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2 Biological Level of Analysis

2.1 Outline principles that dene the biological level of analysis and explain how they may be demonstrated through research 2.2 Discuss how and why particular research methods are used in the BLoA and associated ethical considerations

Short Answers
2.3 Explain one study related to localization in the brain 2.4 Explain the effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour 2.5 Explain the functions of two hormones on human behaviour

Physiology
2.6 Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes 2.7 Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour 2.8 Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour

Genetics
2.9 Discuss the extent to which genetic inheritance inuences human behaviour 2.10 Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour 2.11 Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic inuences on behaviour

Tony Chen

2.1 Outline principles that dene the biological level of analysis and explain how they may be demonstrated through research

Behaviour has a basis in the physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems
Newcomer et al. 1999 - Cortisol Method: Experiment Variables: Amount of cortisol injected vs. performance on a memory test Conditions: Control, low/high cortisol (light/extreme stress event) Sample: Group of adult volunteers Findings: Cortisol concentration negatively correlated with performance Conclude: Demonstrated that human memory, as a psychological process, is inuenced by biological factors such as hormone concentrations. Thus, the behaviour of semantic recall has a biological basis

Behaviour has a genetic component

Bailey/Pillard 1991 - Homosexuality Method: Correlational Study - Survey Variables: MZ or DZ vs Concurrence rate of Homosexuality Sample: MZ/DZ twins Findings: Greater concurrence between MZ twins than DZ Heston 1966 - Schizophrenia Method: Correlational study - Interviews + psychological testing Variables: History of schizophrenia vs. Likelihood of developing schizophrenia Sample: Adopted children who had been separated from biological mothers early on Findings: Greater likelihood of schizophrenia if mother was schizophrenic Conclude: Concurrence between individuals with similar genes suggest that genetics is at least partially responsible for behaviour. Of course, the environment also has a effect on the expression of genes, which only provide an underlying predisposition. Genetics undeniably plays a part in human behaviour

Animal studies can provide insight into human behaviour patterns

Rosenzweig et al. 1972 - Cortical development Method: Experiment - Animal study Variables: Rich/Deprived developmental environment vs. cortical mass Conditions: Large enclosure with toys, small enclosure with no toys, med size control Sample: Newborn rats Findings: Deprived environments signicantly hinder the development of the cortex Conclude: Because rats are mammals, their brains work similarily to humans in terms of biology (development and functioning), thus allowing for some generalizability from animal studies to human behaviour.

2.2 Discuss how and why particular research methods are used in the BLoA and associated ethical considerations

Experiments (animal/human)
e.g. ! Schacter/Singer 1962 - Adrenaline ! Rosenzweig et al. 1972 - Cortical development Strengths: ! Highly controlled environment reduces confounding variables ! ! Can establish cause-effect relationship ! ! fMRI, PET, EEG can be used to directly examine brain physiology Limitations:! Articial - low ecological validity ! ! Animal studies have limited generalizability ! ! Can be impractical esp when brain damage is involved Ethical considerations:! Causing pain to humans/animals is unethical ! ! ! ! Modifying the brain (lesioning etc.) ! ! ! ! Modifying behaviour through hormones/drugs ! ! ! ! Deception in placebo studies, informed consent

Case Studies
e.g. ! Milner 1962 - Amnesia Strengths:! Allows research into situations that are impractical/unethical to reproduce ! ! Integrates data collected from multiple sources (Interviews, Observations) ! ! Rich data generated with a large degree of detail Limitations:! Very limited generalizability since sample is very small ! ! Difcult to corroborate conclusions due to rarity ! ! Many confounding variables present, many unknown Ethical considerations:! Preserving anonymity to avoid stigmatization ! ! ! ! Informed consent to use information ! ! ! ! Avoiding emotional distress in interviews

Correlational studies (twin, adoption)

e.g. ! Heston 1966 - Schizophrenia ! Bailey/Pillard 1991 - Homosexuality Strengths: ! Good for discerning large-scale patterns in the population ! ! Very generalizable conclusions since large samples can be processed Limitations:! Cannot determine cause-effect relationships ! ! Self-report bias may result in unreliable data (esp. surveys) ! ! Data is not detailed Ethical considerations: ! ! ! ! ! Preservation of anonymity Informed consent

Meta-analysis
Integrates information from multiple sources of research to reach a valid and generalizable conclusion founded on strong triangulation and comparisons between studies.

2.3 Explain one study related to localization in the brain Sperry 1968 - Lateralization Method: Quasi-experiment Conditions: corpus callosotomy vs regular brain Sample: Group of corpus callosotomy patients Findings: When information was presented to only one hemisphere, the patient can only ! respond in mediums associated with that hemisphere Left visual eld is connected to right hemisphere and vice versa Corpus callosum is the connection between the hemispheres The left brain could respond by speech (vocal response), but right brain could draw or ! use their hands (tactile response) Conclusion: The two halves of the brain control different parts of behaviour. That is, ! behaviour is to some degree localized in a specic part of the brain Left controls speech and interpretations - creates ctional reasons for own behaviour Right controls tactile sense Plasticity appears: right hemispheres have varying degrees of linguistic capability ! suggesting adaptation 2.4 Explain the effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour Kamatsu/Hirai 1999 - Serotonin Method: Experiment/Observation Conditions: Control vs. Sensory deprivation Sample: Group of monks on pilgrimage Findings: After 72 hours of not eating, sleeping or speaking, saliva samples showed increased serotonin. Monks reported spiritual hallucinations. This is consistent with current theory stating that serotonin is associated with sleep and dreaming. (Serotonin activates hypothalamus resulting in sensory hallucinations) Martinez/Kesner 1991 - Acetylcholine Method: Experiment - animal study Variables: Availability of acetylcholine vs. speed of learning a maze Conditions: Rats injected with ACh blocker, with ACh-esterase inhibitor, and control Sample: Group of rats Findings: ACh blocker rats found their way through the maze slower, ACh-esterase inhibitor rats learned the maze faster. Thus, ACh is associated with the formation of memories. Conclusion: Neurotransmitters play an important role in supporting brain functioning and changes in the amount of neurotransmitter has a signicant impact on human behaviour.

2.5 Explain the functions of two hormones on human behaviour Kosfeld et al. 2005 - Oxytocin Method: Experiment Variables: Oxytocin vs. Trust behaviour Conditions: Control, oxytocin nasal spray Sample: Group of university students Findings: Subjects administered with cortisol exhibited greater trusting behaviour and invested more of their tokens to the trustees. Thus, oxytocin plays a role in trusting behaviour, reducing aversion to the risk of betrayal Schacter/Singer 1962 - Adrenaline Method: Experiment Variables: Euphoria/Anger environment vs. Emotional response Conditions: Confederate created either happy environment (games) or Anger (outrage) Sample: Group of adult volunteers Findings: Behaviour matched the environment, with greater magnitude than placebo subjects (e.g. more euphoric in euphoric condition than a placebo subject was). Reveals physiological basis of emotions in hormones. However, context also plays a role in how hormone changes are expressed. Conclusion: Hormones inuence human behavioural patters and emotions, interacting with cognitive processes and environmental factors to guide behaviour.

2.6 Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

Brain plasticity
Rosenzweig et al. 1972 - Cortical development Evaluation: ! Animal study so of limited generalizability to humans ! ! Cause-effect relationship established ! ! Shows that environmental inuences can change brain mass Maguire et al. 2002 - Hippocampus Method: Quasi-Experiment - MRI Variables: Taxi driver experience vs. hippocampus size Conditions: Experienced drivers vs. learning drivers Sample: Taxi drivers in London Findings: Experienced taxi drivers on average a greater posterior hippocampus size compared to those still learning, indicating that the rigorous training required to become familiar with streets and shortest routes had increased size of spatial memory centres Evaluation:! Corroborates Rosenzweig et al. - environment affects human brain mass ! ! Limited sample - London taxi drivers - not representative of all humans ! ! Change limited to hippocampus ! ! Ambiguous cause-effect! ! Conclusion: Changes in the mass of different parts of the brain in response to environmental stimuli reveal that the brain is highly plastic. The environment provides cognitive stimulation in the form of learning/experience, inuencing brain physiology

Environmental Stress
Stressors are stimuli that cause a stress response in the body, associated with elevated levels of cortisol, and activation of the amygdala, which controls fear and arousal Sapolsky 1996 - Stress Method: Correlational study Variables: Exposure to stress vs. cortisol levels (looking for long term effects) Sample: Group of baboons Findings: Baboons under greater stress (i.e. lower social rank) have chronically elevated cortisol levels, and developed smaller hippocampus sizes Evaluation:! Ambiguous cause-effect ! ! Limited generalizability to humans ! ! Increased ecological validity - Baboons observed in social interactions Bremner et al. 2003 - PTSD Method: Correlational Quasi-experiment Conditions: Patients with PTSD due to trauma vs. control Sample: PTSD patients, either experienced childhood abuse or veterans Findings: PTSD patients had lower memory performance and smaller hippocampi Evaluation:! Unsure if PTSD is the cause (could be associated depression/disorders) ! ! Tested multiple types of trauma Conclusion: Stressor stimuli from the environment can alter the physiology of the endocrine system, resulting in increases in glucocorticoid levels that in the long run also has a impact on the physical structure of the brain

2.7 Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour Cognitive processes involved in meditative behaviour can interact with the physiology of the brain, resulting in different patterns in activation. Comparing activation between adept and novice meditators, we can induce a bidirectional inuence between cognition and physiology, where one can inuence the other Davidson et al. 2004 - Meditation !Method: Quasi-Experiment - EEG Conditions: Experienced vs. inexperienced meditators Sample: Monks and students Findings: When asked to focus on an objective feeling of compassion, EEG of the monks brains revealed greater activation, as well as a greater number of organized gamma waves, linked to higher reasoning faculties. In addition, volunteers gamma wave production decreased to normal after the meditation was over, whereas the monks gamma wave production remained high Evaluation: ! Ambiguous cause-effect ! ! Use of EEG to give physiological evidence of a signicant difference ! ! Difference could be caused by the trainees not fully understanding ! ! ! meditation rather than a difference in brain structuring from practice ! ! Or having a different understanding/concept of compassion - cultural ! ! ! differences ! ! Could be due to individual differences! ! Conclusion: Gamma wave patterns indicative of underlying physiological component behind the cognitive processes involved in meditation. Adeptness at controlling such cognitive processes creates a different set of patterns. Brefczynski-Lewis et al. 2007 - Meditation !Method: Quasi-Experiment - fMRI Conditions: Experienced vs. inexperienced meditators Sample: Meditators and students Findings: fMRI reveals differences in brain attention regions when distractions are introduced in state of meditation. Experienced meditators adjust concentration to resist reactions, but novices show increased activation, and appear to work harder to maintain concentration Evaluation: ! Different ethnicities/cultures in sample group so high generalizability ! ! Differences in activation patterns suggest neuroplasticity ! ! Could be due to individual differences, little control over other variables ! ! In this case, differences in physiology are more apparent from fMRI so ! ! corroborates !Davidson et al. 2004 Conclusion: Neuroplasticity is suggested, revealing that cognition and physiology are connected and have a bidirectional relationship. Developments in physiology in B-L 2007 enable cognitive processing on different level, while cognitive processing involved in meditation create changes in physiology (as Davidson 2004s wave patters suggest). Resulting behaviour is caused by the interactions between both cognition and physiology.

2.8 Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour Brain imaging techniques are concerned with mapping brain function to the physiology of the brain by examining its structure and activation patterns.

MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging is based on the alignment of hydrogen atoms in the body to an externally applied magnetic eld. Can see through bone tissues e.g. Maguire et al. 2002 - Hippocampus!! (Sapolsky 1996) Evaluation:! MRI brain scans allowed structural differences to be discerned between ! ! ! experienced vs. trainee taxi drivers ! ! MRI cannot examine brain processes as it delivers a still 3D scan ! ! Good for identifying structural differences in brain

fMRI
Modication to MRI that allows detection of metabolic changes in the form of increased blood ow e.g. Brefczynski-Lewis et al. 2007 - Meditation Evaluation:! fMRI used to monitor blood ow to different parts of brain to track activity ! ! Allowing researchers to conclude that meditators exhibited neuroplasticity ! ! ! since blood ow patterns were different ! ! Brain areas are often linked so not clear precisely where processes occur ! ! Blood ow occurs after activation so timing not precise ! ! Good for identifying activation e.g. for specic cognitive tasks

EEG
Electroencephalogram allows for the monitoring of brain waves using electrode array applied around the head e.g. Davidson et al. 2004 - Meditation Evaluation:! EEG reveals underlying physiological difference - gamma waves different ! ! EEG is not precise and tracks general activation patterns over large areas ! ! ! so cannot be used to determine localization ! ! EEG cannot track activity deep in the brain, only surface ! ! Good for sleep/meditation studies - brain activation is consistent/regular ! !

PET
Involves the injection of radioactive sugars into the body, which produces radiation as it is broken down in the brain, allowing researchers to track brain activity e.g. Mosconi et al. 2005 - Alzheimers Evaluation:! PET used to determine activation patterns in hippocampus ! ! A template was developed to identify cases of developing Alzheimers ! ! Less precision than fMRI ! ! Good for examining conditions where structural changes cant be ! ! ! discerned early on (e.g. alzheimers, small tumours)! !

2.9 Discuss the extent to which genetic inheritance inuences human behaviour Bailey/Pillard 1991 - Homosexuality Evaluation:! Cannot determine cause-effect relationship ! ! Self-report bias reduces data reliability - homosexuality can be secret ! ! One twin was surveyed on the sexual orientation of both twins so ! ! ! information may be inaccurate Heston et al. 1966 - Schizophrenia Evaluation:! Shows that different environments do not account for all similarities ! ! So when combined with S/S conrms genetic basis for behaviours ! ! No control over confounding variables Conclusion: It is suggested that genetics is at least partially responsible for the development of certain behavioural patterns such as homosexuality and the development of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, since greater genetic similarity leads to greater concordance rates. However, because even the MZ twins with identical genetics did not show a 100% concordance (S/S), ones genes are by no means the sole factor in determining human behaviour. Stress-diathesis model MacGufn et al. 1996 - Depression twin study Brown and Harris 1978 - Depression Method: Correlational study Variables: Stressful life events vs. Depression rates Sample: group of working-class women Findings: High stress levels (no employment, lack of intimate relationships) and having a stressful childhood event made people more likely to suffer depression Evaluation: ! Cannot determine cause-effect relationship ! ! Studies a common situation (living in the working class) - generalizable ! ! Conclusion: Suggests that genetic predisposition is not the only factor that inuences behaviour. Combined with twin studies that look at depression, we see that genetics play a role of predisposing an individual with a vulnerability to a certain disorder while stressful events can cause expression of those genes resulting in behavioural change. Caspi 2002 - MAOA Method: Correlational study Variables: Presence of low MAOA gene variant and ASPD Sample: Group of male children Findings: Those who suffered child abuse in combination with low MAOA variant were far more likely to develop ASPD. Some individuals who only had low MAOA or only childhood abuse did not express ASPD. Conclusion: Genetic predisposition creates potential for certain behavioural patterns, but interactions between environmental stimuli and genetics cause the expression of these traits.

2.10 Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour Evolutionary explanations of behaviour are based around the central concept of Darwins natural selection theory, which states that individuals with characteristics/ behaviours most adapted to their environment will have a greater chance of passing on their genes. Thus, common human behaviours that have been inherited likely confer some sort of survival advantage to the individual with the trait.

Evolutionary Explanation for Altruism - Egoistic Motivation

Suggests that individuals are more likely to act altruistically towards those with whom their share more genes. Dawkins (1989) suggests the selst gene concept, which explains the existence of altruism by suggesting that, from an evolutionary standpoint, it is equally benecial for one to pass his own genes versus for someone else to pass on the same genes. Individual survival is overshadowed by genetic survival. Madsen et al. 2007 - Kin selection Method: Experiment Variables: Closeness of relative being compensated vs. time doing a painful exercise Conditions: Close relative/Distant relative Samples: Group of Zulus vs. group of UK individuals Findings: Both groups held the position for longer when a closer relative was being compensated. Cultural difference appeared in what each group considered close relative, as Zulus considered cousins to be close whereas the UK participants did not Evaluation! Cause-effect relationship established ! ! Attempted to account for multiple culture and found similar conclusions ! ! ! so high generalizability Trivers (1971) Explains altruism in terms of reciprocity, as there may be an expectation that the favour will be paid back, resulting in mutual benets (example of mutualism in nature - large sh dont eat small sh, small sh clean parasites from large sh). Kin selection occurs due to greater trust between family members. Axelrod/Hamilton 1981 - Prisoners Dilemma Method: Observation Situation: two individuals playing Prisoners Dilemma game Findings: Even though the rst to defect results in the greatest personal benet, players are willing to cooperate to achieve maximum group benet, especially when the game is played multiple times Evaluation:! Cause of this type of behaviour is not specically determined ! ! Highlights interesting phenomenon of reciprocal altruism Overall Evaluation: Evolutionary hypotheses hard to test. E.g. A/H only a simulation of ! evolution in form of a game - not ecologically valid Underestimates cultural inuences (altruism as social norm) Cannot explain cases such as adoption (Batson 1981 empathy-altruism hypothesis) ! where neither shared genes or reciprocity plays a role Limited to altruism in the evolutionary sense - alternate denitions possible

2.11 Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic inuences on behaviour

Specic to Genetic Research Over-reduction

Role of specic genes is limited so researchers cannot be too reductionist Genetic research does not guarantee the development of some disorder environmental inuences must be accounted for Heston 1966 - Schizophrenia Though genetic correlates exist for many mental disorders, Early generalizations may produce undue emotional distress from genetic screening ! (if a vulnerability is discovered) Bailey/Pillard 1991 - Homosexuality Genetic research into such complex behaviours is controversial As over-reduction to a gay gene creates grounds for stigmatization/discrimination Caspi 2002 - MAOA If a person is not responsible for his genes, should a criminal be able to use the defense that he was genetically predisposed to commit crimes, and thus cannot be blamed?

Human Genome Project

Can be misused for ethically questionable purposes e.g. in cases of human eugenics Question of privacy/condentiality - who owns the genetic information Can genetic information compromise access to insurance/employment? Should genetics indicative of an untreatable disorder e.g. Huntingtons be revealed?

General
Anonymity must be protected, but in family/twin studies it can be difcult to ensure Informed consent esp. for genetics research Full knowledge of what the genetic information will be used for due to ethical risks Deception is unacceptable in cases of genetic research Manipulation of genetics cannot be used in research Participants in genetic research should at all times be able to withdraw and have any genetic information obtained from them destroyed