the light of
Intellection, the unity there is in all that issues from these
Firsts, until it has traversed the entire Intellectual Realm: then,
resolving the unity into the particulars once more, it returns to
the point from which it starts.
Now rests: instructed and satisfied as to the Being in that
sphere, it is no longer busy about many things: it has arrived at
Unity and it contemplates: it leaves to another science all that
coil of premisses and conclusions called the art of reasoning,
much as it leaves the art of writing: some of the matter of
logic, no doubt, it considers necessary to clear the ground but
it makes itself the judge, here as in everything else; where it
sees use, it uses; anything it finds superfluous, it leaves to
whatever department of learning or practice may turn that
matter to account.
5. But whence does this science derive its own initial laws?
The IntellectualPrinciple furnishes standards, the most certain
for any soul that is able to apply them. What else is necessary,
Dialectic puts together for itself, combining and dividing, until
it has reached perfect Intellection. "For," we read, "it is the
purest [perfection] of Intellection and Contemplative
Wisdom." And, being the noblest method and science that
exists it must needs deal with AuthenticExistence, The
Highest there is: as ContemplativeWisdom [or trueknowing]
it deals with Being, as Intellection with what transcends Being.
What, then, is Philosophy?
Philosophy is the supremely precious.
Is Dialectic, then, the same as Philosophy?
It is the precious part of Philosophy. We must not think of it as
the mere tool of the metaphysician: Dialectic does not consist
of bare theories and rules: it deals with verities; Existences are,
as it were, Matter to it, or at least it proceeds methodically
towards Existences, and possesses itself, at the one step, of the
notions and of the realities.
Untruth and sophism it knows, not directly, not of its own
nature, but merely as something produced outside itself,
something which it recognises to be foreign to the verities laid
up in itself; in the falsity presented to it, it perceives a clash
with its own canon of truth. Dialectic, that is to say, has no
knowledge of propositions collections of words but it knows
the truth, and, in that knowledge, knows what the schools call
their propositions: it knows above all, the operation of the soul,
and, by virtue of this knowing, it knows, too, what is affirmed
and what is denied, whether the denial is of what was asserted
or of something else, and whether propositions agree or differ;
all that is submitted to it, it attacks with the directness of sense
perception and it leaves petty precisions of process to what
other science may care for such exercises.
6. Philosophy has other provinces, but Dialectic is its precious
part: in its study of the laws of the universe, Philosophy draws
on Dialectic much as other studies and crafts use Arithmetic,
though, of course, the alliance between Philosophy and
Dialectic is closer.
And in Morals, too, Philosophy uses Dialectic: by Dialectic it
comes to contemplation, though it originates of itself the moral
state or rather the discipline from which the moral state
develops.
Our reasoning faculties employ the data of Dialectic almost as
their proper possession for they are mainly concerned about
Matter [whose place and worth Dialectic establishes].
And while the other virtues bring the reason to bear upon
particular experiences and acts, the virtue of Wisdom [i.e., the
virtue peculiarly induced by Dialectic] is a certain super
reasoning much closer to the Universal; for it deals with
correspondence and sequence, the choice of time for action and
inaction, the adoption of this course, the rejection of that other:
Wisdom and Dialectic have the task of presenting all things as
Universals and stripped of matter for treatment by the
Understanding.
But can these inferior kinds of virtue exist without Dialectic
and philosophy?
Yes but imperfectly, inadequately.
And is it possible to be a Sage, Master in Dialectic, without
these lower virtues?
It would not happen: the lower will spring either before or
together with the higher. And it is likely that everyone
normally possesses the natural virtues from which, when
Wisdom steps in, the perfected virtue develops. After the
natural virtues, then, Wisdom and, so the perfecting of the
moral nature. Once the natural virtues exist, both orders, the
natural and the higher, ripen side by side to their final
excellence: or as the one advances it carries forward the other
towards perfection.
But, ever, the natural virtue is imperfect in vision and in
strength and to both orders of virtue the essential matter is
from what principles we derive them.
Ennead I
Fourth tractate: On true happiness
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Are we to make True Happiness one and the same thing with
Welfare or Prosperity and therefore within the reach of the
other living beings as well as ourselves?
There is certainly no reason to deny wellbeing to any of them
as long as their lot allows them to flourish unhindered after
their kind.
Whether we make Welfare consist in pleasant conditions of
life, or in the accomplishment of some appropriate task, by
either account it may fall to them as to us. For certainly they
may at once be pleasantly placed and engaged about some
function that lies in their nature: take for an instance such
living beings as have the gift of music; finding themselves
welloff in other ways, they sing, too, as their nature is, and so
their day is pleasant to them.
And if, even, we set Happiness in some ultimate Term pursued
by inborn tendency, then on this head, too, we must allow it to
animals from the moment of their attaining this Ultimate: the
nature in them comes to a halt, having fulfilled its vital course
from a beginning to an end.
It may be a distasteful notion, this bringingdown of happiness
so low as to the animal world making it over, as then we must,
even to the vilest of them and not withholding it even from the
plants, living they too and having a life unfolding to a Term.
But, to begin with, it is surely unsound to deny that good of
life to animals only because they do not appear to man to be of
great account. And as for plants, we need not necessarily allow
to them what we accord to the other forms of life, since they
have no feeling. It is true people might be found to declare
prosperity possible to the very plants: they have life, and life
may bring good or evil; the plants may thrive or wither, bear or
be barren.
No: if Pleasure be the Term, if here be the good of life, it is
impossible to deny the good of life to any order of living
things; if the Term be innerpeace, equally impossible;
impossible, too, if the good of life be to live in accordance with
the purpose of nature.
2. Those that deny the happy life to the plants on the ground
that they lack sensation are really denying it to all living
things.
By sensation can be meant only perception of state, and the
state of wellbeing must be Good in itself quite apart from the
perception: to be a part of the natural plan is good whether
knowingly or without knowledge: there is good in the
appropriate state even though there be no recognition of its
fitness or desirable quality for it must be in itself desirable.
This Good exists, then; is present: that in which it is present
has wellbeing without more ado: what need then to ask for
sensation into the bargain?
Perhaps, however, the theory is that the good of any state
consists not in the condition itself but in the knowledge and
perception of it.
But at this rate the Good is nothing but the mere sensation, the
bare activity of the sentient life. And so it will be possessed by
all that feel, no matter what. Perhaps it will be said that two
constituents are needed to make up the Good, that there must
be both feeling and a given state felt: but how can it be
maintained that the bringing together of two neutrals can
produce the Good?
They will explain, possibly, that the state must be a state of
Good and that such a condition constitutes wellbeing on the
discernment of that present good; but then they invite the
question whether the wellbeing comes by discerning the
presence of the Good that is there, or whether there must
further be the double recognition that the state is agreeable and
that the agreeable state constitutes the Good.
If wellbeing demands this recognition, it depends no longer
upon sensation but upon another, a higher faculty; and well
being is vested not in a faculty receptive of pleasure but in one
competent to discern that pleasure is the Good.
Then the cause of the wellbeing is no longer pleasure but the
faculty competent to pronounce as to pleasure's value. Now a
judging entity is nobler than one that merely accepts a state: it
is a principle of Reason or of Intellection: pleasure is a state:
the reasonless can never be closer to the Good than reason is.
How can reason abdicate and declare nearer to good than itself
something lying in a contrary order?
No: those denying the good of life to the vegetable world, and
those that make it consist in some precise quality of sensation,
are in reality seeking a loftier wellbeing than they are aware
of, and setting their highest in a more luminous phase of life.
Perhaps, then, those are in the right who found happiness not
on the bare living or even on sensitive life but on the life of
Reason?
But they must tell us it should be thus restricted and why
precisely they make Reason an essential to the happiness in a
living being:
"When you insist on Reason, is it because Reason is
resourceful, swift to discern and compass the primal needs of
nature; or would you demand it, even though it were powerless
in that domain?"
If you call it in as a provider, then the reasonless, equally with
the reasoning, may possess happiness after their kind, as long
as, without any thought of theirs, nature supplies their wants:
Reason becomes a servant; there is no longer any worth in it
for itself and no worth in that consummation of reason which,
we hold, is virtue.
If you say that reason is to be cherished for its own sake and
not as supplying these human needs, you must tell us what
other services it renders, what is its proper nature and what
makes it the perfect thing it is.
For, on this admission, its perfection cannot reside in any such
planning and providing: its perfection will be something quite
different, something of quite another class: Reason cannot be
itself one of those first needs of nature; it cannot even be a
cause of those first needs of nature or at all belong to that
order: it must be nobler than any and all of such things:
otherwise it is not easy to see how we can be asked to rate it so
highly.
Until these people light upon some nobler principle than any at
which they still halt, they must be left where they are and
where they choose to be, never understanding what the Good
of Life is to those that can make it theirs, never knowing to
what kind of beings it is accessible.
What then is happiness? Let us try basing it upon Life.
3. Now if we draw no distinction as to kinds of life, everything
that lives will be capable of happiness, and those will be
effectively happy who possess that one common gift of which
every living thing is by nature receptive. We could not deny it
to the irrational whilst allowing it to the rational. If happiness
were inherent in the bare beingalive, the common ground in
which the cause of happiness could always take root would be
simply life.
Those, then, that set happiness not in the mere living but in the
reasoning life seem to overlook the fact that they are not really
making it depend upon life at all: they admit that this reasoning
faculty, round which they centre happiness, is a property [not
the subject of a property]: the subject, to them, must be the
ReasoningLife since it is in this double term that they find the
basis of the happiness: so that they are making it consist not in
life but in a particular kind of life not, of course, a species
formally opposite but, in terminology, standing as an "earlier"
to a "later" in the one Kind.
Now in common use this word "Life" embraces many forms
which shade down from primal to secondary and so on, all
massed under the common term life of plant and life of
animal each phase brighter or dimmer than its next: and so it
evidently must be with the GoodofLife. And if thing is ever
the image of thing, so every Good must always be the image of
a higher Good.
If mere Being is insufficient, if happiness demands fulness of
life, and exists, therefore, where nothing is lacking of all that
belongs to the idea of life, then happiness can exist only in a
being that lives fully.
And such a one will possess not merely the good, but the
Supreme Good if, that is to say, in the realm of existents the
Supreme Good can be no other than the authentically living, no
other than Life in its greatest plenitude, life in which the good
is present as something essential not as something brought
from without, a life needing no foreign substance called in
from a foreign realm, to establish it in good.
For what could be added to the fullest life to make it the best
life? If anyone should answer, "The nature of Good" [The
Good, as a Divine Hypostasis], the reply would certainly be
near our thought, but we are not seeking the Cause but the
main constituent.
It has been said more than once that the perfect life and the true
life, the essential life, is in the Intellectual Nature beyond this
sphere, and that all other forms of life are incomplete, are
phantoms of life, imperfect, not pure, not more truly life than
they are its contrary: here let it be said succinctly that since all
living things proceed from the one principle but possess life in
different degrees, this principle must be the first life and the
most complete.
4. If, then, the perfect life is within human reach, the man
attaining it attains happiness: if not, happiness must be made
over to the gods, for the perfect life is for them alone.
But since we hold that happiness is for human beings too, we
must consider what this perfect life is. The matter may be
stated thus:
It has been shown elsewhere that man, when he commands not
merely the life of sensation but also Reason and Authentic
Intellection, has realised the perfect life.
But are we to picture this kind of life as something foreign
imported into his nature?
No: there exists no single human being that does not either
potentially or effectively possess this thing which we hold to
constitute happiness.
But are we to think of man as including this form of life, the
perfect, after the manner of a partial constituent of his entire
nature?
We say, rather, that while in some men it is present as a mere
portion of their total being in those, namely, that have it
potentially there is, too, the man, already in possession of true
felicity, who is this perfection realized, who has passed over
into actual identification with it. All else is now mere clothing
about the man, not to be called part of him since it lies about
him unsought, not his because not appropriated to himself by
any act of the will.
To the man in this state, what is the Good?
He himself by what he has and is.
And the author and principle of what he is and holds is the
Supreme, which within Itself is the Good but manifests Itself
within the human being after this other mode.
The sign that this state has been achieved is that the man seeks
nothing else.
What indeed could he be seeking? Certainly none of the less
worthy things; and the Best he carries always within him.
He that has such a life as this has all he needs in life.
Once the man is a Sage, the means of happiness, the way to
good, are within, for nothing is good that lies outside him.
Anything he desires further than this he seeks as a necessity,
and not for himself but for a subordinate, for the body bound to
him, to which since it has life he must minister the needs of
life, not needs, however, to the true man of this degree. He
knows himself to stand above all such things, and what he
gives to the lower he so gives as to leave his true life
undiminished.
Adverse fortune does not shake his felicity: the life so founded
is stable ever. Suppose death strikes at his household or at his
friends; he knows what death is, as the victims, if they are
among the wise, know too. And if death taking from him his
familiars and intimates does bring grief, it is not to him, not to
the true man, but to that in him which stands apart from the
Supreme, to that lower man in whose distress he takes no part.
5. But what of sorrows, illnesses and all else that inhibit the
native activity?
What of the suspension of consciousness which drugs or
disease may bring about? Could either welfare or happiness be
present under such conditions? And this is to say nothing of
misery and disgrace, which will certainly be urged against us,
with undoubtedly also those neverfailing "Miseries of Priam."
"The Sage," we shall be told, "may bear such afflictions and
even take them lightly but they could never be his choice, and
the happy life must be one that would be chosen. The Sage,
that is, cannot be thought of as simply a sage soul, no count
being taken of the bodilyprinciple in the total of the being: he
will, no doubt, take all bravely... until the body's appeals come
up before him, and longings and loathings penetrate through
the body to the inner man. And since pleasure must be counted
in towards the happy life, how can one that, thus, knows the
misery of illfortune or pain be happy, however sage he be?
Such a state, of bliss selfcontained, is for the Gods; men,
because of the less noble part subjoined in them, must needs
seek happiness throughout all their being and not merely in
some one part; if the one constituent be troubled, the other,
answering to its associate's distress, must perforce suffer
hindrance in its own activity. There is nothing but to cut away
the body or the body's sensitive life and so secure that self
contained unity essential to happiness."
6. Now if happiness did indeed require freedom from pain,
sickness, misfortune, disaster, it would be utterly denied to
anyone confronted by such trials: but if it lies in the fruition of
the Authentic Good, why turn away from this Term and look to
means, imagining that to be happy a man must need a variety
of things none of which enter into happiness? If, in fact,
felicity were made up by heaping together all that is at once
desirable and necessary we must bid for these also. But if the
Term must be one and not many; if in other words our quest is
of a Term and not of Terms; that only can be elected which is
ultimate and noblest, that which calls to the tenderest longings
of the soul.
The quest and will of the Soul are not pointed directly towards
freedom from this sphere: the reason which disciplines away
our concern about this life has no fundamental quarrel with
things of this order; it merely resents their interference;
sometimes, even, it must seek them; essentially all the
aspiration is not so much away from evil as towards the Soul's
own highest and noblest: this attained, all is won and there is
rest and this is the veritably willed state of life.
There can be no such thing as "willing" the acquirement of
necessaries, if Will is to be taken in its strict sense, and not
misapplied to the mere recognition of need.
It is certain that we shrink from the unpleasant, and such
shrinking is assuredly not what we should have willed; to have
no occasion for any such shrinking would be much nearer to
our taste; but the things we seek tell the story as soon as they
are ours. For instance, health and freedom from pain; which of
these has any great charm? As long as we possess them, we set
no store upon them.
Anything which, present, has no charm and adds nothing to
happiness, which when lacking is desired because of the
presence of an annoying opposite, may reasonably be called a
necessity but not a Good.
Such things can never make part of our final object: our Term
must be such that though these pleasanter conditions be absent
and their contraries present, it shall remain, still, intact.
7. Then why are these conditions sought and their contraries
repelled by the man established in happiness?
Here is our answer:
These more pleasant conditions cannot, it is true, add any
particle towards the Sage's felicity: but they do serve towards
the integrity of his being, while the presence of the contraries
tends against his Being or complicates the Term: it is not that
the Sage can be so easily deprived of the Term achieved but
simply that he that holds the highest good desires to have that
alone, not something else at the same time, something which,
though it cannot banish the Good by its incoming, does yet
take place by its side.
In any case if the man that has attained felicity meets some
turn of fortune that he would not have chosen, there is not the
slightest lessening of his happiness for that. If there were, his
felicity would be veering or falling from day to day; the death
of a child would bring him down, or the loss of some trivial
possession. No: a thousand mischances and disappointments
may befall him and leave him still in the tranquil possession of
the Term.
But, they cry, great disasters, not the petty daily chances!
What human thing, then, is great, so as not to be despised by
one who has mounted above all we know here, and is bound
now no longer to anything below?
If the Sage thinks all fortunate events, however momentous, to
be no great matter kingdom and the rule over cities and
peoples, colonisations and the founding of states, even though
all be his own handiwork how can he take any great account
of the vacillations of power or the ruin of his fatherland?
Certainly if he thought any such event a great disaster, or any
disaster at all, he must be of a very strange way of thinking.
One that sets great store by wood and stones, or... Zeus... by
mortality among mortals cannot yet be the Sage, whose
estimate of death, we hold, must be that it is better than life in
the body.
But suppose that he himself is offered a victim in sacrifice?
Can he think it an evil to die beside the altars?
But if he go unburied?
Wheresoever it lie, under earth or over earth, his body will
always rot.
But if he has been hidden away, not with costly ceremony but
in an unnamed grave, not counted worthy of a towering
monument?
The littleness of it!
But if he falls into his enemies' hands, into prison?
There is always the way towards escape, if none towards well
being.
But if his nearest be taken from him, his sons and daughters
dragged away to captivity?
What then, we ask, if he had died without witnessing the
wrong? Could he have quitted the world in the calm conviction
that nothing of all this could happen? He must be very shallow.
Can he fail to see that it is possible for such calamities to
overtake his household, and does he cease to be a happy man
for the knowledge of what may occur? In the knowledge of the
possibility he may be at ease; so, too, when the evil has come
about.
He would reflect that the nature of this All is such as brings
these things to pass and man must bow the head.
Besides in many cases captivity will certainly prove an
advantage; and those that suffer have their freedom in their
hands: if they stay, either there is reason in their staying, and
then they have no real grievance, or they stay against reason,
when they should not, and then they have themselves to blame.
Clearly the absurdities of his neighbours, however near, cannot
plunge the Sage into evil: his state cannot hang upon the
fortunes good or bad of any other men.
8. As for violent personal sufferings, he will carry them off as
well as he can; if they overpass his endurance they will carry
him off.
And so in all his pain he asks no pity: there is always the
radiance in the inner soul of the man, untroubled like the light
in a lantern when fierce gusts beat about it in a wild turmoil of
wind and tempest.
But what if he be put beyond himself? What if pain grow so
intense and so torture him that the agony all but kills? Well,
when he is put to torture he will plan what is to be done: he
retains his freedom of action.
Besides we must remember that the Sage sees things very
differently from the average man; neither ordinary experiences
nor pains and sorrows, whether touching himself or others,
pierce to the inner hold. To allow them any such passage
would be a weakness in our soul.
And it is a sign of weakness, too, if we should think it gain not
to hear of miseries, gain to die before they come: this is not
concern for others' welfare but for our own peace of mind.
Here we see our imperfection: we must not indulge it, we must
put it from us and cease to tremble over what perhaps may be.
Anyone that says that it is in human nature to grieve over
misfortune to our household must learn that this is not so with
all, and that, precisely, it is virtue's use to raise the general
level of nature towards the better and finer, above the mass of
men. And the finer is to set at nought what terrifies the
common mind.
We cannot be indolent: this is an arena for the powerful
combatant holding his ground against the blows of fortune, and
knowing that, sore though they be to some natures, they are
little to his, nothing dreadful, nursery terrors.
So, the Sage would have desired misfortune?
It is precisely to meet the undesired when it appears that he has
the virtue which gives him, to confront it, his passionless and
unshakeable soul.
9. But when he is out of himself, reason quenched by sickness
or by magic arts?
If it be allowed that in this state, resting as it were in a slumber,
he remains a Sage, why should he not equally remain happy?
No one rules him out of felicity in the hours of sleep; no one
counts up that time and so denies that he has been happy all his
life.
If they say that, failing consciousness, he is no longer the Sage,
then they are no longer reasoning about the Sage: but we do
suppose a Sage, and are enquiring whether, as long as he is the
Sage, he is in the state of felicity.
"Well, a Sage let him remain," they say, "still, having no
sensation and not expressing his virtue in act, how can he be
happy?"
But a man unconscious of his health may be, none the less,
healthy: a man may not be aware of his personal attraction, but
he remains handsome none the less: if he has no sense of his
wisdom, shall he be any the less wise?
It may perhaps be urged that sensation and consciousness are
essential to wisdom and that happiness is only wisdom brought
to act.
Now, this argument might have weight if prudence, wisdom,
were something fetched in from outside: but this is not so:
wisdom is, in its essential nature, an AuthenticExistence, or
rather is The AuthenticExistent and this Existent does not
perish in one asleep or, to take the particular case presented to
us, in the man out of his mind: the Act of this Existent is
continuous within him; and is a sleepless activity: the Sage,
therefore, even unconscious, is still the Sage in Act.
This activity is screened not from the man entire but merely
from one part of him: we have here a parallel to what happens
in the activity of the physical or vegetative life in us which is
not made known by the sensitive faculty to the rest of the man:
if our physical life really constituted the "We," its Act would
be our Act: but, in the fact, this physical life is not the "We";
the "We" is the activity of the IntellectualPrinciple so that
when the Intellective is in Act we are in Act.
10. Perhaps the reason this continuous activity remains
unperceived is that it has no touch whatever with things of
sense. No doubt action upon material things, or action dictated
by them, must proceed through the sensitive faculty which
exists for that use: but why should there not be an immediate
activity of the IntellectualPrinciple and of the soul that attends
it, the soul that antedates sensation or any perception? For, if
Intellection and AuthenticExistence are identical, this
"Earlierthanperception" must be a thing having Act.
Let us explain the conditions under which we become
conscious of this IntellectiveAct.
When the Intellect is in upward orientation that [lower part of
it] which contains [or, corresponds to] the life of the Soul, is,
so to speak, flung down again and becomes like the reflection
resting on the smooth and shining surface of a mirror; in this
illustration, when the mirror is in place the image appears but,
though the mirror be absent or out of gear, all that would have
acted and produced an image still exists; so in the case of the
Soul; when there is peace in that within us which is capable of
reflecting the images of the Rational and IntellectualPrinciples
these images appear. Then, side by side with the primal
knowledge of the activity of the Rational and the Intellectual
Principles, we have also as it were a senseperception of their
operation.
When, on the contrary, the mirror within is shattered through
some disturbance of the harmony of the body, Reason and the
IntellectualPrinciple act unpictured: Intellection is unattended
by imagination.
In sum we may safely gather that while the IntellectiveAct
may be attended by the Imaging Principle, it is not to be
confounded with it.
And even in our conscious life we can point to many noble
activities, of mind and of hand alike, which at the time in no
way compel our consciousness. A reader will often be quite
unconscious when he is most intent: in a feat of courage there
can be no sense either of the brave action or of the fact that all
that is done conforms to the rules of courage. And so in cases
beyond number.
So that it would even seem that consciousness tends to blunt
the activities upon which it is exercised, and that in the degree
in which these pass unobserved they are purer and have more
effect, more vitality, and that, consequently, the Sage arrived at
this state has the truer fulness of life, life not spilled out in
sensation but gathered closely within itself.
11. We shall perhaps be told that in such a state the man is no
longer alive: we answer that these people show themselves
equally unable to understand his inner life and his happiness.
If this does not satisfy them, we must ask them to keep in mind
a living Sage and, under these terms, to enquire whether the
man is in happiness: they must not whittle away his life and
then ask whether he has the happy life; they must not take
away man and then look for the happiness of a man: once they
allow that the Sage lives within, they must not seek him among
the outer activities, still less look to the outer world for the
object of his desires. To consider the outer world to be a field
to his desire, to fancy the Sage desiring any good external,
would be to deny SubstantialExistence to happiness; for the
Sage would like to see all men prosperous and no evil befalling
anyone; but though it prove otherwise, he is still content.
If it be admitted that such a desire would be against reason,
since evil cannot cease to be, there is no escape from agreeing
with us that the Sage's will is set always and only inward.
12. The pleasure demanded for the life cannot be in the
enjoyments of the licentious or in any gratifications of the
body there is no place for these, and they stifle happiness nor
in any violent emotions what could so move the Sage? it can
be only such pleasure as there must be where Good is, pleasure
that does not rise from movement and is not a thing of process,
for all that is good is immediately present to the Sage and the
Sage is present to himself: his pleasure, his contentment,
stands, immovable.
Thus he is ever cheerful, the order of his life ever untroubled:
his state is fixedly happy and nothing whatever of all that is
known as evil can set it awry given only that he is and remains
a Sage.
If anyone seeks for some other kind of pleasure in the life of
the Sage, it is not the life of the Sage he is looking for.
13. The characteristic activities are not hindered by outer
events but merely adapt themselves, remaining always fine,
and perhaps all the finer for dealing with the actual. When he
has to handle particular cases and things, he may not be able to
put his vision into act without searching and thinking, but the
one greatest principle is ever present to him, like a part of his
being most of all present, should he be even a victim in the
muchtalkedof Bull of Phalaris. No doubt, despite all that has
been said, it is idle to pretend that this is an agreeable lodging;
but what cries in the Bull is the thing that feels the torture; in
the Sage there is something else as well, The SelfGathered
which, as long as it holds itself by main force within itself, can
never be robbed of the vision of the AllGood.
14. For man, and especially the Sage, is not the Couplement of
soul and body: the proof is that man can be disengaged from
the body and disdain its nominal goods.
It would be absurd to think that happiness begins and ends with
the livingbody: happiness is the possession of the good of life:
it is centred therefore in Soul, is an Act of the Soul and not of
all the Soul at that: for it certainly is not characteristic of the
vegetative soul, the soul of growth; that would at once connect
it with the body.
A powerful frame, a healthy constitution, even a happy balance
of temperament, these surely do not make felicity; in the
excess of these advantages there is, even, the danger that the
man be crushed down and forced more and more within their
power. There must be a sort of counterpressure in the other
direction, towards the noblest: the body must be lessened,
reduced, that the veritable man may show forth, the man
behind the appearances.
Let the earthbound man be handsome and powerful and rich,
and so apt to this world that he may rule the entire human race:
still there can be no envying him, the fool of such lures.
Perhaps such splendours could not, from the beginning even,
have gathered to the Sage; but if it should happen so, he of his
own action will lower his state, if he has any care for his true
life; the tyranny of the body he will work down or wear away
by inattention to its claims; the rulership he will lay aside.
While he will safeguard his bodily health, he will not wish to
be wholly untried in sickness, still less never to feel pain: if
such troubles should not come to him of themselves, he will
wish to know them, during youth at least: in old age, it is true,
he will desire neither pains nor pleasures to hamper him; he
will desire nothing of this world, pleasant or painful; his one
desire will be to know nothing of the body. If he should meet
with pain he will pit against it the powers he holds to meet it;
but pleasure and health and ease of life will not mean any
increase of happiness to him nor will their contraries destroy or
lessen it.
When in the one subject, a positive can add nothing, how can
the negative take away?
15. But suppose two wise men, one of them possessing all that
is supposed to be naturally welcome, while the other meets
only with the very reverse: do we assert that they have an equal
happiness?
We do, if they are equally wise.
What though the one be favoured in body and in all else that
does not help towards wisdom, still less towards virtue,
towards the vision of the noblest, towards being the highest,
what does all that amount to? The man commanding all such
practical advantages cannot flatter himself that he is more truly
happy than the man without them: the utmost profusion of such
boons would not help even to make a fluteplayer.
We discuss the happy man after our own feebleness; we count
alarming and grave what his felicity takes lightly: he would be
neither wise nor in the state of happiness if he had not quitted
all trifling with such things and become as it were another
being, having confidence in his own nature, faith that evil can
never touch him. In such a spirit he can be fearless through and
through; where there is dread, there is not perfect virtue; the
man is some sort of a halfthing.
As for any involuntary fear rising in him and taking the
judgement by surprise, while his thoughts perhaps are
elsewhere, the Sage will attack it and drive it out; he will, so to
speak, calm the refractory child within him, whether by reason
or by menace, but without passion, as an infant might feel itself
rebuked by a glance of severity.
This does not make the Sage unfriendly or harsh: it is to
himself and in his own great concern that he is the Sage: giving
freely to his intimates of all he has to give, he will be the best
of friends by his very union with the IntellectualPrinciple.
16. Those that refuse to place the Sage aloft in the Intellectual
Realm but drag him down to the accidental, dreading accident
for him, have substituted for the Sage we have in mind another
person altogether; they offer us a tolerable sort of man and they
assign to him a life of mingled good and ill, a case, after all,
not easy to conceive. But admitting the possibility of such a
mixed state, it could not be deserved to be called a life of
happiness; it misses the Great, both in the dignity of Wisdom
and in the integrity of Good. The life of true happiness is not a
thing of mixture. And Plato rightly taught that he who is to be
wise and to possess happiness draws his good from the
Supreme, fixing his gaze on That, becoming like to That, living
by That.
He can care for no other Term than That: all else he will attend
to only as he might change his residence, not in expectation of
any increase to his settled felicity, but simply in a reasonable
attention to the differing conditions surrounding him as he
lives here or there.
He will give to the body all that he sees to be useful and
possible, but he himself remains a member of another order,
not prevented from abandoning the body, necessarily leaving it
at nature's hour, he himself always the master to decide in its
regard.
Thus some part of his life considers exclusively the Soul's
satisfaction; the rest is not immediately for the Term's sake and
not for his own sake, but for the thing bound up with him, the
thing which he tends and bears with as the musician cares for
his lyre, as long as it can serve him: when the lyre fails him, he
will change it, or will give up lyre and lyring, as having
another craft now, one that needs no lyre, and then he will let it
rest unregarded at his side while he sings on without an
instrument. But it was not idly that the instrument was given
him in the beginning: he has found it useful until now, many a
time.
Ennead I
Fifth tractate: Happiness and extension of time
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Is it possible to think that Happiness increases with Time,
Happiness which is always taken as a present thing?
The memory of former felicity may surely be ruled out of
count, for Happiness is not a thing of words, but a definite
condition which must be actually present like the very fact and
act of life.
2. It may be objected that our will towards living and towards
expressive activity is constant, and that each attainment of such
expression is an increase in Happiness.
But in the first place, by this reckoning every tomorrow's
wellbeing will be greater than today's, every later instalment
successively larger that an earlier; at once time supplants moral
excellence as the measure of felicity.
Then again the Gods today must be happier than of old: and
their bliss, too, is not perfect, will never be perfect. Further,
when the will attains what it was seeking, it attains something
present: the quest is always for something to be actually
present until a standing felicity is definitely achieved. The will
to life which is will to Existence aims at something present,
since Existence must be a stably present thing. Even when the
act of the will is directed towards the future, and the furthest
future, its object is an actually present having and being: there
is no concern about what is passed or to come: the future state
a man seeks is to be a now to him; he does not care about the
forever: he asks that an actual present be actually present.
3. Yes, but if the wellbeing has lasted a long time, if that
present spectacle has been a longer time before the eyes?
If in the greater length of time the man has seen more deeply,
time has certainly done something for him, but if all the
process has brought him no further vision, then one glance
would give all he has had.
4. Still the one life has known pleasure longer than the other?
But pleasure cannot be fairly reckoned in with Happiness
unless indeed by pleasure is meant the unhindered Act [of the
true man], in which case this pleasure is simply our
"Happiness." And even pleasure, though it exist continuously,
has never anything but the present; its past is over and done
with.
5. We are asked to believe, then, it will be objected, that if one
man has been happy from first to last, another only at the last,
and a third, beginning with happiness, has lost it, their shares
are equal?
This is straying from the question: we were comparing the
happy among themselves: now we are asked to compare the
nothappy at the time when they are out of happiness with
those in actual possession of happiness. If these last are better
off, they are so as men in possession of happiness against men
without it and their advantage is always by something in the
present.
6. Well, but take the unhappy man: must not increase of time
bring an increase of his unhappiness? Do not all troubles long
lasting pains, sorrows, and everything of that type yield a
greater sum of misery in the longer time? And if thus in misery
the evil is augmented by time why should not time equally
augment happiness when all is well?
In the matter of sorrows and pains there is, no doubt, ground
for saying that time brings increase: for example, in a lingering
malady the evil hardens into a state, and as time goes on the
body is brought lower and lower. But if the constitution did not
deteriorate, if the mischief grew no worse, then, here too, there
would be no trouble but that of the present moment: we cannot
tell the past into the tale of unhappiness except in the sense that
it has gone to make up an actually existing state in the sense
that, the evil in the sufferer's condition having been extended
over a longer time, the mischief has gained ground. The
increase of illbeing then is due to the aggravation of the
malady not to the extension of time.
It may be pointed out also that this greater length of time is not
a thing existent at any given moment; and surely a "more" is
not to be made out by adding to something actually present
something that has passed away.
No: true happiness is not vague and fluid: it is an unchanging
state.
If there is in this matter any increase besides that of mere time,
it is in the sense that a greater happiness is the reward of a
higher virtue: this is not counting up to the credit of happiness
the years of its continuance; it is simply noting the highwater
mark once for all attained.
7. But if we are to consider only the present and may not call in
the past to make the total, why do we not reckon so in the case
of time itself, where, in fact, we do not hesitate to add the past
to the present and call the total greater? Why not suppose a
quantity of happiness equivalent to a quantity of time? This
would be no more than taking it lap by lap to correspond with
timelaps instead of choosing to consider it as an indivisible,
measurable only by the content of a given instant.
There is no absurdity in taking count of time which has ceased
to be: we are merely counting what is past and finished, as we
might count the dead: but to treat past happiness as actually
existent and as outweighing present happiness, that is an
absurdity. For Happiness must be an achieved and existent
state, whereas any time over and apart from the present is
nonexistent: all progress of time means the extinction of all the
time that has been.
Hence time is aptly described as a mimic of eternity that seeks
to break up in its fragmentary flight the permanence of its
exemplar. Thus whatever time seizes and seals to itself of what
stands permanent in eternity is annihilated saved only in so far
as in some degree it still belongs to eternity, but wholly
destroyed if it be unreservedly absorbed into time.
If Happiness demands the possession of the good of life, it
clearly has to do with the life of AuthenticExistence for that
life is the Best. Now the life of AuthenticExistence is
measurable not by time but by eternity; and eternity is not a
more or a less or a thing of any magnitude but is the
unchangeable, the indivisible, is timeless Being.
We must not muddle together Being and NonBeing, time and
eternity, not even everlasting time with the eternal; we cannot
make laps and stages of an absolute unity; all must be taken
together, wheresoever and howsoever we handle it; and it must
be taken at that, not even as an undivided block of time but as
the Life of Eternity, a stretch not made up of periods but
completely rounded, outside of all notion of time.
8. It may be urged that the actual presence of past experiences,
kept present by Memory, gives the advantage to the man of the
longer felicity.
But, Memory of what sort of experiences?
Memory either of formerly attained wisdom and virtue in
which case we have a better man and the argument from
memory is given up or memory of past pleasures, as if the
man that has arrived at felicity must roam far and wide in
search of gratifications and is not contented by the bliss
actually within him.
And what is there pleasant in the memory of pleasure? What is
it to recall yesterday's excellent dinner? Still more ridiculous,
one of ten years ago. So, too, of last year's morality.
9. But is there not something to be said for the memory of the
various forms of beauty?
That is the resource of a man whose life is without beauty in
the present, so that, for lack of it now, he grasps at the memory
of what has been.
10. But, it may be said, length of time produces an abundance
of good actions missed by the man whose attainment of the
happy state is recent if indeed we can think at all of a state of
happiness where good actions have been few.
Now to make multiplicity, whether in time or in action,
essential to Happiness is to put it together by combining non
existents, represented by the past, with some one thing that
actually is. This consideration it was that led us at the very
beginning to place Happiness in the actually existent and on
that basis to launch our enquiry as to whether the higher degree
was determined by the longer time. It might be thought that the
Happiness of longer date must surpass the shorter by virtue of
the greater number of acts it included.
But, to begin with, men quite outside of the active life may
attain the state of felicity, and not in a less but in a greater
degree than men of affairs.
Secondly, the good does not derive from the act itself but from
the inner disposition which prompts the noble conduct: the
wise and good man in his very action harvests the good not by
what he does but by what he is.
A wicked man no less than a Sage may save the country, and
the good of the act is for all alike, no matter whose was the
saving hand. The contentment of the Sage does not hang upon
such actions and events: it is his own inner habit that creates at
once his felicity and whatever pleasure may accompany it.
To put Happiness in actions is to put it in things that are
outside virtue and outside the Soul; for the Soul's expression is
not in action but in wisdom, in a contemplative operation
within itself; and this, this alone, is Happiness.
Ennead I
Sixth tractate: Beauty
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Beauty addresses itself chiefly to sight; but there is a beauty
for the hearing too, as in certain combinations of words and in
all kinds of music, for melodies and cadences are beautiful;
and minds that lift themselves above the realm of sense to a
higher order are aware of beauty in the conduct of life, in
actions, in character, in the pursuits of the intellect; and there is
the beauty of the virtues. What loftier beauty there may be, yet,
our argument will bring to light.
What, then, is it that gives comeliness to material forms and
draws the ear to the sweetness perceived in sounds, and what is
the secret of the beauty there is in all that derives from Soul?
Is there some One Principle from which all take their grace, or
is there a beauty peculiar to the embodied and another for the
bodiless? Finally, one or many, what would such a Principle
be?
Consider that some things, material shapes for instance, are
gracious not by anything inherent but by something
communicated, while others are lovely of themselves, as, for
example, Virtue.
The same bodies appear sometimes beautiful, sometimes not;
so that there is a good deal between being body and being
beautiful.
What, then, is this something that shows itself in certain
material forms? This is the natural beginning of our enquiry.
What is it that attracts the eyes of those to whom a beautiful
object is presented, and calls them, lures them, towards it, and
fills them with joy at the sight? If we possess ourselves of this,
we have at once a standpoint for the wider survey.
Almost everyone declares that the symmetry of parts towards
each other and towards a whole, with, besides, a certain charm
of colour, constitutes the beauty recognized by the eye, that in
visible things, as indeed in all else, universally, the beautiful
thing is essentially symmetrical, patterned.
But think what this means.
Only a compound can be beautiful, never anything devoid of
parts; and only a whole; the several parts will have beauty, not
in themselves, but only as working together to give a comely
total. Yet beauty in an aggregate demands beauty in details; it
cannot be constructed out of ugliness; its law must run
throughout.
All the loveliness of colour and even the light of the sun, being
devoid of parts and so not beautiful by symmetry, must be
ruled out of the realm of beauty. And how comes gold to be a
beautiful thing? And lightning by night, and the stars, why are
these so fair?
In sounds also the simple must be proscribed, though often in a
whole noble composition each several tone is delicious in
itself.
Again since the one face, constant in symmetry, appears
sometimes fair and sometimes not, can we doubt that beauty is
something more than symmetry, that symmetry itself owes its
beauty to a remoter principle?
Turn to what is attractive in methods of life or in the
expression of thought; are we to call in symmetry here? What
symmetry is to be found in noble conduct, or excellent laws, in
any form of mental pursuit?
What symmetry can there be in points of abstract thought?
The symmetry of being accordant with each other? But there
may be accordance or entire identity where there is nothing but
ugliness: the proposition that honesty is merely a generous
artlessness chimes in the most perfect harmony with the
proposition that morality means weakness of will; the
accordance is complete.
Then again, all the virtues are a beauty of the soul, a beauty
authentic beyond any of these others; but how does symmetry
enter here? The soul, it is true, is not a simple unity, but still its
virtue cannot have the symmetry of size or of number: what
standard of measurement could preside over the compromise
or the coalescence of the soul's faculties or purposes?
Finally, how by this theory would there be beauty in the
IntellectualPrinciple, essentially the solitary?
2. Let us, then, go back to the source, and indicate at once the
Principle that bestows beauty on material things.
Undoubtedly this Principle exists; it is something that is
perceived at the first glance, something which the soul names
as from an ancient knowledge and, recognising, welcomes it,
enters into unison with it.
But let the soul fall in with the Ugly and at once it shrinks
within itself, denies the thing, turns away from it, not
accordant, resenting it.
Our interpretation is that the soul by the very truth of its
nature, by its affiliation to the noblest Existents in the
hierarchy of Being when it sees anything of that kin, or any
trace of that kinship, thrills with an immediate delight, takes its
own to itself, and thus stirs anew to the sense of its nature and
of all its affinity.
But, is there any such likeness between the loveliness of this
world and the splendours in the Supreme? Such a likeness in
the particulars would make the two orders alike: but what is
there in common between beauty here and beauty There?
We hold that all the loveliness of this world comes by
communion in IdealForm.
All shapelessness whose kind admits of pattern and form, as
long as it remains outside of Reason and Idea, is ugly by that
very isolation from the DivineThought. And this is the
Absolute Ugly: an ugly thing is something that has not been
entirely mastered by pattern, that is by Reason, the Matter not
yielding at all points and in all respects to IdealForm.
But where the IdealForm has entered, it has grouped and
coordinated what from a diversity of parts was to become a
unity: it has rallied confusion into cooperation: it has made the
sum one harmonious coherence: for the Idea is a unity and
what it moulds must come to unity as far as multiplicity may.
And on what has thus been compacted to unity, Beauty
enthrones itself, giving itself to the parts as to the sum: when it
lights on some natural unity, a thing of like parts, then it gives
itself to that whole. Thus, for an illustration, there is the
beauty, conferred by craftsmanship, of all a house with all its
parts, and the beauty which some natural quality may give to a
single stone.
This, then, is how the material thing becomes beautiful by
communicating in the thought that flows from the Divine.
3. And the soul includes a faculty peculiarly addressed to
Beauty one incomparably sure in the appreciation of its own,
never in doubt whenever any lovely thing presents itself for
judgement.
Or perhaps the soul itself acts immediately, affirming the
Beautiful where it finds something accordant with the Ideal
Form within itself, using this Idea as a canon of accuracy in its
decision.
But what accordance is there between the material and that
which antedates all Matter?
On what principle does the architect, when he finds the house
standing before him correspondent with his inner ideal of a
house, pronounce it beautiful? Is it not that the house before
him, the stones apart, is the inner idea stamped upon the mass
of exterior matter, the indivisible exhibited in diversity?
So with the perceptive faculty: discerning in certain objects the
IdealForm which has bound and controlled shapeless matter,
opposed in nature to Idea, seeing further stamped upon the
common shapes some shape excellent above the common, it
gathers into unity what still remains fragmentary, catches it up
and carries it within, no longer a thing of parts, and presents it
to the IdealPrinciple as something concordant and congenial, a
natural friend: the joy here is like that of a good man who
discerns in a youth the early signs of a virtue consonant with
the achieved perfection within his own soul.
The beauty of colour is also the outcome of a unification: it
derives from shape, from the conquest of the darkness inherent
in Matter by the pouringin of light, the unembodied, which is
a RationalPrinciple and an IdealForm.
Hence it is that Fire itself is splendid beyond all material
bodies, holding the rank of IdealPrinciple to the other
elements, making ever upwards, the subtlest and sprightliest of
all bodies, as very near to the unembodied; itself alone
admitting no other, all the others penetrated by it: for they take
warmth but this is never cold; it has colour primally; they
receive the Form of colour from it: hence the splendour of its
light, the splendour that belongs to the Idea. And all that has
resisted and is but uncertainly held by its light remains outside
of beauty, as not having absorbed the plenitude of the Form of
colour.
And harmonies unheard in sound create the harmonies we
hear, and wake the soul to the consciousness of beauty,
showing it the one essence in another kind: for the measures of
our sensible music are not arbitrary but are determined by the
Principle whose labour is to dominate Matter and bring pattern
into being.
Thus far of the beauties of the realm of sense, images and
shadowpictures, fugitives that have entered into Matter to
adorn, and to ravish, where they are seen.
4. But there are earlier and loftier beauties than these. In the
sensebound life we are no longer granted to know them, but
the soul, taking no help from the organs, sees and proclaims
them. To the vision of these we must mount, leaving sense to
its own low place.
As it is not for those to speak of the graceful forms of the
material world who have never seen them or known their
grace men born blind, let us suppose in the same way those
must be silent upon the beauty of noble conduct and of
learning and all that order who have never cared for such
things, nor may those tell of the splendour of virtue who have
never known the face of Justice and of MoralWisdom
beautiful beyond the beauty of Evening and of dawn.
Such vision is for those only who see with the Soul's sight and
at the vision, they will rejoice, and awe will fall upon them and
a trouble deeper than all the rest could ever stir, for now they
are moving in the realm of Truth.
This is the spirit that Beauty must ever induce, wonderment
and a delicious trouble, longing and love and a trembling that
is all delight. For the unseen all this may be felt as for the seen;
and this the Souls feel for it, every soul in some degree, but
those the more deeply that are the more truly apt to this higher
love just as all take delight in the beauty of the body but all
are not stung as sharply, and those only that feel the keener
wound are known as Lovers.
5. These Lovers, then, lovers of the beauty outside of sense,
must be made to declare themselves.
What do you feel in presence of the grace you discern in
actions, in manners, in sound morality, in all the works and
fruits of virtue, in the beauty of souls? When you see that you
yourselves are beautiful within, what do you feel? What is this
Dionysiac exultation that thrills through your being, this
straining upwards of all your Soul, this longing to break away
from the body and live sunken within the veritable self?
These are no other than the emotions of Souls under the spell
of love.
But what is it that awakens all this passion? No shape, no
colour, no grandeur of mass: all is for a Soul, something whose
beauty rests upon no colour, for the moral wisdom the Soul
enshrines and all the other hueless splendour of the virtues. It
is that you find in yourself, or admire in another, loftiness of
spirit; righteousness of life; disciplined purity; courage of the
majestic face; gravity; modesty that goes fearless and tranquil
and passionless; and, shining down upon all, the light of god
like Intellection.
All these noble qualities are to be reverenced and loved, no
doubt, but what entitles them to be called beautiful?
They exist: they manifest themselves to us: anyone that sees
them must admit that they have reality of Being; and is not
RealBeing, really beautiful?
But we have not yet shown by what property in them they have
wrought the Soul to loveliness: what is this grace, this
splendour as of Light, resting upon all the virtues?
Let us take the contrary, the ugliness of the Soul, and set that
against its beauty: to understand, at once, what this ugliness is
and how it comes to appear in the Soul will certainly open our
way before us.
Let us then suppose an ugly Soul, dissolute, unrighteous:
teeming with all the lusts; torn by internal discord; beset by the
fears of its cowardice and the envies of its pettiness; thinking,
in the little thought it has, only of the perish able and the base;
perverse in all its the friend of unclean pleasures; living the life
of abandonment to bodily sensation and delighting in its
deformity.
What must we think but that all this shame is something that
has gathered about the Soul, some foreign bane outraging it,
soiling it, so that, encumbered with all manner of turpitude, it
has no longer a clean activity or a clean sensation, but
commands only a life smouldering dully under the crust of
evil; that, sunk in manifold death, it no longer sees what a Soul
should see, may no longer rest in its own being, dragged ever
as it is towards the outer, the lower, the dark?
An unclean thing, I dare to say; flickering hither and thither at
the call of objects of sense, deeply infected with the taint of
body, occupied always in Matter, and absorbing Matter into
itself; in its commerce with the Ignoble it has trafficked away
for an alien nature its own essential Idea.
If a man has been immersed in filth or daubed with mud his
native comeliness disappears and all that is seen is the foul
stuff besmearing him: his ugly condition is due to alien matter
that has encrusted him, and if he is to win back his grace it
must be his business to scour and purify himself and make
himself what he was.
So, we may justly say, a Soul becomes ugly by something
foisted upon it, by sinking itself into the alien, by a fall, a
descent into body, into Matter. The dishonour of the Soul is in
its ceasing to be clean and apart. Gold is degraded when it is
mixed with earthy particles; if these be worked out, the gold is
left and is beautiful, isolated from all that is foreign, gold with
gold alone. And so the Soul; let it be but cleared of the desires
that come by its too intimate converse with the body,
emancipated from all the passions, purged of all that
embodiment has thrust upon it, withdrawn, a solitary, to itself
again in that moment the ugliness that came only from the
alien is stripped away.
6. For, as the ancient teaching was, moraldiscipline and
courage and every virtue, not even excepting Wisdom itself, all
is purification.
Hence the Mysteries with good reason adumbrate the
immersion of the unpurified in filth, even in the NetherWorld,
since the unclean loves filth for its very filthiness, and swine
foul of body find their joy in foulness.
What else is Sophrosyne, rightly socalled, but to take no part
in the pleasures of the body, to break away from them as
unclean and unworthy of the clean? So too, Courage is but
being fearless of the death which is but the parting of the Soul
from the body, an event which no one can dread whose delight
is to be his unmingled self. And Magnanimity is but disregard
for the lure of things here. And Wisdom is but the Act of the
IntellectualPrinciple withdrawn from the lower places and
leading the Soul to the Above.
The Soul thus cleansed is all Idea and Reason, wholly free of
body, intellective, entirely of that divine order from which the
wellspring of Beauty rises and all the race of Beauty.
Hence the Soul heightened to the IntellectualPrinciple is
beautiful to all its power. For Intellection and all that proceeds
from Intellection are the Soul's beauty, a graciousness native to
it and not foreign, for only with these is it truly Soul. And it is
just to say that in the Soul's becoming a good and beautiful
thing is its becoming like to God, for from the Divine comes
all the Beauty and all the Good in beings.
We may even say that Beauty is the AuthenticExistents and
Ugliness is the Principle contrary to Existence: and the Ugly is
also the primal evil; therefore its contrary is at once good and
beautiful, or is Good and Beauty: and hence the one method
will discover to us the BeautyGood and the UglinessEvil.
And Beauty, this Beauty which is also The Good, must be
posed as The First: directly deriving from this First is the
IntellectualPrinciple which is preeminently the manifestation
of Beauty; through the IntellectualPrinciple Soul is beautiful.
The beauty in things of a lower orderactions and pursuits for
instance comes by operation of the shaping Soul which is also
the author of the beauty found in the world of sense. For the
Soul, a divine thing, a fragment as it were of the Primal
Beauty, makes beautiful to the fulness of their capacity all
things whatsoever that it grasps and moulds.
7. Therefore we must ascend again towards the Good, the
desired of every Soul. Anyone that has seen This, knows what
I intend when I say that it is beautiful. Even the desire of it is
to be desired as a Good. To attain it is for those that will take
the upward path, who will set all their forces towards it, who
will divest themselves of all that we have put on in our
descent: so, to those that approach the Holy Celebrations of
the Mysteries, there are appointed purifications and the laying
aside of the garments worn before, and the entry in nakedness
until, passing, on the upward way, all that is other than the
God, each in the solitude of himself shall behold that solitary
dwelling Existence, the Apart, the Unmingled, the Pure, that
from Which all things depend, for Which all look and live and
act and know, the Source of Life and of Intellection and of
Being.
And one that shall know this vision with what passion of love
shall he not be seized, with what pang of desire, what longing
to be molten into one with This, what wondering delight! If he
that has never seen this Being must hunger for It as for all his
welfare, he that has known must love and reverence It as the
very Beauty; he will be flooded with awe and gladness,
stricken by a salutary terror; he loves with a veritable love,
with sharp desire; all other loves than this he must despise, and
disdain all that once seemed fair.
This, indeed, is the mood even of those who, having witnessed
the manifestation of Gods or Supernals, can never again feel
the old delight in the comeliness of material forms: what then
are we to think of one that contemplates Absolute Beauty in Its
essential integrity, no accumulation of flesh and matter, no
dweller on earth or in the heavens so perfect Its purity far
above all such things in that they are nonessential, composite,
not primal but descending from This?
Beholding this Being the Choragos of all Existence, the Self
Intent that ever gives forth and never takes resting, rapt, in the
vision and possession of so lofty a loveliness, growing to Its
likeness, what Beauty can the soul yet lack? For This, the
Beauty supreme, the absolute, and the primal, fashions Its
lovers to Beauty and makes them also worthy of love.
And for This, the sternest and the uttermost combat is set
before the Souls; all our labour is for This, lest we be left
without part in this noblest vision, which to attain is to be
blessed in the blissful sight, which to fail of is to fail utterly.
For not he that has failed of the joy that is in colour or in
visible forms, not he that has failed of power or of honours or
of kingdom has failed, but only he that has failed of only This,
for Whose winning he should renounce kingdoms and
command over earth and ocean and sky, if only, spurning the
world of sense from beneath his feet, and straining to This, he
may see.
8. But what must we do? How lies the path? How come to
vision of the inaccessible Beauty, dwelling as if in consecrated
precincts, apart from the common ways where all may see,
even the profane?
He that has the strength, let him arise and withdraw into
himself, foregoing all that is known by the eyes, turning away
for ever from the material beauty that once made his joy. When
he perceives those shapes of grace that show in body, let him
not pursue: he must know them for copies, vestiges, shadows,
and hasten away towards That they tell of. For if anyone
follow what is like a beautiful shape playing over water is
there not a myth telling in symbol of such a dupe, how he sank
into the depths of the current and was swept away to
nothingness? So too, one that is held by material beauty and
will not break free shall be precipitated, not in body but in
Soul, down to the dark depths loathed of the IntellectiveBeing,
where, blind even in the LowerWorld, he shall have
commerce only with shadows, there as here.
"Let us flee then to the beloved Fatherland": this is the
soundest counsel. But what is this flight? How are we to gain
the open sea? For Odysseus is surely a parable to us when he
commands the flight from the sorceries of Circe or Calypso
not content to linger for all the pleasure offered to his eyes and
all the delight of sense filling his days.
The Fatherland to us is There whence we have come, and
There is The Father.
What then is our course, what the manner of our flight? This is
not a journey for the feet; the feet bring us only from land to
land; nor need you think of coach or ship to carry you away; all
this order of things you must set aside and refuse to see: you
must close the eyes and call instead upon another vision which
is to be waked within you, a vision, the birthright of all, which
few turn to use.
9. And this inner vision, what is its operation?
Newly awakened it is all too feeble to bear the ultimate
splendour. Therefore the Soul must be trained to the habit of
remarking, first, all noble pursuits, then the works of beauty
produced not by the labour of the arts but by the virtue of men
known for their goodness: lastly, you must search the souls of
those that have shaped these beautiful forms.
But how are you to see into a virtuous soul and know its
loveliness?
Withdraw into yourself and look. And if you do not find
yourself beautiful yet, act as does the creator of a statue that is
to be made beautiful: he cuts away here, he smoothes there, he
makes this line lighter, this other purer, until a lovely face has
grown upon his work. So do you also: cut away all that is
excessive, straighten all that is crooked, bring light to all that is
overcast, labour to make all one glow of beauty and never
cease chiselling your statue, until there shall shine out on you
from it the godlike splendour of virtue, until you shall see the
perfect goodness surely established in the stainless shrine.
When you know that you have become this perfect work, when
you are selfgathered in the purity of your being, nothing now
remaining that can shatter that inner unity, nothing from
without clinging to the authentic man, when you find yourself
wholly true to your essential nature, wholly that only veritable
Light which is not measured by space, not narrowed to any
circumscribed form nor again diffused as a thing void of term,
but ever unmeasurable as something greater than all measure
and more than all quantity when you perceive that you have
grown to this, you are now become very vision: now call up all
your confidence, strike forward yet a step you need a guide no
longer strain, and see.
This is the only eye that sees the mighty Beauty. If the eye that
adventures the vision be dimmed by vice, impure, or weak, and
unable in its cowardly blenching to see the uttermost
brightness, then it sees nothing even though another point to
what lies plain to sight before it. To any vision must be brought
an eye adapted to what is to be seen, and having some likeness
to it. Never did eye see the sun unless it had first become
sunlike, and never can the soul have vision of the First Beauty
unless itself be beautiful.
Therefore, first let each become godlike and each beautiful
who cares to see God and Beauty. So, mounting, the Soul will
come first to the IntellectualPrinciple and survey all the
beautiful Ideas in the Supreme and will avow that this is
Beauty, that the Ideas are Beauty. For by their efficacy comes
all Beauty else, but the offspring and essence of the
IntellectualBeing. What is beyond the IntellectualPrinciple
we affirm to be the nature of Good radiating Beauty before it.
So that, treating the IntellectualKosmos as one, the first is the
Beautiful: if we make distinction there, the Realm of Ideas
constitutes the Beauty of the Intellectual Sphere; and The
Good, which lies beyond, is the Fountain at once and Principle
of Beauty: the Primal Good and the Primal Beauty have the
one dwellingplace and, thus, always, Beauty's seat is There.
Ennead I
Seventh tractate: On the primal good and secondary forms of good
[otherwise, on happiness]
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. We can scarcely conceive that for any entity the Good can
be other than the natural Act expressing its lifeforce, or in the
case of an entity made up of parts the Act, appropriate, natural
and complete, expressive of that in it which is best.
For the Soul, then, the Good is its own natural Act.
But the Soul itself is natively a "Best"; if, further, its act be
directed towards the Best, the achievement is not merely the
"Soul's good" but "The Good" without qualification.
Now, given an Existent which as being itself the best of
existences and even transcending the existences directs its Act
towards no other, but is the object to which the Act of all else
is directed, it is clear that this must be at once the Good and the
means through which all else may participate in Good.
This Absolute Good other entities may possess in two ways
by becoming like to It and by directing the Act of their being
towards It.
Now, if all aspiration and Act whatsoever are directed towards
the Good, it follows that the EssentialGood neither need nor
can look outside itself or aspire to anything other than itself: it
can but remain unmoved, as being, in the constitution of
things, the wellspring and firstcause of all Act: whatsoever in
other entities is of the nature of Good cannot be due to any Act
of the EssentialGood upon them; it is for them on the contrary
to act towards their source and cause. The Good must, then, be
the Good not by any Act, not even by virtue of its Intellection,
but by its very rest within Itself.
Existing beyond and above Being, it must be beyond and
above the IntellectualPrinciple and all Intellection.
For, again, that only can be named the Good to which all is
bound and itself to none: for only thus is it veritably the object
of all aspiration. It must be unmoved, while all circles around
it, as a circumference around a centre from which all the radii
proceed. Another example would be the sun, central to the
light which streams from it and is yet linked to it, or at least is
always about it, irremoveably; try all you will to separate the
light from the sun, or the sun from its light, for ever the light is
in the sun.
2. But the Universe outside; how is it aligned towards the
Good?
The soulless by direction toward Soul: Soul towards the Good
itself, through the IntellectualPrinciple.
Everything has something of the Good, by virtue of possessing
a certain degree of unity and a certain degree of Existence and
by participation in IdealForm: to the extent of the Unity,
Being, and Form which are present, there is a sharing in an
image, for the Unity and Existence in which there is
participation are no more than images of the IdealForm.
With Soul it is different; the FirstSoul, that which follows
upon the IntellectualPrinciple, possesses a life nearer to the
Verity and through that Principle is of the nature of good; it
will actually possess the Good if it orientate itself towards the
IntellectualPrinciple, since this follows immediately upon the
Good.
In sum, then, life is the Good to the living, and the Intellectual
Principle to what is intellective; so that where there is life with
intellection there is a double contact with the Good.
3. But if life is a good, is there good for all that lives?
No: in the vile, life limps: it is like the eye to the dimsighted;
it fails of its task.
But if the mingled strand of life is to us, though entwined with
evil, still in the total a good, must not death be an evil?
Evil to What? There must be a subject for the evil: but if the
possible subject is no longer among beings, or, still among
beings, is devoid of life... why, a stone is not more immune.
If, on the contrary, after death life and soul continue, then
death will be no evil but a good; Soul, disembodied, is the freer
to ply its own Act.
If it be taken into the AllSoul what evil can reach it There?
And as the Gods are possessed of Good and untouched by evil
so, certainly is the Soul that has preserved its essential
character. And if it should lose its purity, the evil it experiences
is not in its death but in its life. Suppose it to be under
punishment in the lower world, even there the evil thing is its
life and not its death; the misfortune is still life, a life of a
definite character.
Life is a partnership of a Soul and body; death is the
dissolution; in either life or death, then, the Soul will feel itself
at home.
But, again, if life is good, how can death be anything but evil?
Remember that the good of life, where it has any good at all, is
not due to anything in the partnership but to the repelling of
evil by virtue; death, then, must be the greater good.
In a word, life in the body is of itself an evil but the Soul enters
its Good through Virtue, not living the life of the Couplement
but holding itself apart, even here.
Ennead I
Eighth tractate: On the nature and source of evil
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Those enquiring whence Evil enters into beings, or rather
into a certain order of beings, would be making the best
beginning if they established, first of all, what precisely Evil is,
what constitutes its Nature. At once we should know whence it
comes, where it has its native seat and where it is present
merely as an accident; and there would be no further question
as to whether it has AuthenticExistence.
But a difficulty arises. By what faculty in us could we possibly
know Evil?
All knowing comes by likeness. The IntellectualPrinciple and
the Soul, being IdealForms, would know IdealForms and
would have a natural tendency towards them; but who could
imagine Evil to be an IdealForm, seeing that it manifests itself
as the very absence of Good?
If the solution is that the one act of knowing covers contraries,
and that as Evil is the contrary to Good the one act would grasp
Good and Evil together, then to know Evil there must be first a
clear perception and understanding of Good, since the nobler
existences precede the baser and are IdealForms while the less
good hold no such standing, are nearer to NonBeing.
No doubt there is a question in what precise way Good is
contrary to Evil whether it is as FirstPrinciple to last of things
or as IdealForm to utter Lack: but this subject we postpone.
2. For the moment let us define the nature of the Good as far as
the immediate purpose demands.
The Good is that on which all else depends, towards which all
Existences aspire as to their source and their need, while Itself
is without need, sufficient to Itself, aspiring to no other, the
measure and Term of all, giving out from itself the Intellectual
Principle and Existence and Soul and Life and all Intellective
Act.
All until The Good is reached is beautiful; The Good is
beyondbeautiful, beyond the Highest, holding kingly state in
the IntellectualKosmos, that sphere constituted by a Principle
wholly unlike what is known as Intelligence in us. Our
intelligence is nourished on the propositions of logic, is skilled
in following discussions, works by reasonings, examines links
of demonstration, and comes to know the world of Being also
by the steps of logical process, having no prior grasp of Reality
but remaining empty, all Intelligence though it be, until it has
put itself to school.
The IntellectualPrinciple we are discussing is not of such a
kind: It possesses all: It is all: It is present to all by Its self
presence: It has all by other means than having, for what It
possesses is still Itself, nor does any particular of all within It
stand apart; for every such particular is the whole and in all
respects all, while yet not confused in the mass but still
distinct, apart to the extent that any participant in the
IntellectualPrinciple participates not in the entire as one thing
but in whatsoever lies within its own reach.
And the First Act is the Act of The Good stationary within
Itself, and the First Existence is the selfcontained Existence of
The Good; but there is also an Act upon It, that of the
IntellectualPrinciple which, as it were, lives about It.
And the Soul, outside, circles around the IntellectualPrinciple,
and by gazing upon it, seeing into the depths of It, through It
sees God.
Such is the untroubled, the blissful, life of divine beings, and
Evil has no place in it; if this were all, there would be no Evil
but Good only, the first, the second and the third Good. All,
thus far, is with the King of All, unfailing Cause of Good and
Beauty and controller of all; and what is Good in the second
degree depends upon the SecondPrinciple and tertiary Good
upon the Third.
3. If such be the Nature of Beings and of That which
transcends all the realm of Being, Evil cannot have place
among Beings or in the BeyondBeing; these are good.
There remains, only, if Evil exist at all, that it be situate in the
realm of NonBeing, that it be some mode, as it were, of the
NonBeing, that it have its seat in something in touch with
NonBeing or to a certain degree communicate in NonBeing.
By this NonBeing, of course, we are not to understand
something that simply does not exist, but only something of an
utterly different order from AuthenticBeing: there is no
question here of movement or position with regard to Being;
the NonBeing we are thinking of is, rather, an image of Being
or perhaps something still further removed than even an image.
Now this [the required faint image of Being] might be the
sensible universe with all the impressions it engenders, or it
might be something of even later derivation, accidental to the
realm of sense, or again, it might be the source of the sense
world or something of the same order entering into it to
complete it.
Some conception of it would be reached by thinking of
measurelessness as opposed to measure, of the unbounded
against bound, the unshaped against a principle of shape, the
everneedy against the selfsufficing: think of the ever
undefined, the never at rest, the allaccepting but never sated,
utter dearth; and make all this character not mere accident in it
but its equivalent for essentialbeing, so that, whatsoever
fragment of it be taken, that part is all lawless void, while
whatever participates in it and resembles it becomes evil,
though not of course to the point of being, as itself is, Evil
Absolute.
In what substantialform [hypostasis] then is all this to be
found not as accident but as the very substance itself?
For if Evil can enter into other things, it must have in a certain
sense a prior existence, even though it may not be an essence.
As there is Good, the Absolute, as well as Good, the quality,
so, together with the derived evil entering into something not
itself, there must be the Absolute Evil.
But how? Can there be Unmeasure apart from an unmeasured
object?
Does not Measure exist apart from unmeasured things?
Precisely as there is Measure apart from anything measured, so
there is Unmeasure apart from the unmeasured. If Unmeasure
could not exist independently, it must exist either in an
unmeasured object or in something measured; but the
unmeasured could not need Unmeasure and the measured
could not contain it.
There must, then, be some UndeterminationAbsolute, some
Absolute Formlessness; all the qualities cited as characterizing
the Nature of Evil must be summed under an Absolute Evil;
and every evil thing outside of this must either contain this
Absolute by saturation or have taken the character of evil and
become a cause of evil by consecration to this Absolute.
What will this be?
That Kind whose place is below all the patterns, forms, shapes,
measurements and limits, that which has no trace of good by
any title of its own, but [at best] takes order and grace from
some Principle outside itself, a mere image as regards
AbsoluteBeing but the Authentic Essence of Evil in so far as
Evil can have Authentic Being. In such a Kind, Reason
recognizes the Primal Evil, Evil Absolute.
4. The bodily Kind, in that it partakes of Matter is an evil
thing. What form is in bodies is an untrueform: they are
without life: by their own natural disorderly movement they
make away with each other; they are hindrances to the soul in
its proper Act; in their ceaseless flux they are always slipping
away from Being.
Soul, on the contrary, since not every Soul is evil, is not an evil
Kind.
What, then, is the evil Soul?
It is, we read, the Soul that has entered into the service of that
in which soulevil is implanted by nature, in whose service the
unreasoning phase of the Soul accepts evil unmeasure, excess
and shortcoming, which bring forth licentiousness, cowardice
and all other flaws of the Soul, all the states, foreign to the true
nature, which set up false judgements, so that the Soul comes
to name things good or evil not by their true value but by the
mere test of like and dislike.
But what is the root of this evil state? how can it be brought
under the causing principle indicated?
Firstly, such a Soul is not apart from Matter, is not purely
itself. That is to say, it is touched with Unmeasure, it is shut
out from the FormingIdea that orders and brings to measure,
and this because it is merged into a body made of Matter.
Then if the ReasoningFaculty too has taken hurt, the Soul's
seeing is baulked by the passions and by the darkening that
Matter brings to it, by its decline into Matter, by its very
attention no longer to Essence but to Process whose principle
or source is, again, Matter, the Kind so evil as to saturate with
its own pravity even that which is not in it but merely looks
towards it.
For, wholly without part in Good, the negation of Good,
unmingled Lack, this MatterKind makes over to its own
likeness whatsoever comes in touch with it.
The Soul wrought to perfection, addressed towards the
IntellectualPrinciple, is steadfastly pure: it has turned away
from Matter; all that is undetermined, that is outside of
measure, that is evil, it neither sees nor draws near; it endures
in its purity, only, and wholly, determined by the Intellectual
Principle.
The Soul that breaks away from this source of its reality to the
nonperfect and nonprimal is, as it were, a secondary, an
image, to the loyal Soul. By its fallingaway and to the extent
of the fall it is stripped of Determination, becomes wholly
indeterminate, sees darkness. Looking to what repels vision, as
we look when we are said to see darkness, it has taken Matter
into itself.
5. But, it will be objected, if this seeing and frequenting of the
darkness is due to the lack of good, the Soul's evil has its
source in that very lack; the darkness will be merely a
secondary cause and at once the Principle of Evil is removed
from Matter, is made anterior to Matter.
No: Evil is not in any and every lack; it is in absolute lack.
What falls in some degree short of the Good is not Evil;
considered in its own kind it might even be perfect, but where
there is utter dearth, there we have Essential Evil, void of all
share in Good; this is the case with Matter.
Matter has not even existence whereby to have some part in
Good: Being is attributed to it by an accident of words: the
truth would be that it has NonBeing.
Mere lack brings merely NotGoodness: Evil demands the
absolute lack though, of course, any very considerable
shortcoming makes the ultimate fall possible and is already, in
itself, an evil.
In fine we are not to think of Evil as some particular bad thing
injustice, for example, or any other ugly trait but as a principle
distinct from any of the particular forms in which, by the
addition of certain elements, it becomes manifest. Thus there
may be wickedness in the Soul; the forms this general
wickedness is to take will be determined by the environing
Matter, by the faculties of the Soul that operate and by the
nature of their operation, whether seeing, acting, or merely
admitting impression.
But supposing things external to the Soul are to be counted
Evil sickness, poverty and so forth how can they be referred
to the principle we have described?
Well, sickness is excess or defect in the body, which as a
material organism rebels against order and measure; ugliness is
but matter not mastered by IdealForm; poverty consists in our
need and lack of goods made necessary to us by our
association with Matter whose very nature is to be one long
want.
If all this be true, we cannot be, ourselves, the source of Evil,
we are not evil in ourselves; Evil was before we came to be;
the Evil which holds men down binds them against their will;
and for those that have the strength not found in all men, it is
true there is a deliverance from the evils that have found
lodgement in the soul.
In a word since Matter belongs only to the sensible world, vice
in men is not the Absolute Evil; not all men are vicious; some
overcome vice, some, the better sort, are never attacked by it;
and those who master it win by means of that in them which is
not material.
6. If this be so, how do we explain the teaching that evils can
never pass away but "exist of necessity," that "while evil has
no place in the divine order, it haunts mortal nature and this
place for ever"?
Does this mean that heaven is clear of evil, ever moving its
orderly way, spinning on the appointed path, no injustice There
or any flaw, no wrong done by any power to any other but all
true to the settled plan, while injustice and disorder prevail on
earth, designated as "the Mortal Kind and this Place"?
Not quite so: for the precept to "flee hence" does not refer to
earth and earthly life. The flight we read of consists not in
quitting earth but in living our earthlife "with justice and piety
in the light of philosophy"; it is vice we are to flee, so that
clearly to the writer Evil is simply vice with the sequels of
vice. And when the disputant in that dialogue says that, if men
could be convinced of the doctrine advanced, there would be
an end of Evil, he is answered, "That can never be: Evil is of
necessity, for there must be a contrary to good."
Still we may reasonably ask how can vice in man be a contrary
to The Good in the Supernal: for vice is the contrary to virtue
and virtue is not The Good but merely the good thing by which
Matter is brought to order.
How can there any contrary to the Absolute Good, when the
absolute has no quality?
Besides, is there any universal necessity that the existence of
one of two contraries should entail the existence of the other?
Admit that the existence of one is often accompanied by the
existence of the other sickness and health, for example yet
there is no universal compulsion.
Perhaps, however, our author did not mean that this was
universally true; he is speaking only of The Good.
But then, if The Good is an essence, and still more, if It is that
which transcends all existence, how can It have any contrary?
That there is nothing contrary to essence is certain in the case
of particular existences established by practical proof but not
in the quite different case of the Universal.
But of what nature would this contrary be, the contrary to
universal existence and in general to the Primals?
To essential existence would be opposed the nonexistence; to
the nature of Good, some principle and source of evil. Both
these will be sources, the one of what is good, the other of
what is evil; and all within the domain of the one principle is
opposed, as contrary, to the entire domain of the other, and this
in a contrariety more violent than any existing between
secondary things.
For these last are opposed as members of one species or of one
genus, and, within that common ground, they participate in
some common quality.
In the case of the Primals or Universals there is such complete
separation that what is the exact negation of one group
constitutes the very nature of the other; we have diametric
contrariety if by contrariety we mean the extreme of
remoteness.
Now to the content of the divine order, the fixed quality, the
measuredness and so forth there is opposed the content of the
evil principle, its unfixedness, measurelessness and so forth:
total is opposed to total. The existence of the one genus is a
falsity, primarily, essentially, a falseness: the other genus has
EssenceAuthentic: the opposition is of truth to lie; essence is
opposed to essence.
Thus we see that it is not universally true that an Essence can
have no contrary.
In the case of fire and water we would admit contrariety if it
were not for their common element, the Matter, about which
are gathered the warmth and dryness of one and the dampness
and cold of the other: if there were only present what
constitutes their distinct kinds, the common ground being
absent, there would be, here also, essence contrary to essence.
In sum, things utterly sundered, having nothing in common,
standing at the remotest poles, are opposites in nature: the
contrariety does not depend upon quality or upon the existence
of a distinct genus of beings, but upon the utmost difference,
clash in content, clash in effect.
7. But why does the existence of the Principle of Good
necessarily comport the existence of a Principle of Evil? Is it
because the All necessarily comports the existence of Matter?
Yes: for necessarily this All is made up of contraries: it could
not exist if Matter did not. The Nature of this Kosmos is,
therefore, a blend; it is blended from the IntellectualPrinciple
and Necessity: what comes into it from God is good; evil is
from the Ancient Kind which, we read, is the underlying
Matter not yet brought to order by the IdealForm.
But, since the expression "this place" must be taken to mean
the All, how explain the words "mortal nature"?
The answer is in the passage [in which the Father of Gods
addresses the Divinities of the lower sphere], "Since you
possess only a derivative being, you are not immortals... but by
my power you shall escape dissolution."
The escape, we read, is not a matter of place, but of acquiring
virtue, of disengaging the self from the body; this is the escape
from Matter. Plato explains somewhere how a man frees
himself and how he remains bound; and the phrase "to live
among the gods" means to live among the Intelligible
Existents, for these are the Immortals.
There is another consideration establishing the necessary
existence of Evil.
Given that The Good is not the only existent thing, it is
inevitable that, by the outgoing from it or, if the phrase be
preferred, the continuous downgoing or awaygoing from it,
there should be produced a Last, something after which
nothing more can be produced: this will be Evil.
As necessarily as there is Something after the First, so
necessarily there is a Last: this Last is Matter, the thing which
has no residue of good in it: here is the necessity of Evil.
8. But there will still be some to deny that it is through this
Matter that we ourselves become evil.
They will say that neither ignorance nor wicked desires arise in
Matter. Even if they admit that the unhappy condition within
us is due to the pravity inherent in body, they will urge that
still the blame lies not in the Matter itself but with the Form
present in it such Form as heat, cold, bitterness, saltness and
all other conditions perceptible to sense, or again such states as
being full or void not in the concrete signification but in the
presence or absence of just such forms. In a word, they will
argue, all particularity in desires and even in perverted
judgements upon things, can be referred to such causes, so that
Evil lies in this Form much more than in the mere Matter.
Yet, even with all this, they can be compelled to admit that
Matter is the Evil.
For, the quality [form] that has entered into Matter does not act
as an entity apart from the Matter, any more than axeshape
will cut apart from iron. Further, Forms lodged in Matter are
not the same as they would be if they remained within
themselves; they are ReasonPrinciples Materialized, they are
corrupted in the Matter, they have absorbed its nature: essential
fire does not burn, nor do any of the essential entities effect, of
themselves alone, the operation which, once they have entered
into Matter, is traced to their action.
Matter becomes mistress of what is manifested through it: it
corrupts and destroys the incomer, it substitutes its own
opposite character and kind, not in the sense of opposing, for
example, concrete cold to concrete warmth, but by setting its
own formlessness against the Form of heat, shapelessness to
shape, excess and defect to the duly ordered. Thus, in sum,
what enters into Matter ceases to belong to itself, comes to
belong to Matter, just as, in the nourishment of living beings,
what is taken in does not remain as it came, but is turned into,
say, dog's blood and all that goes to make a dog, becomes, in
fact, any of the humours of any recipient.
No, if body is the cause of Evil, then there is no escape; the
cause of Evil is Matter.
Still, it will be urged, the incoming Idea should have been able
to conquer the Matter.
The difficulty is that Matter's master cannot remain pure itself
except by avoidance of Matter.
Besides, the constitution determines both the desires and their
violence so that there are bodies in which the incoming idea
cannot hold sway: there is a vicious constitution which chills
and clogs the activity and inhibits choice; a contrary bodily
habit produces frivolity, lack of balance. The same fact is
indicated by our successive variations of mood: in times of
stress, we are not the same either in desires or in ideas as
when we are at peace, and we differ again with every several
object that brings us satisfaction.
To resume: the Measureless is evil primarily; whatever, either
by resemblance or participation, exists in the state of
unmeasure, is evil secondarily, by force of its dealing with the
Primal primarily, the darkness; secondarily, the darkened.
Now, Vice, being an ignorance and a lack of measure in the
Soul, is secondarily evil, not the Essential Evil, just as Virtue is
not the Primal Good but is Likeness to The Good, or
participation in it.
9. But what approach have we to the knowing of Good and
Evil?
And first of the Evil of soul: Virtue, we may know by the
IntellectualPrinciple and by means of the philosophic habit;
but Vice?
A a ruler marks off straight from crooked, so Vice is known by
its divergence from the line of Virtue.
But are we able to affirm Vice by any vision we can have of it,
or is there some other way of knowing it?
Utter viciousness, certainly not by any vision, for it is utterly
outside of bound and measure; this thing which is nowhere can
be seized only by abstraction; but any degree of evil falling
short of The Absolute is knowable by the extent of that falling
short.
We see partial wrong; from what is before us we divine that
which is lacking to the entire form [or Kind] thus indicated; we
see that the completed Kind would be the Indeterminate; by
this process we are able to identify and affirm Evil. In the same
way when we observe what we feel to be an ugly appearance
in Matter left there because the ReasonPrinciple has not
become so completely the master as to cover over the
unseemliness we recognise Ugliness by the fallingshort from
IdealForm.
But how can we identify what has never had any touch of
Form?
We utterly eliminate every kind of Form; and the object in
which there is none whatever we call Matter: if we are to see
Matter we must so completely abolish Form that we take
shapelessness into our very selves.
In fact it is another IntellectualPrinciple, not the true, this
which ventures a vision so uncongenial.
To see darkness the eye withdraws from the light; it is striving
to cease from seeing, therefore it abandons the light which
would make the darkness invisible; away from the light its
power is rather that of notseeing than of seeing and this not
seeing is its nearest approach to seeing Darkness. So the
IntellectualPrinciple, in order to see its contrary [Matter],
must leave its own light locked up within itself, and as it were
go forth from itself into an outside realm, it must ignore its
native brightness and submit itself to the very contradition of
its being.
10. But if Matter is devoid of quality how can it be evil?
It is described as being devoid of quality in the sense only that
it does not essentially possess any of the qualities which it
admits and which enter into it as into a substratum. No one
says that it has no nature; and if it has any nature at all, why
may not that nature be evil though not in the sense of quality?
Quality qualifies something not itself: it is therefore an
accidental; it resides in some other object. Matter does not
exist in some other object but is the substratum in which the
accidental resides. Matter, then, is said to be devoid of Quality
in that it does not in itself possess this thing which is by nature
an accidental. If, moreover, Quality itself be devoid of Quality,
how can Matter, which is the unqualified, be said to have it?
Thus, it is quite correct to say at once that Matter is without
Quality and that it is evil: it is Evil not in the sense of having
Quality but, precisely, in not having it; give it Quality and in
its very Evil it would almost be a Form, whereas in Truth it is a
Kind contrary to Form.
"But," it may be said, "the Kind opposed to all Form is
Privation or Negation, and this necessarily refers to something
other than itself, it is no SubstantialExistence: therefore if Evil
is Privation or Negation it must be lodged in some Negation of
Form: there will be no SelfExistent Evil."
This objection may be answered by applying the principle to
the case of Evil in the Soul; the Evil, the Vice, will be a
Negation and not anything having a separate existence; we
come to the doctrine which denies Matter or, admitting it,
denies its Evil; we need not seek elsewhere; we may at once
place Evil in the Soul, recognising it as the mere absence of
Good. But if the negation is the negation of something that
ought to become present, if it is a denial of the Good by the
Soul, then the Soul produces vice within itself by the operation
of its own Nature, and is devoid of good and, therefore, Soul
though it be, devoid of life: the Soul, if it has no life, is
soulless; the Soul is no Soul.
No; the Soul has life by its own nature and therefore does not,
of its own nature, contain this negation of The Good: it has
much good in it; it carries a happy trace of the Intellectual
Principle and is not essentially evil: neither is it primally evil
nor is that Primal Evil present in it even as an accidental, for
the Soul is not wholly apart from the Good.
Perhaps Vice and Evil as in the Soul should be described not as
an entire, but as a partial, negation of good.
But if this were so, part of the Soul must possess The Good,
part be without it; the Soul will have a mingled nature and the
Evil within it will not be unblended: we have not yet lighted on
the Primal, Unmingled Evil. The Soul would possess the Good
as its Essence, the Evil as an Accidental.
Perhaps Evil is merely an impediment to the Soul like
something affecting the eye and so hindering sight.
But such an evil in the eyes is no more than an occasion of
evil, the Absolute Evil is something quite different. If then
Vice is an impediment to the Soul, Vice is an occasion of evil
but not EvilAbsolute. Virtue is not the Absolute Good, but a
cooperator with it; and if Virtue is not the Absolute Good
neither is Vice the Absolute Evil. Virtue is not the Absolute
Beauty or the Absolute Good; neither, therefore, is Vice the
Essential Ugliness or the Essential Evil.
We teach that Virtue is not the Absolute Good and Beauty,
because we know that These are earlier than Virtue and
transcend it, and that it is good and beautiful by some
participation in them. Now as, going upward from virtue, we
come to the Beautiful and to the Good, so, going downward
from Vice, we reach Essential Evil: from Vice as the starting
point we come to vision of Evil, as far as such vision is
possible, and we become evil to the extent of our participation
in it. We are become dwellers in the Place of Unlikeness,
where, fallen from all our resemblance to the Divine, we lie in
gloom and mud: for if the Soul abandons itself unreservedly to
the extreme of viciousness, it is no longer a vicious Soul
merely, for mere vice is still human, still carries some trace of
good: it has taken to itself another nature, the Evil, and as far
as Soul can die it is dead. And the death of Soul is twofold:
while still sunk in body to lie down in Matter and drench itself
with it; when it has left the body, to lie in the other world until,
somehow, it stirs again and lifts its sight from the mud: and
this is our "going down to Hades and slumbering there."
11. It may be suggested that Vice is feebleness in the Soul.
We shall be reminded that the Vicious Soul is unstable, swept
along from every ill to every other, quickly stirred by appetites,
headlong to anger, as hasty to compromises, yielding at once to
obscure imaginations, as weak, in fact, as the weakest thing
made by man or nature, blown about by every breeze, burned
away by every heat.
Still the question must be faced what constitutes this weakness
in the Soul, whence it comes.
For weakness in the body is not like that in the Soul: the word
weakness, which covers the incapacity for work and the lack of
resistance in the body, is applied to the Soul merely by
analogy unless, indeed, in the one case as in the other, the
cause of the weakness is Matter.
But we must go more thoroughly into the source of this
weakness, as we call it, in the Soul, which is certainly not
made weak as the result of any density or rarity, or by any
thickening or thinning or anything like a disease, like a fever.
Now this weakness must be seated either in Souls utterly
disengaged or in Souls bound to Matter or in both.
It cannot exist in those apart from Matter, for all these are pure
and, as we read, winged and perfect and unimpeded in their
task: there remains only that the weakness be in the fallen
Souls, neither cleansed nor clean; and in them the weakness
will be, not in any privation but in some hostile presence, like
that of phlegm or bile in the organs of the body.
If we form an acute and accurate notion of the cause of the fall
we shall understand the weakness that comes by it.
Matter exists; Soul exists; and they occupy, so to speak, one
place. There is not one place for Matter and another for Soul
Matter, for instance, kept to earth, Soul in the air: the soul's
"separate place" is simply its not being in Matter; that is, its not
being united with it; that is that there be no compound unit
consisting of Soul and Matter; that is that Soul be not moulded
in Matter as in a matrix; this is the Soul's apartness.
But the faculties of the Soul are many, and it has its beginning,
its intermediate phases, its final fringe. Matter appears,
importunes, raises disorders, seeks to force its way within; but
all the ground is holy, nothing there without part in Soul.
Matter therefore submits, and takes light: but the source of its
illumination it cannot attain to, for the Soul cannot lift up this
foreign thing close by, since the evil of it makes it invisible.
On the contrary the illumination, the light streaming from the
Soul, is dulled, is weakened, as it mixes with Matter which
offers Birth to the Soul, providing the means by which it enters
into generation, impossible to it if no recipient were at hand.
This is the fall of the Soul, this entry into Matter: thence its
weakness: not all the faculties of its being retain free play, for
Matter hinders their manifestation; it encroaches upon the
Soul's territory and, as it were, crushes the Soul back; and it
turns to evil all that it has stolen, until the Soul finds strength
to advance again.
Thus the cause, at once, of the weakness of Soul and of all its
evil is Matter.
The evil of Matter precedes the weakness, the vice; it is Primal
Evil. Even though the Soul itself submits to Matter and
engenders to it; if it becomes evil within itself by its commerce
with Matter, the cause is still the presence of Matter: the Soul
would never have approached Matter but that the presence of
Matter is the occasion of its earthlife.
12. If the existence of Matter be denied, the necessity of this
Principle must be demonstrated from the treatises "On Matter"
where the question is copiously treated.
To deny Evil a place among realities is necessarily to do away
with the Good as well, and even to deny the existence of
anything desirable; it is to deny desire, avoidance and all
intellectual act; for desire has Good for its object, aversion
looks to Evil; all intellectual act, all Wisdom, deals with Good
and Bad, and is itself one of the things that are good.
There must then be The Good good unmixed and the
Mingled Good and Bad, and the Rather Bad than Good, this
last ending with the Utterly Bad we have been seeking, just as
that in which Evil constitutes the lesser part tends, by that
lessening, towards the Good.
What, then, must Evil be to the Soul?
What Soul could contain Evil unless by contact with the lower
Kind? There could be no desire, no sorrow, no rage, no fear:
fear touches the compounded dreading its dissolution; pain and
sorrow are the accompaniments of the dissolution; desires
spring from something troubling the grouped being or are a
provision against trouble threatened; all impression is the
stroke of something unreasonable outside the Soul, accepted
only because the Soul is not devoid of parts or phases; the Soul
takes up false notions through having gone outside of its own
truth by ceasing to be purely itself.
One desire or appetite there is which does not fall under this
condemnation; it is the aspiration towards the Intellectual
Principle: this demands only that the Soul dwell alone
enshrined within that place of its choice, never lapsing towards
the lower.
Evil is not alone: by virtue of the nature of Good, the power of
Good, it is not Evil only: it appears, necessarily, bound around
with bonds of Beauty, like some captive bound in fetters of
gold; and beneath these it is hidden so that, while it must exist,
it may not be seen by the gods, and that men need not always
have evil before their eyes, but that when it comes before them
they may still be not destitute of Images of the Good and
Beautiful for their Remembrance.
Ennead I
Ninth tractate: The reasoned dismissal
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
"You will not dismiss your Soul lest it go forth..." [taking
something with it].
For wheresoever it go, it will be in some definite condition,
and its going forth is to some new place. The Soul will wait for
the body to be completely severed from it; then it makes no
departure; it simply finds itself free.
But how does the body come to be separated?
The separation takes place when nothing of Soul remains
bound up with it: the harmony within the body, by virtue of
which the Soul was retained, is broken and it can no longer
hold its guest.
But when a man contrives the dissolution of the body, it is he
that has used violence and torn himself away, not the body that
has let the Soul slip from it. And in loosing the bond he has not
been without passion; there has been revolt or grief or anger,
movements which it is unlawful to indulge.
But if a man feel himself to be losing his reason?
That is not likely in the Sage, but if it should occur, it must be
classed with the inevitable, to be welcome at the bidding of the
fact though not for its own sake. To call upon drugs to the
release of the Soul seems a strange way of assisting its
purposes.
And if there be a period allotted to all by fate, to anticipate the
hour could not be a happy act, unless, as we have indicated,
under stern necessity.
If everyone is to hold in the other world a standing determined
by the state in which he quitted this, there must be no
withdrawal as long as there is any hope of progress.
Ennead II
First tractate: On the kosmos or on the heavenly system
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. We hold that the ordered universe, in its material mass, has
existed for ever and will for ever endure: but simply to refer
this perdurance to the Will of God, however true an
explanation, is utterly inadequate.
The elements of this sphere change; the living beings of earth
pass away; only the Idealform [the species] persists: possibly
a similar process obtains in the All.
The Will of God is able to cope with the ceaseless flux and
escape of body stuff by ceaselessly reintroducing the known
forms in new substances, thus ensuring perpetuity not to the
particular item but to the unity of idea: now, seeing that objects
of this realm possess no more than duration of form, why
should celestial objects, and the celestial system itself, be
distinguished by duration of the particular entity?
Let us suppose this persistence to be the result of the all
inclusiveness of the celestial and universal with its
consequence, the absence of any outlying matter into which
change could take place or which could break in and destroy.
This explanation would, no doubt, safeguard the integrity of
the Whole, of the All; but our sun and the individual being of
the other heavenly bodies would not on these terms be secured
in perpetuity: they are parts; no one of them is in itself the
whole, the all; it would still be probable that theirs is no more
than that duration in form which belongs to fire and such
entities.
This would apply even to the entire ordered universe itself. For
it is very possible that this too, though not in process of
destruction from outside, might have only formal duration; its
parts may be so wearing each other down as to keep it in a
continuous decay while, amid the ceaseless flux of the Kind
constituting its base, an outside power ceaselessly restores the
form: in this way the living All may lie under the same
conditions as man and horse and the rest man and horse
persisting but not the individual of the type.
With this, we would have no longer the distinction of one
order, the heavenly system, stable for ever, and another, the
earthly, in process of decay: all would be alike except in the
point of time; the celestial would merely be longer lasting. If,
then, we accepted this duration of type alone as a true account
of the All equally with its partial members, our difficulties
would be eased or indeed we should have no further problem
once the Will of God were shown to be capable, under these
conditions and by such communication, of sustaining the
Universe.
But if we are obliged to allow individual persistence to any
definite entity within the Kosmos then, firstly, we must show
that the Divine Will is adequate to make it so; secondly, we
have to face the question, What accounts for some things
having individual persistence and others only the persistence of
type? and, thirdly, we ask how the partial entities of the
celestial system hold a real duration which would thus appear
possible to all partial things.
2. Supposing we accept this view and hold that, while things
below the moon's orb have merely typepersistence, the
celestial realm and all its several members possess individual
eternity; it remains to show how this strict permanence of the
individual identity the actual item eternally unchangeable can
belong to what is certainly corporeal, seeing that bodily
substance is characteristically a thing of flux.
The theory of bodily flux is held by Plato no less than by the
other philosophers who have dealt with physical matters, and is
applied not only to ordinary bodies but to those, also, of the
heavenly sphere.
"How," he asks, "can these corporeal and visible entities
continue eternally unchanged in identity?" evidently agreeing,
in this matter also, with Herakleitos who maintained that even
the sun is perpetually coming anew into being. To Aristotle
there would be no problem; it is only accepting his theories of
a fifthsubstance.
But to those who reject Aristotle's Quintessence and hold the
material mass of the heavens to consist of the elements
underlying the living things of this sphere, how is individual
permanence possible? And the difficulty is still greater for the
parts, for the sun and the heavenly bodies.
Every living thing is a combination of soul and bodykind: the
celestial sphere, therefore, if it is to be everlasting as an
individual entity must be so in virtue either of both these
constituents or of one of them, by the combination of soul and
body or by soul only or by body only.
Of course anyone that holds body to be incorruptible secures
the desired permanence at once; no need, then, to call on a soul
or on any perdurable conjunction to account for the continued
maintenance of a living being.
But the case is different when one holds that body is, of itself,
perishable and that Soul is the principle of permanence: this
view obliges us to the proof that the character of body is not in
itself fatal either to the coherence or to the lasting stability
which are imperative: it must be shown that the two elements
of the union envisaged are not inevitably hostile, but that on
the contrary [in the heavens] even Matter must conduce to the
scheme of the standing result.
3. We have to ask, that is, how Matter, this entity of ceaseless
flux constituting the physical mass of the universe, could serve
towards the immortality of the Kosmos.
And our answer is "Because the flux is not outgoing": where
there is motion within but not outwards and the total remains
unchanged, there is neither growth nor decline, and thus the
Kosmos never ages.
We have a parallel in our earth, constant from eternity to
pattern and to mass; the air, too, never fails; and there is
always water: all the changes of these elements leave
unchanged the Principle of the total living thing, our world. In
our own constitution, again, there is a ceaseless shifting of
particles and that with outgoing loss and yet the individual
persists for a long time: where there is no question of an
outside region, the bodyprinciple cannot clash with soul as
against the identity and endless duration of the living thing.
Of these material elements for example fire, the keen and
swift, cooperates by its upward tendency as earth by its
lingering below; for we must not imagine that the fire, once it
finds itself at the point where its ascent must stop, settles down
as in its appropriate place, no longer seeking, like all the rest,
to expand in both directions. No: but higher is not possible;
lower is repugnant to its Kind; all that remains for it is to be
tractable and, answering to a need of its nature, to be drawn by
the Soul to the activity of life, and so to move to in a glorious
place, in the Soul. Anyone that dreads its falling may take
heart; the circuit of the Soul provides against any declination,
embracing, sustaining; and since fire has of itself no downward
tendency it accepts that guiding without resistance. The partial
elements constituting our persons do not suffice for their own
cohesion; once they are brought to human shape, they must
borrow elsewhere if the organism is to be maintained: but in
the upper spheres since there can be no loss by flux no such
replenishment is needed.
Suppose such loss, suppose fire extinguished there, then a new
fire must be kindled; so also if such loss by flux could occur in
some of the superiors from which the celestial fire depends,
that too must be replaced: but with such transmutations, while
there might be something continuously similar, there would be,
no longer, a Living All abidingly selfidentical.
4. But matters are involved here which demand specific
investigation and cannot be treated as incidental merely to our
present problem. We are faced with several questions: Is the
heavenly system exposed to any such flux as would occasion
the need of some restoration corresponding to nourishment; or
do its members, once set in their due places, suffer no loss of
substance, permanent by Kind? Does it consist of fire only, or
is it mainly of fire with the other elements, as well, taken up
and carried in the circuit by the dominant Principle?
Our doctrine of the immortality of the heavenly system rests on
the firmest foundation once we have cited the sovereign agent,
the soul, and considered, besides, the peculiar excellence of the
bodily substance constituting the stars, a material so pure, so
entirely the noblest, and chosen by the soul as, in all living
beings, the determining principle appropriates to itself the
choicest among their characteristic parts. No doubt Aristotle is
right in speaking of flame as a turmoil, fire insolently rioting;
but the celestial fire is equable, placid, docile to the purposes
of the stars.
Still, the great argument remains, the Soul, moving in its
marvellous might second only to the very loftiest Existents:
how could anything once placed within this Soul break away
from it into nonbeing? No one that understands this principle,
the support of all things, can fail to see that, sprung from God,
it is a stronger stay than any bonds.
And is it conceivable that the Soul, valid to sustain for a certain
space of time, could not so sustain for ever? This would be to
assume that it holds things together by violence; that there is a
"natural course" at variance with what actually exists in the
nature of the universe and in these exquisitely ordered beings;
and that there is some power able to storm the established
system and destroy its ordered coherence, some kingdom or
dominion that may shatter the order founded by the Soul.
Further: The Kosmos has had no beginning the impossibility
has been shown elsewhere and this is warrant for its continued
existence. Why should there be in the future a change that has
not yet occurred? The elements there are not worn away like
beams and rafters: they hold sound for ever, and so the All
holds sound. And even supposing these elements to be in
ceaseless transmutation, yet the All persists: the ground of all
the change must itself be changeless.
As to any alteration of purpose in the Soul we have already
shown the emptiness of that fancy: the administration of the
universe entails neither labour nor loss; and, even supposing
the possibility of annihilating all that is material, the Soul
would be no whit the better or the worse.
5. But how explain the permanence There, while the content of
this sphere its elements and its living things alike are
passing?
The reason is given by Plato: the celestial order is from God,
the living things of earth from the gods sprung from God; and
it is law that the offspring of God endures.
In other words, the celestial soul and our souls with it springs
directly next from the Creator, while the animal life of this
earth is produced by an image which goes forth from that
celestial soul and may be said to flow downwards from it.
A soul, then, of the minor degree reproducing, indeed, that of
the Divine sphere but lacking in power inasmuch as it must
exercise its creative act upon inferior stuff in an inferior
region the substances taken up into the fabric being of
themselves repugnant to duration; with such an origin the
living things of this realm cannot be of strength to last for ever;
the material constituents are not as firmly held and controlled
as if they were ruled immediately by a Principle of higher
potency.
The heavens, on the contrary, must have persistence as a
whole, and this entails the persistence of the parts, of the stars
they contain: we could not imagine that whole to endure with
the parts in flux though, of course, we must distinguish things
subcelestial from the heavens themselves whose region does
not in fact extend so low as to the moon.
Our own case is different: physically we are formed by that
[inferior] soul, given forth [not directly from God but] from the
divine beings in the heavens and from the heavens themselves;
it is by way of that inferior soul that we are associated with the
body [which therefore will not be persistent]; for the higher
soul which constitutes the We is the principle not of our
existence but of our excellence or, if also of our existence, then
only in the sense that, when the body is already constituted, it
enters, bringing with it some effluence from the Divine Reason
in support of the existence.
6. We may now consider the question whether fire is the sole
element existing in that celestial realm and whether there is
any outgoing thence with the consequent need of renewal.
Timaeus pronounced the material frame of the All to consist
primarily of earth and fire for visibility, earth for solidity and
deduced that the stars must be mainly composed of fire, but not
solely since there is no doubt they are solid.
And this is probably a true account. Plato accepts it as
indicated by all the appearances. And, in fact, to all our
perception as we see them and derive from them the
impression of illumination the stars appear to be mostly, if not
exclusively, fire: but on reasoning into the matter we judge that
since solidity cannot exist apart from earthmatter, they must
contain earth as well.
But what place could there be for the other elements? It is
impossible to imagine water amid so vast a conflagration; and
if air were present it would be continually changing into fire.
Admitting [with Timaeus; as a logical truth] that two self
contained entities, standing as extremes to each other need for
their coherence two intermediaries; we may still question
whether this holds good with regard to physical bodies.
Certainly water and earth can be mixed without any such
intermediate. It might seem valid to object that the
intermediates are already present in the earth and the water; but
a possible answer would be, "Yes, but not as agents whose
meeting is necessary to the coherence of those extremes."
None the less we will take it that the coherence of extremes is
produced by virtue of each possessing all the intermediates. It
is still not proven that fire is necessary to the visibility of earth
and earth to the solidarity of fire.
On this principle, nothing possesses an essentialnature of its
very own; every several thing is a blend, and its name is
merely an indication of the dominant constituent.
Thus we are told that earth cannot have concrete existence
without the help of some moist element the moisture in water
being the necessary adhesive but admitting that we so find it,
there is still a contradiction in pretending that any one element
has a being of its own and in the same breath denying its self
coherence, making its subsistence depend upon others, and so,
in reality, reducing the specific element to nothing. How can
we talk of the existence of the definite Kind, earth earth
essential if there exists no single particle of earth which
actually is earth without any need of water to secure its self
cohesion? What has such an adhesive to act upon if there is
absolutely no given magnitude of real earth to which it may
bind particle after particle in its business of producing the
continuous mass? If there is any such given magnitude, large
or small, of pure earth, then earth can exist in its own nature,
independently of water: if there is no such primary particle of
pure earth, then there is nothing whatever for the water to bind.
As for air air unchanged, retaining its distinctive quality how
could it conduce to the subsistence of a dense material like
earth?
Similarly with fire. No doubt Timaeus speaks of it as necessary
not to the existence but to the visibility of earth and the other
elements; and certainly light is essential to all visibility we
cannot say that we see darkness, which implies, precisely, that
nothing is seen, as silence means nothing being heard.
But all this does not assure us that the earth to be visible must
contain fire: light is sufficient: snow, for example, and other
extremely cold substances gleam without the presence of fire
though of course it might be said that fire was once there and
communicated colour before disappearing.
As to the composition of water, we must leave it an open
question whether there can be such a thing as water without a
certain proportion of earth.
But how can air, the yielding element, contain earth?
Fire, again: is earth perhaps necessary there since fire is by its
own nature devoid of continuity and not a thing of three
dimensions?
Supposing it does not possess the solidity of the three
dimensions, it has that of its thrust; now, cannot this belong to
it by the mere right and fact of its being one of the corporeal
entities in nature? Hardness is another matter, a property
confined to earthstuff. Remember that gold which is water
becomes dense by the accession not of earth but of denseness
or consolidation: in the same way fire, with Soul present within
it, may consolidate itself upon the power of the Soul; and there
are living beings of fire among the Celestials.
But, in sum, do we abandon the teaching that all the elements
enter into the composition of every living thing?
For this sphere, no; but to lift clay into the heavens is against
nature, contrary to the laws of her ordaining: it is difficult, too,
to think of that swiftest of circuits bearing along earthly bodies
in its course nor could such material conduce to the splendour
and white glint of the celestial fire.
7. We can scarcely do better, in fine, than follow Plato.
Thus:
In the universe as a whole there must necessarily be such a
degree of solidity, that is to say, of resistance, as will ensure
that the earth, set in the centre, be a sure footing and support to
the living beings moving over it, and inevitably communicate
something of its own density to them: the earth will possess
coherence by its own unaided quality, but visibility by the
presence of fire: it will contain water against the dryness which
would prevent the cohesion of its particles; it will hold air to
lighten its bulky matters; it will be in contact with the celestial
fire not as being a member of the sidereal system but by the
simple fact that the fire there and our earth both belong to the
ordered universe so that something of the earth is taken up by
the fire as something of the fire by the earth and something of
everything by everything else.
This borrowing, however, does not mean that the one thing
takingup from the other enters into a composition, becoming
an element in a total of both: it is simply a consequence of the
kosmic fellowship; the participant retains its own being and
takes over not the thing itself but some property of the thing,
not air but air's yielding softness, not fire but fire's
incandescence: mixing is another process, a complete
surrender with a resultant compound not, as in this case, earth
remaining earth, the solidity and density we know with
something of fire's qualities superadded.
We have authority for this where we read:
"At the second circuit from the earth, God kindled a light": he
is speaking of the sun which, elsewhere, he calls the all
glowing and, again, the allgleaming: thus he prevents us
imagining it to be anything else but fire, though of a peculiar
kind; in other words it is light, which he distinguishes from
flame as being only modestly warm: this light is a corporeal
substance but from it there shines forth that other "light"
which, though it carries the same name, we pronounce
incorporeal, given forth from the first as its flower and
radiance, the veritable "incandescent body." Plato's word
earthy is commonly taken in too depreciatory a sense: he is
thinking of earth as the principle of solidity; we are apt to
ignore his distinctions and think of the concrete clay.
Fire of this order, giving forth this purest light, belongs to the
upper realm, and there its seat is fixed by nature; but we must
not, on that account, suppose the flame of earth to be
associated with the beings of that higher sphere.
No: the flame of this world, once it has attained a certain
height, is extinguished by the currents of air opposed to it.
Moreover, as it carries an earthy element on its upward path, it
is weighed downwards and cannot reach those loftier regions.
It comes to a stand somewhere below the moon making the air
at that point subtler and its flame, if any flame can persist, is
subdued and softened, and no longer retains its first intensity,
but gives out only what radiance it reflects from the light
above.
And it is that loftier light falling variously upon the stars; to
each in a certain proportion that gives them their characteristic
differences, as well in magnitude as in colour; just such light
constitutes also the still higher heavenly bodies which,
however, like clear air, are invisible because of the subtle
texture and unresisting transparency of their material substance
and also by their very distance.
8. Now: given a light of this degree, remaining in the upper
sphere at its appointed station, pure light in purest place, what
mode of outflow from it can be conceived possible?
Such a Kind is not so constituted as to flow downwards of its
own accord; and there exists in those regions no power to force
it down. Again, body in contact with soul must always be very
different from body left to itself; the bodily substance of the
heavens has that contact and will show that difference.
Besides, the corporeal substance nearest to the heavens would
be air or fire: air has no destructive quality; fire would be
powerless there since it could not enter into effective contact:
in its very rush it would change before its attack could be felt;
and, apart from that, it is of the lesser order, no match for what
it would be opposing in those higher regions.
Again, fire acts by imparting heat: now it cannot be the source
of heat to what is already hot by nature; and anything it is to
destroy must as a first condition be heated by it, must be
brought to a pitch of heat fatal to the nature concerned.
In sum, then, no outside body is necessary to the heavens to
ensure their permanence or to produce their circular
movement, for it has never been shown that their natural path
would be the straight line; on the contrary the heavens, by their
nature, will either be motionless or move by circle; all other
movement indicates outside compulsion. We cannot think,
therefore, that the heavenly bodies stand in need of
replenishment; we must not argue from earthly frames to those
of the celestial system whose sustaining soul is not the same,
whose space is not the same, whose conditions are not those
which make restoration necessary in this realm of composite
bodies always in flux: we must recognise that the changes that
take place in bodies here represent a slippingaway from the
being [a phenomenon not incident to the celestial sphere] and
take place at the dictate of a Principle not dwelling in the
higher regions, one not powerful enough to ensure the
permanence of the existences in which it is exhibited, one
which in its coming into being and in its generative act is but
an imitation of an antecedent Kind, and, as we have shown,
cannot at every point possess the unchangeable identity of the
Intellectual Realm.
Ennead II
Second tractate: The heavenly circuit
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. But whence that circular movement?
In imitation of the IntellectualPrinciple.
And does this movement belong to the material part or to the
Soul? Can we account for it on the ground that the Soul has
itself at once for centre and for the goal to which it must be
ceaselessly moving; or that, being selfcentred it is not of
unlimited extension [and consequently must move ceaselessly
to be omnipresent], and that its revolution carries the material
mass with it?
If the Soul had been the moving power [by any such semi
physical action] it would be so no longer; it would have
accomplished the act of moving and have brought the universe
to rest; there would be an end of this endless revolution.
In fact the Soul must be in repose or at least cannot have
spatial movement; how then, having itself a movement of quite
another order, could it communicate spatial movement?
But perhaps the circular movement [of the Kosmos as soul and
body] is not spatial or is spatial not primarily but only
incidentally.
What, by this explanation, would be the essential movement of
the kosmic soul?
A movement towards itself, the movement of selfawareness,
of selfintellection, of the living of its life, the movement of its
reaching to all things so that nothing shall lie outside of it,
nothing anywhere but within its scope.
The dominant in a living thing is what compasses it entirely
and makes it a unity.
If the Soul has no motion of any kind, it would not vitally
compass the Kosmos nor would the Kosmos, a thing of body,
keep its content alive, for the life of body is movement.
Any spatial motion there is will be limited; it will be not that of
Soul untrammelled but that of a material frame ensouled, an
animated organism; the movement will be partly of body,
partly of Soul, the body tending to the straight line which its
nature imposes, the Soul restraining it; the resultant will be the
compromise movement of a thing at once carried forward and
at rest.
But supposing that the circular movement is to be attributed to
the body, how is it to be explained, since all body, including
fire [which constitutes the heavens] has straightforward
motion?
The answer is that forthright movement is maintained only
pending arrival at the place for which the moving thing is
destined: where a thing is ordained to be, there it seeks, of its
nature, to come for its rest; its motion is its tendence to its
appointed place.
Then, since the fire of the sidereal system has attained its goal,
why does it not stay at rest?
Evidently because the very nature of fire is to be mobile: if it
did not take the curve, its straight line would finally fling it
outside the universe: the circular course, then, is imperative.
But this would imply an act of providence?
Not quite: rather its own act under providence; attaining to that
realm, it must still take the circular course by its indwelling
nature; for it seeks the straight path onwards but finds no
further space and is driven back so that it recoils on the only
course left to it: there is nothing beyond; it has reached the
ultimate; it runs its course in the regions it occupies, itself its
own sphere, not destined to come to rest there, existing to
move.
Further, the centre of a circle [and therefore of the Kosmos] is
distinctively a point of rest: if the circumference outside were
not in motion, the universe would be no more than one vast
centre. And movement around the centre is all the more to be
expected in the case of a living thing whose nature binds it
within a body. Such motion alone can constitute its impulse
towards its centre: it cannot coincide with the centre, for then
there would be no circle; since this may not be, it whirls about
it; so only can it indulge its tendence.
If, on the other hand, the Kosmic circuit is due to the Soul, we
are not to think of a painful driving [wearing it down at last];
the soul does not use violence or in any way thwart nature, for
"Nature" is no other than the custom the AllSoul has
established. Omnipresent in its entirety, incapable of division,
the Soul of the universe communicates that quality of universal
presence to the heavens, too, in their degree, the degree, that is,
of pursuing universality and advancing towards it.
If the Soul halted anywhere, there the Kosmos, too, brought so
far, would halt: but the Soul encompasses all, and so the
Kosmos moves, seeking everything.
Yet never to attain?
On the contrary this very motion is its eternal attainment.
Or, better; the Soul is ceaselessly leading the Kosmos towards
itself: the continuous attraction communicates a continuous
movement not to some outside space but towards the Soul and
in the one sphere with it, not in the straight line [which would
ultimately bring the moving body outside and below the Soul],
but in the curving course in which the moving body at every
stage possesses the Soul that is attracting it and bestowing
itself upon it.
If the soul were stationary, that is if [instead of presiding over a
Kosmos] it dwelt wholly and solely in the realm in which
every member is at rest, motion would be unknown; but, since
the Soul is not fixed in some one station There, the Kosmos
must travel to every point in quest of it, and never outside it: in
a circle, therefore.
2. And what of lower things? [Why have they not this motion?]
[Their case is very different]: the single thing here is not an all
but a part and limited to a given segment of space; that other
realm is all, is space, so to speak, and is subject to no
hindrance or control, for in itself it is all that is.
And men?
As a self, each is a personal whole, no doubt; but as member of
the universe, each is a partial thing.
But if, wherever the circling body be, it possesses the Soul,
what need of the circling?
Because everywhere it finds something else besides the Soul
[which it desires to possess alone].
The circular movement would be explained, too, if the Soul's
power may be taken as resident at its centre.
Here, however, we must distinguish between a centre in
reference to the two different natures, body and Soul.
In body, centre is a point of place; in Soul it is a source, the
source of some other nature. The word, which without
qualification would mean the midpoint of a spheric mass, may
serve in the double reference; and, as in a material mass so in
the Soul, there must be a centre, that around which the object,
Soul or material mass, revolves.
The Soul exists in revolution around God to whom it clings in
love, holding itself to the utmost of its power near to Him as
the Being on which all depends; and since it cannot coincide
with God it circles about Him.
Why then do not all souls [i.e., the lower, also, as those of men
and animals] thus circle about the Godhead?
Every Soul does in its own rank and place.
And why not our very bodies, also?
Because the forward path is characteristic of body and because
all the body's impulses are to other ends and because what in
us is of this circling nature is hampered in its motion by the
clay it bears with it, while in the higher realm everything flows
on its course, lightly and easily, with nothing to check it, once
there is any principle of motion in it at all.
And it may very well be that even in us the Spirit which dwells
with the Soul does thus circle about the divinity. For since God
is omnipresent the Soul desiring perfect union must take the
circular course: God is not stationed.
Similarly Plato attributes to the stars not only the spheric
movement belonging to the universe as a whole but also to
each a revolution around their common centre; each not by
way of thought but by links of natural necessity has in its own
place taken hold of God and exults.
3. The truth may be resumed in this way:
There is a lowest power of the Soul, a nearest to earth, and this
is interwoven throughout the entire universe: another phase
possesses sensation, while yet another includes the Reason
which is concerned with the objects of sensation: this higher
phase holds itself to the spheres, poised towards the Above but
hovering over the lesser Soul and giving forth to it an effluence
which makes it more intensely vital.
The lower Soul is moved by the higher which, besides
encircling and supporting it, actually resides in whatsoever part
of it has thrust upwards and attained the spheres. The lower
then, ringed round by the higher and answering its call, turns
and tends towards it; and this upward tension communicates
motion to the material frame in which it is involved: for if a
single point in a spheric mass is in any degree moved, without
being drawn away from the rest, it moves the whole, and the
sphere is set in motion. Something of the same kind happens in
the case of our bodies: the unspatial movement of the Soul in
happiness, for instance, or at the idea of some pleasant event
sets up a spatial movement in the body: the Soul, attaining in
its own region some good which increases its sense of life,
moves towards what pleases it; and so, by force of the union
established in the order of nature, it moves the body, in the
body's region, that is in space.
As for that phase of the Soul in which sensation is vested, it,
too, takes its good from the Supreme above itself and moves,
rejoicingly, in quest of it: and since the object of its desire is
everywhere, it too ranges always through the entire scope of
the universe.
The IntellectualPrinciple has no such progress in any region;
its movement is a stationary act, for it turns upon itself.
And this is why the All, circling as it does, is at the same time
at rest.
Ennead II
Third tractate: Are the stars causes
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. That the circuit of the stars indicates definite events to come
but without being the cause direct of all that happens, has been
elsewhere affirmed, and proved by some modicum of
argument: but the subject demands more precise and detailed
investigation for to take the one view rather than the other is of
no small moment.
The belief is that the planets in their courses actually produce
not merely such conditions as poverty, wealth, health and
sickness but even ugliness and beauty and, gravest of all, vices
and virtue and the very acts that spring from these qualities, the
definite doings of each moment of virtue or vice. We are to
suppose the stars to be annoyed with men and upon matters in
which men, moulded to what they are by the stars themselves,
can surely do them no wrong.
They will be distributing what pass for their good gifts, not out
of kindness towards the recipients but as they themselves are
affected pleasantly or disagreeably at the various points of their
course; so that they must be supposed to change their plans as
they stand at their zeniths or are declining.
More absurdly still, some of them are supposed to be malicious
and others to be helpful, and yet the evil stars will bestow
favours and the benevolent act harshly: further, their action
alters as they see each other or not, so that, after all, they
possess no definite nature but vary according to their angles of
aspect; a star is kindly when it sees one of its fellows but
changes at sight of another: and there is even a distinction to be
made in the seeing as it occurs in this figure or in that. Lastly,
all acting together, the fused influence is different again from
that of each single star, just as the blending of distinct fluids
gives a mixture unlike any of them.
Since these opinions and others of the same order are
prevalent, it will be well to examine them carefully one by one,
beginning with the fundamental question:
2. Are these planets to be thought of as soulless or unsouled?
Suppose them, first, to be without Soul.
In that case they can purvey only heat or cold if cold from the
stars can be thought of that is to say, any communication from
them will affect only our bodily nature, since all they have to
communicate to us is merely corporeal. This implies that no
considerable change can be caused in the bodies affected since
emanations merely corporeal cannot differ greatly from star to
star, and must, moreover, blend upon earth into one collective
resultant: at most the differences would be such as depend
upon local position, upon nearness or farness with regard to the
centre of influence. This reasoning, of course, is as valid of any
cold emanation there may be as of the warm.
Now, what is there in such corporeal action to account for the
various classes and kinds of men, learned and illiterate,
scholars as against orators, musicians as against people of
other professions? Can a power merely physical make rich or
poor? Can it bring about such conditions as in no sense depend
upon the interaction of corporeal elements? Could it, for
example, bring a man such and such a brother, father, son, or
wife, give him a stroke of good fortune at a particular moment,
or make him generalissimo or king?
Next, suppose the stars to have life and mind and to be
effective by deliberate purpose.
In that case, what have they suffered from us that they should,
in free will, do us hurt, they who are established in a divine
place, themselves divine? There is nothing in their nature of
what makes men base, nor can our weal or woe bring them the
slightest good or ill.
3. Possibly, however, they act not by choice but under stress of
their several positions and collective figures?
But if position and figure determined their action each several
one would necessarily cause identical effects with every other
on entering any given place or pattern.
And that raises the question what effect for good or bad can be
produced upon any one of them by its transit in the parallel of
this or that section of the Zodiac circle for they are not in the
Zodiacal figure itself but considerably beneath it especially
since, whatever point they touch, they are always in the
heavens.
It is absurd to think that the particular grouping under which a
star passes can modify either its character or its earthward
influences. And can we imagine it altered by its own
progression as it rises, stands at centre, declines? Exultant
when at centre; dejected or enfeebled in declension; some
raging as they rise and growing benignant as they set, while
declension brings out the best in one among them; surely this
cannot be?
We must not forget that invariably every star, considered in
itself, is at centre with regard to some one given group and in
decline with regard to another and vice versa; and, very
certainly, it is not at once happy and sad, angry and kindly.
There is no reasonable escape in representing some of them as
glad in their setting, others in their rising: they would still be
grieving and glad at one and the same time.
Further, why should any distress of theirs work harm to us?
No: we cannot think of them as grieving at all or as being
cheerful upon occasions: they must be continuously serene,
happy in the good they enjoy and the Vision before them. Each
lives its own free life; each finds its Good in its own Act; and
this Act is not directed towards us.
Like the birds of augury, the living beings of the heavens,
having no lot or part with us, may serve incidentally to
foreshow the future, but they have absolutely no main function
in our regard.
4. It is again not in reason that a particular star should be
gladdened by seeing this or that other while, in a second
couple, such an aspect is distressing: what enmities can affect
such beings? what causes of enmity can there be among them?
And why should there be any difference as a given star sees
certain others from the corner of a triangle or in opposition or
at the angle of a square?
Why, again, should it see its fellow from some one given
position and yet, in the next Zodiacal figure, not see it, though
the two are actually nearer?
And, the cardinal question; by what conceivable process could
they affect what is attributed to them? How explain either the
action of any single star independently or, still more
perplexing, the effect of their combined intentions?
We cannot think of them entering into compromises, each
renouncing something of its efficiency and their final action in
our regard amounting to a concerted plan.
No one star would suppress the contribution of another, nor
would star yield to star and shape its conduct under suasion.
As for the fancy that while one is glad when it enters another's
region, the second is vexed when in its turn it occupies the
place of the first, surely this is like starting with the
supposition of two friends and then going on to talk of one
being attracted to the other who, however, abhors the first.
5. When they tell us that a certain cold star is more benevolent
to us in proportion as it is further away, they clearly make its
harmful influence depend upon the coldness of its nature; and
yet it ought to be beneficent to us when it is in the opposed
Zodiacal figures.
When the cold planet, we are told, is in opposition to the cold,
both become meanacing: but the natural effect would be a
compromise.
And we are asked to believe that one of them is happy by day
and grows kindly under the warmth, while another, of a fiery
nature, is most cheerful by night as if it were not always day
to them, light to them, and as if the first one could be darkened
by night at that great distance above the earth's shadow.
Then there is the notion that the moon, in conjunction with a
certain star, is softened at her full but is malignant in the same
conjunction when her light has waned; yet, if anything of this
order could be admitted, the very opposite would be the case.
For when she is full to us she must be dark on the further
hemisphere, that is to that star which stands above her; and
when dark to us she is full to that other star, upon which only
then, on the contrary, does she look with her light. To the
moon itself, in fact, it can make no difference in what aspect
she stands, for she is always lit on the upper or on the under
half: to the other star, the warmth from the moon, of which
they speak, might make a difference; but that warmth would
reach it precisely when the moon is without light to us; at its
darkest to us it is full to that other, and therefore beneficent.
The darkness of the moon to us is of moment to the earth, but
brings no trouble to the planet above. That planet, it is alleged,
can give no help on account of its remoteness and therefore
seems less well disposed; but the moon at its full suffices to the
lower realm so that the distance of the other is of no
importance. When the moon, though dark to us, is in aspect
with the Fiery Star she is held to be favourable: the reason
alleged is that the force of Mars is allsufficient since it
contains more fire than it needs.
The truth is that while the material emanations from the living
beings of the heavenly system are of various degrees of
warmth planet differing from planet in this respect no cold
comes from them: the nature of the space in which they have
their being is voucher for that.
The star known as Jupiter includes a due measure of fire [and
warmth], in this resembling the Morningstar and therefore
seeming to be in alliance with it. In aspect with what is known
as the Fiery Star, Jupiter is beneficent by virtue of the mixing
of influences: in aspect with Saturn unfriendly by dint of
distance. Mercury, it would seem, is indifferent whatever stars
it be in aspect with; for it adopts any and every character.
But all the stars are serviceable to the Universe, and therefore
can stand to each other only as the service of the Universe
demands, in a harmony like that observed in the members of
any one animal form. They exist essentially for the purpose of
the Universe, just as the gall exists for the purposes of the body
as a whole not less than for its own immediate function: it is to
be the inciter of the animal spirits but without allowing the
entire organism and its own especial region to run riot. Some
such balance of function was indispensable in the All bitter
with sweet. There must be differentiation eyes and so forth
but all the members will be in sympathy with the entire animal
frame to which they belong. Only so can there be a unity and a
total harmony.
And in such a total, analogy will make every part a Sign.
6. But that this same Mars, or Aphrodite, in certain aspects
should cause adulteries as if they could thus, through the
agency of human incontinence, satisfy their own mutual
desires is not such a notion the height of unreason? And who
could accept the fancy that their happiness comes from their
seeing each other in this or that relative position and not from
their own settled nature?
Again: countless myriads of living beings are born and
continue to be: to minister continuously to every separate one
of these; to make them famous, rich, poor, lascivious; to shape
the active tendencies of every single one what kind of life is
this for the stars, how could they possibly handle a task so
huge?
They are to watch, we must suppose, the rising of each several
constellation and upon that signal to act; such a one, they see,
has risen by so many degrees, representing so many of the
periods of its upward path; they reckon on their fingers at what
moment they must take the action which, executed
prematurely, would be out of order: and in the sum, there is no
One Being controlling the entire scheme; all is made over to
the stars singly, as if there were no Sovereign Unity, standing
as source of all the forms of Being in subordinate association
with it, and delegating to the separate members, in their
appropriate Kinds, the task of accomplishing its purposes and
bringing its latent potentiality into act.
This is a separatist theory, tenable only by minds ignorant of
the nature of a Universe which has a ruling principle and a first
cause operative downwards through every member.
7. But, if the stars announce the future as we hold of many
other things also what explanation of the cause have we to
offer? What explains the purposeful arrangement thus implied?
Obviously, unless the particular is included under some general
principle of order, there can be no signification.
We may think of the stars as letters perpetually being inscribed
on the heavens or inscribed once for all and yet moving as they
pursue the other tasks allotted to them: upon these main tasks
will follow the quality of signifying, just as the one principle
underlying any living unit enables us to reason from member
to member, so that for example we may judge of character and
even of perils and safeguards by indications in the eyes or in
some other part of the body. If these parts of us are members of
a whole, so are we: in different ways the one law applies.
All teems with symbol; the wise man is the man who in any
one thing can read another, a process familiar to all of us in not
a few examples of everyday experience.
But what is the comprehensive principle of coordination?
Establish this and we have a reasonable basis for the
divination, not only by stars but also by birds and other
animals, from which we derive guidance in our varied
concerns.
All things must be enchained; and the sympathy and
correspondence obtaining in any one closely knit organism
must exist, first, and most intensely, in the All. There must be
one principle constituting this unit of many forms of life and
enclosing the several members within the unity, while at the
same time, precisely as in each thing of detail the parts too
have each a definite function, so in the All each several
member must have its own task but more markedly so since in
this case the parts are not merely members but themselves Alls,
members of the loftier Kind.
Thus each entity takes its origin from one Principle and,
therefore, while executing its own function, works in with
every other member of that All from which its distinct task has
by no means cut it off: each performs its act, each receives
something from the others, every one at its own moment
bringing its touch of sweet or bitter. And there is nothing
undesigned, nothing of chance, in all the process: all is one
scheme of differentiation, starting from the Firsts and working
itself out in a continuous progression of Kinds.
8. Soul, then, in the same way, is intent upon a task of its own;
alike in its direct course and in its divagation it is the cause of
all by its possession of the Thought of the First Principle: thus
a Law of Justice goes with all that exists in the Universe
which, otherwise, would be dissolved, and is perdurable
because the entire fabric is guided as much by the orderliness
as by the power of the controlling force. And in this order the
stars, as being no minor members of the heavenly system, are
cooperators contributing at once to its stately beauty and to its
symbolic quality. Their symbolic power extends to the entire
realm of sense, their efficacy only to what they patently do.
For our part, nature keeps us upon the work of the Soul as long
as we are not wrecked in the multiplicity of the Universe: once
thus sunk and held we pay the penalty, which consists both in
the fall itself and in the lower rank thus entailed upon us:
riches and poverty are caused by the combinations of external
fact.
And what of virtue and vice?
That question has been amply discussed elsewhere: in a word,
virtue is ours by the ancient staple of the Soul; vice is due to
the commerce of a Soul with the outer world.
9. This brings us to the Spindledestiny, spun according to the
ancients by the Fates. To Plato the Spindle represents the co
operation of the moving and the stable elements of the kosmic
circuit: the Fates with Necessity, Mother of the Fates,
manipulate it and spin at the birth of every being, so that all
comes into existence through Necessity.
In the Timaeus, the creating God bestows the essential of the
Soul, but it is the divinities moving in the kosmos [the stars]
that infuse the powerful affections holding from Necessity our
impulse and our desire, our sense of pleasure and of pain and
that lower phase of the Soul in which such experiences
originate. By this statement our personality is bound up with
the stars, whence our Soul [as total of Principle and affections]
takes shape; and we are set under necessity at our very
entrance into the world: our temperament will be of the stars'
ordering, and so, therefore, the actions which derive from
temperament, and all the experiences of a nature shaped to
impressions.
What, after all this, remains to stand for the "We"?
The "We" is the actual resultant of a Being whose nature
includes, with certain sensibilities, the power of governing
them. Cut off as we are by the nature of the body, God has yet
given us, in the midst of all this evil, virtue the unconquerable,
meaningless in a state of tranquil safety but everything where
its absence would be peril of fall.
Our task, then, is to work for our liberation from this sphere,
severing ourselves from all that has gathered about us; the total
man is to be something better than a body ensouled the bodily
element dominant with a trace of Soul running through it and a
resultant lifecourse mainly of the body for in such a
combination all is, in fact, bodily. There is another life,
emancipated, whose quality is progression towards the higher
realm, towards the good and divine, towards that Principle
which no one possesses except by deliberate usage but so may
appropriate, becoming, each personally, the higher, the
beautiful, the Godlike, and living, remote, in and by It unless
one choose to go bereaved of that higher Soul and therefore, to
live fatebound, no longer profiting, merely, by the
significance of the sidereal system but becoming as it were a
part sunken in it and dragged along with the whole thus
adopted.
For every human Being is of twofold character; there is that
compromisetotal and there is the Authentic Man: and it is so
with the Kosmos as a whole; it is in the one phase a
conjunction of body with a certain form of the Soul bound up
in body; in the other phase it is the Universal Soul, that which
is not itself embodied but flashes down its rays into the
embodied Soul: and the same twofold quality belongs to the
Sun and the other members of the heavenly system.
To the remoter Soul, the pure, sun and stars communicate no
baseness. In their efficacy upon the [material] All, they act as
parts of it, as ensouled bodies within it; and they act only upon
what is partial; body is the agent while, at the same time, it
becomes the vehicle through which is transmitted something of
the star's will and of that authentic Soul in it which is
steadfastly in contemplation of the Highest.
But [with every allowance to the lower forces] all follows
either upon that Highest or rather upon the Beings about It we
may think of the Divine as a fire whose outgoing warmth
pervades the Universe or upon whatsoever is transmitted by
the one Soul [the divine first Soul] to the other, its Kin [the
Soul of any particular being]. All that is graceless is admixture.
For the Universe is in truth a thing of blend, and if we separate
from it that separable Soul, the residue is little. The All is a
God when the divine Soul is counted in with it; "the rest," we
read, "is a mighty spirit and its ways are subdivine."
10. If all this be true, we must at once admit signification,
though, neither singly nor collectively, can we ascribe to the
stars any efficacy except in what concerns the [material] All
and in what is of their own function.
We must admit that the Soul before entering into birth presents
itself bearing with it something of its own, for it could never
touch body except under stress of a powerful inner impulse; we
must admit some element of chance around it from its very
entry, since the moment and conditions are determined by the
kosmic circuit: and we must admit some effective power in
that circuit itself; it is cooperative, and completes of its own
act the task that belongs to the All of which everything in the
circuit takes the rank and function of a part.
11. And we must remember that what comes from the
supernals does not enter into the recipients as it left the source;
fire, for instance, will be duller; the loving instinct will
degenerate and issue in ugly forms of the passion; the vital
energy in a subject not so balanced as to display the mean of
manly courage, will come out as either ferocity or faint
heartedness; and ambition... in love...; and the instinct towards
good sets up the pursuit of semblant beauty; intellectual power
at its lowest produces the extreme of wickedness, for
wickedness is a miscalculating effort towards Intelligence.
Any such quality, modified at best from its supreme form,
deteriorates again within itself: things of any kind that
approach from above, altered by merely leaving their source
change further still by their blending with bodies, with Matter,
with each other.
12. All that thus proceeds from the supernal combines into a
unity and every existing entity takes something from this
blended infusion so that the result is the thing itself plus some
quality. The effluence does not make the horse but adds
something to it; for horse comes by horse, and man by man:
the sun plays its part no doubt in the shaping, but the man has
his origin in the HumanPrinciple. Outer things have their
effect, sometimes to hurt and sometimes to help; like a father,
they often contribute to good but sometimes also to harm; but
they do not wrench the human being from the foundations of
its nature; though sometimes Matter is the dominant, and the
human principle takes the second place so that there is a failure
to achieve perfection; the Ideal has been attenuated.
13. Of phenomena of this sphere some derive from the Kosmic
Circuit and some not: we must take them singly and mark them
off, assigning to each its origin.
The gist of the whole matter lies in the consideration that Soul
governs this All by the plan contained in the ReasonPrinciple
and plays in the All exactly the part of the particular principle
which in every livingthing forms the members of the organism
and adjusts them to the unity of which they are portions; the
entire force of the Soul is represented in the All, but, in the
parts, Soul is present only in proportion to the degree of
essential reality held by each of such partial objects.
Surrounding every separate entity there are other entities,
whose approach will sometimes be hostile and sometimes
helpful to the purpose of its nature; but to the All taken in its
length and breadth each and every separate existent is an
adjusted part, holding its own characteristic and yet
contributing by its own native tendency to the entire life
history of the Universe.
The soulless parts of the All are merely instruments; all their
action is effected, so to speak, under a compulsion from
outside themselves.
The ensouled fall into two classes. The one kind has a motion
of its own, but haphazard like that of horses between the shafts
but before their driver sets the course; they are set right by the
whip. In the LivingBeing possessed of Reason, the nature
principle includes the driver; where the driver is intelligent, it
takes in the main a straight path to a set end. But both classes
are members of the All and cooperate towards the general
purpose.
The greater and most valuable among them have an important
operation over a wide range: their contribution towards the life
of the whole consists in acting, not in being acted upon; others,
but feebly equipped for action, are almost wholly passive;
there is an intermediate order whose members contain within
themselves a principle of productivity and activity and make
themselves very effective in many spheres or ways and yet
serve also by their passivity.
Thus the All stands as one allcomplete Life, whose members,
to the measure in which each contains within itself the Highest,
effect all that is high and noble: and the entire scheme must be
subordinate to its Dirigeant as an army to its general,
"following upon Zeus" it has been said "as he proceeds
towards the Intelligible Kind."
Secondary in the All are those of its parts which possess a less
exalted nature just as in us the members rank lower than the
Soul; and so all through, there is a general analogy between the
things of the All and our own members none of quite equal
rank.
All living things, then all in the heavens and all elsewhere
fall under the general ReasonPrinciple of the All they have
been made parts with a view to the whole: not one of these
parts, however exalted, has power to effect any alteration of
these ReasonPrinciples or of things shaped by them and to
them; some modification one part may work upon another,
whether for better or for worse; but there is no power that can
wrest anything outside of its distinct nature.
The part effecting such a modification for the worse may act in
several ways.
It may set up some weakness restricted to the material frame.
Or it may carry the weakness through to the sympathetic Soul
which by the medium of the material frame, become a power
to debasement, has been delivered over, though never in its
essence, to the inferior order of being. Or, in the case of a
material frame illorganized, it may check all such action [of
the Soul] upon the material frame as demands a certain
collaboration in the part acted upon: thus a lyre may be so ill
strung as to be incapable of the melodic exactitude necessary
to musical effect.
14. What of poverty and riches, glory and power?
In the case of inherited fortune, the stars merely announce a
rich man, exactly as they announce the high social standing of
the child born to a distinguished house.
Wealth may be due to personal activity: in this case if the body
has contributed, part of the effect is due to whatever has
contributed towards the physical powers, first the parents and
then, if place has had its influence, sky and earth; if the body
has borne no part of the burden, then the success, and all the
splendid accompaniments added by the Recompensers, must
be attributed to virtue exclusively. If fortune has come by gift
from the good, then the source of the wealth is, again, virtue: if
by gift from the evil, but to a meritorious recipient, then the
credit must be given to the action of the best in them: if the
recipient is himself unprincipled, the wealth must be attributed
primarily to the very wickedness and to whatsoever is
responsible for the wickedness, while the givers bear an equal
share in the wrong.
When the success is due to labour, tillage for example, it must
be put down to the tiller, with all his environment as
contributory. In the case of treasuretrove, something from the
All has entered into action; and if this be so, it will be
foreshown since all things make a chain, so that we can speak
of things universally. Money is lost: if by robbery, the blame
lies with the robber and the native principle guiding him: if by
shipwreck, the cause is the chain of events. As for good fame,
it is either deserved and then is due to the services done and to
the merit of those appraising them, or it is undeserved, and
then must be attributed to the injustice of those making the
award. And the same principle holds is regards power for this
also may be rightly or unrightly placed it depends either upon
the merit of the dispensers of place or upon the man himself
who has effected his purpose by the organization of supporters
or in many other possible ways. Marriages, similarly, are
brought about either by choice or by chance interplay of
circumstance. And births are determined by marriages: the
child is moulded true to type when all goes well; otherwise it is
marred by some inner detriment, something due to the mother
personally or to an environment unfavourable to that particular
conception.
15. According to Plato, lots and choice play a part [in the
determination of human conditions] before the Spindle of
Necessity is turned; that once done, only the Spindledestiny is
valid; it fixes the chosen conditions irretrievably since the
elected guardianspirit becomes accessory to their
accomplishment.
But what is the significance of the Lots?
By the Lots we are to understand birth into the conditions
actually existent in the All at the particular moment of each
entry into body, birth into such and such a physical frame,
from such and such parents, in this or that place, and generally
all that in our phraseology is the External.
For Particulars and Universals alike it is established that to the
first of those known as the Fates, to Clotho the Spinner, must
be due the unity and as it were interweaving of all that exists:
Lachesis presides over the Lots: to Atropos must necessarily
belong the conduct of mundane events.
Of men, some enter into life as fragments of the All, bound to
that which is external to themselves: they are victims of a sort
of fascination, and are hardly, or not at all, themselves: but
others mastering all this straining, so to speak, by the head
towards the Higher, to what is outside even the Soul preserve
still the nobility and the ancient privilege of the Soul's essential
being.
For certainly we cannot think of the Soul as a thing whose
nature is just a sum of impressions from outside as if it, alone,
of all that exists, had no native character.
No: much more than all else, the Soul, possessing the Idea
which belongs to a Principle, must have as its native wealth
many powers serving to the activities of its Kind. It is an
EssentialExistent and with this Existence must go desire and
act and the tendency towards some good.
While body and soul stand one combined thing, there is a joint
nature, a definite entity having definite functions and
employments; but as soon as any Soul is detached, its
employments are kept apart, its very own: it ceases to take the
body's concerns to itself: it has vision now: body and soul
stand widely apart.
16. The question arises what phase of the Soul enters into the
union for the period of embodiment and what phase remains
distinct, what is separable and what necessarily interlinked,
and in general what the LivingBeing is.
On all this there has been a conflict of teaching: the matter
must be examined later on from quite other considerations than
occupy us here. For the present let us explain in what sense we
have described the All as the expressed idea of the Governing
Soul.
One theory might be that the Soul creates the particular entities
in succession man followed by horse and other animals
domestic or wild: fire and earth, though, first of all that it
watches these creations acting upon each other whether to help
or to harm, observes, and no more, the tangled web formed of
all these strands, and their unfailing sequences; and that it
makes no concern of the result beyond securing the
reproduction of the primal livingbeings, leaving them for the
rest to act upon each other according to their definite natures.
Another view makes the soul answerable for all that thus
comes about, since its first creations have set up the entire
enchainment.
No doubt the ReasonPrinciple [conveyed by the Soul] covers
all the action and experience of this realm: nothing happens,
even here, by any form of haphazard; all follows a necessary
order.
Is everything, then, to be attributed to the act of the Reason
Principles?
To their existence, no doubt, but not to their effective action;
they exist and they know; or better, the Soul, which contains
the engendering ReasonPrinciple, knows the results of all it
has brought to pass. For whensoever similar factors meet and
act in relation to each other, similar consequences must
inevitably ensue: the Soul adopting or foreplanning the given
conditions accomplishes the due outcome and links all into a
total.
All, then, is antecedent and resultant, each sequent becoming
in turn an antecedent once it has taken its place among things.
And perhaps this is a cause of progressive deterioration: men,
for instance, are not as they were of old; by dint of interval and
of the inevitable law, the ReasonPrinciples have ceded
something to the characteristics of the Matter.
But:
The Soul watches the ceaselessly changing universe and
follows all the fate of all its works: this is its life, and it knows
no respite from this care, but is ever labouring to bring about
perfection, planning to lead all to an unending state of
excellence like a farmer, first sowing and planting and then
constantly setting to rights where rainstorms and long frosts
and high gales have played havoc.
If such a conception of Soul be rejected as untenable, we are
obliged to think that the ReasonPrinciples themselves
foreknew or even contained the ruin and all the consequences
of flaw.
But then we would be imputing the creation of evil to the
ReasonPrinciples, though the arts and their guiding principle
do not include blundering, do not cover the inartistic, the
destruction of the work of art.
And here it will be objected that in All there is nothing
contrary to nature, nothing evil.
Still, by the side of the better there exists also what is less
good.
Well, perhaps even the less good has its contributory value in
the All. Perhaps there is no need that everything be good.
Contraries may cooperate; and without opposites there could
be no ordered Universe: all living beings of the partial realm
include contraries. The better elements are compelled into
existence and moulded to their function by the Reason
Principle directly; the less good are potentially present in the
ReasonPrinciples, actually present in the phenomena
themselves; the Soul's power had reached its limit, and failed
to bring the ReasonPrinciples into complete actuality since,
amid the clash of these antecedent Principles, Matter had
already from its own stock produced the less good.
Yet, with all this, Matter is continuously overruled towards the
better; so that out of the total of things modified by Soul on
the one hand and by Matter on the other hand, and on neither
hand as sound as in the ReasonPrinciples there is, in the end,
a Unity.
17. But these ReasonPrinciples, contained in the Soul, are
they Thoughts?
And if so, by what process does the Soul create in accordance
with these Thoughts?
It is upon Matter that this act of the Reason is exercised; and
what acts physically is not an intellectual operation or a vision,
but a power modifying matter, not conscious of it but merely
acting upon it: the ReasonPrinciple, in other words, acts much
like a force producing a figure or pattern upon water that of a
circle, suppose, where the formation of the ring is conditioned
by something distinct from that force itself.
If this is so, the prior puissance of the Soul [that which conveys
the ReasonPrinciples] must act by manipulating the other
Soul, that which is united with Matter and has the generative
function.
But is this handling the result of calculation?
Calculation implies reference. Reference, then, to something
outside or to something contained within itself? If to its own
content, there is no need of reasoning, which could not itself
perform the act of creation; creation is the operation of that
phase of the Soul which contains IdealPrinciples; for that is its
stronger puissance, its creative part.
It creates, then, on the model of the Ideas; for, what it has
received from the IntellectualPrinciple it must pass on in turn.
In sum, then, the IntellectualPrinciple gives from itself to the
Soul of the All which follows immediately upon it: this again
gives forth from itself to its next, illuminated and imprinted by
it; and that secondary Soul at once begins to create, as under
order, unhindered in some of its creations, striving in others
against the repugnance of Matter.
It has a creative power, derived; it is stored with Reason
Principles not the very originals: therefore it creates, but not in
full accordance with the Principles from which it has been
endowed: something enters from itself; and, plainly, this is
inferior. The issue then is something living, yes; but imperfect,
hindering its own life, something very poor and reluctant and
crude, formed in a Matter that is the fallen sediment of the
Higher Order, bitter and embittering. This is the Soul's
contribution to the All.
18. Are the evils in the Universe necessary because it is of later
origin than the Higher Sphere?
Perhaps rather because without evil the All would be
incomplete. For most or even all forms of evil serve the
Universe much as the poisonous snake has its use though in
most cases their function is unknown. Vice itself has many
useful sides: it brings about much that is beautiful, in artistic
creations for example, and it stirs us to thoughtful living, not
allowing us to drowse in security.
If all this is so, then [the secret of creation is that] the Soul of
the All abides in contemplation of the Highest and Best,
ceaselessly striving towards the Intelligible Kind and towards
God: but, thus absorbing and filled full, it overflows so to
speak and the image it gives forth, its last utterance towards
the lower, will be the creative puissance.
This ultimate phase, then, is the Maker, secondary to that
aspect of the Soul which is primarily saturated from the Divine
Intelligence. But the Creator above all is the Intellectual
Principle, as giver, to the Soul that follows it, of those gifts
whose traces exist in the Third Kind.
Rightly, therefore, is this Kosmos described as an image
continuously being imaged, the First and the Second Principles
immobile, the Third, too, immobile essentially, but,
accidentally and in Matter, having motion.
For as long as divine Mind and Soul exist, the divine Thought
Forms will pour forth into that phase of the Soul: as long as
there is a sun, all that streams from it will be some form of
Light.
Ennead II
Fourth tractate: Matter in its two kinds
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. By common agreement of all that have arrived at the
conception of such a Kind, what is known as Matter is
understood to be a certain base, a recipient of FormIdeas.
Thus far all go the same way. But departure begins with the
attempt to establish what this basic Kind is in itself, and how it
is a recipient and of what.
To a certain school, bodyforms exclusively are the Real
Beings; existence is limited to bodies; there is one only Matter,
the stuff underlying the primalconstituents of the Universe:
existence is nothing but this Matter: everything is some
modification of this; the elements of the Universe are simply
this Matter in a certain condition.
The school has even the audacity to foist Matter upon the
divine beings so that, finally, God himself becomes a mode of
Matter and this though they make it corporeal, describing it as
a body void of quality, but a magnitude.
Another school makes it incorporeal: among these, not all hold
the theory of one only Matter; some of them while they
maintain the one Matter, in which the first school believes, the
foundation of bodily forms, admit another, a prior, existing in
the divinesphere, the base of the Ideas there and of the
unembodied Beings.
2. We are obliged, therefore, at the start, both to establish the
existence of this other Kind and to examine its nature and the
mode of its Being.
Now if Matter must characteristically be undetermined, void of
shape, while in that sphere of the Highest there can be nothing
that lacks determination, nothing shapeless, there can be no
Matter there. Further, if all that order is simplex, there can be
no need of Matter, whose function is to join with some other
element to form a compound: it will be found of necessity in
things of derived existence and shifting nature the signs which
lead us to the notion of Matter but it is unnecessary to the
primal.
And again, where could it have come from? whence did it take
its being? If it is derived, it has a source: if it is eternal, then
the PrimalPrinciples are more numerous than we thought, the
Firsts are a meetingground. Lastly, if that Matter has been
entered by Idea, the union constitutes a body; and, so, there is
Body in the Supreme.
3. Now it may be observed, first of all, that we cannot hold
utterly cheap either the indeterminate, or even a Kind whose
very idea implies absence of form, provided only that it offer
itself to its Priors and [through them] to the Highest Beings.
We have the parallel of the Soul itself in its relation to the
IntellectualPrinciple and the Divine Reason, taking shape by
these and led so to a nobler principle of form.
Further, a compound in the Intellectual order is not to be
confounded with a compound in the realm of Matter; the
Divine Reasons are compounds and their Act is to produce a
compound, namely that [lower] Nature which works towards
Idea. And there is not only a difference of function; there is a
still more notable difference of source. Then, too, the Matter of
the realm of process ceaselessly changes its form: in the
eternal, Matter is immutably one and the same, so that the two
are diametrically opposites. The Matter of this realm is all
things in turn, a new entity in every separate case, so that
nothing is permanent and one thing ceaselessly pushes another
out of being: Matter has no identity here. In the Intellectual it is
all things at once: and therefore has nothing to change into: it
already and ever contains all. This means that not even in its
own Sphere is the Matter there at any moment shapeless: no
doubt that is true of the Matter here as well; but shape is held
by a very different right in the two orders of Matter.
As to whether Matter is eternal or a thing of process, this will
be clear when we are sure of its precise nature.
4. The present existence of the IdealForms has been
demonstrated elsewhere: we take up our argument from that
point.
If, then, there is more than one of such forming Ideas, there
must of necessity be some character common to all and equally
some peculiar character in each keeping them distinct.
This peculiar characteristic, this distinguishing difference, is
the individual shape. But if shape, then there is the shaped, that
in which the difference is lodged.
There is, therefore, a Matter accepting the shape, a permanent
substratum.
Further, admitting that there is an Intelligible Realm beyond, of
which this world is an image, then, since this worldcompound
is based on Matter, there must be Matter there also.
And how can you predicate an ordered system without thinking
of form, and how think of form apart from the notion of
something in which the form is lodged?
No doubt that Realm is, in the strict fact, utterly without parts,
but in some sense there is part there too. And in so far as these
parts are really separate from each other, any such division and
difference can be no other than a condition of Matter, of a
something divided and differentiated: in so far as that realm,
though without parts, yet consists of a variety of entities, these
diverse entities, residing in a unity of which they are
variations, reside in a Matter; for this unity, since it is also a
diversity, must be conceived of as varied and multiform; it
must have been shapeless before it took the form in which
variation occurs. For if we abstract from the Intellectual
Principle the variety and the particular shapes, the Reason
Principles and the Thoughts, what precedes these was
something shapeless and undetermined, nothing of what is
actually present there.
5. It may be objected that the IntellectualPrinciple possesses
its content in an eternal conjunction so that the two make a
perfect unity, and that thus there is no Matter there.
But that argument would equally cancel the Matter present in
the bodily forms of this realm: body without shape has never
existed, always body achieved and yet always the two
constituents. We discover these two Matter and Idea by sheer
force of our reasoning which distinguishes continually in
pursuit of the simplex, the irreducible, working on, until it can
go no further, towards the ultimate in the subject of enquiry.
And the ultimate of every partialthing is its Matter, which,
therefore, must be all darkness since light is a Reason
Principle. The Mind, too, as also a ReasonPrinciple, sees only
in each particular object the ReasonPrinciple lodging there;
anything lying below that it declares to lie below the light, to
be therefore a thing of darkness, just as the eye, a thing of
light, seeks light and colours which are modes of light, and
dismisses all that is below the colours and hidden by them, as
belonging to the order of the darkness, which is the order of
Matter.
The dark element in the Intelligible, however, differs from that
in the senseworld: so therefore does the Matter as much as
the formingIdea presiding in each of the two realms. The
Divine Matter, though it is the object of determination has, of
its own nature, a life defined and intellectual; the Matter of this
sphere while it does accept determination is not living or
intellective, but a dead thing decorated: any shape it takes is an
image, exactly as the Base is an image. There on the contrary
the shape is a realexistent as is the Base. Those that ascribe
Real Being to Matter must be admitted to be right as long as
they keep to the Matter of the Intelligible Realm: for the Base
there is Being, or even, taken as an entirety with the higher that
accompanies it, is illuminated Being.
But does this Base, of the Intellectual Realm, possess eternal
existence?
The solution of that question is the same as for the Ideas.
Both are engendered, in the sense that they have had a
beginning, but unengendered in that this beginning is not in
Time: they have a derived being but by an eternal derivation:
they are not, like the Kosmos, always in process but, in the
character of the Supernal, have their Being permanently. For
that differentiation within the Intelligible which produces
Matter has always existed and it is this cleavage which
produces the Matter there: it is the first movement; and
movement and differentiation are convertible terms since the
two things arose as one: this motion, this cleavage, away from
the first is indetermination [= Matter], needing The First to its
determination which it achieves by its Return, remaining, until
then, an Alienism, still lacking good; unlit by the Supernal. It
is from the Divine that all light comes, and, until this be
absorbed, no light in any recipient of light can be authentic;
any light from elsewhere is of another order than the true.
6. We are led thus to the question of receptivity in things of
body.
An additional proof that bodies must have some substratum
different from themselves is found in the changing of the
basicconstituents into one another. Notice that the destruction
of the elements passing over is not complete if it were we
would have a Principle of Being wrecked in Nonbeing nor
does an engendered thing pass from utter nonbeing into
Being: what happens is that a new form takes the place of an
old. There is, then, a stable element, that which puts off one
form to receive the form of the incoming entity.
The same fact is clearly established by decay, a process
implying a compound object; where there is decay there is a
distinction between Matter and Form.
And the reasoning which shows the destructible to be a
compound is borne out by practical examples of reduction: a
drinking vessel is reduced to its gold, the gold to liquid;
analogy forces us to believe that the liquid too is reducible.
The basicconstituents of things must be either their FormIdea
or that Primal Matter [of the Intelligible] or a compound of the
Form and Matter.
FormIdea, pure and simple, they cannot be: for without Matter
how could things stand in their mass and magnitude?
Neither can they be that Primal Matter, for they are not
indestructible.
They must, therefore, consist of Matter and FormIdea Form
for quality and shape, Matter for the base, indeterminate as
being other than Idea.
7. Empedokles in identifying his "elements" with Matter is
refuted by their decay.
Anaxagoras, in identifying his "primalcombination" with
Matter to which he allots no mere aptness to any and every
nature or quality but the effective possession of all withdraws
in this way the very IntellectualPrinciple he had introduced;
for this Mind is not to him the bestower of shape, of Forming
Idea; and it is coaeval with Matter, not its prior. But this
simultaneous existence is impossible: for if the combination
derives Being by participation, Being is the prior; if both are
Authentic Existents, then an additional Principle, a third, is
imperative [a ground of unification]. And if this Creator, Mind,
must preexist, why need Matter contain the FormingIdeas
parcelwise for the Mind, with unending labour, to assort and
allot? Surely the undetermined could be brought to quality and
pattern in the one comprehensive act?
As for the notion that all is in all, this clearly is impossible.
Those who make the base to be "the infinite" must define the
term.
If this "infinite" means "of endless extension" there is no
infinite among beings; there is neither an infinityinitself
[Infinity Abstract] nor an infinity as an attribute to some body;
for in the first case every part of that infinity would be infinite
and in the second an object in which the infinity was present as
an attribute could not be infinite apart from that attribute, could
not be simplex, could not therefore be Matter.
Atoms again cannot meet the need of a base.
There are no atoms; all body is divisible endlessly: besides
neither the continuity nor the ductility of corporeal things is
explicable apart from Mind, or apart from the Soul which
cannot be made up of atoms; and, again, out of atoms creation
could produce nothing but atoms: a creative power could
produce nothing from a material devoid of continuity. Any
number of reasons might be brought, and have been brought,
against this hypothesis and it need detain us no longer.
8. What, then, is this Kind, this Matter, described as one stuff,
continuous and without quality?
Clearly since it is without quality it is incorporeal; bodiliness
would be quality.
It must be the basic stuff of all the entities of the senseworld
and not merely base to some while being to others achieved
form.
Clay, for example, is matter to the potter but is not Matter pure
and simple. Nothing of this sort is our object: we are seeking
the stuff which underlies all alike. We must therefore refuse to
it all that we find in things of sense not merely such attributes
as colour, heat or cold, but weight or weightlessness, thickness
or thinness, shape and therefore magnitude; though notice that
to be present within magnitude and shape is very different
from possessing these qualities.
It cannot be a compound, it must be a simplex, one distinct
thing in its nature; only so can it be void of all quality. The
Principle which gives it form gives this as something alien: so
with magnitude and all reallyexistent things bestowed upon it.
If, for example, it possessed a magnitude of its own, the
Principle giving it form would be at the mercy of that
magnitude and must produce not at will, but only within the
limit of the Matter's capacity: to imagine that Will keeping step
with its material is fantastic.
The Matter must be of later origin than the formingpower, and
therefore must be at its disposition throughout, ready to
become anything, ready therefore to any bulk; besides, if it
possessed magnitude, it would necessarily possess shape also:
it would be doubly inductile.
No: all that ever appears upon it is brought in by the Idea: the
Idea alone possesses: to it belongs the magnitude and all else
that goes with the ReasonPrinciple or follows upon it.
Quantity is given with the IdealForm in all the particular
species man, bird, and particular kind of bird.
The imaging of Quantity upon Matter by an outside power is
not more surprising than the imaging of Quality; Quality is no
doubt a ReasonPrinciple, but Quantity also being measure,
number is equally so.
9. But how can we conceive a thing having existence without
having magnitude?
We have only to think of things whose identity does not
depend on their quantity for certainly magnitude can be
distinguished from existence as can many other forms and
attributes.
In a word, every unembodied Kind must be classed as without
quantity, and Matter is unembodied.
Besides quantitativeness itself [the AbsolutePrinciple] does
not possess quantity, which belongs only to things participating
in it, a consideration which shows that Quantitativeness is an
IdeaPrinciple. A white object becomes white by the presence
of whiteness; what makes an organism white or of any other
variety of colour is not itself a specific colour but, so to speak,
a specific ReasonPrinciple: in the same way what gives an
organism a certain bulk is not itself a thing of magnitude but is
Magnitude itself, the abstract Absolute, or the Reason
Principle.
This MagnitudeAbsolute, then, enters and beats the Matter out
into Magnitude?
Not at all: the Matter was not previously shrunken small: there
was no littleness or bigness: the Idea gives Magnitude exactly
as it gives every quality not previously present.
10. But how can I form the conception of the sizelessness of
Matter?
How do you form the concept of any absence of quality? What
is the Act of the Intellect, what is the mental approach, in such
a case?
The secret is Indetermination.
Likeness knows its like: the indeterminate knows the
indeterminate. Around this indefinite a definite conception will
be realized, but the way lies through indefiniteness.
All knowledge comes by Reason and the Intellectual Act; in
this case Reason conveys information in any account it gives,
but the act which aims at being intellectual is, here, not
intellection but rather its failure: therefore the representation of
Matter must be spurious, unreal, something sprung of the
Alien, of the unreal, and bound up with the alien reason.
This is Plato's meaning where he says that Matter is
apprehended by a sort of spurious reasoning.
What, then, is this indetermination in the Soul? Does it amount
to an utter absence of Knowledge, as if the Soul or Mind had
withdrawn?
No: the indeterminate has some footing in the sphere of
affirmation. The eye is aware of darkness as a base capable of
receiving any colour not yet seen against it: so the Mind,
putting aside all attributes perceptible to sense all that
corresponds to light comes upon a residuum which it cannot
bring under determination: it is thus in the state of the eye
which, when directed towards darkness, has become in some
way identical with the object of its spurious vision.
There is vision, then, in this approach of the Mind towards
Matter?
Some vision, yes; of shapelessness, of colourlessness, of the
unlit, and therefore of the sizeless. More than this would mean
that the Soul is already bestowing Form.
But is not such a void precisely what the Soul experiences
when it has no intellection whatever?
No: in that case it affirms nothing, or rather has no experience:
but in knowing Matter, it has an experience, what may be
described as the impact of the shapeless; for in its very
consciousness of objects that have taken shape and size it
knows them as compounds [i.e., as possessing with these forms
a formless base] for they appear as things that have accepted
colour and other quality.
It knows, therefore, a whole which includes two components; it
has a clear Knowledge or perception of the overlie [the Ideas]
but only a dim awareness of the underlie, the shapeless which
is not an IdealPrinciple.
With what is perceptible to it there is presented something else:
what it can directly apprehend it sets on one side as its own;
but the something else which Reason rejects, this, the dim, it
knows dimly, this, the dark, it knows darkly, this it knows in a
sort of nonknowing.
And just as even Matter itself is not stably shapeless but, in
things, is always shaped, the Soul also is eager to throw over it
the thingform; for the Soul recoils from the indefinite, dreads,
almost, to be outside of reality, does not endure to linger about
NonBeing.
11. "But, given Magnitude and the properties we know, what
else can be necessary to the existence of body?"
Some base to be the container of all the rest.
"A certain mass then; and if mass, then Magnitude? Obviously
if your Base has no Magnitude it offers no footing to any
entrant. And suppose it sizeless; then, what end does it serve?
It never helped Idea or quality; now it ceases to account for
differentiation or for magnitude, though the last, wheresoever
it resides, seems to find its way into embodied entities by way
of Matter."
"Or, taking a larger view, observe that actions, productive
operations, periods of time, movements, none of these have
any such substratum and yet are real things; in the same way
the most elementary body has no need of Matter; things may
be, all, what they are, each after its own kind, in their great
variety, deriving the coherence of their being from the
blending of the various IdealForms. This Matter with its
sizelessness seems, then, to be a name without a content."
Now, to begin with: extension is not an imperative condition of
being a recipient; it is necessary only where it happens to be a
property inherent to the recipient's peculiar mode of being. The
Soul, for example, contains all things but holds them all in an
unextended unity; if magnitude were one of its attributes it
would contain things in extension. Matter does actually contain
in spatial extension what it takes in; but this is because itself is
a potential recipient of spatial extension: animals and plants, in
the same way, as they increase in size, take quality in parallel
development with quantity, and they lose in the one as the
other lessens.
No doubt in the case of things as we know them there is a
certain mass lying ready beforehand to the shaping power: but
that is no reason for expecting bulk in Matter strictly so called;
for in such cases Matter is not the absolute; it is that of some
definite object; the Absolute Matter must take its magnitude, as
every other property, from outside itself.
A thing then need not have magnitude in order to receive form:
it may receive mass with everything else that comes to it at the
moment of becoming what it is to be: a phantasm of mass is
enough, a primary aptness for extension, a magnitude of no
content whence the identification that has been made of
Matter with The Void.
But I prefer to use the word phantasm as hinting the
indefiniteness into which the Soul spills itself when it seeks to
communicate with Matter, finding no possibility of delimiting
it, neither encompassing it nor able to penetrate to any fixed
point of it, either of which achievements would be an act of
delimitation.
In other words, we have something which is to be described
not as small or great but as the greatandsmall: for it is at once
a mass and a thing without magnitude, in the sense that it is the
Matter on which Mass is based and that, as it changes from
great to small and small to great, it traverses magnitude. Its
very undeterminateness is a mass in the same sense that of
being a recipient of Magnitude though of course only in the
visible object.
In the order of things without Mass, all that is IdealPrinciple
possesses delimitation, each entity for itself, so that the
conception of Mass has no place in them: Matter, not
delimited, having in its own nature no stability, swept into any
or every form by turns, ready to go here, there and everywhere,
becomes a thing of multiplicity: driven into all shapes,
becoming all things, it has that much of the character of mass.
12. It is the corporeal, then, that demands magnitude: the Ideal
Forms of body are Ideas installed in Mass.
But these Ideas enter, not into Magnitude itself but into some
subject that has been brought to Magnitude. For to suppose
them entering into Magnitude and not into Matter is to
represent them as being either without Magnitude and without
RealExistence [and therefore undistinguishable from the
Matter] or not IdealForms [apt to body] but ReasonPrinciples
[utterly removed] whose sphere could only be Soul; at this,
there would be no such thing as body [i.e., instead of Ideal
Forms shaping Matter and so producing body, there would be
merely ReasonPrinciples dwelling remote in Soul.]
The multiplicity here must be based upon some unity which,
since it has been brought to Magnitude, must be, itself, distinct
from Magnitude. Matter is the base of Identity to all that is
composite: once each of the constituents comes bringing its
own Matter with it, there is no need of any other base. No
doubt there must be a container, as it were a place, to receive
what is to enter, but Matter and even body precede place and
space; the primal necessity, in order to the existence of body, is
Matter.
There is no force in the suggestion that, since production and
act are immaterial, corporeal entities also must be immaterial.
Bodies are compound, actions not. Further, Matter does in
some sense underlie action; it supplies the substratum to the
doer: it is permanently within him though it does not enter as a
constituent into the act where, indeed, it would be a hindrance.
Doubtless, one act does not change into another as would be
the case if there were a specific Matter of actions but the doer
directs himself from one act to another so that he is the Matter,
himself, to his varying actions.
Matter, in sum, is necessary to quality and to quantity, and,
therefore, to body.
It is, thus, no name void of content; we know there is such a
base, invisible and without bulk though it be.
If we reject it, we must by the same reasoning reject qualities
and mass: for quality, or mass, or any such entity, taken by
itself apart, might be said not to exist. But these do exist,
though in an obscure existence: there is much less ground for
rejecting Matter, however it lurk, discerned by none of the
senses.
It eludes the eye, for it is utterly outside of colour: it is not
heard, for it is no sound: it is no flavour or savour for nostrils
or palate: can it, perhaps, be known to touch? No: for neither is
it corporeal; and touch deals with body, which is known by
being solid, fragile, soft, hard, moist, dry all properties utterly
lacking in Matter.
It is grasped only by a mental process, though that not an act of
the intellective mind but a reasoning that finds no subject; and
so it stands revealed as the spurious thing it has been called.
No bodiliness belongs to it; bodiliness is itself a phase of
ReasonPrinciple and so is something different from Matter, as
Matter, therefore, from it: bodiliness already operative and so
to speak made concrete would be body manifest and not Matter
unelaborated.
13. Are we asked to accept as the substratum some attribute or
quality present to all the elements in common?
Then, first, we must be told what precise attribute this is and,
next, how an attribute can be a substratum.
The elements are sizeless, and how conceive an attribute where
there is neither base nor bulk?
Again, if the quality possesses determination, it is not Matter
the undetermined; and anything without determination is not a
quality but is the substratum the very Matter we are seeking.
It may be suggested that perhaps this absence of quality means
simply that, of its own nature, it has no participation in any of
the set and familiar properties, but takes quality by this very
nonparticipation, holding thus an absolutely individual
character, marked off from everything else, being as it were the
negation of those others. Deprivation, we will be told,
comports quality: a blind man has the quality of his lack of
sight. If then it will be urged Matter exhibits such a negation,
surely it has a quality, all the more so, assuming any
deprivation to be a quality, in that here the deprivation is all
comprehensive.
But this notion reduces all existence to qualified things or
qualities: Quantity itself becomes a Quality and so does even
Existence. Now this cannot be: if such things as Quantity and
Existence are qualified, they are, by that very fact, not
qualities: Quality is an addition to them; we must not commit
the absurdity of giving the name Quality to something
distinguishable from Quality, something therefore that is not
Quality.
Is it suggested that its mere Alienism is a quality in Matter?
If this Alienism is differenceabsolute [the abstract entity] it
possesses no Quality: absolute Quality cannot be itself a
qualified thing.
If the Alienism is to be understood as meaning only that Matter
is differentiated, then it is different not by itself [since it is
certainly not an absolute] but by this Difference, just as all
identical objects are so by virtue of Identicalness [the Absolute
principle of Identity].
An absence is neither a Quality nor a qualified entity; it is the
negation of a Quality or of something else, as noiselessness is
the negation of noise and so on. A lack is negative; Quality
demands something positive. The distinctive character of
Matter is unshape, the lack of qualification and of form; surely
then it is absurd to pretend that it has Quality in not being
qualified; that is like saying that sizelessness constitutes a
certain size.
The distinctive character of Matter, then, is simply its manner
of being not something definite inserted in it but, rather a
relation towards other things, the relation of being distinct
from them.
Other things possess something besides this relation of
Alienism: their form makes each an entity. Matter may with
propriety be described as merely alien; perhaps, even, we
might describe it as "The Aliens," for the singular suggests a
certain definiteness while the plural would indicate the absence
of any determination.
14. But is Absence this privation itself, or something in which
this Privation is lodged?
Anyone maintaining that Matter and Privation are one and the
same in substratum but stand separable in reason cannot be
excused from assigning to each the precise principle which
distinguishes it in reason from the other: that which defines
Matter must be kept quite apart from that defining the
Privation and vice versa.
There are three possibilities: Matter is not in Privation and
Privation is not in Matter; or each is in each; or each is in itself
alone.
Now if they should stand quite apart, neither calling for the
other, they are two distinct things: Matter is something other
than Privation even though Privation always goes with it: into
the principle of the one, the other cannot enter even potentially.
If their relation to each other is that of a snubnose to snubness,
here also there is a double concept; we have two things.
If they stand to each other as fire to heat heat in fire, but fire
not included in the concept of heat if Matter is Privation in the
way in which fire is heat, then the Privation is a form under
which Matter appears but there remains a base distinct from
the Privation and this base must be the Matter. Here, too, they
are not one thing.
Perhaps the identity in substance with differentiation in reason
will be defended on the ground that Privation does not point to
something present but precisely to an absence, to something
absent, to the negation or lack of Realbeing: the case would be
like that of the affirmation of nonexistence, where there is no
real predication but simply a denial.
Is, then, this Privation simply a nonexistence?
If a nonexistence in the sense that it is not a thing of Real
being, but belongs to some other Kind of existent, we have still
two Principles, one referring directly to the substratum, the
other merely exhibiting the relation of the Privation to other
things.
Or we might say that the one concept defines the relation of
substratum to what is not substratum, while that of Privation,
in bringing out the indeterminateness of Matter, applies to the
Matter in itself: but this still makes Privation and Matter two in
reason though one in substratum.
Now if Matter possesses an identity though only the identity
of being indeterminate, unfixed and without quality how can
we bring it so under two principles?
15. The further question, therefore, is raised whether
boundlessness and indetermination are things lodging in
something other than themselves as a sort of attribute and
whether Privation [or Negation of quality] is also an attribute
residing in some separate substratum.
Now all that is Number and ReasonPrinciple is outside of
boundlessness: these bestow bound and settlement and order in
general upon all else: neither anything that has been brought
under order nor any OrderAbsolute is needed to bring them
under order. The thing that has to be brought under order [e.g.,
Matter] is other than the Ordering Principle which is Limit and
Definiteness and ReasonPrinciple. Therefore, necessarily, the
thing to be brought under order and to definiteness must be in
itself a thing lacking delimitation.
Now Matter is a thing that is brought under order like all that
shares its nature by participation or by possessing the same
principle therefore, necessarily, Matter is The Undelimited
and not merely the recipient of a nonessential quality of
Indefiniteness entering as an attribute.
For, first, any attribute to any subject must be a Reason
Principle; and Indefiniteness is not a ReasonPrinciple.
Secondly, what must a thing be to take Indefiniteness as an
attribute? Obviously it must, beforehand, be either Definiteness
or a defined thing. But Matter is neither.
Then again Indefiniteness entering as an attribute into the
definite must cease to be indefinite: but Indefiniteness has not
entered as an attribute into Matter: that is, Matter is essentially
Indefiniteness.
The Matter even of the Intellectual Realm is the Indefinite, [the
undelimited]; it must be a thing generated by the undefined
nature, the illimitable nature, of the Eternal Being, The One
illimitableness, however, not possessing native existence There
but engendered by The One.
But how can Matter be common to both spheres, be here and
be There?
Because even Indefiniteness has two phases.
But what difference can there be between phase and phase of
Indefiniteness?
The difference of archetype and image.
So that Matter here [as only an image of Indefiniteness] would
be less indefinite?
On the contrary, more indefinite as an Imagething remote
from true being. Indefiniteness is the greater in the less ordered
object; the less deep in good, the deeper in evil. The
Indeterminate in the Intellectual Realm, where there is truer
being, might almost be called merely an Image of
Indefiniteness: in this lower Sphere where there is less Being,
where there is a refusal of the Authentic, and an adoption of
the ImageKind, Indefiniteness is more authentically indefinite.
But this argument seems to make no difference between the
indefinite object and Indefinitenessessential. Is there none?
In any object in which Reason and Matter coexist we
distinguish between Indeterminateness and the Indeterminate
subject: but where Matter stands alone we make them
identical, or, better, we would say right out that in that case
essential Indeterminateness is not present; for it is a Reason
Principle and could not lodge in the indeterminate object
without at once annulling the indeterminateness.
Matter, then, must be described as Indefinite of itself, by its
natural opposition to ReasonPrinciple. Reason is Reason and
nothing else; just so Matter, opposed by its indeterminateness
to Reason, is Indeterminateness and nothing else.
16. Then Matter is simply Alienism [the Principle of
Difference]?
No: it is merely that part of Alienism which stands in
contradiction with the Authentic Existents which are Reason
Principles. So understood, this nonexistent has a certain
measure of existence; for it is identical with Privation, which
also is a thing standing in opposition to the things that exist in
Reason.
But must not Privation cease to have existence, when what has
been lacking is present at last?
By no means: the recipient of a state or character is not a state
but the Privation of the state; and that into which determination
enters is neither a determined object nor determination itself,
but simply the wholly or partly undetermined.
Still, must not the nature of this Undetermined be annulled by
the entry of Determination, especially where this is no mere
attribute?
No doubt to introduce quantitative determination into an
undetermined object would annul the original state; but in the
particular case, the introduction of determination only confirms
the original state, bringing it into actuality, into full effect, as
sowing brings out the natural quality of land or as a female
organism impregnated by the male is not defeminized but
becomes more decidedly of its sex; the thing becomes more
emphatically itself.
But on this reasoning must not Matter owe its evil to having in
some degree participated in good?
No: its evil is in its first lack: it was not a possessor (of some
specific character).
To lack one thing and to possess another, in something like
equal proportions, is to hold a middle state of good and evil:
but whatsoever possesses nothing and so is in destitution and
especially what is essentially destitution must be evil in its
own Kind.
For in Matter we have no mere absence of means or of
strength; it is utter destitution of sense, of virtue, of beauty, of
pattern, of Ideal principle, of quality. This is surely ugliness,
utter disgracefulness, unredeemed evil.
The Matter in the Intellectual Realm is an Existent, for there is
nothing previous to it except the BeyondExistence; but what
precedes the Matter of this sphere is Existence; by its alienism
in regard to the beauty and good of Existence, Matter is
therefore a nonexistent.
Ennead II
Fifth tractate: On potentiality and actuality
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. A distinction is made between things existing actually and
things existing potentially; a certain Actuality, also, is spoken
of as a really existent entity. We must consider what content
there is in these terms.
Can we distinguish between Actuality [an absolute, abstract
Principle] and the state of beinginact? And if there is such an
Actuality, is this itself in Act, or are the two quite distinct so
that this actually existent thing need not be, itself, an Act?
It is indubitable that Potentiality exists in the Realm of Sense:
but does the Intellectual Realm similarly include the potential
or only the actual? and if the potential exists there, does it
remain merely potential for ever? And, if so, is this resistance
to actualization due to its being precluded [as a member of the
Divine or Intellectual world] from timeprocesses?
First we must make clear what potentiality is.
We cannot think of potentiality as standing by itself; there can
be no potentiality apart from something which a given thing
may be or become. Thus bronze is the potentiality of a statue:
but if nothing could be made out of the bronze, nothing
wrought upon it, if it could never be anything as a future to
what it has been, if it rejected all change, it would be bronze
and nothing else: its own character it holds already as a present
thing, and that would be the full of its capacity: it would be
destitute of potentiality. Whatsoever has a potentiality must
first have a character of its own; and its potentiality will consist
in its having a reach beyond that character to some other.
Sometimes after it has turned its potentiality into actuality it
will remain what it was; sometimes it will sink itself to the
fullest extent in the new form and itself disappear: these two
different modes are exemplified in (1) bronze as potentially a
statue and (2) water [= primalliquid] as potentially bronze or,
again, air as potentially fire.
But if this be the significance of potentiality, may we describe
it as a Power towards the thing that is to be? Is the Bronze a
power towards a statue?
Not in the sense of an effectively productive force: such a
power could not be called a potentiality. Of course Potentiality
may be a power, as, for instance, when we are referring not
merely to a thing which may be brought into actualization but
to Actuality itself [the Principle or Abstract in which
potentiality and the power of realizing potentiality may be
thought of as identical]: but it is better, as more conducive to
clarity, to use "Potentiality" in regard to the process of
Actualization and "Power" in regard to the Principle, Actuality.
Potentiality may be thought of as a Substratum to states and
shapes and forms which are to be received, which it welcomes
by its nature and even strives for sometimes in gain but
sometimes, also, to loss, to the annulling of some distinctive
manner of Being already actually achieved.
2. Then the question rises whether Matter potentially what it
becomes by receiving shape is actually something else or
whether it has no actuality at all. In general terms: When a
potentiality has taken a definite form, does it retain its being?
Is the potentiality, itself, in actualization? The alternative is
that, when we speak of the "Actual Statue" and of the
"Potential Statue," the Actuality is not predicated of the same
subject as the "Potentiality." If we have really two different
subjects, then the potential does not really become the actual:
all that happens is that an actual entity takes the place of a
potential.
The actualized entity is not the Matter [the Potentiality,
merely] but a combination, including the FormIdea upon the
Matter.
This is certainly the case when a quite different thing results
from the actualizationstatue, for example, the combination, is
distinctly different from the bronze, the base; where the
resultant is something quite new, the Potentiality has clearly
not, itself, become what is now actualized. But take the case
where a person with a capacity for education becomes in fact
educated: is not potentiality, here, identical with actualization?
Is not the potentially wise Socrates the same man as the
Socrates actually wise?
But is an ignorant man a being of knowledge because he is so
potentially? Is he, in virtue of his nonessential ignorance,
potentially an instructed being?
It is not because of his accidental ignorance that he is a being
of Knowledge: it is because, ignorant though he be by
accident, his mind, apt to knowledge, is the potentiality
through which he may become so. Thus, in the case of the
potentially instructed who have become so in fact, the
potentiality is taken up into the actual; or, if we prefer to put it
so, there is on the one side the potentiality while, on the other,
there is the power in actual possession of the form.
If, then, the Potentiality is the Substratum while the thing in
actualization the Statue for example a combination, how are
we to describe the form that has entered the bronze?
There will be nothing unsound in describing this shape, this
Form which has brought the entity from potentiality to
actuality, as the actualization; but of course as the actualization
of the definite particular entity, not as Actuality the abstract:
we must not confuse it with the other actualization, strictly so
called, that which is contrasted with the power producing
actualization. The potential is led out into realization by
something other than itself; power accomplishes, of itself, what
is within its scope, but by virtue of Actuality [the abstract]: the
relation is that existing between a temperament and its
expression in act, between courage and courageous conduct.
So far so good:
3. We come now to the purpose of all this discussion; to make
clear in what sense or to what degree Actualization is
predicable in the Intellectual Realm and whether all is in
Actualization there, each and every member of that realm
being an Act, or whether Potentiality also has place there.
Now: if there is no Matter there to harbour potentiality: if
nothing there has any future apart from its actual mode: if
nothing there generates, whether by changes or in the
permanence of its identity; if nothing goes outside of itself to
give being to what is other than itself; then, potentiality has no
place there: the Beings there possess actuality as belonging to
eternity, not to time.
Those, however, who assert Matter in the Intellectual Realm
will be asked whether the existence of that Matter does not
imply the potential there too; for even if Matter there exists in
another mode than here, every Being there will have its Matter,
its form and the union of the two [and therefore the potential,
separable from the actual]. What answer is to be made?
Simply, that even the Matter there is Idea, just as the Soul, an
Idea, is Matter to another [a higher] Being.
But relatively to that higher, the Soul is a potentiality?
No: for the Idea [to which it is Matter] is integral to the Soul
and does not look to a future; the distinction between the Soul
and its Idea is purely mental: the Idea and the Matter it
includes are conceived as a conjunction but are essentially one
Kind: remember that Aristotle makes his Fifth Body
immaterial.
But surely Potentiality exists in the Soul? Surely the Soul is
potentially the livingbeing of this world before it has become
so? Is it not potentially musical, and everything else that it has
not been and becomes? Does not this imply potentiality even in
the Intellectual Existences?
No: the Soul is not potentially these things; it is a Power
towards them.
But after what mode does Actualization exist in the Intellectual
Realm?
Is it the Actualization of a statue, where the combination is
realized because the FormIdea has mastered each separate
constituent of the total?
No: it is that every constituent there is a FormIdea and, thus,
is perfect in its Being.
There is in the Intellectual Principle no progression from some
power capable of intellection to the Actuality of intellection:
such a progression would send us in search of a Prior Principle
not progressing from Power to Act; there all stands ever
realized. Potentiality requires an intervention from outside
itself to bring it to the actualization which otherwise cannot be;
but what possesses, of itself, identity unchangeable for ever is
an actualization: all the Firsts then are actualizations, simply
because eternally and of themselves they possess all that is
necessary to their completion.
This applies equally to the Soul, not to that in Matter but to
that in the Intellectual Sphere; and even that in Matter, the Soul
of Growth, is an actualization in its difference; it possesses
actually [and not, like material things, merely in image] the
Being that belongs to it.
Then, everything, in the intellectual is in actualization and so
all There is Actuality?
Why not? If that Nature is rightly said to be "Sleepless," and to
be Life and the noblest mode of Life, the noblest Activities
must be there; all then is actualization there, everything is an
Actuality, for everything is a Life, and all Place there is the
Place of Life, in the true sense the ground and spring of Soul
and of the Intellectual Principle.
4. Now, in general anything that has a potentiality is actually
something else, and this potentiality of the future mode of
being is an existing mode.
But what we think of as Matter, what we assert to be the
potentiality of all things, cannot be said to be actually any one
being among beings: if it were of itself any definite being, it
could not be potentially all.
If, then, it is not among existences, it must necessarily be
without existence.
How, therefore, can it be actually anything?
The answer is that while Matter can not be any of the things
which are founded upon it, it may quite well be something else,
admitting that all existences are not rooted in Matter.
But once more, if it is excluded from the entities founded upon
it and all these are Beings, it must itself be a NonBeing.
It is, further, by definition, formless and therefore not an Idea:
it cannot then be classed among things of the Intellectual
Realm, and so is, once more, a NonBeing. Falling, as regards
both worlds, under NonBeing, it is all the more decidedly the
NonBeing.
It has eluded the Nature of the Authentic Existences; it has
even failed to come up with the things to which a spurious
existence can be attributed for it is not even a phantasm of
Reason as these are how is it possible to include it under any
mode of Being?
And if it falls under no mode of Being, what can it actually be?
5. How can we talk of it? How can it be the Matter of real
things?
It is talked of, and it serves, precisely, as a Potentiality.
And, as being a Potentiality, it is not of the order of the thing it
is to become: its existence is no more than an announcement of
a future, as it were a thrust forward to what is to come into
existence.
As Potentiality then, it is not any definite thing but the
potentiality of everything: being nothing in itself beyond what
being Matter amounts to it is not in actualization. For if it
were actually something, that actualized something would not
be Matter, or at least not Matter out and out, but merely Matter
in the limited sense in which bronze is the matter of the statue.
And its NonBeing must be no mere difference from Being.
Motion, for example, is different from Being, but plays about
it, springing from it and living within it: Matter is, so to speak,
the outcast of Being, it is utterly removed, irredeemably what it
was from the beginning: in origin it was NonBeing and so it
remains.
Nor are we to imagine that, standing away at the very
beginning from the universal circle of Beings, it was thus
necessarily an active Something or that it became a Something.
It has never been able to annex for itself even a visible outline
from all the forms under which it has sought to creep: it has
always pursued something other than itself; it was never more
than a Potentiality towards its next: where all the circle of
Being ends, there only is it manifest; discerned underneath
things produced after it, it is remoter [from RealBeing] even
than they.
Grasped, then, as an underlie in each order of Being, it can be
no actualization of either: all that is allowed to it is to be a
Potentiality, a weak and blurred phantasm, a thing incapable of
a Shape of its own.
Its actuality is that of being a phantasm, the actuality of being a
falsity; and the false in actualization is the veritably false,
which again is Authentic NonExistence.
So that Matter, as the Actualization of NonBeing, is all the
more decidedly NonBeing, is Authentic NonExistence.
Thus, since the very reality of its Nature is situated in Non
Being, it is in no degree the Actualization of any definite
Being.
If it is to be present at all, it cannot be an Actualization, for
then it would not be the stray from Authentic Being which it is,
the thing having its Being in NonBeingness: for, note, in the
case of things whose Being is a falsity, to take away the falsity
is to take away what Being they have, and if we introduce
actualization into things whose Being and Essence is
Potentiality, we destroy the foundation of their nature since
their Being is Potentiality.
If Matter is to be kept as the unchanging substratum, we must
keep it as Matter: that means does it not? that we must define
it as a Potentiality and nothing more or refute these
considerations.
Ennead II
Sixth tractate: Quality and formidea
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Are not Being and Reality (to on and he ousia) distinct; must
we not envisage Being as the substance stripped of all else,
while Reality is this same thing, Being, accompanied by the
others Movement, Rest, Identity, Difference so that these are
the specific constituents of Reality?
The universal fabric, then, is Reality in which Being,
Movement, and so on are separate constituents.
Now Movement has Being as an accident and therefore should
have Reality as an accident; or is it something serving to the
completion of Reality?
No: Movement is a Reality; everything in the Supreme is a
Reality.
Why, then, does not Reality reside, equally, in this sphere?
In the Supreme there is Reality because all things are one; ours
is the sphere of images whose separation produces grades of
difference. Thus in the spermatic unity all the human members
are present undistinguishably; there is no separation of head
and hand: their distinct existence begins in the life here, whose
content is image, not Authentic Existence.
And are the distinct Qualities in the Authentic Realm to be
explained in the same way? Are they differing Realities
centred in one Reality or gathered round Being differences
which constitute Realities distinct from each other within the
common fact of Reality?
This is sound enough; but it does not apply to all the qualities
of this sphere, some of which, no doubt, are differentiations of
Reality such as the quality of twofootedness or four
footedness but others are not such differentiations of Reality
and, because they are not so, must be called qualities and
nothing more.
On the other hand, one and the same thing may be sometimes a
differentiation of Reality and sometimes not a differentiation
when it is a constitutive element, and no differentiation in
some other thing, where it is not a constitutive element but an
accidental. The distinction may be seen in the [constitutive]
whiteness of a swan or of ceruse and the whiteness which in a
man is an accidental.
Where whiteness belongs to the very ReasonForm of the thing
it is a constitutive element and not a quality; where it is a
superficial appearance it is a quality.
In other words, qualification may be distinguished. We may
think of a qualification that is of the very substance of the
thing, something exclusively belonging to it. And there is a
qualifying that is nothing more, [not constituting but simply]
giving some particular character to the real thing; in this
second case the qualification does not produce any alteration
towards Reality or away from it; the Reality has existed fully
constituted before the incoming of the qualification which
whether in soul or body merely introduces some state from
outside, and by this addition elaborates the Reality into the
particular thing.
But what if [the superficial appearance such as] the visible
whiteness in ceruse is constitutive? In the swan the whiteness
is not constitutive since a swan need not be white: it is
constitutive in ceruse, just as warmth is constitutive of the
Reality, fire.
No doubt we may be told that the Reality in fire is [not warmth
but] fieriness and in ceruse an analogous abstraction: yet the
fact remains that in visible fire warmth or fieriness is
constitutive and in the ceruse whiteness.
Thus the same entities are represented at once as being not
qualities but constituents of Reality and not constituents but
qualities.
Now it is absurd to talk as if one identical thing changed its
own nature according to whether it is present as a constituent
or as an accidental.
The truth is that while the ReasonPrinciples producing these
entities contain nothing but what is of the nature of Reality, yet
only in the Intellectual Realm do the produced things possess
real existence: here they are not real; they are qualified.
And this is the startingpoint of an error we constantly make: in
our enquiries into things we let realities escape us and fasten
on what is mere quality. Thus fire is not the thing we so name
from the observation of certain qualities present; fire is a
Reality [not a combination of material phenomena]; the
phenomena observed here and leading us to name fire call us
away from the authentic thing; a quality is erected into the very
matter of definition a procedure, however, reasonable enough
in regard to things of the realm of sense which are in no case
realities but accidents of Reality.
And this raises the question how Reality can ever spring from
what are not Realities.
It has been shown that a thing coming into being cannot be
identical with its origins: it must here be added that nothing
thus coming into being [no "thing of process"] can be a
Reality.
Then how do we assert the rising in the Supreme of what we
have called Reality from what is not Reality [i.e., from the pure
Being which is above Reality]?
The Reality there possessing Authentic Being in the strictest
sense, with the least admixture is Reality by existing among
the differentiations of the Authentic Being; or, better, Reality is
affirmed in the sense that with the existence of the Supreme is
included its Act so that Reality seems to be a perfectionment of
the Authentic Being, though in the truth it is a diminution; the
produced thing is deficient by the very addition, by being less
simplex, by standing one step away from the Authentic.
2. But we must enquire into Quality in itself: to know its nature
is certainly the way to settle our general question.
The first point is to assure ourselves whether or not one and the
same thing may be held to be sometimes a mere qualification
and sometimes a constituent of Reality not staying on the
point that qualification could not be constitutive of a Reality
but of a qualified Reality only.
Now in a Reality possessing a determined quality, the Reality
and the fact of existence precede the qualified Reality.
What, then, in the case of fire is the Reality which precedes the
qualified Reality?
Its mere body, perhaps? If so, body being the Reality, fire is a
warmed body; and the total thing is not the Reality; and the fire
has warmth as a man might have a snub nose.
Rejecting its warmth, its glow, its lightness all which certainly
do seem to be qualities and its resistance, there is left only its
extension by three dimensions: in other words, its Matter is its
Reality.
But that cannot be held: surely the form is much more likely
than the Matter to be the Reality.
But is not the Form of Quality?
No, the Form is not a Quality: it is a ReasonPrinciple.
And the outcome of this ReasonPrinciple entering into the
underlying Matter, what is that?
Certainly not what is seen and burns, for that is the something
in which these qualities inhere.
We might define the burning as an Act springing from the
ReasonPrinciple: then the warming and lighting and other
effects of fire will be its Acts and we still have found no
foothold for its quality.
Such completions of a Reality cannot be called qualities since
they are its Acts emanating from the ReasonPrinciples and
from the essential powers. A quality is something persistently
outside Reality; it cannot appear as Reality in one place after
having figured in another as quality; its function is to bring in
the something more after the Reality is established, such
additions as virtue, vice, ugliness, beauty, health, a certain
shape. On this last, however, it may be remarked that
triangularity and quadrangularity are not in themselves
qualities, but there is quality when a thing is triangular by
having been brought to that shape; the quality is not the
triangularity but the patterning to it. The case is the same with
the arts and avocations.
Thus: Quality is a condition superadded to a Reality whose
existence does not depend upon it, whether this something
more be a later acquirement or an accompaniment from the
first; it is something in whose absence the Reality would still
be complete. It will sometimes come and go, sometimes be
inextricably attached, so that there are two forms of Quality,
the moveable and the fixed.
3. The Whiteness, therefore, in a human being is, clearly, to be
classed not as a quality but as an activity the act of a power
which can make white; and similarly what we think of as
qualities in the Intellectual Realm should be known as
activities; they are activities which to our minds take the
appearance of quality from the fact that, differing in character
among themselves, each of them is a particularity which, so to
speak, distinguishes those Realities from each other.
What, then, distinguishes Quality in the Intellectual Realm
from that here, if both are Acts?
The difference is that these ["QualityActivities"] in the
Supreme do not indicate the very nature of the Reality [as do
the corresponding Activities here] nor do they indicate
variations of substance or of [essential] character; they merely
indicate what we think of as Quality but in the Intellectual
Realm must still be Activity.
In other words this thing, considered in its aspect as possessing
the characteristic property of Reality is by that alone
recognised as no mere Quality. But when our reason separates
what is distinctive in these ["QualityActivities"] not in the
sense of abolishing them but rather as taking them to itself and
making something new of them this new something is
Quality: reason has, so to speak, appropriated a portion of
Reality, that portion manifest to it on the surface.
By this analogy, warmth, as a concomitant of the specific
nature of fire, may very well be no quality in fire but an Idea
Form belonging to it, one of its activities, while being merely a
Quality in other things than fire: as it is manifested in any
warm object, it is not a mode of Reality but merely a trace, a
shadow, an image, something that has gone forth from its own
Reality where it was an Act and in the warm object is a
quality.
All, then, that is accident and not Act; all but what is Ideaform
of the Reality; all that merely confers pattern; all this is
Quality: qualities are characteristics and modes other than
those constituting the substratum of a thing.
But the Archetypes of all such qualities, the foundation in
which they exist primarily, these are Activities of the
Intellectual Beings.
And; one and the same thing cannot be both Quality and non
quality: the thing void of RealExistence is Quality; but the
thing accompanying Reality is either Form or Activity: there is
no longer selfidentity when, from having its being in itself,
anything comes to be in something else with a fall from its
standing as Form and Activity.
Finally, anything which is never Form but always accidental to
something else is Quality unmixed and nothing more.
Ennead II
Seventh tractate: On complete transfusion
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Some enquiry must be made into what is known as the
complete transfusion of material substances.
Is it possible that fluid be blended with fluid in such a way that
each penetrate the other through and through? or a difference
of no importance if any such penetration occurs that one of
them pass completely through the other?
Those that admit only contact need not detain us. They are
dealing with mixture, not with the coalescence which makes
the total a thing of like parts, each minutest particle being
composed of all the combined elements.
But there are those who, admitting coalescence, confine it to
the qualities: to them the material substances of two bodies are
in contact merely, but in this contact of the matter they find
footing for the qualities of each.
Their view is plausible because it rejects the notion of total
admixture and because it recognizes that the masses of the
mixing bodies must be whittled away if there is to be mixture
without any gap, if, that is to say, each substance must be
divided within itself through and through for complete
interpenetration with the other. Their theory is confirmed by
the cases in which two mixed substances occupy a greater
space than either singly, especially a space equal to the
conjoined extent of each: for, as they point out, in an absolute
interpenetration the infusion of the one into the other would
leave the occupied space exactly what it was before and, where
the space occupied is not increased by the juxtaposition, they
explain that some expulsion of air has made room for the
incoming substance. They ask further, how a minor quantity of
one substance can be spread out so as to interpenetrate a major
quantity of another. In fact they have a multitude of arguments.
Those, on the other hand, that accept "complete transfusion,"
might object that it does not require the reduction of the mixed
things to fragments, a certain cleavage being sufficient: thus,
for instance, sweat does not split up the body or even pierce
holes in it. And if it is answered that this may well be a special
decree of Nature to allow of the sweat exuding, there is the
case of those manufactured articles, slender but without
puncture, in which we can see a liquid wetting them through
and through so that it runs down from the upper to the under
surface. How can this fact be explained, since both the liquid
and the solid are bodily substances? Interpenetration without
disintegration is difficult to conceive, and if there is such
mutual disintegration the two must obviously destroy each
other.
When they urge that often there is a mixing without
augmentation their adversaries can counter at once with the
exit of air.
When there is an increase in the space occupied, nothing
refutes the explanation however unsatisfying that this is a
necessary consequence of two bodies bringing to a common
stock their magnitude equally with their other attributes: size is
as permanent as any other property; and, exactly as from the
blending of qualities there results a new form of thing, the
combination of the two, so we find a new magnitude; the
blending gives us a magnitude representing each of the two.
But at this point the others will answer, "If you mean that
substance lies side by side with substance and mass with mass,
each carrying its quantum of magnitude, you are at one with
us: if there were complete transfusion, one substance sinking
its original magnitude in the other, we would have no longer
the case of two lines joined end to end by their terminal points
and thus producing an increased extension; we would have line
superimposed upon line with, therefore, no increase."
But a lesser quantity permeates the entire extent of a larger; the
smallest is sunk in the greatest; transfusion is exhibited
unmistakably. In certain cases it is possible to pretend that
there is no total penetration but there are manifest examples
leaving no room for the pretence. In what they say of the
spreading out of masses they cannot be thought very plausible;
the extension would have to be considerable indeed in the case
of a very small quantity [to be in true mixture with a very large
mass]; for they do not suggest any such extension by change as
that of water into air.
2. This, however, raises a problem deserving investigation in
itself: what has happened when a definite magnitude of water
becomes air, and how do we explain the increase of volume?
But for the present we must be content with the matter thus far
discussed out of all the varied controversy accumulated on
either side.
It remains for us to make out on our own account the true
explanation of the phenomenon of mixing, without regard to
the agreement or disagreement of that theory with any of the
current opinions mentioned.
When water runs through wool or when papyruspulp gives up
its moisture why is not the moist content expressed to the very
last drop or even, without question of outflow, how can we
possibly think that in a mixture the relation of matter with
matter, mass with mass, is contact and that only the qualities
are fused? The pulp is not merely in touch with water outside it
or even in its pores; it is wet through and through so that every
particle of its matter is drenched in that quality. Now if the
matter is soaked all through with the quality, then the water is
everywhere in the pulp.
"Not the water; the quality of the water."
But then, where is the water? and [if only a quality has entered]
why is there a change of volume? The pulp has been expanded
by the addition: that is to say it has received magnitude from
the incoming substance but if it has received the magnitude,
magnitude has been added; and a magnitude added has not
been absorbed; therefore the combined matter must occupy
two several places. And as the two mixing substances
communicate quality and receive matter in mutual give and
take so they may give and take magnitude. Indeed when a
quality meets another quality it suffers some change; it is
mixed, and by that admixture it is no longer pure and therefore
no longer itself but a blunter thing, whereas magnitude joining
magnitude retains its full strength.
But let it be understood how we came to say that body passing
through and through another body must produce disintegration,
while we make qualities pervade their substances without
producing disintegration: the bodilessness of qualities is the
reason. Matter, too, is bodiless: it may, then, be supposed that
as Matter pervades everything so the bodiless qualities
associated with it as long as they are few have the power of
penetration without disintegration. Anything solid would be
stopped either in virtue of the fact that a solid has the precise
quality which forbids it to penetrate or in that the mere
coexistence of too many qualities in Matter [constitutes density
and so] produces the same inhibition.
If, then, what we call a dense body is so by reason of the
presence of many qualities, that plenitude of qualities will be
the cause [of the inhibition].
If on the other hand density is itself a quality like what they
call corporeity, then the cause will be that particular quality.
This would mean that the qualities of two substances do not
bring about the mixing by merely being qualities but by being
apt to mixture; nor does Matter refuse to enter into a mixing as
Matter but as being associated with a quality repugnant to
mixture; and this all the more since it has no magnitude of its
own but only does not reject magnitude.
3. We have thus covered our main ground, but since corporeity
has been mentioned, we must consider its nature: is it the
conjunction of all the qualities or is it an Idea, or Reason
Principle, whose presence in Matter constitutes a body?
Now if body is the compound, the thing made up of all the
required qualities plus Matter, then corporeity is nothing more
than their conjunction.
And if it is a ReasonPrinciple, one whose incoming
constitutes the body, then clearly this Principle contains
embraced within itself all the qualities. If this ReasonPrinciple
is to be no mere principle of definition exhibiting the nature of
a thing but a veritable Reason constituting the thing, then it
cannot itself contain Matter but must encircle Matter, and by
being present to Matter elaborate the body: thus the body will
be Matter associated with an indwelling ReasonPrinciple
which will be in itself immaterial, pure Idea, even though
irremoveably attached to the body. It is not to be confounded
with that other Principle in man treated elsewhere which
dwells in the Intellectual World by right of being itself an
Intellectual Principle.
Ennead II
Eighth tractate: Why distant objects appear small
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Seen from a distance, objects appear reduced and close
together, however far apart they be: within easy range, their
sizes and the distances that separate them are observed
correctly.
Distant objects show in this reduction because they must be
drawn together for vision and the light must be concentrated to
suit the size of the pupil; besides, as we are placed farther and
farther away from the material mass under observation, it is
more and more the bare form that reaches us, stripped, so to
speak, of magnitude as of all other quality.
Or it may be that we appreciate the magnitude of an object by
observing the salience and recession of its several parts, so that
to perceive its true size we must have it close at hand.
Or again, it may be that magnitude is known incidentally [as a
deduction] from the observation of colour. With an object at
hand we know how much space is covered by the colour; at a
distance, only that something is coloured, for the parts,
quantitatively distinct among themselves, do not give us the
precise knowledge of that quantity, the colours themselves
reaching us only in a blurred impression.
What wonder, then, if size be like sound reduced when the
form reaches us but faintly for in sound the hearing is
concerned only about the form; magnitude is not discerned
except incidentally.
Well, in hearing magnitude is known incidentally; but how?
Touch conveys a direct impression of a visible object; what
gives us the same direct impression of an object of hearing?
The magnitude of a sound is known not by actual quantity but
by degree of impact, by intensity and this in no indirect
knowledge; the ear appreciates a certain degree of force,
exactly as the palate perceives by no indirect knowledge, a
certain degree of sweetness. But the true magnitude of a sound
is its extension; this the hearing may define to itself
incidentally by deduction from the degree of intensity but not
to the point of precision. The intensity is merely the definite
effect at a particular spot; the magnitude is a matter of totality,
the sum of space occupied.
Still the colours seen from a distance are faint; but they are not
small as the masses are.
True; but there is the common fact of diminution. There is
colour with its diminution, faintness; there is magnitude with
its diminution, smallness; and magnitude follows colour
diminishing stage by stage with it.
But, the phenomenon is more easily explained by the example
of things of wide variety. Take mountains dotted with houses,
woods and other landmarks; the observation of each detail
gives us the means of calculating, by the single objects noted,
the total extent covered: but, where no such detail of form
reaches us, our vision, which deals with detail, has not the
means towards the knowledge of the whole by measurement of
any one clearly discerned magnitude. This applies even to
objects of vision close at hand: where there is variety and the
eye sweeps over all at one glance so that the forms are not all
caught, the total appears the less in proportion to the detail
which has escaped the eye; observe each single point and then
you can estimate the volume precisely. Again, magnitudes of
one colour and unbroken form trick the sense of quantity: the
vision can no longer estimate by the particular; it slips away,
not finding the standby of the difference between part and
part.
It was the detail that prevented a near object deceiving our
sense of magnitude: in the case of the distant object, because
the eye does not pass stage by stage through the stretch of
intervening space so as to note its forms, therefore it cannot
report the magnitude of that space.
2. The explanation by lesser angle of vision has been elsewhere
dismissed; one point, however, we may urge here.
Those attributing the reduced appearance to the lesser angle
occupied allow by their very theory that the unoccupied
portion of the eye still sees something beyond or something
quite apart from the object of vision, if only airspace.
Now consider some very large object of vision, that mountain
for example. No part of the eye is unoccupied; the mountain
adequately fills it so that it can take in nothing beyond, for the
mountain as seen either corresponds exactly to the eyespace or
stretches away out of range to right and to left. How does the
explanation by lesser angle of vision hold good in this case,
where the object still appears smaller, far, than it is and yet
occupies the eye entire?
Or look up to the sky and no hesitation can remain. Of course
we cannot take in the entire hemisphere at one glance; the eye
directed to it could not cover so vast an expanse. But suppose
the possibility: the entire eye, then, embraces the hemisphere
entire; but the expanse of the heavens is far greater than it
appears; how can its appearing far less than it is be explained
by a lessening of the angle of vision?
Ennead II
Ninth tractate: Against those that affirm the creator of the kosmos and the
kosmos itself to be evil: [generally quoted as against the gnostics]
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. We have seen elsewhere that the Good, the Principle, is
simplex, and, correspondingly, primal for the secondary can
never be simplex that it contains nothing: that it is an integral
Unity.
Now the same Nature belongs to the Principle we know as The
One. just as the goodness of The Good is essential and not the
outgrowth of some prior substance so the Unity of The One is
its essential.
Therefore:
When we speak of The One and when we speak of The Good
we must recognize an Identical Nature; we must affirm that
they are the same not, it is true, as venturing any predication
with regard to that [unknowable] Hypostasis but simply as
indicating it to ourselves in the best terms we find.
Even in calling it "The First" we mean no more than to express
that it is the most absolutely simplex: it is the SelfSufficing
only in the sense that it is not of that compound nature which
would make it dependent upon any constituent; it is "the Self
Contained" because everything contained in something alien
must also exist by that alien.
Deriving, then, from nothing alien, entering into nothing alien,
in no way a madeup thing, there can be nothing above it.
We need not, then, go seeking any other Principles; this the
One and the Good is our First; next to it follows the
Intellectual Principle, the Primal Thinker; and upon this
follows Soul. Such is the order in nature. The Intellectual
Realm allows no more than these and no fewer.
Those who hold to fewer Principles must hold the identity of
either IntellectualPrinciple and Soul or of Intellectual
Principle and The First; but we have abundantly shown that
these are distinct.
It remains for us to consider whether there are more than these
Three.
Now what other [Divine] Kinds could there be? No Principles
of the universe could be found at once simpler and more
transcendent than this whose existence we have affirmed and
described.
They will scarcely urge upon us the doubling of the Principle
in Act by a Principle in Potentiality. It is absurd to seek such a
plurality by distinguishing between potentiality and actuality in
the case of immaterial beings whose existence is in Act even
in lower forms no such division can be made and we cannot
conceive a duality in the IntellectualPrinciple, one phase in
some vague calm, another all astir. Under what form can we
think of repose in the Intellectual Principle as contrasted with
its movement or utterance? What would the quiescence of the
one phase be as against the energy of the others?
No: the IntellectualPrinciple is continuously itself,
unchangeably constituted in stable Act. With movement
towards it or within it we are in the realm of the Soul's
operation: such act is a ReasonPrinciple emanating from it and
entering into Soul, thus made an Intellectual Soul, but in no
sense creating an intermediate Principle to stand between the
two.
Nor are we warranted in affirming a plurality of Intellectual
Principles on the ground that there is one that knows and thinks
and another knowing that it knows and thinks. For whatever
distinction be possible in the Divine between its Intellectual
Act and its Consciousness of that Act, still all must be one
projection not unaware of its own operation: it would be
absurd to imagine any such unconsciousness in the Authentic
Intelligence; the knowing principle must be one and the
selfsame with that which knows of the knowing.
The contrary supposition would give us two beings, one that
merely knows, and another separate being that knows of the act
of knowing.
If we are answered that the distinction is merely a process of
our thought, then, at once, the theory of a plurality in the
Divine Hypostasis is abandoned: further, the question is
opened whether our thought can entertain a knowing principle
so narrowed to its knowing as not to know that it knows a
limitation which would be charged as imbecility even in
ourselves, who if but of very ordinary moral force are always
master of our emotions and mental processes.
No: The Divine Mind in its mentation thinks itself; the object
of the thought is nothing external: Thinker and Thought are
one; therefore in its thinking and knowing it possesses itself,
observes itself and sees itself not as something unconscious but
as knowing: in this Primal Knowing it must include, as one and
the same Act, the knowledge of the knowing; and even the
logical distinction mentioned above cannot be made in the case
of the Divine; the very eternity of its selfthinking precludes
any such separation between that intellective act and the
consciousness of the act.
The absurdity becomes still more blatant if we introduce yet a
further distinction after that which affirms the knowledge of
the knowing, a third distinction affirming the knowing of the
knowledge of the knowing: yet there is no reason against
carrying on the division for ever and ever.
To increase the Primals by making the Supreme Mind
engender the ReasonPrinciple, and this again engender in the
Soul a distinct power to act as mediator between Soul and the
Supreme Mind, this is to deny intellection to the Soul, which
would no longer derive its Reason from the Intellectual
Principle but from an intermediate: the Soul then would
possess not the ReasonPrinciple but an image of it: the Soul
could not know the IntellectualPrinciple; it could have no
intellection.
2. Therefore we must affirm no more than these three Primals:
we are not to introduce superfluous distinctions which their
nature rejects. We are to proclaim one IntellectualPrinciple
unchangeably the same, in no way subject to decline, acting in
imitation, as true as its nature allows, of the Father.
And as to our own Soul we are to hold that it stands, in part,
always in the presence of The Divine Beings, while in part it is
concerned with the things of this sphere and in part occupies a
middle ground. It is one nature in graded powers; and
sometimes the Soul in its entirety is borne along by the loftiest
in itself and in the Authentic Existent; sometimes, the less
noble part is dragged down and drags the midsoul with it,
though the law is that the Soul may never succumb entire.
The Soul's disaster falls upon it when it ceases to dwell in the
perfect Beauty the appropriate dwellingplace of that Soul
which is no part and of which we too are no part thence to
pour forth into the frame of the All whatsoever the All can
hold of good and beauty. There that Soul rests, free from all
solicitude, not ruling by plan or policy, not redressing, but
establishing order by the marvellous efficacy of its
contemplation of the things above it.
For the measure of its absorption in that vision is the measure
of its grace and power, and what it draws from this
contemplation it communicates to the lower sphere,
illuminated and illuminating always.
3. Ever illuminated, receiving light unfailing, the AllSoul
imparts it to the entire series of later Being which by this light
is sustained and fostered and endowed with the fullest measure
of life that each can absorb. It may be compared with a central
fire warming every receptive body within range.
Our fire, however, is a thing of limited scope: given powers
that have no limitation and are never cut off from the Authentic
Existences, how imagine anything existing and yet failing to
receive from them?
It is of the essence of things that each gives of its being to
another: without this communication, The Good would not be
Good, nor the IntellectualPrinciple an Intellective Principle,
nor would Soul itself be what it is: the law is, "some life after
the Primal Life, a second where there is a first; all linked in
one unbroken chain; all eternal; divergent types being
engendered only in the sense of being secondary."
In other words, things commonly described as generated have
never known a beginning: all has been and will be. Nor can
anything disappear unless where a later form is possible:
without such a future there can be no dissolution.
If we are told that there is always Matter as a possible term, we
ask why then should not Matter itself come to nothingness. If
we are told it may, then we ask why it should ever have been
generated. If the answer comes that it had its necessary place
as the ultimate of the series, we return that the necessity still
holds.
With Matter left aside as wholly isolated, the Divine Beings
are not everywhere but in some bounded place, walled off, so
to speak; if that is not possible, Matter itself must receive the
Divine light [and so cannot be annihilated].
4. To those who assert that creation is the work of the Soul
after the failing of its wings, we answer that no such disgrace
could overtake the Soul of the All. If they tell us of its falling,
they must tell us also what caused the fall. And when did it
take place? If from eternity, then the Soul must be essentially a
fallen thing: if at some one moment, why not before that?
We assert its creative act to be a proof not of decline but rather
of its steadfast hold. Its decline could consist only in its
forgetting the Divine: but if it forgot, how could it create?
Whence does it create but from the things it knew in the
Divine? If it creates from the memory of that vision, it never
fell. Even supposing it to be in some dim intermediate state, it
need not be supposed more likely to decline: any inclination
would be towards its Prior, in an effort to the clearer vision. If
any memory at all remained, what other desire could it have
than to retrace the way?
What could it have been planning to gain by worldcreating?
Glory? That would be absurd a motive borrowed from the
sculptors of our earth.
Finally, if the Soul created by policy and not by sheer need of
its nature, by being characteristically the creative power how
explain the making of this universe?
And when will it destroy the work? If it repents of its work,
what is it waiting for? If it has not yet repented, then it will
never repent: it must be already accustomed to the world, must
be growing more tender towards it with the passing of time.
Can it be waiting for certain souls still here? Long since would
these have ceased returning for such rebirth, having known in
former life the evils of this sphere; long since would they have
foreborne to come.
Nor may we grant that this world is of unhappy origin because
there are many jarring things in it. Such a judgement would
rate it too high, treating it as the same with the Intelligible
Realm and not merely its reflection.
And yet what reflection of that world could be conceived
more beautiful than this of ours? What fire could be a nobler
reflection of the fire there than the fire we know here? Or what
other earth than this could have been modelled after that earth?
And what globe more minutely perfect than this, or more
admirably ordered in its course could have been conceived in
the image of the selfcentred circling of the World of
Intelligibles? And for a sun figuring the Divine sphere, if it is
to be more splendid than the sun visible to us, what a sun it
must be.
5. Still more unreasonably:
There are men, bound to human bodies and subject to desire,
grief, anger, who think so generously of their own faculty that
they declare themselves in contact with the Intelligible World,
but deny that the sun possesses a similar faculty less subject to
influence, to disorder, to change; they deny that it is any wiser
than we, the late born, hindered by so many cheats on the way
towards truth.
Their own soul, the soul of the least of mankind, they declare
deathless, divine; but the entire heavens and the stars within
the heavens have had no communion with the Immortal
Principle, though these are far purer and lovelier than their own
souls yet they are not blind to the order, the shapely pattern,
the discipline prevailing in the heavens, since they are the
loudest in complaint of the disorder that troubles our earth. We
are to imagine the deathless Soul choosing of design the less
worthy place, and preferring to abandon the nobler to the Soul
that is to die.
Equally unreasonable is their introduction of that other Soul
which they piece together from the elements.
How could any form or degree of life come about by a blend of
the elements? Their conjunction could produce only a warm or
cold or an intermediate substance, something dry or wet or
intermediate.
Besides, how could such a soul be a bond holding the four
elements together when it is a later thing and rises from them?
And this element soul is described as possessing
consciousness and will and the rest what can we think?
Furthermore, these teachers, in their contempt for this creation
and this earth, proclaim that another earth has been made for
them into which they are to enter when they depart. Now this
new earth is the ReasonForm [the Logos] of our world. Why
should they desire to live in the archetype of a world abhorrent
to them?
Then again, what is the origin of that pattern world? It would
appear, from the theory, that the Maker had already declined
towards the things of this sphere before that pattern came into
being.
Now let us suppose the Maker craving to construct such an
Intermediate World though what motive could He have? in
addition to the Intellectual world which He eternally possesses.
If He made the midworld first, what end was it to serve?
To be a dwellingplace for Souls?
How then did they ever fall from it? It exists in vain.
If He made it later than this world abstracting the formalidea
of this world and leaving the Matter out the Souls that have
come to know that intermediate sphere would have
experienced enough to keep them from entering this. If the
meaning is simply that Souls exhibit the IdealForm of the
Universe, what is there distinctive in the teaching?
6. And, what are we to think of the new forms of being they
introduce their "Exiles" and "Impressions" and "Repentings"?
If all comes to states of the Soul "Repentance" when it has
undergone a change of purpose; "Impressions" when it
contemplates not the Authentic Existences but their simulacra
there is nothing here but a jargon invented to make a case for
their school: all this terminology is piled up only to conceal
their debt to the ancient Greek philosophy which taught,
clearly and without bombast, the ascent from the cave and the
gradual advance of souls to a truer and truer vision.
For, in sum, a part of their doctrine comes from Plato; all the
novelties through which they seek to establish a philosophy of
their own have been picked up outside of the truth.
From Plato come their punishments, their rivers of the
underworld and the changing from body to body; as for the
plurality they assert in the Intellectual Realm the Authentic
Existent, the IntellectualPrinciple, the Second Creator and the
Soul all this is taken over from the Timaeus, where we read:
"As many IdealForms as the Divine Mind beheld dwelling
within the Veritably Living Being, so many the Maker
resolved should be contained in this All."
Misunderstanding their text, they conceived one Mind
passively including within itself all that has being, another
mind, a distinct existence, having vision, and a third planning
the Universe though often they substitute Soul for this
planning Mind as the creating Principle and they think that
this third being is the Creator according to Plato.
They are in fact quite outside of the truth in their identification
of the Creator.
In every way they misrepresent Plato's theory as to the method
of creation as in many other respects they dishonour his
teaching: they, we are to understand, have penetrated the
Intellectual Nature, while Plato and all those other illustrious
teachers have failed.
They hope to get the credit of minute and exact identification
by setting up a plurality of intellectual Essences; but in reality
this multiplication lowers the Intellectual Nature to the level of
the SenseKind: their true course is to seek to reduce number to
the least possible in the Supreme, simply referring all things to
the Second Hypostasis which is all that exists as it is Primal
Intellect and Reality and is the only thing that is good except
only for the first Nature and to recognize Soul as the third
Principle, accounting for the difference among souls merely by
diversity of experience and character. Instead of insulting those
venerable teachers they should receive their doctrine with the
respect due to the older thought and honour all that noble
system an immortal soul, an Intellectual and Intelligible
Realm, the Supreme God, the Soul's need of emancipation
from all intercourse with the body, the fact of separation from
it, the escape from the world of process to the world of
essentialbeing. These doctrines, all emphatically asserted by
Plato, they do well to adopt: where they differ, they are at full
liberty to speak their minds, but not to procure assent for their
own theories by flaying and flouting the Greeks: where they
have a divergent theory to maintain they must establish it by its
own merits, declaring their own opinions with courtesy and
with philosophical method and stating the controverted opinion
fairly; they must point their minds towards the truth and not
hunt fame by insult, reviling and seeking in their own persons
to replace men honoured by the fine intelligences of ages past.
As a matter of fact the ancient doctrine of the Divine Essences
was far the sounder and more instructed, and must be accepted
by all not caught in the delusions that beset humanity: it is easy
also to identify what has been conveyed in these later times
from the ancients with incongruous novelties how for
example, where they must set up a contradictory doctrine, they
introduce a medley of generation and destruction, how they
cavil at the Universe, how they make the Soul blameable for
the association with body, how they revile the Administrator of
this All, how they ascribe to the Creator, identified with the
Soul, the character and experiences appropriate to partial be
beings.
7. That this world has neither beginning nor end but exists for
ever as long as the Supreme stands is certainly no novel
teaching. And before this school rose it had been urged that
commerce with the body is no gain to a Soul.
But to treat the human Soul as a fair presentment of the Soul of
the Universe is like picking out potters and blacksmiths and
making them warrant for discrediting an entire wellordered
city.
We must recognize how different is the governance exercised
by the AllSoul; the relation is not the same: it is not in fetters.
Among the very great number of differences it should not have
been overlooked that the We [the human Soul] lies under
fetter; and this in a second limitation, for the BodyKind,
already fettered within the AllSoul, imprisons all that it
grasps.
But the Soul of the Universe cannot be in bond to what itself
has bound: it is sovereign and therefore immune of the lower
things, over which we on the contrary are not masters. That in
it which is directed to the Divine and Transcendent is ever
unmingled, knows no encumbering; that in it which imparts
life to the body admits nothing bodily to itself. It is the general
fact that an inset [as the Body], necessarily shares the
conditions of its containing principle [as the Soul], and does
not communicate its own conditions where that principle has
an independent life: thus a graft will die if the stock dies, but
the stock will live on by its proper life though the graft wither.
The fire within your own self may be quenched, but the thing,
fire, will exist still; and if fire itself were annihilated that
would make no difference to the Soul, the Soul in the Supreme,
but only to the plan of the material world; and if the other
elements sufficed to maintain a Kosmos, the Soul in the
Supreme would be unconcerned.
The constitution of the All is very different from that of the
single, separate forms of life: there, the established rule
commanding to permanence is sovereign; here things are like
deserters kept to their own place and duty by a double bond;
there is no outlet from the All, and therefore no need of
restraining or of driving errants back to bounds: all remains
where from the beginning the Soul's nature appointed.
The natural movement within the plan will be injurious to
anything whose natural tendency it opposes: one group will
sweep bravely onward with the great total to which it is
adapted; the others, not able to comply with the larger order,
are destroyed. A great choral is moving to its concerted plan;
midway in the march, a tortoise is intercepted; unable to get
away from the choral line it is trampled under foot; but if it
could only range itself within the greater movement it too
would suffer nothing.
8. To ask why the Soul has created the Kosmos, is to ask why
there is a Soul and why a Creator creates. The question, also,
implies a beginning in the eternal and, further, represents
creation as the act of a changeful Being who turns from this to
that.
Those that so think must be instructed if they would but bear
with correction in the nature of the Supernals, and brought to
desist from that blasphemy of majestic powers which comes so
easily to them, where all should be reverent scruple.
Even in the administration of the Universe there is no ground
for such attack, for it affords manifest proof of the greatness of
the Intellectual Kind.
This All that has emerged into life is no amorphous structure
like those lesser forms within it which are born night and day
out of the lavishness of its vitality the Universe is a life
organized, effective, complex, allcomprehensive, displaying
an unfathomable wisdom. How, then, can anyone deny that it
is a clear image, beautifully formed, of the Intellectual
Divinities? No doubt it is copy, not original; but that is its very
nature; it cannot be at once symbol and reality. But to say that
it is an inadequate copy is false; nothing has been left out
which a beautiful representation within the physical order
could include.
Such a reproduction there must necessarily be though not by
deliberation and contrivance for the Intellectual could not be
the last of things, but must have a double Act, one within itself
and one outgoing; there must, then, be something later than the
Divine; for only the thing with which all power ends fails to
pass downwards something of itself. In the Supreme there
flourishes a marvellous vigour, and therefore it produces.
Since there is no Universe nobler than this, is it not clear what
this must be? A representation carrying down the features of
the Intellectual Realm is necessary; there is no other Kosmos
than this; therefore this is such a representation.
This earth of ours is full of varied lifeforms and of immortal
beings; to the very heavens it is crowded. And the stars, those
of the upper and the under spheres, moving in their ordered
path, fellowtravellers with the universe, how can they be less
than gods? Surely they must be morally good: what could
prevent them? All that occasions vice here below is unknown
there evil of body, perturbed and perturbing.
Knowledge, too; in their unbroken peace, what hinders them
from the intellectual grasp of the GodHead and the Intellectual
Gods? What can be imagined to give us a wisdom higher than
belongs to the Supernals? Could anyone, not fallen to utter
folly, bear with such an idea?
Admitting that human Souls have descended under constraint
of the AllSoul, are we to think the constrained the nobler?
Among Souls, what commands must be higher than what
obeys. And if the coming was unconstrained, why find fault
with a world you have chosen and can quit if you dislike it?
And further, if the order of this Universe is such that we are
able, within it, to practise wisdom and to live our earthly
course by the Supernal, does not that prove it a dependency of
the Divine?
9. Wealth and poverty, and all inequalities of that order, are
made ground of complaint. But this is to ignore that the Sage
demands no equality in such matters: he cannot think that to
own many things is to be richer or that the powerful have the
better of the simple; he leaves all such preoccupations to
another kind of man. He has learned that life on earth has two
distinct forms, the way of the Sage and the way of the mass,
the Sage intent upon the sublimest, upon the realm above,
while those of the more strictly human type fall, again, under
two classes, the one reminiscent of virtue and therefore not
without touch with good, the other mere populace, serving to
provide necessaries to the better sort.
But what of murder? What of the feebleness that brings men
under slavery to the passions?
Is it any wonder that there should be failing and error, not in
the highest, the intellectual, Principle but in Souls that are like
undeveloped children? And is not life justified even so if it is a
training ground with its victors and its vanquished?
You are wronged; need that trouble an immortal? You are put
to death; you have attained your desire. And from the moment
your citizenship of the world becomes irksome you are not
bound to it.
Our adversaries do not deny that even here there is a system of
law and penalty: and surely we cannot in justice blame a
dominion which awards to every one his due, where virtue has
its honour, and vice comes to its fitting shame, in which there
are not merely representations of the gods, but the gods
themselves, watchers from above, and as we read easily
rebutting human reproaches, since they lead all things in order
from a beginning to an end, allotting to each human being, as
life follows life, a fortune shaped to all that has preceded the
destiny which, to those that do not penetrate it, becomes the
matter of boorish insolence upon things divine.
A man's one task is to strive towards making himself perfect
though not in the idea really fatal to perfection that to be
perfect is possible to himself alone.
We must recognize that other men have attained the heights of
goodness; we must admit the goodness of the celestial spirits,
and above all of the gods those whose presence is here but
their contemplation in the Supreme, and loftiest of them, the
lord of this All, the most blessed Soul. Rising still higher, we
hymn the divinities of the Intellectual Sphere, and, above all
these, the mighty King of that dominion, whose majesty is
made patent in the very multitude of the gods.
It is not by crushing the divine unto a unity but by displaying
its exuberance as the Supreme himself has displayed it that
we show knowledge of the might of God, who, abidingly what
He is, yet creates that multitude, all dependent on Him,
existing by Him and from Him.
This Universe, too, exists by Him and looks to Him the
Universe as a whole and every God within it and tells of Him
to men, all alike revealing the plan and will of the Supreme.
These, in the nature of things, cannot be what He is, but that
does not justify you in contempt of them, in pushing yourself
forward as not inferior to them.
The more perfect the man, the more compliant he is, even
towards his fellows; we must temper our importance, not
thrusting insolently beyond what our nature warrants; we must
allow other beings, also, their place in the presence of the
Godhead; we may not set ourselves alone next after the First in
a dreamflight which deprives us of our power of attaining
identity with the Godhead in the measure possible to the
human Soul, that is to say, to the point of likeness to which the
IntellectualPrinciple leads us; to exalt ourselves above the
IntellectualPrinciple is to fall from it.
Yet imbeciles are found to accept such teaching at the mere
sound of the words "You, yourself, are to be nobler than all
else, nobler than men, nobler than even gods." Human audacity
is very great: a man once modest, restrained and simple hears,
"You, yourself, are the child of God; those men whom you
used to venerate, those beings whose worship they inherit from
antiquity, none of these are His children; you without lifting a
hand are nobler than the very heavens"; others take up the cry:
the issue will be much as if in a crowd all equally ignorant of
figures, one man were told that he stands a thousand cubic feet;
he will naturally accept his thousand cubits even though the
others present are said to measure only five cubits; he will
merely tell himself that the thousand indicates a considerable
figure.
Another point: God has care for you; how then can He be
indifferent to the entire Universe in which you exist?
We may be told that He is too much occupied to look upon the
Universe, and that it would not be right for Him to do so; yet,
when He looks down and upon these people, is He not looking
outside Himself and upon the Universe in which they exist? If
He cannot look outside Himself so as to survey the Kosmos,
then neither does He look upon them.
But they have no need of Him?
The Universe has need of Him, and He knows its ordering and
its indwellers and how far they belong to it and how far to the
Supreme, and which of the men upon it are friends of God,
mildly acquiescing with the Kosmic dispensation when in the
total course of things some pain must be brought to them for
we are to look not to the single will of any man but to the
universe entire, regarding every one according to worth but not
stopping for such things where all that may is hastening
onward.
Not one only kind of being is bent upon this quest, which
brings bliss to whatsoever achieves, and earns for the others a
future destiny in accord with their power. No man, therefore,
may flatter himself that he alone is competent; a pretension is
not a possession; many boast though fully conscious of their
lack and many imagine themselves to possess what was never
theirs and even to be alone in possessing what they alone of
men never had.
10. Under detailed investigation, many other tenets of this
school indeed we might say all could be corrected with an
abundance of proof. But I am withheld by regard for some of
our own friends who fell in with this doctrine before joining
our circle and, strangely, still cling to it.
The school, no doubt, is freespoken enough whether in the
set purpose of giving its opinions a plausible colour of verity or
in honest belief but we are addressing here our own
acquaintances, not those people with whom we could make no
way. We have spoken in the hope of preventing our friends
from being perturbed by a party which brings, not proof how
could it? but arbitrary, tyrannical assertion; another style of
address would be applicable to such as have the audacity to
flout the noble and true doctrines of the august teachers of
antiquity.
That method we will not apply; anyone that has fully grasped
the preceding discussion will know how to meet every point in
the system.
Only one other tenet of theirs will be mentioned before passing
the matter; it is one which surpasses all the rest in sheer folly,
if that is the word.
They first maintain that the Soul and a certain "Wisdom"
[Sophia] declined and entered this lower sphere though they
leave us in doubt of whether the movement originated in Soul
or in this Sophia of theirs, or whether the two are the same to
them then they tell us that the other Souls came down in the
descent and that these members of Sophia took to themselves
bodies, human bodies, for example.
Yet in the same breath, that very Soul which was the occasion
of descent to the others is declared not to have descended. "It
knew no decline," but merely illuminated the darkness in such
a way that an image of it was formed upon the Matter. Then,
they shape an image of that image somewhere below through
the medium of Matter or of Materiality or whatever else of
many names they choose to give it in their frequent change of
terms, invented to darken their doctrine and so they bring into
being what they call the Creator or Demiurge, then this lower
is severed from his Mother [Sophia] and becomes the author of
the Kosmos down to the latest of the succession of images
constituting it.
Such is the blasphemy of one of their writers.
11. Now, in the first place, if the Soul has not actually come
down but has illuminated the darkness, how can it truly be said
to have declined? The outflow from it of something in the
nature of light does not justify the assertion of its decline; for
that, it must make an actual movement towards the object lying
in the lower realm and illuminate it by contact.
If, on the other hand, the Soul keeps to its own place and
illuminates the lower without directing any act towards that
end, why should it alone be the illuminant? Why should not the
Kosmos draw light also from the yet greater powers contained
in the total of existence?
Again, if the Soul possesses the plan of a Universe, and by
virtue of this plan illuminates it, why do not that illumination
and the creating of the world take place simultaneously? Why
must the Soul wait till the representations of the plan be made
actual?
Then again this Plan the "Far Country" of their terminology
brought into being, as they hold, by the greater powers, could
not have been the occasion of decline to the creators.
Further, how explain that under this illumination the Matter of
the Kosmos produces images of the order of Soul instead of
mere bodilynature? An image of Soul could not demand
darkness or Matter, but wherever formed it would exhibit the
character of the producing element and remain in close union
with it.
Next, is this image a realbeing, or, as they say, an Intellection?
If it is a reality, in what way does it differ from its original? By
being a distinct form of the Soul? But then, since the original is
the reasoning Soul, this secondary form must be the vegetative
and generative Soul; and then, what becomes of the theory that
it is produced for glory's sake, what becomes of the creation in
arrogance and selfassertion? The theory puts an end also to
creation by representation and, still more decidedly, to any
thinking in the act; and what need is left for a creator creating
by way of Matter and Image?
If it is an Intellection, then we ask first "What justifies the
name?" and next, "How does anything come into being unless
the Soul give this Intellection creative power and how, after
all, can creative power reside in a created thing?" Are we to be
told that it is a question of a first Image followed by a second?
But this is quite arbitrary.
And why is fire the first creation?
12. And how does this image set to its task immediately after it
comes into being?
By memory of what it has seen?
But it was utterly nonexistent, it could have no vision, either it
or the Mother they bestow upon it.
Another difficulty: These people come upon earth not as Soul
Images but as veritable Souls; yet, by great stress and strain,
one or two of them are able to stir beyond the limits of the
world, and when they do attain Reminiscence barely carry with
them some slight recollection of the Sphere they once knew:
on the other hand, this Image, a newcomer into being, is able,
they tell us as also is its Mother to form at least some dim
representation of the celestial world. It is an Image, stamped in
Matter, yet it not merely has the conception of the Supreme
and adopts from that world the plan of this, but knows what
elements serve the purpose. How, for instance, did it come to
make fire before anything else? What made it judge fire a
better first than some other object?
Again, if it created the fire of the Universe by thinking of fire,
why did it not make the Universe at a stroke by thinking of the
Universe? It must have conceived the product complete from
the first; the constituent elements would be embraced in that
general conception.
The creation must have been in all respects more according to
the way of Nature than to that of the arts for the arts are of
later origin than Nature and the Universe, and even at the
present stage the partial things brought into being by the
natural Kinds do not follow any such order first fire, then the
several other elements, then the various blends of these on the
contrary the living organism entire is encompassed and
rounded off within the uterine germ. Why should not the
material of the Universe be similarly embraced in a Kosmic
Type in which earth, fire and the rest would be included? We
can only suppose that these people themselves, acting by their
more authentic Soul, would have produced the world by such a
process, but that the Creator had not wit to do so.
And yet to conceive the vast span of the Heavens to be great
in that degree to devise the obliquity of the Zodiac and the
circling path of all the celestial bodies beneath it, and this earth
of ours and all in such a way that reason can be given for the
plan this could never be the work of an Image; it tells of that
Power [the AllSoul] next to the very Highest Beings.
Against their will, they themselves admit this: their "outshining
upon the darkness," if the doctrine is sifted, makes it
impossible to deny the true origins of the Kosmos.
Why should this downshining take place unless such a process
belonged to a universal law?
Either the process is in the order of Nature or against that
order. If it is in the nature of things, it must have taken place
from eternity; if it is against the nature of things, then the
breach of natural right exists in the Supreme also; evil
antedates this world; the cause of evil is not the world; on the
contrary the Supreme is the evil to us; instead of the Soul's
harm coming from this sphere, we have this Sphere harmed by
the Soul.
In fine, the theory amounts to making the world one of the
Primals, and with it the Matter from which it emerges.
The Soul that declined, they tell us, saw and illuminated the
already existent Darkness. Now whence came that Darkness?
If they tell us that the Soul created the Darkness by its Decline,
then, obviously, there was nowhere for the Soul to decline to;
the cause of the decline was not the Darkness but the very
nature of the Soul. The theory, therefore, refers the entire
process to preexisting compulsions: the guilt inheres in the
Primal Beings.
13. Those, then, that censure the constitution of the Kosmos do
not understand what they are doing or where this audacity
leads them. They do not understand that there is a successive
order of Primals, Secondaries, Tertiaries and so on
continuously to the Ultimates; that nothing is to be blamed for
being inferior to the First; that we can but accept, meekly, the
constitution of the total, and make our best way towards the
Primals, withdrawing from the tragic spectacle, as they see it,
of the Kosmic spheres which in reality are all suave
graciousness.
And what, after all, is there so terrible in these Spheres with
which it is sought to frighten people unaccustomed to thinking,
never trained in an instructive and coherent gnosis?
Even the fact that their material frame is of fire does not make
them dreadful; their Movements are in keeping with the All
and with the Earth: but what we must consider in them is the
Soul, that on which these people base their own title to honour.
And, yet, again, their material frames are preeminent in
vastness and beauty, as they cooperate in act and in influence
with the entire order of Nature, and can never cease to exist as
long as the Primals stand; they enter into the completion of the
All of which they are major Parts.
If men rank highly among other living Beings, much more do
these, whose office in the All is not to play the tyrant but to
serve towards beauty and order. The action attributed to them
must be understood as a foretelling of coming events, while the
causing of all the variety is due, in part to diverse destinies for
there cannot be one lot for the entire body of men in part to
the birth moment, in part to wide divergencies of place, in part
to states of the Souls.
Once more, we have no right to ask that all men shall be good,
or to rush into censure because such universal virtue is not
possible: this would be repeating the error of confusing our
sphere with the Supreme and treating evil as a nearly
negligible failure in wisdom as good lessened and dwindling
continuously, a continuous fading out; it would be like calling
the NaturePrinciple evil because it is not SensePerception
and the thing of sense evil for not being a ReasonPrinciple. If
evil is no more than that, we will be obliged to admit evil in the
Supreme also, for there, too, Soul is less exalted than the
IntellectualPrinciple, and That too has its Superior.
14. In yet another way they infringe still more gravely upon the
inviolability of the Supreme.
In the sacred formulas they inscribe, purporting to address the
Supernal Beings not merely the Soul but even the
Transcendents they are simply uttering spells and
appeasements and evocations in the idea that these Powers will
obey a call and be led about by a word from any of us who is
in some degree trained to use the appropriate forms in the
appropriate way certain melodies, certain sounds, specially
directed breathings, sibilant cries, and all else to which is
ascribed magic potency upon the Supreme. Perhaps they would
repudiate any such intention: still they must explain how these
things act upon the unembodied: they do not see that the power
they attribute to their own words is so much taken away from
the majesty of the divine.
They tell us they can free themselves of diseases.
If they meant, by temperate living and an appropriate regime,
they would be right and in accordance with all sound
knowledge. But they assert diseases to be SpiritBeings and
boast of being able to expel them by formula: this pretension
may enhance their importance with the crowd, gaping upon the
powers of magicians; but they can never persuade the
intelligent that disease arises otherwise than from such causes
as overstrain, excess, deficiency, putrid decay; in a word, some
variation whether from within or from without.
The nature of illness is indicated by its very cure. A motion, a
medicine, the letting of blood, and the disease shifts down and
away; sometimes scantiness of nourishment restores the
system: presumably the Spiritual power gets hungry or is
debilitated by the purge. Either this Spirit makes a hasty exit or
it remains within. If it stays, how does the disease disappear,
with the cause still present? If it quits the place, what has
driven it out? Has anything happened to it? Are we to suppose
it throve on the disease? In that case the disease existed as
something distinct from the SpiritPower. Then again, if it
steps in where no cause of sickness exists, why should there be
anything else but illness? If there must be such a cause, the
Spirit is unnecessary: that cause is sufficient to produce that
fever. As for the notion, that just when the cause presents
itself, the watchful Spirit leaps to incorporate itself with it, this
is simply amusing.
But the manner and motive of their teaching have been
sufficiently exhibited; and this was the main purpose of the
discussion here upon their SpiritPowers. I leave it to
yourselves to read the books and examine the rest of the
doctrine: you will note all through how our form of philosophy
inculcates simplicity of character and honest thinking in
addition to all other good qualities, how it cultivates reverence
and not arrogant selfassertion, how its boldness is balanced by
reason, by careful proof, by cautious progression, by the
utmost circumspection and you will compare those other
systems to one proceeding by this method. You will find that
the tenets of their school have been huddled together under a
very different plan: they do not deserve any further
examination here.
15. There is, however, one matter which we must on no
account overlook the effect of these teachings upon the
hearers led by them into despising the world and all that is in
it.
There are two theories as to the attainment of the End of life.
The one proposes pleasure, bodily pleasure, as the term; the
other pronounces for good and virtue, the desire of which
comes from God and moves, by ways to be studied elsewhere,
towards God.
Epicurus denies a Providence and recommends pleasure and its
enjoyment, all that is left to us: but the doctrine under
discussion is still more wanton; it carps at Providence and the
Lord of Providence; it scorns every law known to us;
immemorial virtue and all restraint it makes into a laughing
stock, lest any loveliness be seen on earth; it cuts at the root of
all orderly living, and of the righteousness which, innate in the
moral sense, is made perfect by thought and by selfdiscipline:
all that would give us a noble human being is gone. What is
left for them except where the pupil by his own character
betters the teaching comes to pleasure, selfseeking, the
grudge of any share with one's fellows, the pursuit of
advantage.
Their error is that they know nothing good here: all they care
for is something else to which they will at some future time
apply themselves: yet, this world, to those that have known it
once, must be the startingpoint of the pursuit: arrived here
from out of the divine nature, they must inaugurate their effort
by some earthly correction. The understanding of beauty is not
given except to a nature scorning the delight of the body, and
those that have no part in welldoing can make no step towards
the Supernal.
This school, in fact, is convicted by its neglect of all mention
of virtue: any discussion of such matters is missing utterly: we
are not told what virtue is or under what different kinds it
appears; there is no word of all the numerous and noble
reflections upon it that have come down to us from the
ancients; we do not learn what constitutes it or how it is
acquired, how the Soul is tended, how it is cleaned. For to say
"Look to God" is not helpful without some instruction as to
what this looking imports: it might very well be said that one
can "look" and still sacrifice no pleasure, still be the slave of
impulse, repeating the word God but held in the grip of every
passion and making no effort to master any. Virtue, advancing
towards the Term and, linked with thought, occupying a Soul
makes God manifest: God on the lips, without a good conduct
of life, is a word.
16. On the other hand, to despise this Sphere, and the Gods
within it or anything else that is lovely, is not the way to
goodness.
Every evildoer began by despising the Gods; and one not
previously corrupt, taking to this contempt, even though in
other respects not wholly bad, becomes an evildoer by the
very fact.
Besides, in this slighting of the Mundane Gods and the world,
the honour they profess for the gods of the Intellectual Sphere
becomes an inconsistency; Where we love, our hearts are
warm also to the Kin of the beloved; we are not indifferent to
the children of our friend. Now every Soul is a child of that
Father; but in the heavenly bodies there are Souls, intellective,
holy, much closer to the Supernal Beings than are ours; for
how can this Kosmos be a thing cut off from That and how
imagine the gods in it to stand apart?
But of this matter we have treated elsewhere: here we urge that
where there is contempt for the Kin of the Supreme the
knowledge of the Supreme itself is merely verbal.
What sort of piety can make Providence stop short of earthly
concerns or set any limit whatsoever to it?
And what consistency is there in this school when they proceed
to assert that Providence cares for them, though for them
alone?
And is this Providence over them to be understood of their
existence in that other world only or of their lives here as well?
If in the other world, how came they to this? If in this world,
why are they not already raised from it?
Again, how can they deny that the Lord of Providence is here?
How else can He know either that they are here, or that in their
sojourn here they have not forgotten Him and fallen away?
And if He is aware of the goodness of some, He must know of
the wickedness of others, to distinguish good from bad. That
means that He is present to all, is, by whatever mode, within
this Universe. The Universe, therefore, must be participant in
Him.
If He is absent from the Universe, He is absent from
yourselves, and you can have nothing to tell about Him or
about the powers that come after Him.
But, allowing that a Providence reaches to you from the world
beyond making any concession to your liking it remains none
the less certain that this world holds from the Supernal and is
not deserted and will not be: a Providence watching entires is
even more likely than one over fragments only; and similarly,
Participation is more perfect in the case of the AllSoul as is
shown, further, by the very existence of things and the wisdom
manifest in their existence. Of those that advance these wild
pretensions, who is so well ordered, so wise, as the Universe?
The comparison is laughable, utterly out of place; to make it,
except as a help towards truth, would be impiety.
The very question can be entertained by no intelligent being
but only by one so blind, so utterly devoid of perception and
thought, so far from any vision of the Intellectual Universe as
not even to see this world of our own.
For who that truly perceives the harmony of the Intellectual
Realm could fail, if he has any bent towards music, to answer
to the harmony in sensible sounds? What geometrician or
arithmetician could fail to take pleasure in the symmetries,
correspondences and principles of order observed in visible
things? Consider, even, the case of pictures: those seeing by
the bodily sense the productions of the art of painting do not
see the one thing in the one only way; they are deeply stirred
by recognizing in the objects depicted to the eyes the
presentation of what lies in the idea, and so are called to
recollection of the truth the very experience out of which
Love rises. Now, if the sight of Beauty excellently reproduced
upon a face hurries the mind to that other Sphere, surely no one
seeing the loveliness lavish in the world of sense this vast
orderliness, the Form which the stars even in their remoteness
display no one could be so dullwitted, so immoveable, as not
to be carried by all this to recollection, and gripped by reverent
awe in the thought of all this, so great, sprung from that
greatness. Not to answer thus could only be to have neither
fathomed this world nor had any vision of that other.
17. Perhaps the hate of this school for the corporeal is due to
their reading of Plato who inveighs against body as a grave
hindrance to Soul and pronounces the corporeal to be
characteristically the inferior.
Then let them for the moment pass over the corporeal element
in the Universe and study all that still remains.
They will think of the Intellectual Sphere which includes
within itself the IdealForm realized in the Kosmos. They will
think of the Souls, in their ordered rank, that produce
incorporeal magnitude and lead the Intelligible out towards
spatial extension, so that finally the thing of process becomes,
by its magnitude, as adequate a representation as possible of
the principle void of parts which is its model the greatness of
power there being translated here into greatness of bulk. Then
whether they think of the Kosmic Sphere [the AllSoul] as
already in movement under the guidance of that power of God
which holds it through and through, beginning and middle and
end, or whether they consider it as in rest and exercising as yet
no outer governance: either approach will lead to a true
appreciation of the Soul that conducts this Universe.
Now let them set body within it not in the sense that Soul
suffers any change but that, since "In the Gods there can be no
grudging," it gives to its inferior all that any partial thing has
strength to receive and at once their conception of the Kosmos
must be revised; they cannot deny that the Soul of the Kosmos
has exercised such a weight of power as to have brought the
corporealprinciple, in itself unlovely, to partake of good and
beauty to the utmost of its receptivity and to a pitch which
stirs Souls, beings of the divine order.
These people may no doubt say that they themselves feel no
such stirring, and that they see no difference between beautiful
and ugly forms of body; but, at that, they can make no
distinction between the ugly and the beautiful in conduct;
sciences can have no beauty; there can be none in thought; and
none, therefore, in God. This world descends from the Firsts: if
this world has no beauty, neither has its Source; springing
thence, this world, too, must have its beautiful things. And
while they proclaim their contempt for earthly beauty, they
would do well to ignore that of youths and women so as not to
be overcome by incontinence.
In fine, we must consider that their selfsatisfaction could not
turn upon a contempt for anything indisputably base; theirs is
the perverse pride of despising what was once admired.
We must always keep in mind that the beauty in a partial thing
cannot be identical with that in a whole; nor can any several
objects be as stately as the total.
And we must recognize, that, even in the world of sense and
part, there are things of a loveliness comparable to that of the
Celestials forms whose beauty must fill us with veneration for
their creator and convince us of their origin in the divine,
forms which show how ineffable is the beauty of the Supreme
since they cannot hold us but we must, though in all
admiration, leave these for those. Further, wherever there is
interior beauty, we may be sure that inner and outer
correspond; where the interior is vile, all is brought low by that
flaw in the dominants.
Nothing base within can be beautiful without at least not with
an authentic beauty, for there are examples of a good exterior
not sprung from a beauty dominant within; people passing as
handsome but essentially base have that, a spurious and
superficial beauty: if anyone tells me he has seen people really
finelooking but interiorly vile, I can only deny it; we have
here simply a false notion of personal beauty; unless, indeed,
the inner vileness were an accident in a nature essentially fine;
in this Sphere there are many obstacles to selfrealization.
In any case the All is beautiful, and there can be no obstacle to
its inner goodness: where the nature of a thing does not
comport perfection from the beginning, there may be a failure
in complete expression; there may even be a fall to vileness,
but the All never knew a childlike immaturity; it never
experienced a progress bringing novelty into it; it never had
bodily growth: there was nowhere from whence it could take
such increment; it was always the AllContainer.
And even for its Soul no one could imagine any such a path of
process: or, if this were conceded, certainly it could not be
towards evil.
18. But perhaps this school will maintain that, while their
teaching leads to a hate and utter abandonment of the body,
ours binds the Soul down in it.
In other words: two people inhabit the one stately house; one
of them declaims against its plan and against its Architect, but
none the less maintains his residence in it; the other makes no
complaint, asserts the entire competency of the Architect and
waits cheerfully for the day when he may leave it, having no
further need of a house: the malcontent imagines himself to be
the wiser and to be the readier to leave because he has learned
to repeat that the walls are of soulless stone and timber and that
the place falls far short of a true home; he does not see that his
only distinction is in not being able to bear with necessity
assuming that his conduct, his grumbling, does not cover a
secret admiration for the beauty of those same "stones." As
long as we have bodies we must inhabit the dwellings prepared
for us by our good sister the Soul in her vast power of
labourless creation.
Or would this school reject the word Sister? They are willing
to address the lowest of men as brothers; are they capable of
such raving as to disown the tie with the Sun and the powers of
the Heavens and the very Soul of the Kosmos? Such kinship, it
is true, is not for the vile; it may be asserted only of those that
have become good and are no longer body but embodied Soul
and of a quality to inhabit the body in a mode very closely
resembling the indwelling. of the AllSoul in the universal
frame. And this means continence, selfrestraint, holding
staunch against outside pleasure and against outer spectacle,
allowing no hardship to disturb the mind. The AllSoul is
immune from shock; there is nothing that can affect it: but we,
in our passage here, must call on virtue in repelling these
assaults, reduced for us from the beginning by a great
conception of life, annulled by matured strength.
Attaining to something of this immunity, we begin to
reproduce within ourselves the Soul of the vast All and of the
heavenly bodies: when we are come to the very closest
resemblance, all the effort of our fervid pursuit will be towards
that goal to which they also tend; their contemplative vision
becomes ours, prepared as we are, first by natural disposition
and afterwards by all this training, for that state which is theirs
by the Principle of their Being.
This school may lay claim to vision as a dignity reserved to
themselves, but they are not any the nearer to vision by the
claim or by the boast that while the celestial powers, bound
for ever to the ordering of the Heavens, can never stand outside
the material universe, they themselves have their freedom in
their death. This is a failure to grasp the very notion of
"standing outside," a failure to appreciate the mode in which
the AllSoul cares for the unensouled.
No: it is possible to go free of love for the body; to be clean
living, to disregard death; to know the Highest and aim at that
other world; not to slander, as negligent in the quest, others
who are able for it and faithful to it; and not to err with those
that deny vital motion to the stars because to our sense they
stand still the error which in another form leads this school to
deny outer vision to the StarNature, only because they do not
see the StarSoul in outer manifestation.
Ennead III
First tractate: Fate
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. In the two orders of things those whose existence is that of
process and those in whom it is Authentic Being there is a
variety of possible relation to Cause.
Cause might conceivably underly all the entities in both orders
or none in either. It might underly some, only, in each order,
the others being causeless. It might, again, underly the Realm
of Process universally while in the Realm of Authentic
Existence some things were caused, others not, or all were
causeless. Conceivably, on the other hand, the Authentic
Existents are all caused while in the Realm of Process some
things are caused and others not, or all are causeless.
Now, to begin with the Eternal Existents:
The Firsts among these, by the fact that they are Firsts, cannot
be referred to outside Causes; but all such as depend upon
those Firsts may be admitted to derive their Being from them.
And in all cases the Act may be referred to the Essence [as its
cause], for their Essence consists, precisely, in giving forth an
appropriate Act.
As for Things of Process or for Eternal Existents whose Act is
not eternally invariable we must hold that these are due to
Cause; Causelessness is quite inadmissible; we can make no
place here for unwarranted "slantings," for sudden movement
of bodies apart from any initiating power, for precipitate spurts
in a soul with nothing to drive it into the new course of action.
Such causelessness would bind the Soul under an even sterner
compulsion, no longer master of itself, but at the mercy of
movements apart from will and cause. Something willed
within itself or without something desired, must lead it to
action; without motive it can have no motion.
On the assumption that all happens by Cause, it is easy to
discover the nearest determinants of any particular act or state
and to trace it plainly to them.
The cause of a visit to the centre of affairs will be that one
thinks it necessary to see some person or to receive a debt, or,
in a word, that one has some definite motive or impulse
confirmed by a judgement of expediency. Sometimes a
condition may be referred to the arts, the recovery of health for
instance to medical science and the doctor. Wealth has for its
cause the discovery of a treasure or the receipt of a gift, or the
earning of money by manual or intellectual labour. The child is
traced to the father as its Cause and perhaps to a chain of
favourable outside circumstances such as a particular diet or,
more immediately, a special organic aptitude or a wife apt to
childbirth.
And the general cause of all is Nature.
2. But to halt at these nearest determinants, not to be willing to
penetrate deeper, indicates a sluggish mind, a dullness to all
that calls us towards the primal and transcendent causes.
How comes it that the same surface causes produce different
results? There is moonshine, and one man steals and the other
does not: under the influence of exactly similar surroundings
one man falls sick and the other keeps well; an identical set of
operations makes one rich and leaves another poor. The
differences amongst us in manners, in characters, in success,
force us to go still further back.
Men therefore have never been able to rest at the surface
causes.
One school postulates material principles, such as atoms; from
the movement, from the collisions and combinations of these,
it derives the existence and the mode of being of all particular
phenomena, supposing that all depends upon how these atoms
are agglomerated, how they act, how they are affected; our
own impulses and states, even, are supposed to be determined
by these principles.
Such teaching, then, obtrudes this compulsion, an atomic
Anagke, even upon Real Being. Substitute, for the atoms, any
other material entities as principles and the cause of all things,
and at once Real Being becomes servile to the determination
set up by them.
Others rise to the firstprinciple of all that exists and from it
derive all they tell of a cause penetrating all things, not merely
moving all but making each and everything; but they pose this
as a fate and a supremely dominating cause; not merely all else
that comes into being, but even our own thinking and thoughts
would spring from its movement, just as the several members
of an animal move not at their own choice but at the dictation
of the leading principle which animal life presupposes.
Yet another school fastens on the universal Circuit as
embracing all things and producing all by its motion and by the
positions and mutual aspect of the planets and fixed stars in
whose power of foretelling they find warrant for the belief that
this Circuit is the universal determinant.
Finally, there are those that dwell on the interconnection of the
causative forces and on their linked descent every later
phenomenon following upon an earlier, one always leading
back to others by which it arose and without which it could not
be, and the latest always subservient to what went before them
but this is obviously to bring in fate by another path. This
school may be fairly distinguished into two branches; a section
which makes all depend upon some one principle and a section
which ignores such a unity.
Of this last opinion we will have something to say, but for the
moment we will deal with the former, taking the others in their
turn.
3. "Atoms" or "elements" it is in either case an absurdity, an
impossibility, to hand over the universe and its contents to
material entities, and out of the disorderly swirl thus
occasioned to call order, reasoning, and the governing soul into
being; but the atomic origin is, if we may use the phrase, the
most impossible.
A good deal of truth has resulted from the discussion of this
subject; but, even to admit such principles does not compel us
to admit universal compulsion or any kind of "fate."
Suppose the atoms to exist:
These atoms are to move, one downwards admitting a down
and an up another slantwise, all at haphazard, in a confused
conflict. Nothing here is orderly; order has not come into
being, though the outcome, this Universe, when it achieves
existence, is all order; and thus prediction and divination are
utterly impossible, whether by the laws of the science what
science can operate where there is no order? or by divine
possession and inspiration, which no less require that the future
be something regulated.
Material entities exposed to all this onslaught may very well be
under compulsion to yield to whatsoever the atoms may bring:
but would anyone pretend that the acts and states of a soul or
mind could be explained by any atomic movements? How can
we imagine that the onslaught of an atom, striking downwards
or dashing in from any direction, could force the soul to
definite and necessary reasonings or impulses or into any
reasonings, impulses or thoughts at all, necessary or otherwise?
And what of the soul's resistance to bodily states? What
movement of atoms could compel one man to be a
geometrician, set another studying arithmetic or astronomy,
lead a third to the philosophic life? In a word, if we must go,
like soulless bodies, wherever bodies push and drive us, there
is an end to our personal act and to our very existence as living
beings.
The School that erects other material forces into universal
causes is met by the same reasoning: we say that while these
can warm us and chill us, and destroy weaker forms of
existence, they can be causes of nothing that is done in the
sphere of mind or soul: all this must be traceable to quite
another kind of Principle.
4. Another theory:
The Universe is permeated by one Soul, Cause of all things
and events; every separate phenomenon as a member of a
whole moves in its place with the general movement; all the
various causes spring into action from one source: therefore, it
is argued, the entire descending claim of causes and all their
interaction must follow inevitably and so constitute a universal
determination. A plant rises from a root, and we are asked on
that account to reason that not only the interconnection linking
the root to all the members and every member to every other
but the entire activity and experience of the plant, as well, must
be one organized overruling, a "destiny" of the plant.
But such an extremity of determination, a destiny so all
pervasive, does away with the very destiny that is affirmed: it
shatters the sequence and cooperation of causes.
It would be unreasonable to attribute to destiny the movement
of our limbs dictated by the mind and will: this is no case of
something outside bestowing motion while another thing
accepts it and is thus set into action; the mind itself is the prime
mover.
Similarly in the case of the universal system; if all that
performs act and is subject to experience constitutes one
substance, if one thing does not really produce another thing
under causes leading back continuously one to another, then it
is not a truth that all happens by causes, there is nothing but a
rigid unity. We are no "We": nothing is our act; our thought is
not ours; our decisions are the reasoning of something outside
ourselves; we are no more agents than our feet are kickers
when we use them to kick with.
No; each several thing must be a separate thing; there must be
acts and thoughts that are our own; the good and evil done by
each human being must be his own; and it is quite certain that
we must not lay any vileness to the charge of the All.
5. But perhaps the explanation of every particular act or event
is rather that they are determined by the spheric movement the
Phora and by the changing position of the heavenly bodies as
these stand at setting or rising or in midcourse and in various
aspects with each other.
Augury, it is urged, is able from these indications to foretell
what is to happen not merely to the universe as a whole, but
even to individuals, and this not merely as regards external
conditions of fortune but even as to the events of the mind. We
observe, too, how growth or check in other orders of beings
animals and Plants is determined by their sympathetic
relations with the heavenly bodies and how widely they are
influenced by them, how, for example, the various countries
show a different produce according to their situation on the
earth and especially their lie towards the sun. And the effect of
place is not limited to plants and animals; it rules human
beings too, determining their appearance, their height and
colour, their mentality and their desires, their pursuits and their
moral habit. Thus the universal circuit would seem to be the
monarch of the All.
Now a first answer to this theory is that its advocates have
merely devised another shift to immolate to the heavenly
bodies all that is ours, our acts of will and our states, all the
evil in us, our entire personality; nothing is allowed to us; we
are left to be stones set rolling, not men, not beings whose
nature implies a task.
But we must be allowed our own with the understanding that
to what is primarily ours, our personal holding, there is added
some influx from the All the distinction must be made
between our individual act and what is thrust upon us: we are
not to be immolated to the stars.
Place and climate, no doubt, produce constitutions warmer or
colder; and the parents tell on the offspring, as is seen in the
resemblance between them, very general in personal
appearance and noted also in some of the unreflecting states of
the mind.
None the less, in spite of physical resemblance and similar
environment, we observe the greatest difference in
temperament and in ideas: this side of the human being, then,
derives from some quite other Principle [than any external
causation or destiny]. A further confirmation is found in the
efforts we make to correct both bodily constitution and mental
aspirations.
If the stars are held to be causing principles on the ground of
the possibility of foretelling individual fate or fortune from
observation of their positions, then the birds and all the other
things which the soothsayer observes for divination must
equally be taken as causing what they indicate.
Some further considerations will help to clarify this matter:
The heavens are observed at the moment of a birth and the
individual fate is thence predicted in the idea that the stars are
no mere indications, but active causes, of the future events.
Sometimes the Astrologers tell of noble birth; "the child is
born of highly placed parents"; yet how is it possible to make
out the stars to be causes of a condition which existed in the
father and mother previously to that star pattern on which the
prediction is based?
And consider still further:
They are really announcing the fortunes of parents from the
birth of children; the character and career of children are
included in the predictions as to the parents they predict for
the yet unborn! in the lot of one brother they are foretelling
the death of another; a girl's fate includes that of a future
husband, a boy's that of a wife.
Now, can we think that the stargrouping over any particular
birth can be the cause of what stands already announced in the
facts about the parents? Either the previous stargroupings
were the determinants of the child's future career or, if they
were not, then neither is the immediate grouping. And notice
further that physical likeness to the parents the Astrologers
hold is of purely domestic origin: this implies that ugliness
and beauty are so caused and not by astral movements.
Again, there must at one and the same time be a widespread
coming to birth men, and the most varied forms of animal life
at the same moment and these should all be under the one
destiny since the one pattern rules at the moment; how explain
that identical stargroupings give here the human form, there
the animal?
6. But in fact everything follows its own Kind; the birth is a
horse because it comes from the Horse Kind, a man by
springing from the Human Kind; offspring answers to species.
Allow the kosmic circuit its part, a very powerful influence
upon the thing brought into being: allow the stars a wide
material action upon the bodily part of the man, producing heat
and cold and their natural resultants in the physical
constitution; still does such action explain character, vocation
and especially all that seems quite independent of material
elements, a man taking to letters, to geometry, to gambling,
and becoming an originator in any of these pursuits? And can
we imagine the stars, divine beings, bestowing wickedness?
And what of a doctrine that makes them wreak vengeance, as
for a wrong, because they are in their decline or are being
carried to a position beneath the earth as if a decline from our
point of view brought any change to themselves, as if they ever
ceased to traverse the heavenly spheres and to make the same
figure around the earth.
Nor may we think that these divine beings lose or gain in
goodness as they see this one or another of the company in
various aspects, and that in their happier position they are
benignant to us and, less pleasantly situated, turn maleficent.
We can but believe that their circuit is for the protection of the
entirety of things while they furnish the incidental service of
being letters on which the augur, acquainted with that alphabet,
may look and read the future from their pattern arriving at the
thing signified by such analogies as that a soaring bird tells of
some lofty event.
7. It remains to notice the theory of the one CausingPrinciple
alleged to interweave everything with everything else, to make
things into a chain, to determine the nature and condition of
each phenomenon a Principle which, acting through seminal
ReasonForms Logoi Spermatikoi elaborates all that exists
and happens.
The doctrine is close to that which makes the Soul of the
Universe the source and cause of all condition and of all
movement whether without or supposing that we are allowed
as individuals some little power towards personal act within
ourselves.
But it is the theory of the most rigid and universal Necessity:
all the causative forces enter into the system, and so every
several phenomenon rises necessarily; where nothing escapes
Destiny, nothing has power to check or to change. Such forces
beating upon us, as it were, from one general cause leave us no
resource but to go where they drive. All our ideas will be
determined by a chain of previous causes; our doings will be
determined by those ideas; personal action becomes a mere
word. That we are the agents does not save our freedom when
our action is prescribed by those causes; we have precisely
what belongs to everything that lives, to infants guided by
blind impulses, to lunatics; all these act; why, even fire acts;
there is act in everything that follows the plan of its being,
servilely.
No one that sees the implications of this theory can hesitate:
unable to halt at such a determinant principle, we seek for
other explanations of our action.
8. What can this other cause be; one standing above those
treated of; one that leaves nothing causeless, that preserves
sequence and order in the Universe and yet allows ourselves
some reality and leaves room for prediction and augury?
Soul: we must place at the crest of the world of beings, this
other Principle, not merely the Soul of the Universe but,
included in it, the Soul of the individual: this, no mean
Principle, is needed to be the bond of union in the total of
things, not, itself, a thing sprung like things from lifeseeds,
but a firsthand Cause, bodiless and therefore supreme over
itself, free, beyond the reach of kosmic Cause: for, brought into
body, it would not be unrestrictedly sovereign; it would hold
rank in a series.
Now the environment into which this independent principle
enters, when it comes to this midpoint, will be largely led by
secondary causes [or, by chancecauses]: there will therefore
be a compromise; the action of the Soul will be in part guided
by this environment while in other matters it will be sovereign,
leading the way where it will. The nobler Soul will have the
greater power; the poorer Soul, the lesser. A soul which defers
to the bodily temperament cannot escape desire and rage and is
abject in poverty, overbearing in wealth, arbitrary in power.
The soul of nobler nature holds good against its surroundings;
it is more apt to change them than to be changed, so that often
it improves the environment and, where it must make
concession, at least keeps its innocence.
9. We admit, then, a Necessity in all that is brought about by
this compromise between will and accidental circumstance:
what room was there for anything else than the thing that is?
Given all the causes, all must happen beyond aye or nay that
is, all the external and whatever may be due to the sidereal
circuit therefore when the Soul has been modified by outer
forces and acts under that pressure so that what it does is no
more than an unreflecting acceptance of stimulus, neither the
act nor the state can be described as voluntary: so, too, when
even from within itself, it falls at times below its best and
ignores the true, the highest, laws of action.
But when our Soul holds to its ReasonPrinciple, to the guide,
pure and detached and native to itself, only then can we speak
of personal operation, of voluntary act. Things so done may
truly be described as our doing, for they have no other source;
they are the issue of the unmingled Soul, a Principle that is a
First, a leader, a sovereign not subject to the errors of
ignorance, not to be overthrown by the tyranny of the desires
which, where they can break in, drive and drag, so as to allow
of no act of ours, but mere answer to stimulus.
10. To sum the results of our argument: All things and events
are foreshown and brought into being by causes; but the
causation is of two Kinds; there are results originating from the
Soul and results due to other causes, those of the environment.
In the action of our Souls all that is done of their own motion
in the light of sound reason is the Soul's work, while what is
done where they are hindered from their own action is not so
much done as suffered. Unwisdom, then, is not due to the Soul,
and, in general if we mean by Fate a compulsion outside
ourselves an act is fated when it is contrary to wisdom.
But all our best is of our own doing: such is our nature as long
as we remain detached. The wise and good do perform acts;
their right action is the expression of their own power: in the
others it comes in the breathing spaces when the passions are
in abeyance; but it is not that they draw this occasional wisdom
from outside themselves; simply, they are for the time being
unhindered.
Ennead III
Second tractate: On providence (1)
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. To make the existence and coherent structure of this
Universe depend upon automatic activity and upon chance is
against all good sense.
Such a notion could be entertained only where there is neither
intelligence nor even ordinary perception; and reason enough
has been urged against it, though none is really necessary.
But there is still the question as to the process by which the
individual things of this sphere have come into being, how they
were made.
Some of them seem so undesirable as to cast doubts upon a
Universal Providence; and we find, on the one hand, the denial
of any controlling power, on the other the belief that the
Kosmos is the work of an evil creator.
This matter must be examined through and through from the
very first principles. We may, however, omit for the present
any consideration of the particular providence, that beforehand
decision which accomplishes or holds things in abeyance to
some good purpose and gives or withholds in our own regard:
when we have established the Universal Providence which we
affirm, we can link the secondary with it.
Of course the belief that after a certain lapse of time a Kosmos
previously nonexistent came into being would imply a
foreseeing and a reasoned plan on the part of God providing
for the production of the Universe and securing all possible
perfection in it a guidance and partial providence, therefore,
such as is indicated. But since we hold the eternal existence of
the Universe, the utter absence of a beginning to it, we are
forced, in sound and sequent reasoning, to explain the
providence ruling in the Universe as a universal consonance
with the divine Intelligence to which the Kosmos is subsequent
not in time but in the fact of derivation, in the fact that the
Divine Intelligence, preceding it in Kind, is its cause as being
the Archetype and Model which it merely images, the primal
by which, from all eternity, it has its existence and subsistence.
The relationship may be presented thus:
The authentic and primal Kosmos is the Being of the
Intellectual Principle and of the Veritable Existent. This
contains within itself no spatial distinction, and has none of the
feebleness of division, and even its parts bring no
incompleteness to it since here the individual is not severed
from the entire. In this Nature inheres all life and all intellect, a
life living and having intellection as one act within a unity:
every part that it gives forth is a whole; all its content is its
very own, for there is here no separation of thing from thing,
no part standing in isolated existence estranged from the rest,
and therefore nowhere is there any wronging of any other, any
opposition. Everywhere one and complete, it is at rest
throughout and shows difference at no point; it does not make
over any of its content into any new form; there can be no
reason for changing what is everywhere perfect.
Why should Reason elaborate yet another Reason, or
Intelligence another Intelligence? An indwelling power of
making things is in the character of a being not at all points as
it should be but making, moving, by reason of some failure in
quality. Those whose nature is all blessedness have no more to
do than to repose in themselves and be their being.
A widespread activity is dangerous to those who must go out
from themselves to act. But such is the blessedness of this
Being that in its very nonaction it magnificently operates and
in its selfdwelling it produces mightily.
2. By derivation from that Authentic Kosmos, one within itself,
there subsists this lower kosmos, no longer a true unity.
It is multiple, divided into various elements, thing standing
apart from thing in a new estrangement. No longer is there
concord unbroken; hostility, too, has entered as the result of
difference and distance; imperfection has inevitably introduced
discord; for a part is not selfsufficient, it must pursue
something outside itself for its fulfillment, and so it becomes
the enemy to what it needs.
This Kosmos of parts has come into being not as the result of a
judgement establishing its desirability, but by the sheer
necessity of a secondary Kind.
The Intellectual Realm was not of a nature to be the ultimate of
existents. It was the First and it held great power, all there is of
power; this means that it is productive without seeking to
produce; for if effort and search were incumbent upon it, the
Act would not be its own, would not spring from its essential
nature; it would be, like a craftsman, producing by a power not
inherent but acquired, mastered by dint of study.
The Intellectual Principle, then, in its unperturbed serenity has
brought the universe into being, by communicating from its
own store to Matter: and this gift is the ReasonForm flowing
from it. For the Emanation of the Intellectual Principle is
Reason, an emanation unfailing as long as the Intellectual
Principle continues to have place among beings.
The ReasonPrinciple within a seed contains all the parts and
qualities concentrated in identity; there is no distinction, no
jarring, no internal hindering; then there comes a pushing out
into bulk, part rises in distinction with part, and at once the
members of the organism stand in each other's way and begin
to wear each other down.
So from this, the One Intellectual Principle, and the Reason
Form emanating from it, our Universe rises and develops part,
and inevitably are formed groups concordant and helpful in
contrast with groups discordant and combative; sometimes of
choice and sometimes incidentally, the parts maltreat each
other; engendering proceeds by destruction.
Yet: Amid all that they effect and accept, the divine Realm
imposes the one harmonious act; each utters its own voice, but
all is brought into accord, into an ordered system, for the
universal purpose, by the ruling ReasonPrinciple. This
Universe is not Intelligence and Reason, like the Supernal, but
participant in Intelligence and Reason: it stands in need of the
harmonizing because it is the meeting ground of Necessity and
divine ReasonNecessity pulling towards the lower, towards
the unreason which is its own characteristic, while yet the
Intellectual Principle remains sovereign over it.
The Intellectual Sphere [the Divine] alone is Reason, and there
can never be another Sphere that is Reason and nothing else; so
that, given some other system, it cannot be as noble as that
first; it cannot be Reason: yet since such a system cannot be
merely Matter, which is the utterly unordered, it must be a
mixed thing. Its two extremes are Matter and the Divine
Reason; its governing principle is Soul, presiding over the
conjunction of the two, and to be thought of not as labouring in
the task but as administering serenely by little more than an act
of presence.
3. Nor would it be sound to condemn this Kosmos as less than
beautiful, as less than the noblest possible in the corporeal; and
neither can any charge be laid against its source.
The world, we must reflect, is a product of Necessity, not of
deliberate purpose: it is due to a higher Kind engendering in its
own likeness by a natural process. And none the less, a second
consideration, if a considered plan brought it into being it
would still be no disgrace to its maker for it stands a stately
whole, complete within itself, serving at once its own purpose
and that of all its parts which, leading and lesser alike, are of
such a nature as to further the interests of the total. It is,
therefore, impossible to condemn the whole on the merits of
the parts which, besides, must be judged only as they enter
harmoniously or not into the whole, the main consideration,
quite overpassing the members which thus cease to have
importance. To linger about the parts is to condemn not the
Kosmos but some isolated appendage of it; in the entire living
Being we fasten our eyes on a hair or a toe neglecting the
marvellous spectacle of the complete Man; we ignore all the
tribes and kinds of animals except for the meanest; we pass
over an entire race, humanity, and bring forward Thersites.
No: this thing that has come into Being is the Kosmos
complete: do but survey it, and surely this is the pleading you
will hear:
I am made by a God: from that God I came perfect above all
forms of life, adequate to my function, selfsufficing, lacking
nothing: for I am the container of all, that is, of every plant and
every animal, of all the Kinds of created things, and many
Gods and nations of SpiritBeings and lofty souls and men
happy in their goodness.
And do not think that, while earth is ornate with all its growths
and with living things of every race, and while the very sea has
answered to the power of Soul, do not think that the great air
and the ether and the farspread heavens remain void of it:
there it is that all good Souls dwell, infusing life into the stars
and into that orderly eternal circuit of the heavens which in its
conscious movement ever about the one Centre, seeking
nothing beyond, is a faithful copy of the divine Mind. And all
that is within me strives towards the Good; and each, to the
measure of its faculty, attains. For from that Good all the
heavens depend, with all my own Soul and the Gods that dwell
in my every part, and all that lives and grows, and even all in
me that you may judge inanimate.
But there are degrees of participation: here no more than
Existence, elsewhere Life; and, in Life, sometimes mainly that
of Sensation, higher again that of Reason, finally Life in all its
fullness. We have no right to demand equal powers in the
unequal: the finger is not to be asked to see; there is the eye for
that; a finger has its own business to be finger and have finger
power.
4. That water extinguishes fire and fire consumes other things
should not astonish us. The thing destroyed derived its being
from outside itself: this is no case of a selforiginating
substance being annihilated by an external; it rose on the ruin
of something else, and thus in its own ruin it suffers nothing
strange; and for every fire quenched, another is kindled.
In the immaterial heaven every member is unchangeably itself
for ever; in the heavens of our universe, while the whole has
life eternally and so too all the nobler and lordlier components,
the Souls pass from body to body entering into varied forms
and, when it may, a Soul will rise outside of the realm of birth
and dwell with the one Soul of all. For the embodied lives by
virtue of a Form or Idea: individual or partial things exist by
virtue of Universals; from these priors they derive their life and
maintenance, for life here is a thing of change; only in that
prior realm is it unmoving. From that unchangingness, change
had to emerge, and from that selfcloistered Life its derivative,
this which breathes and stirs, the respiration of the still life of
the divine.
The conflict and destruction that reign among living beings are
inevitable, since things here are derived, brought into existence
because the Divine Reason which contains all of them in the
upper Heavens how could they come here unless they were
There? must outflow over the whole extent of Matter.
Similarly, the very wronging of man by man may be derived
from an effort towards the Good; foiled, in their weakness, of
their true desire, they turn against each other: still, when they
do wrong, they pay the penalty that of having hurt their Souls
by their evil conduct and of degradation to a lower place for
nothing can ever escape what stands decreed in the law of the
Universe.
This is not to accept the idea, sometimes urged, that order is an
outcome of disorder and law of lawlessness, as if evil were a
necessary preliminary to their existence or their manifestation:
on the contrary order is the original and enters this sphere as
imposed from without: it is because order, law and reason exist
that there can be disorder; breach of law and unreason exist
because Reason exists not that these better things are directly
the causes of the bad but simply that what ought to absorb the
Best is prevented by its own nature, or by some accident, or by
foreign interference. An entity which must look outside itself
for a law, may be foiled of its purpose by either an internal or
an external cause; there will be some flaw in its own nature, or
it will be hurt by some alien influence, for often harm follows,
unintended, upon the action of others in the pursuit of quite
unrelated aims. Such living beings, on the other hand, as have
freedom of motion under their own will sometimes take the
right turn, sometimes the wrong.
Why the wrong course is followed is scarcely worth enquiring:
a slight deviation at the beginning develops with every advance
into a continuously wider and graver error especially since
there is the attached body with its inevitable concomitant of
desire and the first step, the hasty movement not previously
considered and not immediately corrected, ends by establishing
a set habit where there was at first only a fall.
Punishment naturally follows: there is no injustice in a man
suffering what belongs to the condition in which he is; nor can
we ask to be happy when our actions have not earned us
happiness; the good, only, are happy; divine beings are happy
only because they are good.
5. Now, once Happiness is possible at all to Souls in this
Universe, if some fail of it, the blame must fall not upon the
place but upon the feebleness insufficient to the staunch
combat in the one arena where the rewards of excellence are
offered. Men are not born divine; what wonder that they do not
enjoy a divine life. And poverty and sickness mean nothing to
the good only to the evil are they disastrous and where there
is body there must be ill health.
Besides, these accidents are not without their service in the co
ordination and completion of the Universal system.
One thing perishes, and the Kosmic Reason whose control
nothing anywhere eludes employs that ending to the
beginning of something new; and, so, when the body suffers
and the Soul, under the affliction, loses power, all that has been
bound under illness and evil is brought into a new set of
relations, into another class or order. Some of these troubles
are helpful to the very sufferers poverty and sickness, for
example and as for vice, even this brings something to the
general service: it acts as a lesson in right doing, and, in many
ways even, produces good; thus, by setting men face to face
with the ways and consequences of iniquity, it calls them from
lethargy, stirs the deeper mind and sets the understanding to
work; by the contrast of the evil under which wrongdoers
labour it displays the worth of the right. Not that evil exists for
this purpose; but, as we have indicated, once the wrong has
come to be, the Reason of the Kosmos employs it to good
ends; and, precisely, the proof of the mightiest power is to be
able to use the ignoble nobly and, given formlessness, to make
it the material of unknown forms.
The principle is that evil by definition is a falling short in good,
and good cannot be at full strength in this Sphere where it is
lodged in the alien: the good here is in something else, in
something distinct from the Good, and this something else
constitutes the falling short for it is not good. And this is why
evil is ineradicable: there is, first, the fact that in relation to this
principle of Good, thing will always stand less than thing, and,
besides, all things come into being through it and are what they
are by standing away from it.
6. As for the disregard of desert the good afflicted, the
unworthy thriving it is a sound explanation no doubt that to
the good nothing is evil and to the evil nothing can be good:
still the question remains why should what essentially offends
our nature fall to the good while the wicked enjoy all it
demands? How can such an allotment be approved?
No doubt since pleasant conditions add nothing to true
happiness and the unpleasant do not lessen the evil in the
wicked, the conditions matter little: as well complain that a
good man happens to be ugly and a bad man handsome.
Still, under such a dispensation, there would surely be a
propriety, a reasonableness, a regard to merit which, as things
are, do not appear, though this would certainly be in keeping
with the noblest Providence: even though external conditions
do not affect a man's hold upon good or evil, none the less it
would seem utterly unfitting that the bad should be the masters,
be sovereign in the state, while honourable men are slaves: a
wicked ruler may commit the most lawless acts; and in war the
worst men have a free hand and perpetrate every kind of crime
against their prisoners.
We are forced to ask how such things can be, under a
Providence. Certainly a maker must consider his work as a
whole, but none the less he should see to the due ordering of
all the parts, especially when these parts have Soul, that is, are
Living and Reasoning Beings: the Providence must reach to all
the details; its functioning must consist in neglecting no point.
Holding, therefore, as we do, despite all, that the Universe lies
under an Intellectual Principle whose power has touched every
existent, we cannot be absolved from the attempt to show in
what way the detail of this sphere is just.
7. A preliminary observation: in looking for excellence in this
thing of mixture, the Kosmos, we cannot require all that is
implied in the excellence of the unmingled; it is folly to ask for
Firsts in the Secondary, and since this Universe contains body,
we must allow for some bodily influence upon the total and be
thankful if the mingled existent lack nothing of what its nature
allowed it to receive from the Divine Reason.
Thus, supposing we were enquiring for the finest type of the
human being as known here, we would certainly not demand
that he prove identical with Man as in the Divine Intellect; we
would think it enough in the Creator to have so brought this
thing of flesh and nerve and bone under Reason as to give
grace to these corporeal elements and to have made it possible
for Reason to have contact with Matter.
Our progress towards the object of our investigation must
begin from this principle of gradation which will open to us the
wonder of the Providence and of the power by which our
universe holds its being.
We begin with evil acts entirely dependent upon the Souls
which perpetrate them the harm, for example, which perverted
Souls do to the good and to each other. Unless the foreplanning
power alone is to be charged with the vice in such Souls, we
have no ground of accusation, no claim to redress: the blame
lies on the Soul exercising its choice. Even a Soul, we have
seen, must have its individual movement; it is not abstract
Spirit; the first step towards animal life has been taken and the
conduct will naturally be in keeping with that character.
It is not because the world existed that Souls are here: before
the world was, they had it in them to be of the world, to
concern themselves with it, to presuppose it, to administer it: it
was in their nature to produce it by whatever method, whether
by giving forth some emanation while they themselves
remained above, or by an actual descent, or in both ways
together, some presiding from above, others descending; some
for we are not at the moment concerned about the mode of
creation but are simply urging that, however the world was
produced, no blame falls on Providence for what exists within
it.
There remains the other phase of the question the distribution
of evil to the opposite classes of men: the good go bare while
the wicked are rich: all that human need demands, the least
deserving have in abundance; it is they that rule; peoples and
states are at their disposal. Would not all this imply that the
divine power does not reach to earth?
That it does is sufficiently established by the fact that Reason
rules in the lower things: animals and plants have their share in
Reason, Soul and Life.
Perhaps, then, it reaches to earth but is not master over all?
We answer that the universe is one living organism: as well
maintain that while human head and face are the work of
nature and of the ruling reasonprinciple, the rest of the frame
is due to other agencies accident or sheer necessity and owes
its inferiority to this origin, or to the incompetence of unaided
Nature. And even granting that those less noble members are
not in themselves admirable it would still be neither pious nor
even reverent to censure the entire structure.
8. Thus we come to our enquiry as to the degree of excellence
found in things of this Sphere, and how far they belong to an
ordered system or in what degree they are, at least, not evil.
Now in every living being the upper parts head, face are the
most beautiful, the mid and lower members inferior. In the
Universe the middle and lower members are human beings;
above them, the Heavens and the Gods that dwell there; these
Gods with the entire circling expanse of the heavens constitute
the greater part of the Kosmos: the earth is but a central point,
and may be considered as simply one among the stars. Yet
human wrongdoing is made a matter of wonder; we are
evidently asked to take humanity as the choice member of the
Universe, nothing wiser existent!
But humanity, in reality, is poised midway between gods and
beasts, and inclines now to the one order, now to the other;
some men grow like to the divine, others to the brute, the
greater number stand neutral. But those that are corrupted to
the point of approximating to irrational animals and wild beasts
pull the midfolk about and inflict wrong upon them; the
victims are no doubt better than the wrongdoers, but are at the
mercy of their inferiors in the field in which they themselves
are inferior, where, that is, they cannot be classed among the
good since they have not trained themselves in selfdefence.
A gang of lads, morally neglected, and in that respect inferior
to the intermediate class, but in good physical training, attack
and throw another set, trained neither physically nor morally,
and make off with their food and their dainty clothes. What
more is called for than a laugh?
And surely even the lawgiver would be right in allowing the
second group to suffer this treatment, the penalty of their sloth
and selfindulgence: the gymnasium lies there before them, and
they, in laziness and luxury and listlessness, have allowed
themselves to fall like fatloaded sheep, a prey to the wolves.
But the evildoers also have their punishment: first they pay in
that very wolfishness, in the disaster to their human quality:
and next there is laid up for them the due of their Kind: living
ill here, they will not get off by death; on every precedent
through all the line there waits its sequent, reasonable and
natural worse to the bad, better to the good.
This at once brings us outside the gymnasium with its fun for
boys; they must grow up, both kinds, amid their childishness
and both one day stand girt and armed. Then there is a finer
spectacle than is ever seen by those that train in the ring. But at
this stage some have not armed themselves and the duly
armed win the day.
Not even a God would have the right to deal a blow for the
unwarlike: the law decrees that to come safe out of battle is for
fighting men, not for those that pray. The harvest comes home
not for praying but for tilling; healthy days are not for those
that neglect their health: we have no right to complain of the
ignoble getting the richer harvest if they are the only workers
in the fields, or the best.
Again: it is childish, while we carry on all the affairs of our life
to our own taste and not as the Gods would have us, to expect
them to keep all well for us in spite of a life that is lived
without regard to the conditions which the Gods have
prescribed for our wellbeing. Yet death would be better for us
than to go on living lives condemned by the laws of the
Universe. If things took the contrary course, if all the modes of
folly and wickedness brought no trouble in life then indeed we
might complain of the indifference of a Providence leaving the
victory to evil.
Bad men rule by the feebleness of the ruled: and this is just; the
triumph of weaklings would not be just.
9. It would not be just, because Providence cannot be a
something reducing us to nothingness: to think of Providence
as everything, with no other thing in existence, is to annihilate
the Universe; such a providence could have no field of action;
nothing would exist except the Divine. As things are, the
Divine, of course, exists, but has reached forth to something
other not to reduce that to nothingness but to preside over it;
thus in the case of Man, for instance, the Divine presides as the
Providence, preserving the character of human nature, that is
the character of a being under the providential law, which,
again, implies subjection to what that law may enjoin.
And that law enjoins that those who have made themselves
good shall know the best of life, here and later, the bad the
reverse. But the law does not warrant the wicked in expecting
that their prayers should bring others to sacrifice themselves
for their sakes; or that the gods should lay aside the divine life
in order to direct their daily concerns; or that good men, who
have chosen a path nobler than all earthly rule, should become
their rulers. The perverse have never made a single effort to
bring the good into authority, nor do they take any steps to
improve themselves; they are all spite against anyone that
becomes good of his own motion, though if good men were
placed in authority the total of goodness would be increased.
In sum: Man has come into existence, a living being but not a
member of the noblest order; he occupies by choice an
intermediate rank; still, in that place in which he exists,
Providence does not allow him to be reduced to nothing; on the
contrary he is ever being led upwards by all those varied
devices which the Divine employs in its labour to increase the
dominance of moral value. The human race, therefore, is not
deprived by Providence of its rational being; it retains its share,
though necessarily limited, in wisdom, intelligence, executive
power and right doing, the right doing, at least, of individuals
to each other and even in wronging others people think they
are doing right and only paying what is due.
Man is, therefore, a noble creation, as perfect as the scheme
allows; a part, no doubt, in the fabric of the All, he yet holds a
lot higher than that of all the other living things of earth.
Now, no one of any intelligence complains of these others,
man's inferiors, which serve to the adornment of the world; it
would be feeble indeed to complain of animals biting man, as
if we were to pass our days asleep. No: the animal, too, exists
of necessity, and is serviceable in many ways, some obvious
and many progressively discovered so that not one lives
without profit to itself and even to humanity. It is ridiculous,
also, to complain that many of them are dangerous there are
dangerous men abroad as well and if they distrust us, and in
their distrust attack, is that anything to wonder at?
10. But: if the evil in men is involuntary, if their own will has
not made them what they are, how can we either blame wrong
doers or even reproach their victims with suffering through
their own fault?
If there is a Necessity, bringing about human wickedness either
by force of the celestial movement or by a rigorous sequence
set up by the First Cause, is not the evil a thin rooted in
Nature? And if thus the ReasonPrinciple of the universe is the
creator of evil, surely all is injustice?
No: Men are no doubt involuntary sinners in the sense that they
do not actually desire to sin; but this does not alter the fact that
wrongdoers, of their own choice, are, themselves, the agents; it
is because they themselves act that the sin is in their own; if
they were not agents they could not sin.
The Necessity [held to underlie human wickedness] is not an
outer force [actually compelling the individual], but exists only
in the sense of a universal relationship.
Nor is the force of the celestial Movement such as to leave us
powerless: if the universe were something outside and apart
from us it would stand as its makers willed so that, once the
gods had done their part, no man, however impious, could
introduce anything contrary to their intention. But, as things
are, efficient act does come from men: given the starting
Principle, the secondary line, no doubt, is inevitably
completed; but each and every principle contributes towards
the sequence. Now Men are Principles, or, at least, they are
moved by their characteristic nature towards all that is good,
and that nature is a Principle, a freely acting cause.
11. Are we, then, to conclude that particular things are
determined by Necessities rooted in Nature and by the
sequence of causes, and that everything is as good as anything
can be?
No: the ReasonPrinciple is the sovereign, making all: it wills
things as they are and, in its reasonable act, it produces even
what we know as evil: it cannot desire all to be good: an artist
would not make an animal all eyes; and in the same way, the
ReasonPrinciple would not make all divine; it makes Gods but
also celestial spirits, the intermediate order, then men, then the
animals; all is graded succession, and this in no spirit of
grudging but in the expression of a Reason teeming with
intellectual variety.
We are like people ignorant of painting who complain that the
colours are not beautiful everywhere in the picture: but the
Artist has laid on the appropriate tint to every spot. Or we are
censuring a drama because the persons are not all heroes but
include a servant and a rustic and some scurrilous clown; yet
take away the low characters and the power of the drama is
gone; these are part and parcel of it.
12. Suppose this Universe were the direct creation of the
ReasonPrinciple applying itself, quite unchanged, to Matter,
retaining, that is, the hostility to partition which it derives from
its Prior, the Intellectual Principle then, this its product, so
produced, would be of supreme and unparalleled excellence.
But the ReasonPrinciple could not be a thing of entire identity
or even of closely compact diversity; and the mode in which it
is here manifested is no matter of censure since its function is
to be all things, each single thing in some distinctive way.
But has it not, besides itself entering Matter, brought other
beings down? Has it not for example brought Souls into Matter
and, in adapting them to its creation, twisted them against their
own nature and been the ruin of many of them? And can this
be right?
The answer is that the Souls are, in a fair sense, members of
this ReasonPrinciple and that it has not adapted them to the
creation by perverting them, but has set them in the place here
to which their quality entitles them.
13. And we must not despise the familiar observation that there
is something more to be considered than the present. There are
the periods of the past and, again, those in the future; and these
have everything to do with fixing worth of place.
Thus a man, once a ruler, will be made a slave because he
abused his power and because the fall is to his future good.
Those that have money will be made poor and to the good
poverty is no hindrance. Those that have unjustly killed, are
killed in turn, unjustly as regards the murderer but justly as
regards the victim, and those that are to suffer are thrown into
the path of those that administer the merited treatment.
It is not an accident that makes a man a slave; no one is a
prisoner by chance; every bodily outrage has its due cause. The
man once did what he now suffers. A man that murders his
mother will become a woman and be murdered by a son; a man
that wrongs a woman will become a woman, to be wronged.
Hence arises that awesome word "Adrasteia" [the Inevadable
Retribution]; for in very truth this ordinance is an Adrasteia,
justice itself and a wonderful wisdom.
We cannot but recognize from what we observe in this
universe that some such principle of order prevails throughout
the entire of existence the minutest of things a tributary to the
vast total; the marvellous art shown not merely in the mightiest
works and sublimest members of the All, but even amid such
littleness as one would think Providence must disdain: the
varied workmanship of wonder in any and every animal form;
the world of vegetation, too; the grace of fruits and even of
leaves, the lavishness, the delicacy, the diversity of exquisite
bloom; and all this not issuing once, and then to die out, but
made ever and ever anew as the Transcendent Beings move
variously over this earth.
In all the changing, there is no change by chance: there is no
taking of new forms but to desirable ends and in ways worthy
of Divine Powers. All that is Divine executes the Act of its
quality; its quality is the expression of its essential Being: and
this essential Being in the Divine is the Being whose activities
produce as one thing the desirable and the just for if the good
and the just are not produced there, where, then, have they
their being?
14. The ordinance of the Kosmos, then, is in keeping with the
Intellectual Principle. True, no reasoning went to its creation,
but it so stands that the keenest reasoning must wonder since
no reasoning could be able to make it otherwise at the
spectacle before it, a product which, even in the Kinds of the
partial and particular Sphere, displays the Divine Intelligence
to a degree in which no arranging by reason could express it.
Every one of the ceaselessly recurrent types of being manifests
a creating ReasonPrinciple above all censure. No fault is to be
found unless on the assumption that everything ought to come
into being with all the perfection of those that have never
known such a coming, the Eternals. In that case, things of the
Intellectual realm and things of the realm of sense must remain
one unbroken identity for ever.
In this demand for more good than exists, there is implied a
failure to recognize that the form allotted to each entity is
sufficient in itself; it is like complaining because one kind of
animal lacks horns. We ought to understand both that the
ReasonPrinciple must extend to every possible existent and, at
the same time, that every greater must include lesser things,
that to every whole belong its parts, and that all cannot be
equality unless all part is to be absent.
This is why in the OverWorld each entity is all, while here,
below, the single thing is not all [is not the Universe but a
"Self"]. Thus too, a man, an individual, in so far as he is a part,
is not Humanity complete: but wheresoever there is associated
with the parts something that is no part [but a Divine, an
Intellectual Being], this makes a whole of that in which it
dwells. Man, man as partial thing, cannot be required to have
attained to the very summit of goodness: if he had, he would
have ceased to be of the partial order. Not that there is any
grudging in the whole towards the part that grows in goodness
and dignity; such an increase in value is a gain to the beauty of
the whole; the lesser grows by being made over in the likeness
of the greater, by being admitted, as it were, to something of
that greatness, by sharing in that rank, and thus even from this
place of man, from man's own self, something gleams forth, as
the stars shine in the divine firmament, so that all appears one
great and lovely figure living or wrought in the furnaces of
craftsmanship with stars radiant not only in the ears and on the
brow but on the breasts too, and wherever else they may be
displayed in beauty.
15. These considerations apply very well to things considered
as standing alone: but there is a stumblingblock, a new
problem, when we think of all these forms, permanent and
ceaselessly produced, in mutual relationship.
The animals devour each other: men attack each other: all is
war without rest, without truce: this gives new force to the
question how Reason can be author of the plan and how all can
be declared well done.
This new difficulty is not met by the former answer; that all
stands as well as the nature of things allows; that the blame for
their condition falls on Matter dragging them down; that, given
the plan as we know it, evil cannot be eliminated and should
not be; that the Matter making its presence felt is still not
supreme but remains an element taken in from outside to
contribute to a definite total, or rather to be itself brought to
order by Reason.
The Divine Reason is the beginning and the end; all that comes
into being must be rational and fall at its coming into an
ordered scheme reasonable at every point. Where, then, is the
necessity of this bandit war of man and beast?
This devouring of Kind by Kind is necessary as the means to
the transmutation of living things which could not keep form
for ever even though no other killed them: what grievance is it
that when they must go their despatch is so planned as to be
serviceable to others?
Still more, what does it matter when they are devoured only to
return in some new form? It comes to no more than the murder
of one of the personages in a play; the actor alters his makeup
and enters in a new role. The actor, of course, was not really
killed; but if dying is but changing a body as the actor changes
a costume, or even an exit from the body like the exit of the
actor from the boards when he has no more to say or do, what
is there so very dreadful in this transformation of living beings
one into another?
Surely it is much better so than if they had never existed: that
way would mean the bleak quenching of life, precluded from
passing outside itself; as the plan holds, life is poured
copiously throughout a Universe, engendering the universal
things and weaving variety into their being, never at rest from
producing an endless sequence of comeliness and shapeliness,
a living pastime.
Men directing their weapons against each other under doom of
death yet neatly lined up to fight as in the pyrrhic sword
dances of their sport this is enough to tell us that all human
intentions are but play, that death is nothing terrible, that to die
in a war or in a fight is but to taste a little beforehand what old
age has in store, to go away earlier and come back the sooner.
So for misfortunes that may accompany life, the loss of
property, for instance; the loser will see that there was a time
when it was not his, that its possession is but a mock boon to
the robbers, who will in their turn lose it to others, and even
that to retain property is a greater loss than to forfeit it.
Murders, death in all its guises, the reduction and sacking of
cities, all must be to us just such a spectacle as the changing
scenes of a play; all is but the varied incident of a plot,
costume on and off, acted grief and lament. For on earth, in all
the succession of life, it is not the Soul within but the Shadow
outside of the authentic man, that grieves and complains and
acts out the plot on this world stage which men have dotted
with stages of their own constructing. All this is the doing of
man knowing no more than to live the lower and outer life, and
never perceiving that, in his weeping and in his graver doings
alike, he is but at play; to handle austere matters austerely is
reserved for the thoughtful: the other kind of man is himself a
futility. Those incapable of thinking gravely read gravity into
frivolities which correspond to their own frivolous Nature.
Anyone that joins in their trifling and so comes to look on life
with their eyes must understand that by lending himself to such
idleness he has laid aside his own character. If Socrates himself
takes part in the trifling, he trifles in the outer Socrates.
We must remember, too, that we cannot take tears and laments
as proof that anything is wrong; children cry and whimper
where there is nothing amiss.
16. But if all this is true, what room is left for evil? Where are
we to place wrongdoing and sin?
How explain that in a world organized in good, the efficient
agents [human beings] behave unjustly, commit sin? And how
comes misery if neither sin nor injustice exists?
Again, if all our action is determined by a natural process, how
can the distinction be maintained between behaviour in
accordance with nature and behaviour in conflict with it?
And what becomes of blasphemy against the divine? The
blasphemer is made what he is: a dramatist has written a part
insulting and maligning himself and given it to an actor to
play.
These considerations oblige us to state the Logos [the Reason
Principle of the Universe] once again, and more clearly, and to
justify its nature.
This ReasonPrinciple, then let us dare the definition in the
hope of conveying the truth this Logos is not the Intellectual
Principle unmingled, not the Absolute Divine Intellect; nor
does it descend from the pure Soul alone; it is a dependent of
that Soul while, in a sense, it is a radiation from both those
divine Hypostases; the Intellectual Principle and the Soul the
Soul as conditioned by the Intellectual Principle engender this
Logos which is a Life holding restfully a certain measure of
Reason.
Now all life, even the least valuable, is an activity, and not a
blind activity like that of flame; even where there is not
sensation the activity of life is no mere haphazard play of
Movement: any object in which life is present, and object
which participates in Life, is at once enreasoned in the sense
that the activity peculiar to life is formative, shaping as it
moves.
Life, then, aims at pattern as does the pantomimic dancer with
his set movements; the mime, in himself, represents life, and,
besides, his movements proceed in obedience to a pattern
designed to symbolize life.
Thus far to give us some idea of the nature of Life in general.
But this ReasonPrinciple which emanates from the complete
unity, divine Mind, and the complete unity Life [= Soul] is
neither a uniate complete Life nor a uniate complete divine
Mind, nor does it give itself whole and allincluding to its
subject. [By an imperfect communication] it sets up a conflict
of part against part: it produces imperfect things and so
engenders and maintains war and attack, and thus its unity can
be that only of a sumtotal not of a thing undivided. At war
with itself in the parts which it now exhibits, it has the unity, or
harmony, of a drama torn with struggle. The drama, of course,
brings the conflicting elements to one final harmony, weaving
the entire story of the clashing characters into one thing; while
in the Logos the conflict of the divergent elements rises within
the one element, the ReasonPrinciple: the comparison
therefore is rather with a harmony emerging directly from the
conflicting elements themselves, and the question becomes
what introduces clashing elements among these Reason
Principles.
Now in the case of music, tones high and low are the product
of ReasonPrinciples which, by the fact that they are Principles
of harmony, meet in the unit of Harmony, the absolute
Harmony, a more comprehensive Principle, greater than they
and including them as its parts. Similarly in the Universe at
large we find contraries white and black, hot and cold, winged
and wingless, footed and footless, reasoning and unreasoning
but all these elements are members of one living body, their
sumtotal; the Universe is a selfaccordant entity, its members
everywhere clashing but the total being the manifestation of a
ReasonPrinciple. That one ReasonPrinciple, then, must be the
unification of conflicting ReasonPrinciples whose very
opposition is the support of its coherence and, almost, of its
Being.
And indeed, if it were not multiple, it could not be a Universal
Principle, it could not even be at all a ReasonPrinciple; in the
fact of its being a ReasonPrinciple is contained the fact of
interior difference. Now the maximum of difference is
contrariety; admitting that this differentiation exists and
creates, it will create difference in the greatest and not in the
least degree; in other words, the ReasonPrinciple, bringing
about differentiation to the uttermost degree, will of necessity
create contrarieties: it will be complete only by producing itself
not in merely diverse things but in contrary things.
17. The nature of the ReasonPrinciple is adequately expressed
in its Act and, therefore, the wider its extension the nearer will
its productions approach to full contrariety: hence the world of
sense is less a unity than is its ReasonPrinciple; it contains a
wider multiplicity and contrariety: its partial members will,
therefore, be urged by a closer intention towards fullness of
life, a warmer desire for unification.
But desire often destroys the desired; it seeks its own good,
and, if the desired object is perishable, the ruin follows: and the
partial thing straining towards its completing principle draws
towards itself all it possibly can.
Thus, with the good we have the bad: we have the opposed
movements of a dancer guided by one artistic plan; we
recognize in his steps the good as against the bad, and see that
in the opposition lies the merit of the design.
But, thus, the wicked disappear?
No: their wickedness remains; simply, their role is not of their
own planning.
But, surely, this excuses them?
No; excuse lies with the ReasonPrinciple and the Reason
Principle does not excuse them.
No doubt all are members of this Principle but one is a good
man, another is bad the larger class, this and it goes as in a
play; the poet while he gives each actor a part is also using
them as they are in their own persons: he does not himself rank
the men as leading actor, second, third; he simply gives
suitable words to each, and by that assignment fixes each
man's standing.
Thus, every man has his place, a place that fits the good man, a
place that fits the bad: each within the two orders of them
makes his way, naturally, reasonably, to the place, good or bad,
that suits him, and takes the position he has made his own.
There he talks and acts, in blasphemy and crime or in all
goodness: for the actors bring to this play what they were
before it was ever staged.
In the dramas of human art, the poet provides the words but the
actors add their own quality, good or bad for they have more
to do than merely repeat the author's words in the truer drama
which dramatic genius imitates in its degree, the Soul displays
itself in a part assigned by the creator of the piece.
As the actors of our stages get their masks and their costume,
robes of state or rags, so a Soul is allotted its fortunes, and not
at haphazard but always under a Reason: it adapts itself to the
fortunes assigned to it, attunes itself, ranges itself rightly to the
drama, to the whole Principle of the piece: then it speaks out its
business, exhibiting at the same time all that a Soul can express
of its own quality, as a singer in a song. A voice, a bearing,
naturally fine or vulgar, may increase the charm of a piece; on
the other hand, an actor with his ugly voice may make a sorry
exhibition of himself, yet the drama stands as good a work as
ever: the dramatist, taking the action which a sound criticism
suggests, disgraces one, taking his part from him, with perfect
justice: another man he promotes to more serious roles or to
any more important play he may have, while the first is cast for
whatever minor work there may be.
Just so the Soul, entering this drama of the Universe, making
itself a part of the Play, bringing to its acting its personal
excellence or defect, set in a definite place at the entry and
accepting from the author its entire role superimposed upon its
own character and conduct just so, it receives in the end its
punishment and reward.
But these actors, Souls, hold a peculiar dignity: they act in a
vaster place than any stage: the Author has made them masters
of all this world; they have a wide choice of place; they
themselves determine the honour or discredit in which they are
agents since their place and part are in keeping with their
quality: they therefore fit into the ReasonPrinciple of the
Universe, each adjusted, most legitimately, to the appropriate
environment, as every string of the lyre is set in the precisely
right position, determined by the Principle directing musical
utterance, for the due production of the tones within its
capacity. All is just and good in the Universe in which every
actor is set in his own quite appropriate place, though it be to
utter in the Darkness and in Tartarus the dreadful sounds
whose utterance there is well.
This Universe is good not when the individual is a stone, but
when everyone throws in his own voice towards a total
harmony, singing out a life thin, harsh, imperfect, though it
be. The Syrinx does not utter merely one pure note; there is a
thin obscure sound which blends in to make the harmony of
Syrinx music: the harmony is made up from tones of various
grades, all the tones differing, but the resultant of all forming
one sound.
Similarly the ReasonPrinciple entire is One, but it is broken
into unequal parts: hence the difference of place found in the
Universe, better spots and worse; and hence the inequality of
Souls, finding their appropriate surroundings amid this local
inequality. The diverse places of this sphere, the Souls of
unequal grade and unlike conduct, are wen exemplified by the
distinction of parts in the Syrinx or any other instrument: there
is local difference, but from every position every string gives
forth its own tone, the sound appropriate, at once, to its
particular place and to the entire plan.
What is evil in the single Soul will stand a good thing in the
universal system; what in the unit offends nature will serve
nature in the total event and still remains the weak and wrong
tone it is, though its sounding takes nothing from the worth of
the whole, just as, in another order of image, the executioner's
ugly office does not mar the wellgoverned state: such an
officer is a civic necessity; and the corresponding moral type is
often serviceable; thus, even as things are, all is well.
18. Souls vary in worth; and the difference is due, among other
causes, to an almost initial inequality; it is in reason that,
standing to the ReasonPrinciple, as parts, they should be
unequal by the fact of becoming separate.
We must also remember that every Soul has its second grade
and its third, and that, therefore, its expression may take any
one of three main forms. But this point must be dealt with here
again: the matter requires all possible elucidation.
We may perhaps think of actors having the right to add
something to the poet's words: the drama as it stands is not
perfectly filled in, and they are to supply where the Author has
left blank spaces here and there; the actors are to be something
else as well; they become parts of the poet, who on his side has
a foreknowledge of the word they will add, and so is able to
bind into one story what the actors bring in and what is to
follow.
For, in the All, the sequences, including what follows upon
wickedness, become ReasonPrinciples, and therefore in right
reason. Thus: from adultery and the violation of prisoners the
process of nature will produce fine children, to grow, perhaps,
into fine men; and where wicked violence has destroyed cities,
other and nobler cities may rise in their place.
But does not this make it absurd to introduce Souls as
responsible causes, some acting for good and some for evil? If
we thus exonerate the ReasonPrinciple from any part in
wickedness do we not also cancel its credit for the good? Why
not simply take the doings of these actors for representative
parts of the ReasonPrinciple as the doings of stageactors are
representative parts of the stagedrama? Why not admit that the
ReasonPrinciple itself includes evil action as much as good
action, and inspires the precise conduct of all its
representatives? Would not this be all the more Plausible in
that the universal drama is the completer creation and that the
ReasonPrinciple is the source of all that exists?
But this raises the question: "What motive could lead the
Logos to produce evil?"
The explanation, also, would take away all power in the
Universe from Souls, even those nearest to the divine; they
would all be mere parts of a ReasonPrinciple.
And, further unless all ReasonPrinciples are Souls why
should some be souls and others exclusively ReasonPrinciples
when the All is itself a Soul?
Ennead III
Third tractate: On providence (2)
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. What is our answer?
All events and things, good and evil alike, are included under
the Universal ReasonPrinciple of which they are parts strictly
"included" for this Universal Idea does not engender them but
encompasses them.
The ReasonPrinciples are acts or expressions of a Universal
Soul; its parts [i.e., events good and evil] are expressions of
these Soulparts.
This unity, Soul, has different parts; the ReasonPrinciples,
correspondingly, will also have their parts, and so, too, will the
ultimates of the system, all that they bring into being.
The Souls are in harmony with each other and so, too, are their
acts and effects; but it is harmony in the sense of a resultant
unity built out of contraries. All things, as they rise from a
unity, come back to unity by a sheer need of nature;
differences unfold themselves, contraries are produced, but all
is drawn into one organized system by the unity at the source.
The principle may be illustrated from the different classes of
animal life: there is one genus, horse, though horses among
themselves fight and bite and show malice and angry envy: so
all the others within the unity of their Kind; and so humanity.
All these types, again, can be ranged under the one Kind, that
of living things; objects without life can be thought of under
their specific types and then be resumed under the one Kind of
the "nonliving"; if we choose to go further yet, living and non
living may be included under the one Kind, "Beings," and,
further still, under the Source of Being.
Having attached all to this source, we turn to move down again
in continuous division: we see the Unity fissuring, as it reaches
out into Universality, and yet embracing all in one system so
that with all its differentiation it is one multiple living thing an
organism in which each member executes the function of its
own nature while it still has its being in that One Whole; fire
burns; horse does horse work; men give, each the appropriate
act of the peculiar personal quality and upon the several
particular Kinds to which each belongs follow the acts, and the
good or evil of the life.
2. Circumstances are not sovereign over the good of life, for
they are themselves moulded by their priors and come in as
members of a sequence. The LeadingPrinciple holds all the
threads while the minor agents, the individuals, serve
according to their own capacities, as in a war the generalissimo
lays down the plan and his subordinates do their best to its
furtherance. The Universe has been ordered by a Providence
that may be compared to a general; he has considered
operations, conditions and such practical needs as food and
drink, arms and engines of war; all the problem of reconciling
these complex elements has been worked out beforehand so as
to make it probable that the final event may be success. The
entire scheme emerges from the general's mind with a certain
plausible promise, though it cannot cover the enemy's
operations, and there is no power over the disposition of the
enemy's forces: but where the mighty general is in question
whose power extends over all that is, what can pass unordered,
what can fail to fit into the plan?
3. For, even though the I is sovereign in choosing, yet by the
fact of the choice the thing done takes its place in the ordered
total. Your personality does not come from outside into the
universal scheme; you are a part of it, you and your personal
disposition.
But what is the cause of this initial personality?
This question resolves itself into two: are we to make the
Creator, if Creator there is, the cause of the moral quality of
the individual or does the responsibility lie with the creature?
Or is there, perhaps, no responsibility? After all, none is
charged in the case of plants brought into being without the
perceptive faculties; no one is blamed because animals are not
all that men are which would be like complaining that men are
not all that gods are. Reason acquits plant and animal and, their
maker; how can it complain because men do not stand above
humanity?
If the reproach simply means that Man might improve by
bringing from his own stock something towards his betterment
we must allow that the man failing in this is answerable for his
own inferiority: but if the betterment must come not from
within the man but from without, from his Author, it is folly to
ask more than has been given, as foolish in the case of man as
in plant and animal.
The question is not whether a thing is inferior to something
else but whether in its own Kind it suffices to its own part;
universal equality there cannot be.
Then the ReasonPrinciple has measured things out with the set
purpose of inequality?
Certainly not: the inequality is inevitable by the nature of
things: the ReasonPrinciple of this Universe follows upon a
phase of the Soul; the Soul itself follows upon an Intellectual
Principle, and this Intellectual Principle is not one among the
things of the Universe but is all things; in all things, there is
implied variety of things; where there is variety and not
identity there must be primals, secondaries, tertiaries and every
grade downward. Forms of life, then, there must be that are not
pure Soul but the dwindling of Souls enfeebled stage by stage
of the process. There is, of course, a Soul in the Reason
Principle constituting a living being, but it is another Soul [a
lesser phase], not that [the Supreme Soul] from which the
ReasonPrinciple itself derives; and this combined vehicle of
life weakens as it proceeds towards matter, and what it
engenders is still more deficient. Consider how far the
engendered stands from its origin and yet, what a marvel!
In sum nothing can secure to a thing of process the quality of
the prior order, loftier than all that is product and amenable to
no charge in regard to it: the wonder is, only, that it reaches
and gives to the lower at all, and that the traces of its presence
should be so noble. And if its outgiving is greater than the
lower can appropriate, the debt is the heavier; all the blame
must fall upon the unreceptive creature, and Providence be the
more exalted.
4. If man were all of one piece I mean, if he were nothing
more than a made thing, acting and acted upon according to a
fixed nature he could be no more subject to reproach and
punishment than the mere animals. But as the scheme holds,
man is singled out for condemnation when he does evil; and
this with justice. For he is no mere thing made to rigid plan; his
nature contains a Principle apart and free.
This does not, however, stand outside of Providence or of the
Reason of the All; the OverWorld cannot be dependent upon
the World of Sense. The higher shines down upon the lower,
and this illumination is Providence in its highest aspect: The
ReasonPrinciple has two phases, one which creates the things
of process and another which links them with the higher
beings: these higher beings constitute the overprovidence on
which depends that lower providence which is the secondary
ReasonPrinciple inseparably united with its primal: the two
the Major and Minor Providence acting together produce the
universal woof, the one allcomprehensive Providence.
Men possess, then, a distinctive Principle: but not all men turn
to account all that is in their Nature; there are men that live by
one Principle and men that live by another or, rather, by
several others, the least noble. For all these Principles are
present even when not acting upon the man though we cannot
think of them as lying idle; everything performs its function.
"But," it will be said, "what reason can there be for their not
acting upon the man once they are present; inaction must mean
absence?"
We maintain their presence always, nothing void of them.
But surely not where they exercise no action? If they
necessarily reside in all men, surely they must be operative in
all this Principle of free action, especially.
First of all, this free Principle is not an absolute possession of
the animal Kinds and is not even an absolute possession to all
men.
So this Principle is not the only effective force in all men?
There is no reason why it should not be. There are men in
whom it alone acts, giving its character to the life while all else
is but Necessity [and therefore outside of blame].
For [in the case of an evil life] whether it is that the
constitution of the man is such as to drive him down the
troubled paths or whether [the fault is mental or spiritual in
that] the desires have gained control, we are compelled to
attribute the guilt to the substratum [something inferior to the
highest principle in Man]. We would be naturally inclined to
say that this substratum [the responsible source of evil] must
be Matter and not, as our argument implies, the Reason
Principle; it would appear that not the ReasonPrinciple but
Matter were the dominant, crude Matter at the extreme and
then Matter as shaped in the realized man: but we must
remember that to this free Principle in man [which is a phase
of the All Soul] the Substratum [the direct inferior to be
moulded] is [not Matter but] the ReasonPrinciple itself with
whatever that produces and moulds to its own form, so that
neither crude Matter nor Matter organized in our human total is
sovereign within us.
The quality now manifested may be probably referred to the
conduct of a former life; we may suppose that previous actions
have made the ReasonPrinciple now governing within us
inferior in radiance to that which ruled before; the Soul which
later will shine out again is for the present at a feebler power.
And any ReasonPrinciple may be said to include within itself
the ReasonPrinciple of Matter which therefore it is able to
elaborate to its own purposes, either finding it consonant with
itself or bestowing upon it the quality which makes it so. The
ReasonPrinciple of an ox does not occur except in connection
with the Matter appropriate to the oxKind. It must be by such
a process that the transmigration, of which we read takes place;
the Soul must lose its nature, the ReasonPrinciple be
transformed; thus there comes the oxsoul which once was
Man.
The degradation, then, is just.
Still, how did the inferior Principle ever come into being, and
how does the higher fall to it?
Once more not all things are Firsts; there are Secondaries and
Tertiaries, of a nature inferior to that of their Priors; and a
slight tilt is enough to determine the departure from the straight
course. Further, the linking of any one being with any other
amounts to a blending such as to produce a distinct entity, a
compound of the two; it is not that the greater and prior suffers
any diminution of its own nature; the lesser and secondary is
such from its very beginning; it is in its own nature the lesser
thing it becomes, and if it suffers the consequences, such
suffering is merited: all our reasonings on these questions must
take account of previous living as the source from which the
present takes its rise.
5. There is, then a Providence, which permeates the Kosmos
from first to last, not everywhere equal, as in a numerical
distribution, but proportioned, differing, according to the
grades of place just as in some one animal, linked from first to
last, each member has its own function, the nobler organ the
higher activity while others successively concern the lower
degrees of the life, each part acting of itself, and experiencing
what belongs to its own nature and what comes from its
relation with every other. Strike, and what is designed for
utterance gives forth the appropriate volume of sound while
other parts take the blow in silence but react in their own
especial movement; the total of all the utterance and action and
receptivity constitutes what we may call the personal voice,
life and history of the living form. The parts, distinct in Kind,
have distinct functions: the feet have their work and the eyes
theirs; the understanding serves to one end, the Intellectual
Principle to another.
But all sums to a unity, a comprehensive Providence. From the
inferior grade downwards is Fate: the upper is Providence
alone: for in the Intellectual Kosmos all is ReasonPrinciple or
its PriorsDivine Mind and unmingled Souland immediately
upon these follows Providence which rises from Divine Mind,
is the content of the Unmingled Soul, and, through this Soul, is
communicated to the Sphere of living things.
This ReasonPrinciple comes as a thing of unequal parts, and
therefore its creations are unequal, as, for example, the several
members of one Living Being. But after this allotment of rank
and function, all act consonant with the will of the gods keeps
the sequence and is included under the providential
government, for the ReasonPrinciple of providence is god
serving.
All such rightdoing, then, is linked to Providence; but it is not
therefore performed by it: men or other agents, living or
lifeless, are causes of certain things happening, and any good
that may result is taken up again by Providence. In the total,
then, the right rules and what has happened amiss is
transformed and corrected. Thus, to take an example from a
single body, the Providence of a living organism implies its
health; let it be gashed or otherwise wounded, and that Reason
Principle which governs it sets to work to draw it together, knit
it anew, heal it, and put the affected part to rights.
In sum, evil belongs to the sequence of things, but it comes
from necessity. It originates in ourselves; it has its causes no
doubt, but we are not, therefore, forced to it by Providence:
some of these causes we adapt to the operation of Providence
and of its subordinates, but with others we fail to make the
connection; the act instead of being ranged under the will of
Providence consults the desire of the agent alone or of some
other element in the Universe, something which is either itself
at variance with Providence or has set up some such state of
variance in ourselves.
The one circumstance does not produce the same result
wherever it acts; the normal operation will be modified from
case to case: Helen's beauty told very differently on Paris and
on Idomeneus; bring together two handsome people of loose
character and two living honourably and the resulting conduct
is very different; a good man meeting a libertine exhibits a
distinct phase of his nature and, similarly, the dissolute answer
to the society of their betters.
The act of the libertine is not done by Providence or in
accordance with Providence; neither is the action of the good
done by Providence it is done by the man but it is done in
accordance with Providence, for it is an act consonant with the
ReasonPrinciple. Thus a patient following his treatment is
himself an agent and yet is acting in accordance with the
doctor's method inspired by the art concerned with the causes
of health and sickness: what one does against the laws of
health is one's act, but an act conflicting with the Providence of
medicine.
6. But, if all this be true, how can evil fall within the scope of
seership? The predictions of the seers are based on observation
of the Universal Circuit: how can this indicate the evil with the
good?
Clearly the reason is that all contraries coalesce. Take, for
example, Shape and Matter: the living being [of the lower
order] is a coalescence of these two; so that to be aware of the
Shape and the ReasonPrinciple is to be aware of the Matter on
which the Shape has been imposed.
The livingbeing of the compound order is not present [as pure
and simple Idea] like the living being of the Intellectual order:
in the compound entity, we are aware, at once, of the Reason
Principle and of the inferior element brought under form. Now
the Universe is such a compound living thing: to observe,
therefore, its content is to be aware not less of its lower
elements than of the Providence which operates within it.
This Providence reaches to all that comes into being; its scope
therefore includes living things with their actions and states,
the total of their history at once overruled by the Reason
Principle and yet subject in some degree to Necessity.
These, then, are presented as mingled both by their initial
nature and by the continuous process of their existence; and the
Seer is not able to make a perfect discrimination setting on the
one side Providence with all that happens under Providence
and on the other side what the substrate communicates to its
product. Such discrimination is not for a man, not for a wise
man or a divine man: one may say it is the prerogative of a
god. Not causes but facts lie in the Seer's province; his art is
the reading of the scriptures of Nature which tell of the ordered
and never condescend to the disorderly; the movement of the
Universe utters its testimony to him and, before men and things
reveal themselves, brings to light what severally and
collectively they are.
Here conspires with There and There with Here, elaborating
together the consistency and eternity of a Kosmos and by their
correspondences revealing the sequence of things to the trained
observer for every form of divination turns upon
correspondences. Universal interdependence, there could not
be, but universal resemblance there must. This probably is the
meaning of the saying that Correspondences maintain the
Universe.
This is a correspondence of inferior with inferior, of superior
with superior, eye with eye, foot with foot, everything with its
fellow and, in another order, virtue with right action and vice
with unrighteousness. Admit such correspondence in the All
and we have the possibility of prediction. If the one order acts
on the other, the relation is not that of maker to thing made the
two are coeval it is the interplay of members of one living
being; each in its own place and way moves as its own nature
demands; to every organ its grade and task, and to every grade
and task its effective organ.
7. And since the higher exists, there must be the lower as well.
The Universe is a thing of variety, and how could there be an
inferior without a superior or a superior without an inferior?
We cannot complain about the lower in the higher; rather, we
must be grateful to the higher for giving something of itself to
the lower.
In a word, those that would like evil driven out from the All
would drive out Providence itself.
What would Providence have to provide for? Certainly not for
itself or for the Good: when we speak of a Providence above,
we mean an act upon something below.
That which resumes all under a unity is a Principle in which all
things exist together and the single thing is All. From this
Principle, which remains internally unmoved, particular things
push forth as from a single root which never itself emerges.
They are a branching into part, into multiplicity, each single
outgrowth bearing its trace of the common source. Thus, phase
by phase, there in finally the production into this world; some
things close still to the root, others widely separate in the
continuous progression until we have, in our metaphor, bough
and crest, foliage and fruit. At the one side all is one point of
unbroken rest, on the other is the ceaseless process, leaf and
fruit, all the things of process carrying ever within themselves
the ReasonPrinciples of the Upper Sphere, and striving to
become trees in their own minor order and producing, if at all,
only what is in strict gradation from themselves.
As for the abandoned spaces in what corresponds to the
branches these two draw upon the root, from which, despite all
their variance, they also derive; and the branches again operate
upon their own furthest extremities: operation is to be traced
only from point to next point, but, in the fact, there has been
both inflow and outgo [of creative or modifying force] at the
very root which, itself again, has its priors.
The things that act upon each other are branchings from a far
off beginning and so stand distinct; but they derive initially
from the one source: all interaction is like that of brothers,
resemblant as drawing life from the same parents.
Ennead III
Fourth tractate: Our tutelary spirit
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. Some Existents [Absolute Unity and IntellectualPrinciple]
remain at rest while their Hypostases, or ExpressedIdea, come
into being; but, in our view, the Soul generates by its motion,
to which is due the sensitive faculty that in any of its
expressionforms Nature and all forms of life down to the
vegetable order. Even as it is present in human beings the Soul
carries its Expressionform [Hypostasis] with it, but is not the
dominant since it is not the whole man (humanity including the
Intellectual Principal, as well): in the vegetable order it is the
highest since there is nothing to rival it; but at this phase it is
no longer reproductive, or, at least, what it produces is of quite
another order; here life ceases; all later production is lifeless.
What does this imply?
Everything the Soul engenders down to this point comes into
being shapeless, and takes form by orientation towards its
author and supporter: therefore the thing engendered on the
further side can be no image of the Soul, since it is not even
alive; it must be an utter Indetermination. No doubt even in
things of the nearer order there was indetermination, but within
a form; they were undetermined not utterly but only in contrast
with their perfect state: at this extreme point we have the utter
lack of determination. Let it be raised to its highest degree and
it becomes body by taking such shape as serves its scope; then
it becomes the recipient of its author and sustainer: this
presence in body is the only example of the boundaries of
Higher Existents running into the boundary of the Lower.
2. It is of this Soul especially that we read "All Soul has care
for the Soulless" though the several Souls thus care in their
own degree and way. The passage continues "Soul passes
through the entire heavens in forms varying with the variety of
place" the sensitive form, the reasoning form, even the
vegetative form and this means that in each "place" the phase
of the soul there dominant carries out its own ends while the
rest, not present there, is idle.
Now, in humanity the lower is not supreme; it is an
accompaniment; but neither does the better rule unfailingly;
the lower element also has a footing, and Man, therefore, lives
in part under sensation, for he has the organs of sensation, and
in large part even by the merely vegetative principle, for the
body grows and propagates: all the graded phases are in a
collaboration, but the entire form, man, takes rank by the
dominant, and when the lifeprinciple leaves the body it is
what it is, what it most intensely lived.
This is why we must break away towards the High: we dare
not keep ourselves set towards the sensuous principle,
following the images of sense, or towards the merely
vegetative, intent upon the gratifications of eating and
procreation; our life must be pointed towards the Intellective,
towards the IntellectualPrinciple, towards God.
Those that have maintained the human level are men once
more. Those that have lived wholly to sense become animals
corresponding in species to the particular temper of the life
ferocious animals where the sensuality has been accompanied
by a certain measure of spirit, gluttonous and lascivious
animals where all has been appetite and satiation of appetite.
Those who in their pleasures have not even lived by sensation,
but have gone their way in a torpid grossness become mere
growing things, for this lethargy is the entire act of the
vegetative, and such men have been busy betreeing
themselves. Those, we read, that, otherwise untainted, have
loved song become vocal animals; kings ruling unreasonably
but with no other vice are eagles; futile and flighty visionaries
ever soaring skyward, become highflying birds; observance of
civic and secular virtue makes man again, or where the merit is
less marked, one of the animals of communal tendency, a bee
or the like.
3. What, then, is the spirit [guiding the present life and
determining the future]?
The Spirit of here and now.
And the God?
The God of here and now.
Spirit, God; This in act within us, conducts every life; for, even
here and now, it is the dominant of our Nature.
That is to say that the dominant is the spirit which takes
possession of the human being at birth?
No: the dominant is the Prior of the individual spirit; it
presides inoperative while its secondary acts: so that if the
acting force is that of men of the senselife, the tutelary spirit is
the Rational Being, while if we live by that Rational Being, our
tutelary Spirit is the still higher Being, not directly operative
but assenting to the working principle. The words "You shall
yourselves choose" are true, then; for by our life we elect our
own loftier.
But how does this spirit come to be the determinant of our
fate?
It is not when the life is ended that it conducts us here or there;
it operates during the lifetime; when we cease to live, our death
hands over to another principle this energy of our own personal
career.
That principle [of the new birth] strives to gain control, and if
it succeeds it also lives and itself, in turn, possesses a guiding
spirit [its next higher]: if on the contrary it is weighed down by
the developed evil in the character, the spirit of the previous
life pays the penalty: the evilliver loses grade because during
his life the active principle of his being took the tilt towards the
brute by force of affinity. If, on the contrary, the Man is able to
follow the leading of his higher Spirit, he rises: he lives that
Spirit; that noblest part of himself to which he is being led
becomes sovereign in his life; this made his own, he works for
the next above until he has attained the height.
For the Soul is many things, is all, is the Above and the
Beneath to the totality of life: and each of us is an Intellectual
Kosmos, linked to this world by what is lowest in us, but, by
what is the highest, to the Divine Intellect: by all that is
intellective we are permanently in that higher realm, but at the
fringe of the Intellectual we are fettered to the lower; it is as if
we gave forth from it some emanation towards that lower, or,
rather some Act, which however leaves our diviner part not in
itself diminished.
4. But is this lower extremity of our intellective phase fettered
to body for ever?
No: if we turn, this turns by the same act.
And the Soul of the All are we to think that when it turns from
this sphere its lower phase similarly withdraws?
No: for it never accompanied that lower phase of itself; it never
knew any coming, and therefore never came down; it remains
unmoved above, and the material frame of the Universe draws
close to it, and, as it were, takes light from it, no hindrance to
it, in no way troubling it, simply lying unmoved before it.
But has the Universe, then, no sensation? "It has no Sight," we
read, since it has no eyes, and obviously it has not ears,
nostrils, or tongue. Then has it perhaps such a consciousness as
we have of our own inner conditions?
No: where all is the working out of one nature, there is nothing
but still rest; there is not even enjoyment. Sensibility is present
as the quality of growth is, unrecognized. But the Nature of the
World will be found treated elsewhere; what stands here is all
that the question of the moment demands.
5. But if the presiding Spirit and the conditions of life are
chosen by the Soul in the overworld, how can anything be left
to our independent action here?
The answer is that very choice in the overworld is merely an
allegorical statement of the Soul's tendency and temperament,
a total character which it must express wherever it operates.
But if the tendency of the Soul is the masterforce and, in the
Soul, the dominant is that phase which has been brought to the
fore by a previous history, then the body stands acquitted of
any bad influence upon it? The Soul's quality exists before any
bodily life; it has exactly what it chose to have; and, we read, it
never changes its chosen spirit; therefore neither the good man
nor the bad is the product of this life?
Is the solution, perhaps, that man is potentially both good and
bad but becomes the one or the other by force of act?
But what if a man temperamentally good happens to enter a
disordered body, or if a perfect body falls to a man naturally
vicious?
The answer is that the Soul, to whichever side it inclines, has
in some varying degree the power of working the forms of
body over to its own temper, since outlying and accidental
circumstances cannot overrule the entire decision of a Soul.
Where we read that, after the casting of lots, the sample lives
are exhibited with the casual circumstances attending them and
that the choice is made upon vision, in accordance with the
individual temperament, we are given to understand that the
real determination lies with the Souls, who adapt the allotted
conditions to their own particular quality.
The Timaeus indicates the relation of this guiding spirit to
ourselves: it is not entirely outside of ourselves; is not bound
up with our nature; is not the agent in our action; it belongs to
us as belonging to our Soul, but not in so far as we are
particular human beings living a life to which it is superior:
take the passage in this sense and it is consistent; understand
this Spirit otherwise and there is contradiction. And the
description of the Spirit, moreover, as "the power which
consummates the chosen life," is, also, in agreement with this
interpretation; for while its presidency saves us from falling
much deeper into evil, the only direct agent within us is some
thing neither above it nor equal to it but under it: Man cannot
cease to be characteristically Man.
6. What, then, is the achieved Sage?
One whose Act is determined by the higher phase of the Soul.
It does not suffice to perfect virtue to have only this Spirit
[equivalent in all men] as cooperator in the life: the acting
force in the Sage is the Intellective Principle [the diviner phase
of the human Soul] which therefore is itself his presiding spirit
or is guided by a presiding spirit of its own, no other than the
very Divinity.
But this exalts the Sage above the Intellectual Principle as
possessing for presiding spirit the Prior to the Intellectual
Principle: how then does it come about that he was not, from
the very beginning, all that he now is?
The failure is due to the disturbance caused by birth though,
before all reasoning, there exists the instinctive movement
reaching out towards its own.
On instinct which the Sage finally rectifies in every respect?
Not in every respect: the Soul is so constituted that its life
history and its general tendency will answer not merely to its
own nature but also to the conditions among which it acts.
The presiding Spirit, as we read, conducting a Soul to the
Underworld ceases to be its guardian except when the Soul
resumes [in its later choice] the former state of life.
But, meanwhile, what happens to it?
From the passage [in the Phaedo] which tells how it presents
the Soul to judgement we gather that after the death it resumes
the form it had before the birth, but that then, beginning again,
it is present to the Souls in their punishment during the period
of their renewed life a time not so much of living as of
expiation.
But the Souls that enter into brute bodies, are they controlled
by some thing less than this presiding Spirit? No: theirs is still
a Spirit, but an evil or a foolish one.
And the Souls that attain to the highest?
Of these higher Souls some live in the world of Sense, some
above it: and those in the world of Sense inhabit the Sun or
another of the planetary bodies; the others occupy the fixed
Sphere [above the planetary] holding the place they have
merited through having lived here the superior life of reason.
We must understand that, while our Souls do contain an
Intellectual Kosmos they also contain a subordination of
various forms like that of the Kosmic Soul. The world Soul is
distributed so as to produce the fixed sphere and the planetary
circuits corresponding to its graded powers: so with our Souls;
they must have their provinces according to their different
powers, parallel to those of the World Soul: each must give out
its own special act; released, each will inhabit there a star
consonant with the temperament and faculty in act within and
constituting the principle of the life; and this star or the next
highest power will stand to them as God or more exactly as
tutelary spirit.
But here some further precision is needed.
Emancipated Souls, for the whole period of their sojourn there
above, have transcended the Spiritnature and the entire fatality
of birth and all that belongs to this visible world, for they have
taken up with them that Hypostasis of the Soul in which the
desire of earthly life is vested. This Hypostasis may be
described as the distributable Soul, for it is what enters bodily
forms and multiplies itself by this division among them. But its
distribution is not a matter of magnitudes; wherever it is
present, there is the same thing present entire; its unity can
always be reconstructed: when living things animal or
vegetal produce their constant succession of new forms, they
do so in virtue of the selfdistribution of this phase of the Soul,
for it must be as much distributed among the new forms as the
propagating originals are. In some cases it communicates its
force by permanent presence the life principle in plants for
instance in other cases it withdraws after imparting its virtue
for instance where from the putridity of dead animal or
vegetable matter a multitudinous birth is produced from one
organism.
A power corresponding to this in the All must reach down and
cooperate in the life of our world in fact the very same
power.
If the Soul returns to this Sphere it finds itself under the same
Spirit or a new, according to the life it is to live. With this
Spirit it embarks in the skiff of the universe: the "spindle of
Necessity" then takes control and appoints the seat for the
voyage, the seat of the lot in life.
The Universal circuit is like a breeze, and the voyager, still or
stirring, is carried forward by it. He has a hundred varied
experiences, fresh sights, changing circumstances, all sorts of
events. The vessel itself furnishes incident, tossing as it drives
on. And the voyager also acts of himself in virtue of that
individuality which he retains because he is on the vessel in his
own person and character. Under identical circumstances
individuals answer very differently in their movements and
acts: hence it comes about that, be the occurrences and
conditions of life similar or dissimilar, the result may differ
from man to man, as on the other hand a similar result may be
produced by dissimilar conditions: this (personal answer to
incident) it is that constitutes destiny.
Ennead III
Fifth tractate: On love
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. What is Love? A God, a Celestial Spirit, a state of mind? Or
is it, perhaps, sometimes to be thought of as a God or Spirit
and sometimes merely as an experience? And what is it
essentially in each of these respects?
These important questions make it desirable to review
prevailing opinions on the matter, the philosophical treatment
it has received and, especially, the theories of the great Plato
who has many passages dealing with Love, from a point of
view entirely his own.
Plato does not treat of it as simply a state observed in Souls; he
also makes it a Spiritbeing so that we read of the birth of Eros,
under definite circumstances and by a certain parentage.
Now everyone recognizes that the emotional state for which
we make this "Love" responsible rises in souls aspiring to be
knit in the closest union with some beautiful object, and that
this aspiration takes two forms, that of the good whose
devotion is for beauty itself, and that other which seeks its
consummation in some vile act. But this generally admitted
distinction opens a new question: we need a philosophical
investigation into the origin of the two phases.
It is sound, I think, to find the primal source of Love in a
tendency of the Soul towards pure beauty, in a recognition, in a
kinship, in an unreasoned consciousness of friendly relation.
The vile and ugly is in clash, at once, with Nature and with
God: Nature produces by looking to the Good, for it looks
towards Order which has its being in the consistent total of the
good, while the unordered is ugly, a member of the system of
evil and besides Nature itself, clearly, springs from the divine
realm, from Good and Beauty; and when anything brings
delight and the sense of kinship, its very image attracts.
Reject this explanation, and no one can tell how the mental
state rises and where are its causes: it is the explanation of
even copulative love which is the will to beget in beauty;
Nature seeks to produce the beautiful and therefore by all
reason cannot desire to procreate in the ugly.
Those that desire earthly procreation are satisfied with the
beauty found on earth, the beauty of image and of body; it is
because they are strangers to the Archetype, the source of even
the attraction they feel towards what is lovely here. There are
Souls to whom earthly beauty is a leading to the memory of
that in the higher realm and these love the earthly as an image;
those that have not attained to this memory do not understand
what is happening within them, and take the image for the
reality. Once there is perfect selfcontrol, it is no fault to enjoy
the beauty of earth; where appreciation degenerates into
carnality, there is sin.
Pure Love seeks the beauty alone, whether there is
Reminiscence or not; but there are those that feel, also, a desire
of such immortality as lies within mortal reach; and these are
seeking Beauty in their demand for perpetuity, the desire of the
eternal; Nature teaches them to sow the seed and to beget in
beauty, to sow towards eternity, but in beauty through their
own kinship with the beautiful. And indeed the eternal is of the
one stock with the beautiful, the EternalNature is the first
shaping of beauty and makes beautiful all that rises from it.
The less the desire for procreation, the greater is the
contentment with beauty alone, yet procreation aims at the
engendering of beauty; it is the expression of a lack; the
subject is conscious of insufficiency and, wishing to produce
beauty, feels that the way is to beget in a beautiful form.
Where the procreative desire is lawless or against the purposes
of nature, the first inspiration has been natural, but they have
diverged from the way, they have slipped and fallen, and they
grovel; they neither understand whither Love sought to lead
them nor have they any instinct to production; they have not
mastered the right use of the images of beauty; they do not
know what the Authentic Beauty is.
Those that love beauty of person without carnal desire love for
beauty's sake; those that have for women, of course the
copulative love, have the further purpose of selfperpetuation:
as long as they are led by these motives, both are on the right
path, though the first have taken the nobler way. But, even in
the right, there is the difference that the one set, worshipping
the beauty of earth, look no further, while the others, those of
recollection, venerate also the beauty of the other world while
they, still, have no contempt for this in which they recognize,
as it were, a last outgrowth, an attenuation of the higher. These,
in sum, are innocent frequenters of beauty, not to be confused
with the class to whom it becomes an occasion of fall into the
ugly for the aspiration towards a good degenerates into an evil
often.
So much for love, the state.
Now we have to consider Love, the God.
2. The existence of such a being is no demand of the ordinary
man, merely; it is supported by Theologians and, over and over
again, by Plato to whom Eros is child of Aphrodite, minister of
beautiful children, inciter of human souls towards the supernal
beauty or quickener of an already existing impulse thither. All
this requires philosophical examination. A cardinal passage is
that in the Symposium where we are told Eros was not a child
of Aphrodite but born on the day of Aphrodite's birth, Penia,
Poverty, being the mother, and Poros, Possession, the father.
The matter seems to demand some discussion of Aphrodite,
since in any case Eros is described as being either her son or in
some association with her. Who then is Aphrodite, and in what
sense is Love either her child or born with her or in some way
both her child and her birthfellow?
To us Aphrodite is twofold; there is the heavenly Aphrodite,
daughter of Ouranos or Heaven: and there is the other the
daughter of Zeus and Dione, this is the Aphrodite who presides
over earthly unions; the higher was not born of a mother and
has no part in marriages for in Heaven there is no marrying.
The Heavenly Aphrodite, daughter of Kronos who is no other
than the Intellectual Principle must be the Soul at its divinest:
unmingled as the immediate emanation of the unmingled;
remaining ever Above, as neither desirous nor capable of
descending to this sphere, never having developed the
downward tendency, a divine Hypostasis essentially aloof, so
unreservedly an Authentic Being as to have no part with
Matter and therefore mythically "the unmothered" justly
called not Celestial Spirit but God, as knowing no admixture,
gathered cleanly within itself.
Any Nature springing directly from the Intellectual Principle
must be itself also a clean thing: it will derive a resistance of its
own from its nearness to the Highest, for all its tendency, no
less than its fixity, centres upon its author whose power is
certainly sufficient to maintain it Above.
Soul then could never fall from its sphere; it is closer held to
the divine Mind than the very sun could hold the light it gives
forth to radiate about it, an outpouring from itself held firmly
to it, still.
But following upon Kronos or, if you will, upon Heaven, the
father of Kronos the Soul directs its Act towards him and
holds closely to him and in that love brings forth the Eros
through whom it continues to look towards him. This Act of
the Soul has produced an Hypostasis, a RealBeing; and the
mother and this Hypostasis her offspring, noble Love gaze
together upon Divine Mind. Love, thus, is ever intent upon that
other loveliness, and exists to be the medium between desire
and that object of desire. It is the eye of the desirer; by its
power what loves is enabled to see the loved thing. But it is
first; before it becomes the vehicle of vision, it is itself filled
with the sight; it is first, therefore, and not even in the same
order for desire attains to vision only through the efficacy of
Love, while Love, in its own Act, harvests the spectacle of
beauty playing immediately above it.
3. That Love is a Hypostasis [a "Person"] a RealBeing sprung
from a RealBeing lower than the parent but authentically
existent is beyond doubt.
For the parentSoul was a RealBeing sprung directly from the
Act of the Hypostasis that ranks before it: it had life; it was a
constituent in the RealBeing of all that authentically is in the
RealBeing which looks, rapt, towards the very Highest. That
was the first object of its vision; it looked towards it as towards
its good, and it rejoiced in the looking; and the quality of what
it saw was such that the contemplation could not be void of
effect; in virtue of that rapture, of its position in regard to its
object, of the intensity of its gaze, the Soul conceived and
brought forth an offspring worthy of itself and of the vision.
Thus; there is a strenuous activity of contemplation in the Soul;
there is an emanation towards it from the object contemplated;
and Eros is born, the Love which is an eye filled with its
vision, a seeing that bears its image with it; Eros taking its
name, probably, from the fact that its essential being is due to
this horasis, this seeing. Of course Love, as an emotion, will
take its name from Love, the Person, since a RealBeing
cannot but be prior to what lacks this reality. The mental state
will be designated as Love, like the Hypostasis, though it is no
more than a particular act directed towards a particular object;
but it must not be confused with the Absolute Love, the Divine
Being. The Eros that belongs to the supernal Soul must be of
one temper with it; it must itself look aloft as being of the
household of that Soul, dependent upon that Soul, its very
offspring; and therefore caring for nothing but the
contemplation of the Gods.
Once that Soul which is the primal source of light to the
heavens is recognized as an Hypostasis standing distinct and
aloof it must be admitted that Love too is distinct and aloof
though not, perhaps, so loftily celestial a being as the Soul. Our
own best we conceive as inside ourselves and yet something
apart; so, we must think of this Love as essentially resident
where the unmingling Soul inhabits.
But besides this purest Soul, there must be also a Soul of the
All: at once there is another Love the eye with which this
second Soul looks upwards like the supernal Eros engendered
by force of desire. This Aphrodite, the secondary Soul, is of
this Universe not Soul unmingled alone, not Soul, the
Absolute, giving birth, therefore, to the Love concerned with
the universal life; no, this is the Love presiding over marriages;
but it, also, has its touch of the upward desire; and, in the
degree of that striving, it stirs and leads upwards the Souls of
the young and every Soul with which it is incorporated in so
far as there is a natural tendency to remembrance of the divine.
For every Soul is striving towards The Good, even the
mingling Soul and that of particular beings, for each holds
directly from the divine Soul, and is its offspring.
4. Does each individual Soul, then, contain within itself such a
Love in essence and substantial reality?
Since not only the pure AllSoul but also that of the Universe
contain such a Love, it would be difficult to explain why our
personal Soul should not. It must be so, even, with all that has
life.
This indwelling love is no other than the Spirit which, as we
are told, walks with every being, the affection dominant in
each several nature. It implants the characteristic desire; the
particular Soul, strained towards its own natural objects, brings
forth its own Eros, the guiding spirit realizing its worth and the
quality of its Being.
As the AllSoul contains the Universal Love, so must the
single Soul be allowed its own single Love: and as closely as
the single Soul holds to the AllSoul, never cut off but
embraced within it, the two together constituting one principle
of life, so the single separate Love holds to the AllLove.
Similarly, the individual love keeps with the individual Soul as
that other, the great Love, goes with the AllSoul; and the Love
within the All permeates it throughout so that the one Love
becomes many, showing itself where it chooses at any moment
of the Universe, taking definite shape in these its partial phases
and revealing itself at its will.
In the same way we must conceive many Aphrodites in the All,
Spirits entering it together with Love, all emanating from an
Aphrodite of the All, a train of particular Aphrodites dependent
upon the first, and each with the particular Love in attendance:
this multiplicity cannot be denied, if Soul be the mother of
Love, and Aphrodite mean Soul, and Love be an act of a Soul
seeking good.
This Love, then, leader of particular Souls to The Good, is
twofold: the Love in the loftier Soul would be a god ever
linking the Soul to the divine; the Love in the mingling Soul
will be a celestial spirit.
5. But what is the Nature of this Spirit of the Supernals in
general?
The SpiritKind is treated in the Symposium where, with much
about the others, we learn of Eros Love born to Penia
Poverty and Poros Possession who is son of Metis
Resource at Aphrodite's birth feast.
But to take Plato as meaning, by Eros, this Universe and not
simply the Love native within it involves much that is self
contradictory.
For one thing, the universe is described as a blissful god and as
selfsufficing, while this "Love" is confessedly neither divine
nor selfsufficing but in ceaseless need.
Again, this Kosmos is a compound of body and soul; but
Aphrodite to Plato is the Soul itself, therefore Aphrodite would
necessarily he a constituent part of Eros, dominant member! A
man is the man's Soul, if the world is, similarly, the world's
Soul, then Aphrodite, the Soul, is identical with Love, the
Kosmos! And why should this one spirit, Love, be the
Universe to the exclusion of all the others, which certainly are
sprung from the same EssentialBeing? Our only escape would
be to make the Kosmos a complex of Supernals.
Love, again, is called the Dispenser of beautiful children: does
this apply to the Universe? Love is represented as homeless,
bedless and barefooted: would not that be a shabby description
of the Kosmos and quite out of the truth?
6. What then, in sum, is to be thought of Love and of his
"birth" as we are told of it?
Clearly we have to establish the significance, here, of Poverty
and Possession, and show in what way the parentage is
appropriate: we have also to bring these two into line with the
other Supernals since one spirit nature, one spirit essence, must
characterize all unless they are to have merely a name in
common.
We must, therefore, lay down the grounds on which we
distinguish the Gods from the Celestials that is, when we
emphasize the separate nature of the two orders and are not, as
often in practice, including these Spirits under the common
name of Gods.
It is our teaching and conviction that the Gods are immune to
all passion while we attribute experience and emotion to the
Celestials which, though eternal Beings and directly next to the
Gods, are already a step towards ourselves and stand between
the divine and the human.
But by what process was the immunity lost? What in their
nature led them downwards to the inferior?
And other questions present themselves.
Does the Intellectual Realm include no member of this spirit
order, not even one? And does the Kosmos contain only these
spirits, God being confined to the Intellectual? Or are there
Gods in the subcelestial too, the Kosmos itself being a God,
the third, as is commonly said, and the Powers down to the
Moon being all Gods as well?
It is best not to use the word "Celestial" of any Being of that
Realm; the word "God" may be applied to the Essential
Celestial the autodaimon and even to the Visible Powers of
the Universe of Sense down to the Moon; Gods, these too,
visible, secondary, sequent upon the Gods of the Intellectual
Realm, consonant with Them, held about Them, as the
radiance about the star.
What, then, are these spirits?
A Celestial is the representative generated by each Soul when
it enters the Kosmos.
And why, by a Soul entering the Kosmos?
Because Soul pure of the Kosmos generates not a Celestial
Spirit but a God; hence it is that we have spoken of Love,
offspring of Aphrodite the Pure Soul, as a God.
But, first what prevents every one of the Celestials from being
an Eros, a Love? And why are they not untouched by Matter
like the Gods?
On the first question: Every Celestial born in the striving of the
Soul towards the good and beautiful is an Eros; and all the
Souls within the Kosmos do engender this Celestial; but other
SpiritBeings, equally born from the Soul of the All, but by
other faculties of that Soul, have other functions: they are for
the direct service of the All, and administer particular things to
the purpose of the Universe entire. The Soul of the All must be
adequate to all that is and therefore must bring into being spirit
powers serviceable not merely in one function but to its entire
charge.
But what participation can the Celestials have in Matter, and in
what Matter?
Certainly none in bodily Matter; that would make them simply
living things of the order of sense. And if, even, they are to
invest themselves in bodies of air or of fire, the nature must
have already been altered before they could have any contact
with the corporeal. The Pure does not mix, unmediated, with
body though many think that the CelestialKind, of its very
essence, comports a body aerial or of fire.
But why should one order of Celestial descend to body and
another not? The difference implies the existence of some
cause or medium working upon such as thus descend. What
would constitute such a medium?
We are forced to assume that there is a Matter of the
Intellectual Order, and that Beings partaking of it are thereby
enabled to enter into the lower Matter, the corporeal.
7. This is the significance of Plato's account of the birth of
Love.
The drunkenness of the father Poros or Possession is caused by
Nectar, "wine yet not existing"; Love is born before the realm
of sense has come into being: Penia had participation in the
Intellectual before the lower image of that divine Realm had
appeared; she dwelt in that Sphere, but as a mingled being
consisting partly of Form but partly also of that
indetermination which belongs to the Soul before she attains
the Good and when all her knowledge of Reality is a fore
intimation veiled by the indeterminate and unordered: in this
state Poverty brings forth the Hypostasis, Love.
This, then, is a union of Reason with something that is not
Reason but a mere indeterminate striving in a being not yet
illuminated: the offspring Love, therefore, is not perfect, not
selfsufficient, but unfinished, bearing the signs of its
parentage, the undirected striving and the selfsufficient
Reason. This offspring is a ReasonPrinciple but not purely so;
for it includes within itself an aspiration illdefined,
unreasoned, unlimited it can never be sated as long as it
contains within itself that element of the Indeterminate. Love,
then, clings to the Soul, from which it sprung as from the
principle of its Being, but it is lessened by including an
element of the ReasonPrinciple which did not remain self
concentrated but blended with the indeterminate, not, it is true,
by immediate contact but through its emanation. Love,
therefore, is like a goad; it is without resource in itself; even
winning its end, it is poor again.
It cannot be satisfied because a thing of mixture never can be
so: true satisfaction is only for what has its plenitude in its own
being; where craving is due to an inborn deficiency, there may
be satisfaction at some given moment but it does not last.
Love, then, has on the one side the powerlessness of its native
inadequacy, on the other the resource inherited from the
ReasonKind.
Such must be the nature and such the origin of the entire Spirit
Order, each like its fellow, Love has its appointed sphere, is
powerful there, and wholly devoted to it, and, like Love, none
is ever complete of itself but always straining towards some
good which it sees in things of the partial sphere.
We understand, now, why good men have no other Love other
Eros of life than that for the Absolute and Authentic Good,
and never follow the random attractions known to those ranged
under the lower Spirit Kind.
Each human being is set under his own SpiritGuides, but this
is mere blank possession when they ignore their own and live
by some other spirit adopted by them as more closely attuned
to the operative part of the Soul in them. Those that go after
evil are natures that have merged all the LovePrinciples within
them in the evil desires springing in their hearts and allowed
the right reason, which belongs to our kind, to fall under the
spell of false ideas from another source.
All the natural Loves, all that serve the ends of Nature, are
good; in a lesser Soul, inferior in rank and in scope; in the
greater Soul, superior; but all belong to the order of Being.
Those forms of Love that do not serve the purposes of Nature
are merely accidents attending on perversion: in no sense are
they RealBeings or even manifestations of any Reality; for
they are no true issue of Soul; they are merely accompaniments
of a spiritual flaw which the Soul automatically exhibits in the
total of disposition and conduct.
In a word; all that is truly good in a Soul acting to the purposes
of nature and within its appointed order, all this is RealBeing:
anything else is alien, no act of the Soul, but merely something
that happens to it: a parallel may be found in false mentation,
notions behind which there is no reality as there is in the case
of authentic ideas, the eternal, the strictly defined, in which
there is at once an act of true knowing, a truly knowable object
and authentic existence and this not merely in the Absolute,
but also in the particular being that is occupied by the
authentically knowable and by the IntellectualPrinciple
manifest in every several form.
In each particular human being we must admit the existence of
the authentic Intellective Act and of the authentically knowable
object though not as wholly merged into our being, since we
are not these in the absolute and not exclusively these and
hence our longing for absolute things: it is the expression of
our intellective activities: if we sometimes care for the partial,
that affection is not direct but accidental, like our knowledge
that a given triangular figure is made up of two right angles
because the absolute triangle is so.
8. But what are we to understand by this Zeus with the garden
into which, we are told, Poros or Wealth entered? And what is
the garden?
We have seen that the Aphrodite of the Myth is the Soul and
that Poros, Wealth, is the ReasonPrinciple of the Universe: we
have still to explain Zeus and his garden.
We cannot take Zeus to be the Soul, which we have agreed is
represented by Aphrodite.
Plato, who must be our guide in this question, speaks in the
Phaedrus of this God, Zeus, as the Great Leader though
elsewhere he seems to rank him as one of three but in the
Philebus he speaks more plainly when he says that there is in
Zeus not only a royal Soul, but also a royal Intellect.
As a mighty Intellect and Soul, he must be a principle of
Cause; he must be the highest for several reasons but
especially because to be King and Leader is to be the chief
cause: Zeus then is the Intellectual Principle. Aphrodite, his
daughter, issue of him, dwelling with him, will be Soul, her
very name Aphrodite [= the habra, delicate] indicating the
beauty and gleam and innocence and delicate grace of the Soul.
And if we take the male gods to represent the Intellectual
Powers and the female gods to be their souls to every
Intellectual Principle its companion Soul we are forced, thus
also, to make Aphrodite the Soul of Zeus; and the
identification is confirmed by Priests and Theologians who
consider Aphrodite and Hera one and the same and call
Aphrodite's star the star of Hera.
9. This Poros, Possession, then, is the ReasonPrinciple of all
that exists in the Intellectual Realm and in the supreme
Intellect; but being more diffused, kneaded out as it were, it
must touch Soul, be in Soul, [as the next lower principle].
For, all that lies gathered in the Intellect is native to it: nothing
enters from without; but "Poros intoxicated" is some Power
deriving satisfaction outside itself: what, then, can we
understand by this member of the Supreme filled with Nectar
but a ReasonPrinciple falling from a loftier essence to a
lower? This means that the ReasonPrinciple upon "the birth of
Aphrodite" left the Intellectual for the Soul, breaking into the
garden of Zeus.
A garden is a place of beauty and a glory of wealth: all the
loveliness that Zeus maintains takes its splendour from the
ReasonPrinciple within him; for all this beauty is the radiation
of the Divine Intellect upon the Divine Soul, which it has
penetrated. What could the Garden of Zeus indicate but the
images of his Being and the splendours of his glory? And what
could these divine splendours and beauties be but the Ideas
streaming from him?
These ReasonPrinciples this Poros who is the lavishness, the
abundance of Beauty are at one and are made manifest; this is
the Nectardrunkenness. For the Nectar of the gods can be no
other than what the godnature essentially demands; and this is
the Reason pouring down from the divine Mind.
The Intellectual Principle possesses Itself to satiety, but there is
no "drunken" abandonment in this possession which brings
nothing alien to it. But the ReasonPrinciple as its offspring, a
later hypostasis is already a separate Being and established in
another Realm, and so is said to lie in the garden of this Zeus
who is divine Mind; and this lying in the garden takes place at
the moment when, in our way of speaking, Aphrodite enters
the realm of Being.
10. "Our way of speaking" for myths, if they are to serve their
purpose, must necessarily import timedistinctions into their
subject and will often present as separate, Powers which exist
in unity but differ in rank and faculty; they will relate the births
of the unbegotten and discriminate where all is one substance;
the truth is conveyed in the only manner possible, it is left to
our good sense to bring all together again.
On this principle we have, here, Soul dwelling with the divine
Intelligence, breaking away from it, and yet again being filled
to satiety with the divine Ideas the beautiful abounding in all
plenty, so that every splendour become manifest in it with the
images of whatever is lovely Soul which, taken as one all, is
Aphrodite, while in it may be distinguished the Reason
Principles summed under the names of Plenty and Possession,
produced by the downflow of the Nectar of the over realm. The
splendours contained in Soul are thought of as the garden of
Zeus with reference to their existing within Life; and Poros
sleeps in this garden in the sense of being sated and heavy with
its produce. Life is eternally manifest, an eternal existent
among the existences, and the banqueting of the gods means no
more than that they have their Being in that vital blessedness.
And Love "born at the banquet of the gods" has of necessity
been eternally in existence, for it springs from the intention of
the Soul towards its Best, towards the Good; as long as Soul
has been, Love has been.
Still this Love is of mixed quality. On the one hand there is in
it the lack which keeps it craving: on the other, it is not entirely
destitute; the deficient seeks more of what it has, and certainly
nothing absolutely void of good would ever go seeking the
good.
It is said then to spring from Poverty and Possession in the
sense that Lack and Aspiration and the Memory of the Ideal
Principles, all present together in the Soul, produce that Act
towards The Good which is Love. Its Mother is Poverty, since
striving is for the needy; and this Poverty is Matter, for Matter
is the wholly poor: the very ambition towards the good is a
sign of existing indetermination; there is a lack of shape and of
Reason in that which must aspire towards the Good, and the
greater degree of effort implies the lower depth of materiality.
A thing aspiring towards the Good is an Idealprinciple only
when the striving [with attainment] will leave it still unchanged
in Kind: when it must take in something other than itself, its
aspiration is the presentment of Matter to the incoming power.
Thus Love is at once, in some degree a thing of Matter and at
the same time a Celestial, sprung of the Soul; for Love lacks its
Good but, from its very birth, strives towards It.
Ennead III
Sixth tractate: The impassivity of the unembodied
Written by Plotinus, 253270 A.D.
1. In our theory, feelings are not states; they are action upon
experience, action accompanied by judgement: the states, we
hold, are seated elsewhere; they may be referred to the
vitalized body; the judgement resides in the Soul, and is
distinct from the state for, if it is not distinct, another
judgement is demanded, one that is distinct, and, so, we may
be sent back for ever.
Still, this leaves it undecided whether in the act of judgement
the judging faculty does or does not take to itself something of
its object.
If the judging faculty does actually receive an imprint, then it
partakes of the state though what are called the Impressions
may be of quite another nature than is supposed; they may be
like Thought, that is to say they may be acts rather than states;
there may be, here too, awareness without participation.
For ourselves, it could never be in our system or in our liking
to bring the Soul down to participation in such modes and
modifications as the warmth and cold of material frames.
What is known as the Impressionable faculty of the soul to
pathetikon would need to be identified: we must satisfy
ourselves as to whether this too, like the Soul as a unity, is to
be classed as immune or, on the contrary, as precisely the only
part susceptible of being affected; this question, however, may
be held over; we proceed to examine its preliminaries.
Even in the superior phase of the Soul that which precedes the
impressionable faculty and any sensation how can we
reconcile immunity with the indwelling of vice, false notions,
ignorance? Inviolability; and yet likings and dislikings, the
Soul enjoying, grieving, angry, grudging, envying, desiring,
never at peace but stirring and shifting with everything that
confronts it!
If the Soul were material and had magnitude, it would be
difficult, indeed quite impossible, to make it appear to be
immune, unchangeable, when any of such emotions lodge in it.
And even considering it as an Authentic Being, devoid of
magnitude and necessarily indestructible, we must be very
careful how we attribute any such experiences to it or we will
find ourselves unconsciously making it subject to dissolution.
If its essence is a Number or as we hold a ReasonPrinciple,
under neither head could it be susceptible of feeling. We can
think, only, that it entertains unreasoned reasons and
experiences unexperienced, all transmuted from the material
frames, foreign and recognized only by parallel, so that it
possesses in a kind of nonpossession and knows affection
without being affected. How this can be demands enquiry.
2. Let us begin with virtue and vice in the Soul. What has
really occurred when, as we say, vice is present? In speaking of
extirpating evil and implanting goodness, of introducing order
and beauty to replace a former ugliness, we talk in terms of
real things in the Soul.
Now when we make virtue a harmony, and vice a breach of
harmony, we accept an opinion approved by the ancients; and
the theory helps us decidedly to our solution. For if virtue is
simply a natural concordance among the phases of the Soul,
and vice simply a discord, then there is no further question of
any foreign presence; harmony would be the result of every
distinct phase or faculty joining in, true to itself; discord would
mean that not all chimed in at their best and truest. Consider,
for example, the performers in a choral dance; they sing
together though each one has his particular part, and
sometimes one voice is heard while the others are silent; and
each brings to the chorus something of his own; it is not
enough that all lift their voices together; each must sing,
choicely, his own part to the music set for him. Exactly so in
the case of the Soul; there will be harmony when each faculty
performs its appropriate part.
Yes: but this very harmony constituting the virtue of the Soul
must depend upon a previous virtue, that of each several
faculty within itself; and before there can be the vice of discord
there must be the vice of the single parts, and these can be bad
only by the actual presence of vice as they can be good only by
the presence of virtue. It is true that no presence is affirmed
when vice is identified with ignorance in the reasoning faculty
of the Soul; ignorance is not a positive thing; but in the
presence of false judgements the main cause of vice must it
not be admitted that something positive has entered into the
Soul, something perverting the reasoning faculty? So, the
initiative faculty; is it not, itself, altered as one varies between
timidity and boldness? And the desiring faculty, similarly, as it
runs wild or accepts control?
Our teaching is that when the particular faculty is sound it
performs the reasonable act of its essential nature, obeying the
reasoning faculty in it which derives from the Intellectual
Principle and communicates to the rest. And this following of
reason is not the acceptance of an imposed shape; it is like
using the eyes; the Soul sees by its act, that of looking towards
reason. The faculty of sight in the performance of its act is
essentially what it was when it lay latent; its act is not a change
in it, but simply its entering into the relation that belongs to its
essential character; it knows that is, sees without suffering
any change: so, precisely, the reasoning phase of the Soul
stands towards the Intellectual Principle; this it sees by its very
essence; this vision is its knowing faculty; it takes in no stamp,
no impression; all that enters it is the object of vision
possessed, once more, without possession; it possesses by the
fact of knowing but "without possession" in the sense that
there is no incorporation of anything left behind by the object
of vision, like the impression of the seal on sealingwax.
And note that we do not appeal to storedup impressions to
account for memory: we think of the mind awakening its
powers in such a way as to possess something not present to it.
Very good: but is it not different before and after acquiring the
memory?
Be it so; but it has suffered no change unless we are to think
of the mere progress from latency to actuality as change
nothing has been introduced into the mind; it has simply
achieved the Act dictated by its nature.
It is universally true that the characteristic Act of immaterial
entities is performed without any change in them otherwise
they would at last be worn away theirs is the Act of the
unmoving; where act means suffering change, there is Matter:
an immaterial Being would have no ground of permanence if
its very Act changed it.
Thus in the case of Sight, the seeing faculty is in act but the
material organ alone suffers change: judgements are similar to
visual experiences.
But how explain the alternation of timidity and daring in the
initiative faculty?
Timidity would come by the failure to look towards the
ReasonPrinciple or by looking towards some inferior phase of
it or by some defect in the organs of action some lack or flaw
in the bodily equipment or by outside prevention of the
natural act or by the mere absence of adequate stimulus:
boldness would arise from the reverse conditions: neither
implies any change, or even any experience, in the Soul.
So with the faculty of desire: what we call loose living is
caused by its acting unaccompanied; it has done all of itself;
the other faculties, whose business it is to make their presence
felt in control and to point the right way, have lain in abeyance;
the Seer in the Soul was occupied elsewhere, for, though not
always at least sometimes, it has leisure for a certain degree of
contemplation of other concerns.
Often, moreover, the vice of the desiring faculty will be merely
some ill condition of the body, and its virtue, bodily
soundness; thus there would again be no question of anything
imported into the Soul.
3. But how do we explain likings and aversions? Sorrow, too,
and anger and pleasure, desire and fear are these not changes,
affectings, present and stirring within the Soul?
This question cannot be ignored. To deny that changes take
place and are intensely felt is in sharp contradiction to obvious
facts. But, while we recognize this, we must make very sure
what it is that changes. To represent the Soul or Mind as being
the seat of these emotions is not far removed from making it
blush or turn pale; it is to forget that while the Soul or Mind is
the means, the effect takes place in the distinct organism, the
animated body.
At the idea of disgrace, the shame is in the Soul; but the body
is occupied by the Soul not to trouble about words is, at any
rate, close to it and very different from soulless matter; and so,
is affected in the blood, mobile in its nature. Fear begins in the
mind; the pallor is simply the withdrawal of the blood inwards.
So in pleasure, the elation is mental, but makes itself felt in the
body; the purely mental phase has not reached the point of
sensation: the same is true of pain. So desire is ignored in the
Soul where the impulse takes its rise; what comes outward
thence, the Sensibility knows.
When we speak of the Soul or Mind being moved as in desire,
reasoning, judging we do not mean that it is driven into its act;
these movements are its own acts.
In the same way when we call Life a movement we have no
idea of a changing substance; the naturally appropriate act of
each member of the living thing makes up the Life, which is,
therefore, not a shifting thing.
To bring the matter to the point: put it that life, tendency, are
no changements; that memories are not forms stamped upon
the mind, that notions are not of the nature of impressions on
sealingwax; we thence draw the general conclusion that in all
such states and movements the Soul, or Mind, is unchanged in
substance and in essence, that virtue and vice are not
something imported into the Soul as heat and cold, blackness
or whiteness are importations into body but that, in all this
relation, matter and spirit are exactly and comprehensively
contraries.
4. We have, however, still to examine what is called the
affective phase of the Soul. This has, no doubt, been touched
upon above where we dealt with the passions in general as
grouped about the initiative phase of the Soul and the desiring
faculty in its effort to shape things to its choice: but more is
required; we must begin by forming a clear idea of what is
meant by this affective faculty of the Soul.
In general terms it means the centre about which we recognize
the affections to be grouped; and by affections we mean those
states upon which follow pleasure and pain.
Now among these affections we must distinguish. Some are
pivoted upon judgements; thus, a Man judging his death to be
at hand may feel fear; foreseeing some fortunate turn of events,
he is happy: the opinion lies in one sphere; the affection is
stirred in another. Sometimes the affections take the lead and
automatically bring in the notion which thus becomes present
to the appropriate faculty: but as we have explained, an act of
opinion does not introduce any change into the Soul or Mind:
what happens is that from the notion of some impending evil is
produced the quite separate thing, fear, and this fear, in turn,
becomes known in that part of the Mind which is said under
such circumstances to harbour fear.
But what is the action of this fear upon the Mind?
The general answer is that it sets up trouble and confusion
before an evil anticipated. It should, however, be quite clear
that the Soul or Mind is the seat of all imaginative
representation both the higher representation known as
opinion or judgement and the lower representation which is not
so much a judgement as a vague notion unattended by
discrimination, something resembling the action by which, as
is believed, the "Nature" of common speech produces,
unconsciously, the objects of the partial sphere. It is equally
certain that in all that follows upon the mental act or state, the
disturbance, confined to the body, belongs to the senseorder;
trembling, pallor, inability to speak, have obviously nothing to
do with the spiritual portion of the being. The Soul, in fact,
would have to be described as corporeal if it were the seat of
such symptoms: besides, in that case the trouble would not
even reach the body since the only transmitting principle,
oppressed by sensation, jarred out of itself, would be inhibited.
None the less, there is an affective phase of the Soul or Mind
and this is not corporeal; it can be, only, some kind of Ideal
form.
Now Matter is the one field of the desiring faculty, as of the
principles of nutrition growth and engendering, which are root
and spring to desire and to every other affection known to this
Idealform. No Idealform can be the victim of disturbance or
be in any way affected: it remains in tranquillity; only the
Matter associated with it can be affected by any state or
experience induced by the movement which its mere presence
suffices to set up. Thus the vegetal Principle induces vegetal
life but it does not, itself, pass through the processes of
vegetation; it gives growth but it does not grow; in no
movement which it originates is it moved with the motion it
induces; it is in perfect repose, or, at least, its movement, really
its act, is utterly different from what it causes elsewhere.
The nature of an Idealform is to be, of itself, an activity; it
operates by its mere presence: it is as if Melody itself plucked
the strings. The affective phase of the Soul or Mind will be the
operative cause of all affection; it originates the movement
either under the stimulus of some sensepresentment or
independently and it is a question to be examined whether the
judgement leading to the movement operates from above or
not but the affective phase itself remains unmoved like
Melody dictating music. The causes originating the movement
may be likened to the musician; what is moved is like the
strings of his instrument, and once more, the Melodic Principle
itself is not affected, but only the strings, though, however
much the musician desired it, he could not pluck the strings
except under dictation from the principle of Melody.
5. But why have we to call in Philosophy to make the Soul
immune if it is thus immune from the beginning?
Because representations attack it at what we call the affective
phase and cause a resulting experience, a disturbance, to which
disturbance is joined the image of threatened evil: this amounts
to an affection and Reason seeks to extinguish it, to ban it as
destructive to the wellbeing of the Soul which by the mere
absence of such a condition is immune, the one possible cause
of affection not being present.
Take it that some such affections have engendered appearances
presented before the Soul or Mind from without but taken [for
practical purposes] to be actual experiences within it then
Philosophy's task is like that of a man who wishes to throw off
the shapes presented in dreams, and to this end recalls to
waking condition the mind that is breeding them.
But what can be meant by the purification of a Soul that has
never been stained and by the separation of the Soul from a
body to which it is essentially a stranger?
The purification of the Soul is simply to allow it to be alone; it
is pure when it keeps no company; when it looks to nothing
without itself; when it entertains no alien thoughts be the
mode or origin of such notions or affections what they may, a
subject on which we have already touched when it no longer
sees in the world of image, much less elaborates images into
veritable affections. Is it not a true purification to turn away
towards the exact contrary of earthly things?
Separation, in the same way, is the condition of a soul no
longer entering into the body to lie at its mercy; it is to stand as
a light, set in the midst of trouble but unperturbed through all.
In the particular case of the affective phase of the Soul,
purification is its awakening from the baseless visions which
beset it, the refusal to see them; its separation consists in
limiting its descent towards the lower and accepting no picture
thence, and of course in the banning for its part too of all
which the higher Soul ignores when it has arisen from the
trouble storm and is no longer bound to the flesh by the chains
of sensuality and of multiplicity but has subdued to itself the
body and its entire surrounding so that it holds sovereignty,
tranquilly, over all.
6. the Intellectual Essence, wholly of the order of Idealform,
must be taken as impassive has been already established.
But Matter also is an incorporeal, though after a mode of its
own; we must examine, therefore, how this stands, whether it
is passive, as is commonly held, a thing that can be twisted to
every shape and Kind, or whether it too must be considered
impassive and in what sense and fashion so. But in engaging
this question and defining the nature of matter we must correct
certain prevailing errors about the nature of the Authentic
Existent, about Essence, about Being.
The Existent rightly so called is that which has authentic
existence, that, therefore, which is existent completely, and
therefore, again, that which at no point fails in existence.
Having existence perfectly, it needs nothing to preserve it in
being; it is, on the contrary, the source and cause from which
all that appears to exist derives that appearance. This admitted,
it must of necessity be in life, in a perfect life: if it failed it
would be more nearly the nonexistent than the existent. But:
The Being thus indicated is Intellect, is wisdom unalloyed. It
is, therefore, determined and rounded off; it is nothing
potentially that is not of the same determined order, otherwise
it would be in default.
Hence its eternity, its identity, its utter irreceptivity and
impermeability. If it took in anything, it must be taking in
something outside itself, that is to say, Existence would at last
include nonexistence. But it must be Authentic Existence all
through; it must, therefore, present itself equipped from its own
stores with all that makes up Existence so that all stands
together and all is one thing. The Existent [Real Being] must
have thus much of determination: if it had not, then it could not
be the source of the Intellectual Principle and of Life which
would be importations into it originating in the sphere of non
Being; and Real Being would be lifeless and mindless; but
mindlessness and lifelessness are the characteristics of non
being and must belong to the lower order, to the outer borders
of the existent; for Intellect and Life rise from the Beyond
Existence [the Indefinable Supreme] though Itself has no need
of them and are conveyed from It into the Authentic Existent.
If we have thus rightly described the Authentic Existent, we
see that it cannot be any kind of body nor the understuff of
body; in such entities the Being is simply the existing of things
outside of Being.
But body, a nonexistence? Matter, on which all this universe
rises, a nonexistence? Mountain and rock, the wide solid
earth, all that resists, all that can be struck and driven, surely
all proclaims the real existence of the corporeal? And how, it
will be asked, can we, on the contrary, attribute Being, and the
only Authentic Being, to entities like Soul and Intellect, things
having no weight or pressure, yielding to no force, offering no
resistance, things not even visible?
Yet even the corporeal realm witnesses for us; the resting earth
has certainly a scantier share in Being than belongs to what has
more motion and less solidity and less than belongs to its own
most upward element, for fire begins, already, to flit up and
away outside of the bodykind.
In fact, it appears to be precisely the most selfsufficing that
bear least hardly, least painfully, on other things, while the
heaviest and earthiest bodies deficient, falling, unable to bear
themselves upward these, by the very downthrust due to their
feebleness, offer the resistance which belongs to the falling
habit and to the lack of buoyancy. It is lifeless objects that deal
the severest blows; they hit hardest and hurt most; where there
is life that is to say participation in Being there is beneficence
towards the environment, all the greater as the measure of
Being is fuller.
Again, Movement, which is a sort of life within bodies, an
imitation of true Life, is the more decided where there is the
least of body a sign that the waning of Being makes the object
affected more distinctly corporeal.
The changes known as affections show even more clearly that
where the bodily quality is most pronounced susceptibility is at
its intensest earth more susceptible than other elements, and
these others again more or less so in the degree of their
corporeality: sever the other elements and, failing some
preventive force, they join again; but earthy matter divided
remains apart indefinitely. Things whose nature represents a
diminishment have no power of recuperation after even a slight
disturbance and they perish; thus what has most definitely
become body, having most closely approximated to nonbeing
lacks the strength to reknit its unity: the heavy and violent
crash of body against body works destruction, and weak is
powerful against weak, nonbeing against its like.
Thus far we have been meeting those who, on the evidence of
thrust and resistance, identify body with real being and find
assurance of truth in the phantasms that reach us through the
senses, those, in a word, who, like dreamers, take for
actualities the figments of their sleeping vision. The sphere of
sense, the Soul in its slumber; for all of the Soul that is in body
is asleep and the true gettingup is not bodily but from the
body: in any movement that takes the body with it there is no
more than a passage from sleep to sleep, from bed to bed; the
veritable waking or rising is from corporeal things; for these,
belonging to the Kind directly opposed to Soul, present to it
what is directly opposed to its essential existence: their origin,
their flux, and their perishing are the warning of their exclusion
from the Kind whose Being is Authentic.
7. We are thus brought back to the nature of that underlying
matter and the things believed to be based upon it;
investigation will show us that Matter has no reality and is not
capable of being affected.
Matter must be bodiless for body is a later production, a
compound made by Matter in conjunction with some other
entity. Thus it is included among incorporeal things in the
sense that body is something that is neither RealBeing nor
Matter.
Matter is no Soul; it is not Intellect, is not Life, is no Ideal
Principle, no ReasonPrinciple; it is no limit or bound, for it is
mere indetermination; it is not a power, for what does it
produce?
It lives on the farther side of all these categories and so has no
tide to the name of Being. It will be more plausibly called a
nonbeing, and this in the sense not of movement [away from
Being] or station (in NotBeing) but of veritable NotBeing, so
that it is no more than the image and phantasm of Mass, a bare
aspiration towards substantial existence; it is stationary but not
in the sense of having position, it is in itself invisible, eluding
all effort to observe it, present where no one can look, unseen
for all our gazing, ceaselessly presenting contraries in the
things based upon it; it is large and small, more and less,
deficient and excessive; a phantasm unabiding and yet unable
to withdraw not even strong enough to withdraw, so utterly
has it failed to accept strength from the Intellectual Principle,
so absolute its lack of all Being.
Its every utterance, therefore, is a lie; it pretends to be great
and it is little, to be more and it is less; and the Existence with
which it masks itself is no Existence, but a passing trick
making trickery of all that seems to be present in it, phantasms
within a phantasm; it is like a mirror showing things as in itself
when they are really elsewhere, filled in appearance but
actually empty, containing nothing, pretending everything. Into
it and out of it move mimicries of the Authentic Existents,
images playing upon an image devoid of Form, visible against
it by its very formlessness; they seem to modify it but in reality
effect nothing, for they are ghostly and feeble, have no thrust
and meet none in Matter either; they pass through it leaving no
cleavage, as through water; or they might be compared to
shapes projected so as to make some appearance upon what we
can know only as the Void.
Further: if visible objects were of the rank of the originals from
which they have entered into Matter we might believe Matter
to be really affected by them, for we might credit them with
some share of the power inherent in their Senders: but the
objects of our experiences are of very different virtue than the
realities they represent, and we deduce that the seeming
modification of matter by visible things is unreal since the
visible thing itself is unreal, having at no point any similarity
with its source and cause. Feeble, in itself, a false thing and
projected upon a falsity, like an image in dream or against
water or on a mirror, it can but leave Matter unaffected; and
even this is saying too little, for water and mirror do give back
a faithful image of what presents itself before them.
8. It is a general principle that, to be modified, an object must
be opposed in faculty, and in quality to the forces that enter
and act upon it.
Thus where heat is present, the change comes by something
that chills, where damp by some drying agency: we say a
subject is modified when from warm it becomes cold, from dry
wet.
A further evidence is in our speaking of a fire being burned
out, when it has passed over into another element; we do not
say that the Matter has been burned out: in other words,
modification affects what is subject to dissolution; the
acceptance of modification is the path towards dissolution;
susceptibility to modification and susceptibility to dissolution
go necessarily together. But Matter can never be dissolved.
What into? By what process?
Still: Matter harbours heat, cold, qualities beyond all count; by
these it is differentiated; it holds them as if they were of its
very substance and they blend within it since no quality is
found isolated to itself Matter lies there as the meeting ground
of all these qualities with their changes as they act and react in
the blend: how, then, can it fail to be modified in keeping? The
only escape would be to declare Matter utterly and for ever
apart from the qualities it exhibits; but the very notion of
Substance implies that any and every thing present in it has
some action upon it.
9. In answer: It must, first, be noted that there are a variety of
modes in which an object may be said to be present to another
or to exist in another. There is a "presence" which acts by
changing the object for good or for ill as we see in the case of
bodies, especially where there is life. But there is also a
"presence" which acts, towards good or ill, with no
modification of the object, as we have indicated in the case of
the Soul. Then there is the case represented by the stamping of
a design upon wax, where the "presence" of the added pattern
causes no modification in the substance nor does its
obliteration diminish it. And there is the example of Light
whose presence does not even bring change of pattern to the
object illuminated. A stone becoming cold does not change its
nature in the process; it remains the stone it was. A drawing
does not cease to be a drawing for being coloured.
The intermediary mass on which these surface changes appear
is certainly not transmuted by them; but might there not be a
modification of the underlying Matter?
No: it is impossible to think of Matter being modified by, for
instance, colour for, of course we must not talk of
modification when there is no more than a presence, or at most
a presenting of shape.
Mirrors and transparent objects, even more, offer a close
parallel; they are quite unaffected by what is seen in or through
them: material things are reflections, and the Matter on which
they appear is further from being affected than is a mirror.
Heat and cold are present in Matter, but the Matter itself
suffers no change of temperature: growing hot and growing
cold have to do only with quality; a quality enters and brings
the impassible Substance under a new state though, by the
way, research into nature may show that cold is nothing
positive but an absence, a mere negation. The qualities come
together into Matter, but in most cases they can have no action
upon each other; certainly there can be none between those of
unlike scope: what effect, for example, could fragrance have
on sweetness or the colourquality on the quality of form, any
quality on another of some unrelated order? The illustration of
the mirror may well indicate to us that a given substratum may
contain something quite distinct from itself even something
standing to it as a direct contrary and yet remain entirely
unaffected by what is thus present to it or merged into it.
A thing can be hurt only by something related to it, and
similarly things are not changed or modified by any chance
presence: modification comes by contrary acting upon
contrary; things merely different leave each other as they were.
Such modification by a direct contrary can obviously not occur
in an order of things to which there is no contrary: Matter,
therefore [the mere absence of Reality] cannot be modified:
any modification that takes place can occur only in some
compound of Matter and reality, or, speaking generally, in
some agglomeration of actual things. The Matter itself
isolated, quite apart from all else, utterly simplex must remain
immune, untouched in the midst of all the interacting agencies;
just as when people fight within their four walls, the house and
the air in it remain without part in the turmoil.
We may take it, then, that while all the qualities and entities
that appear upon Matter group to produce each the effect
belonging to its nature, yet Matter itself remains immune, even
more definitely immune than any of those qualities entering
into it which, not being contraries, are not affected by each
other.
10. Further: If Matter were susceptible of modification, it must
acquire something by the incoming of the new state; it will
either adopt that state, or, at least, it will be in some way
different from what it was. Now upon this first incoming
quality suppose a second to supervene; the recipient is no
longer Matter but a modification of Matter: this second quality,
perhaps, departs, but it has acted and therefore leaves
something of itself after it; the substratum is still further
altered. This process proceeding, the substratum ends by
becoming something quite different from Matter; it becomes a
thing settled in many modes and many shapes; at once it is
debarred from being the allrecipient; it will have closed the
entry against many incomers. In other words, the Matter is no
longer there: Matter is destructible.
No: if there is to be a Matter at all, it must be always
identically as it has been from the beginning: to speak of
Matter as changing is to speak of it as not being Matter.
Another consideration: it is a general principle that a thing
changing must remain within its constitutive Idea so that the
alteration is only in the accidents and not in the essential thing;
the changing object must retain this fundamental permanence,
and the permanent substance cannot be the member of it which
accepts modification.
Therefore there are only two possibilities: the first, that Matter
itself changes and so ceases to be itself, the second that it never
ceases to be itself and therefore never changes.
We may be answered that it does not change in its character as
Matter: but no one could tell us in what other character it
changes; and we have the admission that the Matter in itself is
not subject to change.
Just as the Ideal Principles stand immutably in their essence
which consists precisely in their permanence so, since the
essence of Matter consists in its being Matter [the substratum
to all material things] it must be permanent in this character;
because it is Matter, it is immutable. In the Intellectual realm
we have the immutable Idea; here we have Matter, itself
similarly immutable.
11. I think, in fact, that Plato had this in mind where he justly
speaks of the Images of Real Existents "entering and passing
out": these particular words are not used idly: he wishes us to
grasp the precise nature of the relation between Matter and the
Ideas.
The difficulty on this point is not really that which presented
itself to most of our predecessors how the Ideas enter into
Matter it is rather the mode of their presence in it.
It is in fact strange at sight that Matter should remain itself
intact, unaffected by Idealforms present within it, especially
seeing that these are affected by each other. It is surprising,
too, that the entrant Forms should regularly expel preceding
shapes and qualities, and that the modification [which cannot
touch Matter] should affect what is a compound [of Idea with
Matter] and this, again, not a haphazard but precisely where
there is need of the incoming or outgoing of some certain
Idealform, the compound being deficient through the absence
of a particular principle whose presence will complete it.
But the reason is that the fundamental nature of Matter can
take no increase by anything entering it, and no decrease by
any withdrawal: what from the beginning it was, it remains. It
is not like those things whose lack is merely that of
arrangement and order which can be supplied without change
of substance as when we dress or decorate something bare or
ugly.
But where the bringing to order must cut through to the very
nature, the base original must be transmuted: it can leave
ugliness for beauty only by a change of substance. Matter,
then, thus brought to order must lose its own nature in the
supreme degree unless its baseness is an accidental: if it is base
in the sense of being Baseness the Absolute, it could never
participate in order, and, if evil in the sense of being Evil the
Absolute, it could never participate in good.
We conclude that Matter's participation in Idea is not by way
of modification within itself: the process is very different; it is
a bare seeming. Perhaps we have here the solution of the
difficulty as to how Matter, essentially evil, can be reaching
towards The Good: there would be no such participation as
would destroy its essential nature. Given this mode of pseudo
participation in which Matter would, as we say, retain its
nature, unchanged, always being what it has essentially been
there is no longer any reason to wonder as to how while
essentially evil, it yet participates in Idea: for, by this mode, it
does not abandon its own character: participation is the law,
but it participates only just so far as its essence allows. Under a
mode of participation which allows it to remain on its own
footing, its essential nature stands none the less, whatsoever
the Idea, within that limit, may communicate to it: it is by no
means the less evil for remaining immutably in its own order.
If it had authentic participation in The Good and were veritably
changed, it would not be essentially evil.
In a word, when we call Matter evil we are right only if we
mean that it is not amenable to modification by The Good; but
that means simply that it is subject to no modification
whatever.
12. This is Plato's conception: to him participation does not, in
the case of Matter, comport any such presence of an Idealform
in a Substance to be shaped by it as would produce one
compound thing made up of the two elements changing at the
same moment, merging into one another, modified each by the
other.
In his haste to his purpose he raises many difficult questions,
but he is determined to disown that view; he labours to indicate
in what mode Matter can receive the Idealforms without
being, itself, modified. The direct way is debarred since it is
not easy to point to things actually present in a base and yet
leaving that base unaffected: he therefore devises a metaphor
for participation without modification, one which supports,
also, his thesis that all appearing to the senses is void of
substantial existence and that the region of mere seeming is
vast.
Holding, as he does, that it is the patterns displayed upon
Matter that cause all experience in living bodies while the
Matter itself remains unaffected, he chooses this way of stating
its immutability, leaving us to make out for ourselves that
those very patterns impressed upon it do not comport any
experience, any modification, in itself.
In the case, no doubt, of the living bodies that take one pattern
or shape after having borne another, it might be said that there
was a change, the variation of shape being made verbally
equivalent to a real change: but since Matter is essentially
without shape or magnitude, the appearing of shape upon it can
by no freedom of phrase be described as a change within it. On
this point one must have "a rule for thick and thin" one may
safely say that the underlying Kind contains nothing whatever
in the mode commonly supposed.
But if we reject even the idea of its really containing at least
the patterns upon it, how is it, in any sense, a recipient?
The answer is that in the metaphor cited we have some
reasonably adequate indication of the impassibility of Matter
coupled with the presence upon it of what may be described as
images of things not present.
But we cannot leave the point of its impassibility without a
warning against allowing ourselves to be deluded by sheer
custom of speech.
Plato speaks of Matter as becoming dry, wet, inflamed, but we
must remember the words that follow: "and taking the shape of
air and of water": this blunts the expressions "becoming wet,
becoming inflamed"; once we have Matter thus admitting these
shapes, we learn that it has not itself become a shaped thing but
that the shapes remain distinct as they entered. We see, further,
that the expression "becoming inflamed" is not to be taken
strictly: it is rather a case of becoming fire. Becoming fire is
very different from becoming inflamed, which implies an
outside agency and, therefore, susceptibility to modification.
Matter, being itself a portion of fire, cannot be said to catch
fire. To suggest that the fire not merely permeates the matter,
but actually sets it on fire is like saying that a statue permeates
its bronze.
Further, if what enters must be an IdealPrinciple how could it
set Matter aflame? But what if it is a pattern or condition? No:
the object set aflame is so in virtue of the combination of
Matter and condition.
But how can this follow on the conjunction when no unity has
been produced by the two?
Even if such a unity had been produced, it would be a unity of
things not mutually sharing experiences but acting upon each
other. And the question would then arise whether each was
effective upon the other or whether the sole action was not that
of one (the form) preventing the other [the Matter] from
slipping away?
But when any material thing is severed, must not the Matter be
divided with it? Surely the bodily modification and other
experience that have accompanied the sundering, must have
occurred, identically, within the Matter?
This reasoning would force the destructibility of Matter upon
us: "the body is dissolved; then the Matter is dissolved." We
would have to allow Matter to be a thing of quantity, a
magnitude. But since it is not a magnitude it could not have the
experiences that belong to magnitude and, on the larger scale,
since it is not body it cannot know the experiences of body.
In fact those that declare Matter subject to modification may as
well declare it body right out.
13. Further, they must explain in what sense they hold that
Matter tends to slip away from its form [the Idea]. Can we
conceive it stealing out from stones and rocks or whatever else
envelops it?
And of course they cannot pretend that Matter in some cases
rebels and sometimes not. For if once it makes away of its own
will, why should it not always escape? If it is fixed despite
itself, it must be enveloped by some IdealForm for good and
all. This, however, leaves still the question why a given portion
of Matter does not remain constant to any one given form: the
reason lies mainly in the fact that the Ideas are constantly
passing into it.
In what sense, then, is it said to elude form?
By very nature and for ever?
But does not this precisely mean that it never ceases to be
itself, in other words that its one form is an invincible
formlessness? In no other sense has Plato's dictum any value to
those that invoke it.
Matter [we read] is "the receptacle and nurse of all generation."
Now if Matter is such a receptacle and nurse, all generation is
distinct from it; and since all the changeable lies in the realm
of generation, Matter, existing before all generation, must exist
before all change.
"Receptacle" and "nurse"; then it "retains its identity; it is not
subject to modification. Similarly if it is" [as again we read]
"the ground on which individual things appear and disappear,"
and so, too, if it is a "place, a base." Where Plato describes and
identifies it as "a ground to the ideas" he is not attributing any
state to it; he is probing after its distinctive manner of being.
And what is that?
This which we think of as a NatureKind cannot be included
among Existents but must utterly rebel from the Essence of
Real Beings and be therefore wholly something other than
they for they are ReasonPrinciples and possess Authentic
Existence it must inevitably, by virtue of that difference,
retain its integrity to the point of being permanently closed
against them and, more, of rejecting close participation in any
image of them.
Only on these terms can it be completely different: once it took
any Idea to hearth and home, it would become a new thing, for
it would cease to be the thing apart, the ground of all else, the
receptacle of absolutely any and every form. If there is to be a
ceaseless coming into it and going out from it, itself must be
unmoved and immune in all the come and go. The entrant Idea
will enter as an image, the untrue entering the untruth.
But, at least, in a true entry?
No: How could there be a true entry into that which, by being
falsity, is banned from ever touching truth?
Is this then a pseudoentry into a pseudoentity something
merely brought near, as faces enter the mirror, there to remain
just as long as the people look into it?
Yes: if we eliminated the Authentic Existents from this Sphere
nothing of all now seen in sense would appear one moment
longer.
Here the mirror itself is seen, for it is itself an IdealForm of a
Kind [has some degree of Real Being]; but bare Matter, which
is no Idea, is not a visible thing; if it were, it would have been
visible in its own character before anything else appeared upon
it. The condition of Matter may be illustrated by that of air
penetrated by light and remaining, even so, unseen because it
is invisible whatever happens.
The reflections in the mirror are not taken to be real, all the
less since the appliance on which they appear is seen and
remains while the images disappear, but Matter is not seen
either with the images or without them. But suppose the
reflections on the mirror remaining and the mirror itself not
seen, we would never doubt the solid reality of all that appears.
If, then, there is, really, something in a mirror, we may suppose
objects of sense to be in Matter in precisely that way: if in the
mirror there is nothing, if there is only a seeming of something,
then we may judge that in Matter there is the same delusion
and that the seeming is to be traced to the Substantial
Existence of the RealBeings, that SubstantialExistence in
which the Authentic has the real participation while only an
unreal participation can belong to the unauthentic since their
condition must differ from that which they would know if the
parts were reversed, if the Authentic Existents were not and
they were.
14. But would this mean that if there were no Matter nothing
would exist?
Precisely as in the absence of a mirror, or something of similar
power, there would be no reflection.
A thing whose very nature is to be lodged in something else
cannot exist where the base is lacking and it is the character of
a reflection to appear in something not itself.
Of course supposing anything to desert from the Authentic
Beings, this would not need an alien base: but these Beings are
not subject to flux, and therefore any outside manifestation of
them implies something other than themselves, something
offering a base to what never enters, something which by its
presence, in its insistence, by its cry for help, in its beggardom,
strives as it were by violence to acquire and is always
disappointed, so that its poverty is enduring, its cry unceasing.
This alien base exists and the myth represents it as a pauper to
exhibit its nature, to show that Matter is destitute of The Good.
The claimant does not ask for all the Giver's store, but it
welcomes whatever it can get; in other words, what appears in
Matter is not Reality.
The name, too [Poverty], conveys that Matter's need is never
met. The union with Poros, Possession, is designed to show
that Matter does not attain to Reality, to Plenitude, but to some
bare sufficiency in point of fact to imaging skill.
It is, of course, impossible that an outside thing belonging in
any degree to RealBeing whose Nature is to engender Real
Beings should utterly fail of participation in Reality: but here
we have something perplexing; we are dealing with utter Non
Being, absolutely without part in Reality; what is this
participation by the nonparticipant, and how does mere
neighbouring confer anything on that which by its own nature
is precluded from any association?
The answer is that all that impinges upon this NonBeing is
flung back as from a repelling substance; we may think of an
Echo returned from a repercussive plane surface; it is precisely
because of the lack of retention that the phenomenon is
supposed to belong to that particular place and even to arise
there.
If Matter were participant and received Reality to the extent
which we are apt to imagine, it would be penetrated by a
Reality thus sucked into its constitution. But we know that the
Entrant is not thus absorbed: Matter remains as it was, taking
nothing to itself: it is the check to the forthwelling of Authentic
Existence; it is a ground that repels; it is a mere receptacle to
the Realities as they take their common path and here meet and
mingle. It resembles those reflecting vessels, filled with water,
which are often set against the sun to produce fire: the heat
rays prevented, by their contrary within, from being absorbed
are flung out as one mass.
It is in this sense and way that Matter becomes the cause of the
generated realm; the combinations within it hold together only
after some such reflective mode.
15. Now the objects attracting the sunrays to themselves
illuminated by a fire of the senseorder are necessarily of the
senseorder; there is perceptibility because there has been a
union of things at once external to each other and continuous,
contiguous, in direct contact, two extremes in one line. But the
ReasonPrinciple operating upon Matter is external to it only in
a very different mode and sense: exteriority in this case is
amply supplied by contrariety of essence and can dispense with
any opposite ends [any question of lineal position]; or, rather,
the difference is one that actually debars any local extremity;
sheer incongruity of essence, the utter failure in relationship,
inhibits admixture [between Matter and any form of Being].
The reason, then, of the immutability of Matter is that the
entrant principle neither possesses it nor is possessed by it.
Consider, as an example, the mode in which an opinion or
representation is present in the mind; there is no admixture; the
notion that came goes in its time, still integrally itself alone,
taking nothing with it, leaving nothing after it, because it has
not been blended with the mind; there is no "outside" in the
sense of contact broken, and the distinction between base and
entrant is patent not to the senses but to the reason.
In that example, no doubt, the mental representation though it
seems to have a wide and unchecked control is an image,
while the Soul [Mind] is in its nature not an image [but a
Reality]: none the less the Soul or Mind certainly stands to the
concept as Matter, or in some analogous relation. The
representation, however, does not cover the Mind over; on the
contrary it is often expelled by some activity there; however
urgently it presses in, it never effects such an obliteration as to
be taken for the Soul; it is confronted there by indwelling
powers, by ReasonPrinciples, which repel all such attack.
Matter feebler far than the Soul for any exercise of power, and
possessing no phase of the Authentic Existents, not even in
possession of its own falsity lacks the very means of
manifesting itself, utter void as it is; it becomes the means by
which other things appear, but it cannot announce its own
presence. Penetrating thought may arrive at it, discriminating it
from Authentic Existence; then, it is discerned as something
abandoned by all that really is, by even the dimmest semblants
of being, as a thing dragged towards every shape and property
and appearing to follow yet in fact not even following.
16. An IdealPrinciple approaches and leads Matter towards
some desired dimension, investing this nonexistent underlie
with a magnitude from itself which never becomes
incorporate for Matter, if it really incorporated magnitude,
would be a mass.
Eliminate this IdealForm and the substratum ceases to be a
thing of magnitude, or to appear so: the mass produced by the
Idea was, let us suppose, a man or a horse; the horse
magnitude came upon the Matter when a horse was produced
upon it; when the horse ceases to exist upon the Matter, the
magnitude of the horse departs also. If we are told that the
horse implies a certain determined bulk and that this bulk is a
permanent thing, we answer that what is permanent in this case
is not the magnitude of the horse but the magnitude of mass in
general. That same Magnitude might be fire or earth; on their
disappearance their particular magnitudes would disappear
with them. Matter, then, can never take to itself either pattern
or magnitude; if it did, it would no longer be able to turn from
being fire, let us say, into being something else; it would
become and be fire once for all.
In a word, though Matter is far extended so vastly as to appear
coextensive with all this senseknown Universe yet if the
Heavens and their content came to an end, all magnitude would
simultaneously pass from Matter with, beyond a doubt, all its
other properties; it would be abandoned to its own Kind,
retaining nothing of all that which, in its own peculiar mode, it
had hitherto exhibited.
Where an entrant force can effect modification it will
inevitably leave some trace upon its withdrawal; but where
there can be no modification, nothing can be retained; light
comes and goes, and the air is as it always was.
That a thing essentially devoid of magnitude should come to a
certain size is no more astonishing than that a thing essentially
devoid of heat should become warm: Matter's essential
existence is quite separate from its existing in bulk, since, of
course, magnitude is an immaterial principle as pattern is.
Besides, if we are not to reduce Matter to nothing, it must be
all things by way of participation, and Magnitude is one of
those all things.
In bodies, necessarily compounds, Magnitude though not a
determined Magnitude must be present as one of the
constituents; it is implied in the very notion of body; but
Matter not a Body excludes even undetermined Magnitude.
17. Nor can we, on the other hand, think that matter is simply
Absolute Magnitude.