Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1, Science in Culture (Winter, 1998), pp. 1-44 Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20027475 . Accessed: 11/06/2013 05:37
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Gerald Holton
IN THE CULTURAL
SOIL
The
of
scientific
research work
including
the earlier
type he asserted autobiography, had crucially aided and Ernst Mach hints to
on to one path that historical point scholarship main this day, has hardly the explored?tracing roots have helped that may scientific shape Einstein's first place, for example, in which the cultural milieu grew up.3 To put the literary or philosophic he and many of his fellow more as question generally, the
in the
is Mallinckrodt and Professor Professor of Physics of History of Sci at Harvard This essay is based on the Robert and Maurine University. in the History Lecture Distinguished of Science, Harvard April University,
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Gerald Holton
There are major resonances of such milieu studies for example, the effect of the neo-Platonic of seventeenth-century interests theological for earlier
to Naturphilosophie that supported the or connec R. of Oersted, and the J. Mayer, Amp?re; tion between the religious of the Puritan beliefs and the period in the apt metaphor science of the day, described that concludes K. Merton's and there of famous seventeenth century spread of science."4 have the thus cultural far 1938 monograph, "The cultural soil was for the fertile England peculiarly been few on to attempts the scientific take up advances the of
Robert of
milieu
scientists. is that of The best known twentieth-century physical to Paul Forman, who more than two decades tried ago interpret of some scientists' of quantum mechanics aspects presentations as their to the sociopolitical in the malaise response chiefly Weimar Kraft which the Republic5?although and Kroes.6 Max extent An that work has been vigorously
recently by
sort is in an area in of a different example and I have published, the study of Jammer namely, to which Niels Bohr's introduction of the principle under into physics was influenced by his
complementarity
delight
courses as he
in Soren Kierkegaard's
taken
philosophical
writings,
by his
Harald the philosopher and also, Hoffding, his of William claimed, James.7 reading by so far, there have in the But been few such investigations I have direction. intellectual-cultural (and wider, long thought of any particular scientific that the full understanding taught) to both content attention and context, employ requires so to speak, playing out whole orchestra of the instruments, ing cannot which there without the many components, interacting or understanding of a case. But this is rarely be a full description a middle exists the extremes of between done, though ground advance on one end, and constructivist study of the text alone, on the other. Moreover, in tracing the contributions externalism scientists the bridge of twentieth-century themselves, physical ones? to the humanistic culture the scientific from of parts internalistic which carried much traffic in the past?has narrowed and be
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Science
3
our for at
demands serve
other major twentieth-century nourished by subterranean manistic tradition. Second, that paradox and originality A PERSONAL has plagued of Einstein's
as an example for studying scientists whose work has been to elements us resolve with an of the hu
help concerned
creativity.
INTERLUDE
While
search personal puzzling, of
it is fashionable
and on program, trajectory paradoxical When
the pri
re the the
vate motivations
of Einstein's of Einstein's
at which
in experimental my own research was chiefly high-pressure physics, on topics to write I had also begun in the history of science, and so my assignment was to present how Einstein's work had been of science. Little did I know that historians by modern analyzed this suggestion change would start me on a search that eventually would my profoundly to my dismay I discovered First, been done modern historians by scientific contributions?their their wider influence. opment, the volume and distinction of tists legacy of earlier of such periods, giants Marjorie Metzger, such which as George Nicolson, life as a scholar. that practically to had nothing Einstein's study seriously their devel their structure, was contrast to in striking the work and of scien the assessed
roots, This
ancestors, to be in virgin
Fleck, and others?not Ludwig as Pierre Duhem and Ernst the many
biographies,
there were
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Gerald Holton
Figure
1: Albert Hebrew
Einstein University,
at
age
nineteen.
(By permission
of
the
Einstein
Archive,
Jerusalem.)
In truth,
at
the
time
of Einstein's
death
he was
still
respected,
courageous opposition political arms race, and the Cold War. an obstinate as having become
decades pursuing
theory; village widely become vigorous To as he idiot." told
taught a ghostly
a friend, "At Princeton they regard me as the to be his general relativity theory began In he had his last his death. after years, again only Even figure?a ready from the long way career for a brilliant has image (figure of 1). the
summarized
changed. of trendy on major motto is well in writing figures in a recent essay on Herman that carried Melville vastly the deluge
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Science
Big Question
is: Did He
more
at large Einstein's the people image science from ever; ubiquitous professional there is now an increasing flood of good scholarship at Boston since a team of researchers especially Col com
to publish has begun the volumes of Einstein's University with their extraordinarily valuable editorial lected Papers, ments further stimuli for research. providing None of this could I regret not quote Marie radioactivity, bibliography." mented,
In retrospect, in 1955. have been foreseen as was to I into this field, the drawn wit, having Curie. When asked why she took up the study of "Because there was no she is said to have replied, But as the historian had to take a it helped launch ones on Newton came in the form to look of Tetsu "first an Hiroshige step" later in research analogous com on to for to
somebody
Einstein; eventually, the long-established That Advanced base but some active access would first step Study
industry or Darwin.10
in Princeton
at the memorial The remarks meeting. original not only a trustee of Einstein's be Helen Dukas, in Einstein's household from 1928 as his
later as general marshallin much of his life and work, drafts die memory
into English and, as it turned out, endowed with an encyclopevast correspondence of the details of Einstein's that had of my first encounter.11 something a large vault, was at the Institute to those in banks. The heavy door was partly open, and a on was her desk, illuminated Helen dimly by lamp or so file still handling among twenty correspondence, of Fuld Hall that turned out to contain inborn Einstein's scientific corre
passed through her hands. I have described Elsewhere In the similar inside, Dukas, drawers bowels
and manuscripts. spondence I had calmed Once her was of kind allowed indescribable of which to have access
about and strangers suspicion to the files, I found myself in a state treasure in a fantastic house?the dream. with Those in a chaotic ease; almost documents, state through which to breathe they seemed
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6
the
Gerald Holton
life of the great scientist and all
his correspondents from a rich mixture of the compass, of science and philosophi points of humor and dead-serious cal speculation, calculations.
two stays at the Institute, I induced Miss Eventually, during an to into Dukas the papers archive for suitable help reorganize a to raisonn? have and research, made, scholarly by catalogue and more Mercer by to add to the files at the Institute what she called "the personal Street correspondence," home. The whole has since been which she had kept at Einstein's
University major
indeed the
a microscope
as authors, statesmen, time, as well artists, of the earth, collection seeking help. The on half a century of history. Take, correspondence. one Einstein's of just during (1914-18); they indicate periods diverse for example, immensely a wide spec scientists?
the correspondents?mostly to the works the references made of major just by and scientific, figures, literary, Amp?re, philosophical including Kant, Helmholtz, Hertz, Hume, Boltzmann, Kirchhoff, Hegel, one word And and Spinoza. ap Poincar?, Mach, repeatedly among even if gauged in the correspondence?Weltbild, peared or "worldview." able as "worldpicture" and these this how concept, important translat faintly I knew Initially hardly in would become authors, only
busy trum
whole Einstein's research program. understanding to proceed? to my mission at the time. How In But to return at Princeton, of which the question of papers that mountain use to start on a historical I would almost study was problem one there were wherever looked, irrelevant; exciting possibili in the ties. For example, what role did experiments genesis play Like practically of the special everyone else, I relativity theory? of 1886 was that the Michelson-Morley had thought experiment the had crucial said so.) influence I had after read that led Einstein to the relativity Robert theory. Millikan, experiment,
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Science
born the special
looking to be not
February understand
of Einstein's it turned correspondence, so simple. One occurs in his letter of such warning can therefore to F. G. Davenport: "One 9, 1954, in my personal experiment why struggle Michelson's I later found Indeed, and over again.13 He on well-established,
no role or at least no decisive role." played that Einstein had repeated his stance over had his own way, gone typically relying much older
and by Faraday, findings?experiments Bradley, were The Fizeau?saying, "They question enough."14 haunting itself: what Einstein make the leap when young suggests helped other, more earlier? Another fellow established physicists could have done it so much a copy of
example Marcel
of a key
document the
content Its eye-opening will Seelig's biography.15 clearer when we later reread that letter in the context of in the archive. Here we need only in the key sentence, the twenty-three-year-old theme that would is a wonderful seem guide feeling announces the beginner him through the rest of his to recognize the unity
[Einheitlichkeit]
experience,
to direct
seemed
of a creative mind me to at first. incoherent, contradictory puzzling, They to reinforce seemed I have mentioned the paradox before,
which,
document main norms canons. a clue
to
time.
the start, Einstein rebelled proudly against as well as the social in science and political But it can be shown that at the same time he
also was
to large parts of the existing devoted cultural deeply a hindrance, or could Was this dichotomy it possibly be to understanding a new in Einstein's uniqueness way?
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8
As various such
Gerald Holton
to Einstein's traits that rebelliousness, forms?where "rebelliousness" as disobedience to be revolutionary, in a phrase or is easily summarized in its a term for is shorthand to authority, a dissi nonconformist, "stubborn both in the
tendency
and, That
to himself, is embedded
Hoffmann (who once worked with Einstein) and Helen Dukas herself is entitled Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel}6 Lewis Feuer, in his 1974 book Einstein and the Generations of Science,
an Einstein in life and science whose whole attitude presented was milieu of the throng of young shaped by the countercultural revolutionaries of every sort who lived in Zurich and Bern around the view turn the of to Even the century.17 the New York Times seemed confirmation of the predictions of Einstein's general as a On November social threat. grave 16, theory the title length at Columbia "Jazz in Scientific that Charles Poor, University, added the newspaper World," a professor of celestial thought Einstein's "When is a circle success is space not a
at
showed
angles? Why,
not equal to two of a triangle angles enters the world Bolshevism of science,
course."18
an overlooks concentrating only on that aspect of Einstein as a Einstein of his persona, different aspect namely, entirely even set innate within the limits his cultural traditionalist, by are combined If it can be proven that these opposites skepticism. But
in Einstein
from
be far
in art, image twentieth-century or who of folklore?rebels academe, parts poetry, typi politics, conventions of the bourgeoisie the social-political reject cally we shall see how Einstein's its cultural canon. Moreover, along with the modern him to clear the enabled nonconformity his ad of obstacles scientific great impeding ruthlessly ground even though the program of that advance itself ran along vance, one of the oldest lines. Skepticism, while traditionalist necessary, assertion of obstinate
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Science
the metaphor Einstein
among clear in a famous letter to his friend Mich?le crystal to apply Ernst Mach's had urged him now Besso, who skepti in attacking the infernal of difficulties cism, as he had earlier, I "You Einstein think know what quantum physics. replied: that
scientists.19
living; it
harmful Einstein's
image in more detail; then examine the contradictory how the paradoxi element; and demonstrate cal tension between Einstein's rebellious and his side image contradictory was use in his work. In particular, we shall examine put to constructive the influence of this tension as he adopted with daring courage a set of that had a history reaching back to antiquity? personal presuppositions but for which, as he put it toMax Born, moral came only from on which presuppositions, support
his own "little finger."21 For these courageous his early success depended, he could and did draw on supporting allies? so far but far more powerful even than Einstein's little noticed little ideas he had absorbed finger?i.e., through his cultural roots, from what the "cultural soil" of the time.22 Merton had called, in another context, we to In the end, will be able and understand Einstein's program, method, results in a new way. INTO TERMINOLOGY
AN EXCURSION
a side excursion into the terminology and social stratifica Here, tion of Einstein's is necessary. milieu When about "the talking roots of Einstein's cultural science"?and when especially today, various macy definitions among of "culture" are anthropologists?a in the German brief for pri violently battling is needed of key summary context at the time of young the framework as well within to as the class and two its compan composite
operative
which
main ions, notions
he belonged,
concepts Zivilisation that
of Kulturtr?ger
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10
The between were
Gerald Holton
German language distinguished more sharply between
collective individual, on the material and adapted referred cases, son," lated tion") acquire Kultur creative human in the German to the Zivilisation Kultur
with
(loosely trans
or "educa formation," "self-refinement," a the process which could person through In turn, the nation's and products of Kultur. was sustained?and advanced Bildung at such gebildete And individuals. its upper, thus meant
much more
than job-related
albeit
training;
it defined
an ideal of
a chief tool for the young to acquire a for small fraction of the popu only Bildung was one's in the the neo lation, Gymnasium, study by beginning ten or so. The to school for ages humanistic secondary eighteen to be quite with students were expected thoroughly acquainted and thinkers Dichter und the great German Denker) poets (the as well as classics the from team now other Happily, has found of antiquity. cultures, especially Einstein's Collected preparing Papers A Munich scan quick of as well as schools a few mandatory of how the young to be
the curricula
at Einstein's
at the high school canon of the parts minds of Einstein there are
in Aarau.
Initially readings at age age ten, and Greek are Ovid's Metamorphoses his only beloved Goethe, Schiller, and Dorothea" and next Einstein Italian; "History
shaped. enters at then Latin the Bible; Caesar's Wars Gallic and thirteen;
the supervision of read; then, under Ferdinand Ruess, poems teacher, Uhland, by "Hermann and others; Goethe's prose poem is studied with "Anabasis"; along Xenophone's
At Aarau, year, more Cicero, Schiller, Herder, Virgil. more encounters in German, of the classics and French, course a typical in in 1896 his German for reads: entry of literature from Lessing to the death of Goethe. Read
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Einstein
G?tz von
Science
Iphigenia
11
and
Torquato also was Such knowledge intended common bond between the gebildete curricula lar Gymnasium throughout tries, were of the
Berlichingen Tasso.
German-speaking
particular discipline they professional regardless later to study at the universities, whether law, medicine, or science?a un the humanities, for the common preparation in that of class their and conversations, letters, derstanding lectures, relations. across specialties placed and even in their intimate on Latin
popular
the Gymnasium
heavy
emphasis
and Greek and other aspects of "pure" Bildung, it had little concern for the kind of practical knowledge offered in other
to schools without such attention types of German secondary classical for the so-called Realschulen instance, (where languages, Einstein's father Hermann and uncle Jakob, headed for electrical had received their secondary Needless education). engineering, a to say, those were with other schools dose of considered, their less valuable; culturally considered for university generally training to status the of achieve likely Kulturtr?ger. snobbism, not Here concept carrier it is crucial to understand term a subtlety a double to be were graduates un and hence in the German
The had both Kulturtr?ger. meaning: On the one hand, gebildete and pillar of Kultur. individu the graduates of Gymnasium who had gone on to als?chiefly seen as personally or even em the universities?were carrying its in the case of Kultur, and, bodying living among products, most the On the other the Kultur. ones, outstanding advancing hand, as a group they functioned or of the nation's {Tr?ger, "pillars") also as the chief project collective became a key supporters of Kultur.
the term Kulturtr?ger Although War after World I, it was only following a change illustrates. episode in the three-tiered
itself
In 1910, electoral law so that Kulturtr?ger be a be put into smaller of they would pool class for which their wealth would qualify votes would count more.25
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12
At
Gerald Holton
the level of social stratification, most of the Kulturtr?ger
to what
members of the bourgeoisie). (the educated two com Karl Mannheim usefully distinguished the modern From the beginning, he bourgeoisie. two kinds on of social roots:"on those whose the only one hand the con the were the other capital
the pro symbolized by the certificates they had attained during cess of Bildung a and often also by within the hierar position chies of the civil service. Bildungsb?rger worked predominantly as physicians, in professions that required university training, as well as teachers and professors and other clergy, in service. officials government higher ex stratum Variants of this social of the Bildungsb?rgertum was in many its social clout isted but countries, particularly lawyers, and in nineteenth-century First, Germany. at the backward economy time, relatively in the governments of the multitude serving strong ries large or Bildungsb?rgertum the absence of man nationalism What chiefly tists, held the small over a nation-state focused favored the and on Kultur the economic in the context the of its of importance of German territo
of the prominence in Second, bourgeoisie. a centralized Ger economy, as the basis of the nation. was
of Germany
output
thinkers,
and,
together perhaps and drama of its poets its scientists. One eventually,
thinks here of Goethe and Schiller, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Johann Gottfried Herder, Friedrich H?lderlin and Johann Joachim Winckelmann (the prophets of Friedrich Friedrich Schleiermacher, Hellenism), Schelling, Friedrich
Schlegel, as Bach, Thus, Immanuel Kant, Mozart, Haydn, elite the academic a twofold mission. this also did not, and Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and Beethoven. Schubert, among One was as well
the foundation
the Kulturtr?ger had funda to help secure, through of German nationhood?though, keeping yet, qualify their distance from
of them,
involved
participation
in political
life?and
or not
up to by those who
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Science
13
"Mandarins."27 ogy, It is ironic that whenever mous, embassy received. Einstein In short, to use him traveled abroad or consulate A had
after becoming fa world Einstein, to lecture, an official from the local German to the foreign would office report secretly state would that available, and Germany would be wise report calls "Kulturpropaganda."2* as a Mandarin. the Kulturtr?ger them intellec anchor inclina material
to use
existed
among
group led marginal existences, critical and had rather could not or would
of "free-floating"
(freischwebende) lacked a well-defined and not even share rebellious the staid
business
existence."29 At this rung of social up to the next "climbing we can connect status these with the and concepts point hopes of the Einstein Einstein's what young family, asking place was within The the had the cultural-social Einsteins could trace seventeenth order of the time. in southern side of the Germany to their origins On the male
century.30 family, they come town of Buchau, in Swabia, from the small largely some two thousand in midcentury which had of inhabitants, whom origins a few hundred chiefly Einstein's were in the Jews. On the maternal small Swabian were of similarly maternal left Koch grandfather Julius near Stuttgart and became quite wealthy for Cannstadt thus be mother, Pauline, virtue His of father by chiefly capital. in technical school and technical trade? them the engineer partner, Jakob? as part of Bildungsb?rgertum, one may doubt that though last the family a promise to Einstein's side, town the
and business
quite qualify not as Kulturtr?ger, certainly ever to that. But at Hermann gave any thought tree had sprouted, in the form of Albert Einstein,
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14
tendency ence to the products of Kultur. Was he just one of these rootless, on as a Kulturtr?ger, his mission rebellious intellectuals, reneging or did his sympathies lie with the true carriers and pillars of more a To make national culture? the question graphic, imagine scene floating defended in which intellectual from that Einstein intent a free stands of being accused on undermining and then is authority, The testimonials offered charge. by either first
side will
Einstein's
aid in understanding
behavior?and his
behind
science.
CHRONOLOGY A prosecuting
OF A CURIOUS REBELLION by of no
would find it easy to establish, both attorney as a as well portrait chronology psychosociological profile, as a rebellious I have Einstein individual his life. throughout or deep interest competence but as to the documentable and in searching facts, many for the possible are well details
causes;
known, his obsti the pattern Einstein made they form is persuasive. to speak until about age almost from birth, refusing nacy known two and a half, until he could or, as Erik Erikson remarked, to in sentences.31 whole When Albert reached begin speak sensibly school age, her memoir, for defiance penchant his sister Maja reported secular home environment, his accordingly including took that a different form. In to his in opposition to Albert decided young in all particu "obeyed the dietary ones.32 But
thoroughly a religious become Jew and lars the religious commands," encountered religion there, the
Luitpold Gymnasium
courses came
and
compulsory in Judaism
end. His
that organized
that youth
lies." He he
is intentionally formed a
"positively
"suspicion
fanatic
against
having
found
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Science
15 which
hint of
life too of
regimented
at fifteen
teachers. When
he moved
he arrived enroll
his country, and his family; he even failed in his first attempt to
at the Swiss Polytechnic point that when Weber?on use the Polytechnic his he continued Institute. Once Albert got into the to the "in your face" rebelliousness, to his main professor, Friedrich Heinrich might well obstinately depend?he him called refused just to "Herr
whom obligatory
and
Weber."
later. Einstein's lived on
In turn,Weber
lifestyle the margins
at the
of bourgeois student
society Mileva
and (by the standards of the day and the place) morally; he lived
with his together first child before passionately were of one conventions Even find many fellow they were married loved each other, and saw Marie, in 1903. their
as
mind
seeming not only with to accepted ideas in science, but arrogance, respect also to accepted Thus the and contained paper practice. style none of the expected or credits, footnote references only a men a course tion of his friend Mich?le who of would Besso, person be unknown We at first father Patent shall brilliance. research among physicists. come back to that magical first period of Einstein's as a gypsy, who often characterized himself Einstein, only temporary teaching jobs, and those tended to
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16
ties and
Gerald Holton
in 1914 accepted a call
to the University in Berlin and to freedom from Academy, chiefly gain teaching to avoid In fact, he managed out and other obligations. turning more a own than of his his lifetime.35 As single Ph.D. during the Prussian
director of the Institute for Physics, his record shows that his
model was to pay minimal to his directo attention leadership even new or to draw to rial duties, the recruitment of members "encases "Red he explained, the tape," ing up regulations.36 a met like of the bands When he first mummy." John D. spirit of on how notes Jr., the two men compared "I put my faith in organization," Rockefeller came Einstein's "I put my faith in intuition," reply.37 war out in August broke of 1914, When ninety-three to get said; of the
chief intellectuals of Germany published significant title "Appeal to the World of Culture,"
military. counterdeclaration ever, it was four the
a manifesto
with
the
supporting
a pacifist for his part, Einstein, supported to the entitled how Europeans"; "Appeal never published, a grand attracted total of having
never But the war Einstein signatures. throughout only a secret of his pacifist in made and cosmopolitan and attitude, an increasingly care to hostile Germany he took express publicly state in Palestine. He his support for the founding of a Jewish also made as indeed essays contrary it plain a to himself again as a Jew and regarded as in several shown of course, person; religious his idea of religion was book Ideas and Opinions, a Spinozistic It was establishment. any religious that he "cosmic in one when and he put religion," "I am of his letters: World about War II broke his posi a deeply
in his
that he called pantheism tion simply and seriously religious After authorities the contrary,
uninformed monitored
nuclear
carefully
by the military
FBI, which
Einstein sonally whole history
considered
are voluminous; J. Edgar Hoover apparently had to be watched?the convinced that Einstein showed that here was a really dangerous
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Science
17
measures attorney
Einstein's
weight iconoclastic
the balance
that
if now
the defense
some moments a is given for rebuttal, Einstein's be introduced that by noting the story; his half the other half was
tradition. the counsel for the Indeed, us a to to it consider of hallmark urge genius might even relish what seems to us such apparent and perhaps tolerate contradiction. well For example, there were one might significant be more since all limits lenient to about the offenses classics system because cited. For Einstein's leaving his of science was by no it devoted indoctri
reverence
Gymnasium and literature means nation. beloved only itself not different
he preferred early, reading on his own. After all, the school its pupils?not by to educational goals but there were least also
in variations systems an was official Prussian of parts Germany, publication in setting forth the plan and aims for the upper schools typical a was of 1892, when Einstein It announced, Gymnasiast. to that in religion in German "Instruction and history, is, next Although ethically schools. the most
in the organism of our higher significant to is The be accomplished task here extraordinarily met teachers who difficult and can be properly only by those warm hearts of our youths for the Ger up the impressionable man German rely language, on for spiritual their deeper and its his of our language understanding also being borne up by enthusiasm for the treasures tory, while and being filled with patriotic of our literature, spirit."39 Clearly, of the German the destiny And such teachers greatness. and the people, must be able to
and Kultur were here instrumentalized in the service of Bildung the state. To young it smelled of militarism. Einstein, when the public and his fellow scientists later hailed Moreover, him as the great scientific Einstein took revolutionary, always pains had to deny this label. He emphasized of over and over again that
firmly embedded
an evolution appalled been
to be considered
to know
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18
death Einstein.
Gerald Holton
a philosopher would assert that a wall of incommensura
the world
of Newton
of
one: to a central in comparison But points such as these pale to in Einstein's interest and devotion the liter lifelong European to Ger and especially cultural ary and philosophical tradition, man in which Kultur. That allegiance, literary and philosophical his science was had been fostered embedded, clearly early in his childhood. home While the classics of music were offered in their Einstein's father would assemble the family by his mother, to read aloud from works in the evening around the lamplight by or Heinrich as Friedrich such writers Heine.40 The fam Schiller of general and spirit This was and social intense and and
in the movement itself as participating ily perceived in this way, of mind, the uplifting character, Bildung of the B?rgertum. the rising portion that characterized especially legitimized assimilation. After all, true for
its Jewish Kultur advocated segments. a vehicle of and also provided emancipation, during for the We his scientifically of most creative and
period
literary discussed times
in Bern, Einstein
classics. at
formed with
two young
friends an
"academy"
scientific, philosophical, list of the books they read sometimes Avenarius, convened Karl
which Mach,
several Pearson,
a week:
Riemann, Dedekind, Helmholtz, Clifford, Amp?re, as well as Sophocles Stuart Mill, and Kirchhoff, not have Cervantes and Dickens.41 They would agree To that of the cultural milieu, ignorant with all they read. illuminate Albert at Kant's even if they a single thirteen did
the point with but the tender age of philosophy, his contacts He in a
know example: We was to introduced the Critique of Pure at the Einstein guest book at the
Immanuel Reason,
through home, Max Talmey.42 sixteen and enrolled Institute of a philosopher's again, Kant.44
on Kant
while
age of at the
Technical
in Zurich.43 analysis
of Kant, surely
a lengthy review book in Princeton and at the Institute of the overwhelming influ
his favorite topic of discussion with his friend Kurt G?del was,
Einstein knew
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Science
19
phi at all.
the late-nineteenth-century example, materialism. arguing against losophers a Kantian Einstein All did not make this, typically, with Kantian While very sympathizing categories?and remember dental arguing: but that Kant had ries45?Einstein idealism "[W]e objected "Unity" to the central listed
as (in the logical to be sense) free conventions. appear They a priori only the positing of catego insofar as thinking without as is in general ries and of concepts be as impossible would a in The vacuum."46 essential for him was, point breathing the "free of the individual freedom, play" imagination, again, within Thus mous. the empirical boundaries was reverence Einstein's into loved the traditional books, and He the world has set for us. even while was enor selective, carefully environment cultural his constant
his outreach
they were
companions.
A list of only those books found in the Einstein household that had been published up to 1910 includes theworks of Aristophanes,
Boltzmann, collected Ludwig works B?chner, of Heine books of Cervantes, (two Kant, William Clifford, Dante,
Frederick Hebbel,
Helmholtz, Homer,
the
Alexander
Cosmos),
von Humboldt
many
and his
Johann another on the exchange of letters between a separate volume of the tragedy part of our story. significant Some of those have books been have such they may of turmoil though aspiring heirlooms;
Mach, Nietzsche, Lessing, Mark and, for good measure, Spinoza, Sophocles, are what looms works the collected of largest von a Goethe: edition and Wolfgang thirty-six-volume on two one of twelve volumes, volumes his plus optics, Goethe Faust, and which and also Schiller, a will become that in the list, an to
and separations. But this migrations a of the total indicates part only library, roughly what want member of the culture-carrying class would
the various
or
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20
Gerald Holton
of higher examinations. culture seriously, not least
courses
at the Polytechnic earlier; to be a high-school he took teacher, physics science differential courses, including required
were in high school mentioned was Einstein where Institute, training all the obvious ana equations, he most wanted
what and mechanics?although lytical geometry, to learn about, Maxwell's he had to study on electromagnetism, In his first year, he enrolled in two additional his own. optional as noted one on the philosophy of Kant, and one courses, earlier, entitled had been "Goethe, Werke and Weltanschauung." at least an outline No doubt?he captured. I think we now have complex
Einstein's
intellectual-cultural
his perception
Kulturtr?ger?to or private pulsory found a satisfying
of his quite
which reading, spiritual had
individualistic
education, carried him
place
both
among
the
com
his whole
home.
the obvious presented, a sort of split are dealing with seen two different is no; we have The answer per personality? uses structure one mental that the of coherent appar spectives to support each other. parts ently conflicting are of three kinds. the apparent The bonds between opposites conclusion that in Einstein we The strain Sturm had first lies in the presence call of an alternative subcurrent in the
Kultur
itself. As
that we may
carried within
itself a
it
which made of rebellion," The anti-Enlightenment and volatile. products the had part ideal of the earlier period of the tradition-bound, of the active, creative,
canonized
phrase a person the plain and simple had to accept that holds the fibers of one's obey the demon
to be championed. Employing used in a different context, duty very "to find life"?to
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Science
heroism was
21
and
even
embodied
and, by tormented, marginal, or even demonic existence but standards, failing saw far and created the reach of who nonetheless beyond things were enemies Those the for comfortable philistines philistines.49 the Sturm These often time as they were und Drang authors, in Kultur, strains the rebellious manner. in a complementary occurred two were for Einstein. and the traditional, Those formed by at the same while
to flout convention, prepared the cultural revering outstanding figures of all times. Though as loyal mem to dissent, themselves they also understood willing of exceptional minds that bers of a supratemporal community this Kultur existed This must stained in a universe was here not be taken from mixture to parallel considered these history elements that of the philistine masses. contradictory, was to record of rebelliousness note although later in blood later broke
of what
in culture, away counterparts stabilizing they flamed a time in twentieth-century into the transforma up for Germany tion and destruction of Kultur Einstein itself?as and so many to experience. But during his formative this years, was nature of Kultur still functioned, it and complementary Einstein what needed for his work and life. precisely seem bonds those of the three The second connecting others ingly contradictory in his approach obstacles clearing the aid of and tools papers centrifugal of Einstein aspects lies, unsurprisingly, to physics, in his manner both of radically and in how he achieved his insights with from the one of traditional can almost Einstein's culture. watch spirit at his Looking the seemingly being used and were
letters, tendencies
tamed to his service. I found the first hint in the letter he wrote in the spring of 1905 to his friend Carl Habicht.50 In
a single major what of was Einstein paragraph, was he works then known evidenced of as poured out an First completing. as the discovery of in the photoelectric detailed small bodies accounting on his of list nature Another is
is now
light, his
zigzag large
prediction movement to be
and seen
enough
through
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22
traced
Gerald Holton
the cause in exact detail of to the bombardment referred the last became of of
these visible
of molecules. Brownian
bodies
(The
by the invisible
existence was he
submicroscopic
chaos
to as the the
movement,
papers-in-progress
referred
of Einstein's presentation original relativity, as an to Habicht work only evolutionary tion of the teachings time." of space and
in the published
which had been prominent nonchalant the ideas of that showed warring worldviews, and one; Each of achievement,
paper
he casually
discarded
of a large a
the ether,
the lives preoccupying more for than physicists remark the the that basic the it was absolutes
century, dismissed "superfluous"; of space, and simultaneity; time, differences between the two great and mechanistic into a new, relativistic derived E=mc2. in they 1905, always is a dazzling have seemed
different fields. But I could not that behind their obvious differ
was after motivating the other. to Habicht. at last von in an Laue unpublished in January To theory, is to put which it these Something articles, was
rapidly, right in that exuberant letter was lead found important had Einstein's has written the which indicates
Einstein
to Max hidden
connection.51
briefly, that
study an
of Maxwell's
had
him
say, fluctuation structure, tum) exhibiting phenomena fluctuation should radiation and that these pressure, in the Brownian the and three movement of a tiny suspended separate fireworks?relativity, movement?had Brownian originated the
cartridge. once is understood, Einstein's this Moreover, to the problem in each of these diverse papers as having essentially the same style
recognized
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of Modern
of the new
Science
time, Einstein
23
dissatisfaction
by
principle
merely of great
then to
analogous
Euclid
book. as one faction; way, the there each five he
had placed
Then of at Einstein the deduced the
at the head
showed
of that
case his in his a
"holy"
how original to
geometry
remove, dissatis offhand bear out
in each
proposed
Most
following theory. one Einstein, not three. the motivation fundamental significant, earlier revealed a complex things." really in what for the of Thus,
more
same one he had announced the very to Marcel the letter Grossmann would rest become of his life: which on the his "To chief preoccu
in science
recognize . . . seem
quantum
a typical
about
sentence:
theoretical
"There
is a deep
understanding and other gases ponderable of electromagnetic processes theory vacuum."52 That is to say, energy of pal
between
pable
but
bodies
is concentrated,
spreads out,
and not
infinitely
divisible;
point and
as a light wave decreases. constantly Why light that in should energy? if there show
its energy
not to atomicity apply movement The Brownian is chaotic of in motion, classical in effect
article
the microcosm up
also the
the macrocosm
bodies. old
And barriers
paper relativity between and space netic and mechanistic papers opposites, endeavored removing
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24
Gerald Holton
PRESUPPOSITIONS I studied the more and correspondence of this I to became his courage impressed by in often all available evidence, against or ideas which presuppositions, guiding papers in a non-Kantian other major scientists, tendency but to as sense, i.e., freely I have repeat to place one's the
scientist, his confidence, place a few fundamental he called In found early chosen. edly bets
simplicity, harking of philosophy: "Nature is pleased not with and affects the pomp of superfluous simplicity, wrote to Einstein causes."53 veritable the concept of hymns as a in in it and he exemplified his science, simplicity guide own lifestyle.54 Another of his most thematic was presuppositions in 1905, into physics of his readers surely wrote It has since become Yet and physics. symmetry, considering it off as an one of the thema
would
introduced
optional ideas
choice. in modern
another
belief the
why
complete ex of natural which description phenomena, as final Niels not accept Einstein Bohr's could universe. Einstein's dice-playing probabilistic, in the continuum that was another him from such enchanted thema, the moment as in he
in strict
Newtonian
causality
There
concepts first magnet are a few But that set of themata themata are
in boyhood. compass more to which themata we must ask that, beyond are not selected a priori chosen held with, question
he also clung a key question: or innate but choosable, some at random from I do because the not believe. are Or rein
That
forced milieu? be
in resonance by, and was That the initial in a real case. tested
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Science
25
impor wholeness? unification, to answer the ques example be to of to reinforced by the the presupposi in the is evidenced As de he put (mein unin last ones it he
the most
cultural motivation
letter always
1905.
Willem
Sitter,
capillarity even
on finding
gravity and
a general
unified
field theory
and
that would
provide a new
join
in
electromagnetism, of quantum terpretation phenomena?as a path different from along although had led him from the preoccupation he at first theory That theories Alexander for called of typically relativity. unquenchable other many the ized
may yet happen, In between, that to what special theory his.57 the general to find unifying
of circular motion. To be obsession with the primacy some science is done researchers who by splendid no need as I to have of thematic presuppositions, case to paint in other Nor have do I want found studies. all as having in scientists German been dream of the up caught as Pauline Ger of for Mazumdar's unity; study example, man them But matic immunologists to oppose my subject acceptance even from lent his there showed, the "Unitarians."58 is Einstein, of unity and were it "Pluralists" is clear was that one among his of the the
demons
He ars
bert
Felix
to Jacques
Loeb,
Sigmund
the publication,
Freud,
as
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26
Gerald Holton
Aufruf!
Eine umfassende Weltanschauung auf Grund des Tatsachenstoffes vorzu bereiten, den die Einzelwissenschaften aufgeh?uft haben, und die Ans?tze dazu zu n?chst unter den Forschern selbst zu verbreiten, istein immerdringenderes Bed?rfnis vor allem f?r die Wissenschaft geworden, dann aber auch f?r unsere Zeit ?ber haupt, die dadurch erst erwerben wird, was wir besitzen. Doch nur durch gemeinsame Arbeit vieler kann das erreicht werden. Darum rufenwir alle philosophisch interessiertenForscher, auf welchen wissenschaftlichen Gebieten sie auch bet?tigt sein m?gen, und alle Philosophen im engeren Sinne, die zu haltbarenLehren nur durch eindringendes Studium der Tatsachen der Erfahrung selbst zu gelangen hoffen, zum Beitritt zu einer Gesellschaft f?r positivistische Philosophie auf. Sie soll de? Zweck haben, alle Wissenschaften untereinander in lebendige Verbindung zu setzen, ?berall die vereinheitlichenden Begriffe zu ent wickeln und so zu einer widerspruchsfreien Gesamtauffassung vorzudringen. Um n?here Auskunft-wende man sich an den mitunterzeichneten Herrn Dozent A. H. Baege. Friedrichshagen b. Berlin, Waldowstra?e 23. ?. D1?58tb, Prof. Dr. einstellt, u. philos. Schriftsteller Fabrikbesitzer Prag. Benshelm. Prof. Dr. Beim, Prof. Dr. S. Jreud, Prof.Dr. T?ppl, Wien. Geh.Hofrat, Dresden. M?nchen. Prof. Dr. 3en$en, Prof. Dr. rjilbcrt, Prof.Dr. Derusalem, Wien. Geh. Reg.-Rat. G?ttingen. G?ttingen. Prof. Dr. B. Hern, Prof. Dr. f. Hleln, Prof. Dr. Hammerer, u. Inspekteur Geh. Geh. Reg.-Rat, G?ttingen. Reg.-Rat, Charlottenburg. Obergeneralarzt Berlin. der IISanttats-Inspektlon, Prof. Dr. v. tuxt, Prof. Dr. toe?, Prof. Dr. tampreebt, Geh.Justizrat, Berlin. New-York. Geh. Rockefeller-Institute, Hotrat, Leipzig. Prof. Dr. 6. ?. mailer, Prof. Dr. E.mad), Geh. Wien. Hotrat. Reg.-Rat. G?ttingen. Prof. Dr. Poioni?, Prof. Dr. Rhumblcr, 3o$efPopper, Wien. Berlin. Hann.-M?nd?n. K?nigl. Landesgeologe, Ingenieur, Prof. Dr. Roux, Prof.Dr. ?. e. S. Schiller, Prof. Dr. Ri&bert, a. Bonn. Geh. Halle S Christi Geh. Medizinalrat, Medizlnalral, College. Corpus Oxford. Prof. Dr. Ritterv. Seelifier, Prof. Dr. ttfnnies, Prof. Dr. Schuppe, Breslau. M?nchen. Kiel. Geh. Reg.-Rat, Prof. Dr. Ulernieke, Prof. Dr.Wiener, Prof.Dr. Uerworn, u. Oberrealschuldirektor Geh. Bonn. Holrat, Leipzig. Frlvat-Dozent, Braunschwelg.. Prof. br. Gh. Ziehen. Geh. Wiesbaden. Medizinalrat, m. R. Baege, Dozent d-Freien Hochschule Berlin Friedrichshagen. Prof. Dr. PetjOldt, u. Prlv.-Dozent, Oberlehrer Spandau.
Figure
of the Gesellschaft for the formation 2: Appeal Deutsche (Courtesy of Wilhelm-Ostwald-Archiv, zu Berlin.)
early
calling develop,
as 1912,
for the across
of a public
establishment all branches the new
manifesto
of of a new scholarship,
(Aufruf,
society one
figure
2)
fying
conceptions.
Society's
its second
together in an organic
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of Modern
Science
ideas, and
27
thus
to develop the unifying everywhere to a non-contradictory comprehensive to a few themata it was allegiance in launching into from territory, the phenomena, what to and stick with themata, the various we make strands closest Einstein's uncharted
conception."59 that supported often with the the provided them through we have pur with belief contained the
encouragement to adopt these courage is where thick and thin? This sued will can converge, show where
for
in
here
for
literary only to this particular ROOTS OF UNITY?A noted that Einstein of his trade attitude
general
POET POINTS THE WAY drew on the work of other during his
education?so
discussed refused of
joyfully by himself,
personal to be a mere functionary and destiny. imagination
freedom
the puzzle have also been made point by Robert in popular that Einstein's reading an overview and that this of science
consisted largely of ones that did not dwell on details but instead
provided standing, ten upon as a coherent experience predisposed the big questions rather than the small pieces.60 All this was necessary; but it was not enough. His wide read in humanistic works science?where the ing beyond Bildung to lead to continued his formative self-refine years was during ment Arnold's understand culture on through to Matthew study of the "best works," analogous at what of culture?hinted else was needed concept genius.61 From the list of icons impressed greatly indeed one who, with Einstein, Friedrich of under corpus him early to fas
to
just one
Schiller,
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28
among Goethe.62 mind, influence eral, There
Gerald Holton
von revered: Johann universally Wolfgang on not is Since Goethe everyone's certainly today to convey in a few words Iwill his unimaginable attempt on educated at the time, not merely on German in particular.63 scientists are two major parts to that influence. Germany's arguably poet. He began his long and was not a modern Germany backward was most Germans One was in gen the fact the most
but
fragments, In 1775, when the twenty-six-year-old was an it still Weimar, impoverished duchy, ful presence intelligence, first, von there was and
Britain it was with and France; compared a of about three hundred motley assembly impotent, Em Roman the dying Holy large and small, within Goethe arrived in youth one of its biggest assets. His skill, possibly to show had begun itself even in his humanity still linked to the Sturm und Drang that were the irreverent at age revolutionary and twenty-four, drama G?tz the romantic and his own
written Berlichingen, one year later. The written The Sorrows of Young Werter, on a legendary drama was based G?tz early sixteenth-century a bold and impudent it who made adventurer German knight, no was one to to all, in strong that he known beholden language, novel Kaiser but God, find it delightful Maximilian, that during and his own Einstein's self. independent examina final Matura (I
on G?tz, was in the subject the very of German tion, his essay individual of the independent embodiment spirit.64) In his early of apparent too, was a complex Goethe, opposites. as the foremost German himself he had established works spokes man for the Sturm Romantic revolt, of those contradictions (one und Drang while still movement, the forerunner of the to Enlightenment ideas adhering from our level below). when viewed
And he was still in his twenties when he began work on the first
his superb into which he poured the tragedy of his Faust, and mutually skills and all the varied aspects antagonistic poetic like much of his writings, soul. It was, of his maturing part of a an it had but strong grip on the especially "great confession," part German imagination, on the upward-striving bourgeoisie as well
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29
is the indelible
impression Lewes remarked, pathos, and irony."65 dictum form tenet" same Dr. "To wisdom,
tragedy melody,
farce, mystery,
reverence,
In his early period, Goethe himself, like his Faust, accepted the
live, not to learn." But this rebellion took own. Goethe's as he matured, to Einstein's similar or individualism: was in individuality the belief some of the social conventions a free person, defying time revering Faustus the geniuses of the sixteenth of history and legend, a special "central one was but which at the for
biographers)
century, Prometheus, Spinoza, von G?tz and the original Caesar, knight as saw God and Nature Like Goethe Spinoza, Berlichingen.66 two aspects and in that belief, he of the same basic reality, too, and other scientists. German shared the spirit of Einstein Among Goethe became lives.67 a fascinating But was and inexhaustible be noted imaginative to that point in a moment. a second of Goethe's power aspect return and scientist on
it must his
productive of the subjective investigation impression in his first scientific of the presence of an intermaxilliary paper, Ernst Haeckel of what later called bone in man; his early version
certain
an evolutionary his concept of the metamorphosis mechanism; and other such matters. Thus Goethe has an honored of plants, even in the and modern Dictionary of Scientific place Biography, of his contributions, the huge controversy about others despite
significantly,
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30
primacy
Gerald Holton
of unity and for the wholeness "in thinking, war he waged for sorry and misguided on Newton's color ideas, against especially in terms of Goethe's be understood philosophical The example, he phenomena, unity of man For the quantification missed thought, and nature in the and the whole explanation subdivi point of in scientific
every living being." over four decades theory, must and poetic beliefs. sion of of natural the organic
as qualities, for what he regarded such phenomena, particularly as colors. This is a prominent of much of Goethe's whole aspect the theme of unity, wholeness, the interconnection of all corpus: are nature. main Those that informed both parts of conceptions his science and his tioned, ity."69 "The nature has men epics. As one of his commentators in dual of the entire [is this]: unity cycle even his belief in the existence of an original, an archetypal and so on?all man, (Urpflanze), called of years the the Ionian Fallacy, for one looking Even the diversity of phenomena.70 was before his death, he immensely
It pervaded
been
excited by news
associated biology, himself and
that in France,
with
the biologist
of unity
St. Hilaire
at the base
had
of
concept
he exclaimed:
our is all intercourse with Nature, if we merely What occupy not individual material and do feel selves with the breath parts, to every part its direction, of the spirit which and prescribes an means of inherent law! orders or sanctions every deviation by I have exerted myself in this great question for fifty years. At first I was alone, then I found support, and now at last, to my great joy, I am surpassed Much has been written by congenial about minds.71
and not
the interest among scientists in various A list of such only in Germany. Bernhard Stallo, Wilhelm
such as Johann
Ostwald, the physiologist Arnold Adolphe Berthold, the neurophysiolo gists Rudolf Magnus and Emile du Bois-Reymond, the botanist Gottlieb
Haberlandt, the physical chemist Gustav Tammann, the bacteriologist
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31
a shared Tesla's enthusiasm. everyone Many to to give service dominance while Goethe's lip ex for a down-to-earth, pragmatic, properly fighting But wherever these readers turned, style of thought. were to like school on, they, Einstein, likely days liable to absorb and sympathize Goethe and so were central in Goethe's the longing for unity, work, point of all parts of nature. As for the interconnectivity
for wholeness,
Walter Moore
"All
of the imbued with [were] spirit youth in their youth Goethe's have absorbed feeling of Goethe's could of Nature."73 poetry Fragments
not only in the popular lectures of routinely, or in the exhortations of politicians, but even other Kulturtr?ger on science in in the lectures the of and textbooks itself, writings von Helmholtz, as Erwin Hermann such Schr?dinger, physicists
Wilhelm Wien,
third readers from volume on the
and Max
in the
of his Lectures
by one of Einstein's 1900 called he had Vorlesungen by a short to reader for they free with
occurs on two pages of that ubiquity one own scientific predecessors, "quite magnificent."75 Ludwig der Elektricit?t ?ber Maxwells Theorie
epigraph.
translation
myself"; celebrated the next, most and programmatic what holds the world "and that I may perceive
innermost."
know
early pages is: "That the first passage to teach others have that labor, Boltzmann does not even have to lines of Faust: in its
of Goethe's
together
to the passage in refers Boltzmann's second given epigraph Faust has just opened the book of Nostradamus, italics below where even to the force that holds the world there a guide seeking
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32
Gerald Holton
gazes at the wondrous "Sign of the Macrocosm"
as I gaze what rapture suddenly begins to flow through all my senses! Did some god inscribe these signs that quell my inner turmoil, fill my poor heart with joy, and with mysterious force unveil the natural powers all about me? Am I a god? I see so clearly now! In these
creative
. . .
lines' perfection
nature spread out
I behold
before my soul. . . .
How
and work
meant to to the God-like of course By referring signs Boltzmann the of Maxwell's indicate Maxwell's summary syn equations, thesis of electricity, and optics. The equations relat magnetism, and magnetic field terms are indeed ing the electric stunningly beautiful when in their written scope, simplicity, in modern form:77 and symmetry, particularly
curl E=-^-p-
ot
div E = 0
curl B =
But that in fact back in both to the
?c PSt
Boltzmann. Boltzmann's
div B = 0
It is quite of Goethe's doubt significant lines are
enchanted
memory, tend to be taken errors are really common culture. But literary Consider first part through never the allusions
version no
from quoting such verses constantly, days. Used for granted and get fuzzy at the edges. Boltzmann's one sign that Goethe's lines have become part of We were of must dig a bit deeper to the see why such scientific reader. to of the
too was
mind.
context
near
tragedy. specialty,
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33
Figure
3: Rembrandt's Rembrandt's
etching, Etchings
called (London:
"Dr.
Faustus" Press,
Phaidon
L. M?nz,
ed.,
deepest
level had
not
been
satisfied more
reductionist)
1912 Appeal
Even discover if he has the
Boltzmann why the synthesis of large parts of physics.79 which express resonance is the strong between The main here point a or Faustian drive toward unified fundamental Goethean
be of the connection symbol nature is and and the whole, (figure 4). This to Maxwell's connects the passage equations, the un
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34
Gerald Holton
of nature, derstanding symbolized by the Sign of the Macrocosmos, and that of the analogous ambition of Boltzmannian scientists and their pupils: the search for one coherent single, totally a Weltbild all encompassing worldpicture, phenomena. Physical to progress of ever fewer, too, yearned science, by the discovery ever more and laws, so that fundamental concepts encompassing one might at last what Max in the title of achieve Planck called,
our gaze. will indeed stand before in 1901 on capil with his first very Einstein, starting publication was an a to committed of such Faustian larity, early stage plan. In that paper he tried to remove a duality between Newtonian gravita which motion directs the of tion, downward, macroscopic objects drives and capillary the molecules of the submicro action, which In its way of the liquid upward. scopic world for the commonality between the macrocosm tion and the microcosm of molecular this was Here also was a search gravita a case of observable
motions.
he thought, could be brought where, opposite apparently phenomena a common Einstein vision. Even later dismissed the into though physics he had used in that first paper as juvenilia, he never turned his back on the inherent goal. in his address of appears expression eloquent in Max honor of Planck.81 of Research," 1918, given "Principles states There of a coherent that into the shaping he solemnly or scientist, each in worldview every serious artist, philosopher, Perhaps his own way, "places Einstein called that task" of the the center search of his of gravity a for worldpicture "to arrive can at the cosmos scientists all around noted that of central idealism, of emotional "the those life." supreme universal up. ..." its most
elementary
task
The
typical them.
so
to
the "unifying spirit," as it was called, pervaded much at the turn of the century. German European thought
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of Modern
Science
35
and historicism, neo-Romanticism, stretching from Immanuel Kant and Georg Wilhelm Hegel to Benedetto Croce and Wilhelm Dilthey, to some sort of transcendent each pointed higher unity, the exist ence of permanent the ideas or forces that supersede or underlie of natural phenomena, ap practical ephemeral world existence. The of human the and scholar, daily struggle plications, all strove to grasp the artist, the poet, the theoretical physicist and that higher reality, a reality that because of its permanence must reveal ultimate "truth" and, hence, serve as a transcendence transient, for reacting basis for comprehending, unifying in its many manifestations.82 world of existence I can only ment, Anne of-the-century were add to, the broader
as different as turn in closing that movements move Science" and later the of Monism, "Unity as to this set of aims and ideas. And related closely has shown in her recent book, the "'holistic' later Germany nineteenth-century our of poet. As she put it, "Goethe's vision of living nature would sub of the later generations' to be 'meant' recurrent a holistic
Harrington
some united"
philosophers science
unities.84 arching culture-carriers overreaching, written off son and rather wrote will Yet have
scientists excellent and many century, are ready to settle for a hierarchical or "dis in the pursuit than participate of over rather To them, the self-imposed task of those earlier of grand discussing unifications even appears perhaps it as a historic fact may be Ernst Mayr and E. O. Wil diversity he right when the course of all history and fragmen multiplicity was Einstein's from had not program has evolutionary should biologists be
in search
and
chief
unity. Henry Perhaps after the nineteenth century from unity, and toward
concept Adams
tation.85
fundamental
motivation
of
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36
The
Gerald Holton
ascent to that Mt. Everest is now
various forms taking routes. The physics different among camps, jour along different are witnesses; nals and even the daily papers and the Interna a physics at tional School of Physics has announced seminar in "A Lake Como with the title, Probe of Nature's Grand part, I have
little doubt that hovering there above the audi be a throng of kindred Kant, Max ghosts, including and and of the poets, course, well, Einstein, among Boltzmann, to him; and, way next with Faust himself in back, the Goethe, in Greek of Tha?es Miletus who Ionia, twenty-six philosopher Design." ence will hundred that all years things ago had are made launched of one that essence. Ionian All dream, of those the thema forebears
had tilled and seeded the cultural soil of their time and, in turn, in their different ways, had been nourished and reinforced by it.
ASHES INTO THE WINDS
When
acts were
counterweight
intestinal
at aneurysm rupture it refused when still any major operation the threat. He his uncomplaining explained "I have Margot by saying simply, stepdaughter At about one o'clock once more, his no last spoke as the in the morning, but the night nurse also a No bore few all the
aorta might
here."
aneurysm burst, he suddenly German. did not understand Einstein's convention. members no flowers, ashes were and requests There friends not even was
concerning to be
rest
No
of poetry,
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Science
37
As
earlier,
Goethe
of his friend Friedrich Schiller. A great circle had closed. Sym bolically, Einstein's lifelong comrades had helped him, once
more, time, to move and cultures. across those illusory divisions between space,
Rothschild
to acknowledge work,
several colleagues Gordon including Craig, S. S. Schweber?none Schulmann, above all, Gerhard Sonnert,
errors?and
who provided essential and dedicated help throughout. I am grateful to the An drew W. Mellon Foundation for support of a research project of which this essay
is part.
"Autobiographical
in Albert
Einstein:
Philosopher
Weinberg anthropology,
to affect the culture of interpreted of these have been?as attempts as the transfer of relatively concepts and to the so-called relativism literature,
haunting other fields. Einstein himself was perturbed by popular misunder standing of his theory. He would have preferred if his theory?which Max Planck and Max Abraham, not Einstein himself, had named in 1906 the
"theory of relativity"?had become known as the
stead. Einstein, letter to E. Zschimmer, 30 September 1921; cf. Gerald Holton, Einstein, History, and Other Passions: The Rebellion Against Science at the End of the Twentieth Century (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
"theory
of
invariance"
in
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38
1996),
Gerald Holton
131-132. See also Steven Weinberg, "Sokal's Hoax," New York Re
view of Books,
4Robert K. Merton,
8 August
Science,
1996, 11-15.
Technology and Society in Seventeenth Century
England
5Paul Forman,
1938), 238.
Theory, 1918-1927:
to a Hostile Intellectual Adaption by German Physicists and Mathematicians in 3 (1971): 1-115. Historical Studies the Sciences Environment," Physical
6John Hendry, "Weimar Culture and Quantum Causality," History of Science
18 (1980): 155-180; Stephen G. Brush, "The Chimerical Cat: Philosophy of inHistorical Perspective," Social Studies of Science 10 Quantum Mechanics (1980), 393-447; P. Kraft and P. Kroes, "Adaption of Scientific Knowledge
to an Intellectual Environment: Paul Forman's 'Weimar Culture, Causality,
and Quantum
Theory,
1918-1927,'"
7Max Jammer, The Conceptual Development (New of Quantum Mechanics York: McGraw-Hill, 1966); Gerald Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973, 1988). specifically: Philipp Frank, Einstein: Sein Leben und seine Zeit (Munich: Paul List, 1949), published in English as Einstein: His Life and Times, tr. George Rosen, ed. Shuichi Kusaka (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947); Anton Reiser (pseud, of Rudolf Kayser), Albert Einstein: A Biographical Portrait (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1930); and Carl Seelig, Albert Einstein: Eine Dokumentarische Biographie (Zurich: Europa Verlag, 1954). One must in
clude Schilpp, 9New York as well Albert Times as Einstein's Einstein: Sunday own fascinating intellectual autobiography, in Philosopher-Scientist. Magazine, 15 December 1996.
"The Ether Problem, the Mechanistic World View, and the 10TetsuHiroshige, Origin of the Theory of Relativity," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 7 (1976): 3-82.
11 Gerald Holton, Einstein, History, and Other Passions, 174-175.
12Gerald Holton,
Introduction to Concepts and Theories in Physical Science Mass.: 1952), 506; Robert A. Millikan, Addison-Wesley, (Cambridge, "Albert Einstein on His Seventieth Birthday," Reviews of Modern Physics 21 (1949), 343-344. of Scientific Thought,
"Conversations with
Journal of Physics 31 (1963):47-57. 15Seelig, Albert Einstein: Eine Dokumentarische 16Banesh Hoffmann, with Helen Dukas, (New York: Viking, 1972).
17Lewis S. Feuer, Einstein and
Biographie,
Albert Einstein:
Science
the Generations
of
(New
Books,
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Science
der
39
in
of the Association
a hymn proclaimed, thront wie
Schipperges, Naturforscher-Versammlungen
Gerstenberg, 1976).
Weltbild
und
zu den H. A. Besso,
20Einstein to Besso,
Correspondance,
13 May
1903-1955,
(Paris: Hermann,
1972), 114. 21Albert Einstein, Hedwig Born, and Max Born, Briefwechsel, (Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, 1969), 215.
22Robert K. Merton, Science, Technology, and Society in Seventeenth
1916-1955
Century
England,
23For a classic
238.
exposition vol. of the contrast between Kultur and Zivilisation, see N.
Elias, ?ber
Falken,
den Prozess
1,1-42.
der Zivilisation,
2 vols. 1990.
zum
1939),
24See, for example, Brockhaus Enzyklop?die, 25Bruno Gebhard, Handbuch der Deutschen Union Verlag, 1962), vol. 3, 305.
Geschichte,
26Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology of (translation of Ideologie und Utopie, 1929; tr. Lewis Wirth and Knowledge Edward Shils) (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1970), 156. By 1843 Karl Marx had noted (in his Kritik des Hegeischen Staatsrechts) that "Geld in the und Bildung" were the main criteria for social differentiation
b?rgerliche vol. gory, society; For Schelling, Marx, a useful and Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Werke, ed. Institut
f?r Marxismus-Leninismus
1, 203-333. "Kant,
1957),
Era," Osiris
27In the original pire and were and social German bridge, 28Christa
German University
1933, 2 vols.
collection mats in The
(Berlin: Akademie-Verlag,
Montevideo,
Janeiro,
225-240. 29K. Mannheim, Ideologie und Utopie (Frankfurt: Verlag G. Schulte-Bulmke, 1969: first published in 1929), 221-222.
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40
Albert
Gerald Holton
Einstein's family tree, see Aron T?nzer, "Der Stammbaum Prof.
30For Albert
Einsteins," J?dische Familien-Forschung: Mitteilungen 7 (1931): 419-421. Gesellschaft f?r j?dische Familienforschung
"Psychoanalytic Reflections Princeton on Einstein's Centenary," Press, f?r sein 1982),
der
31Erik Erikson,
in Gerald
Holton
Perspectives
and Yehuda
(Princeton,
Elkana,
N.J.: "Albert
and Cultural
151-173. Col
Lebensbild,"
(Princeton University
'bohemian,'" Einstein
The Advent
would
of Relativity
characterized
man
(60-61). Biographie,
supervised
Tanner's
University
37Cited in Otto
Colloquium
Nathan
for Philosophy
and Heinz Norden,
of Science, 3March
eds., Einstein
1997.
(New York:
on Peace
Schocken,
38Letter The to Hans Quotable
157.
Einstein Archive N.J.: of in cited 38-434; Princeton Uni his religiosity in and During
versity
Press,
Tageb?cher
1918-1937,
ed. Wolfgang
in Hubert and
Pfeiffer-Belli
Goenner
Democrat
World War I," Science in Context 9 (1996): 348-349. (New York: Dell, 1954). Einstein, Ideas and Opinions
39Ministerium der geistlichen, Unterrichtsund
Medizinalangelegenheiten,
f?r die h?heren Schulen, nebst Erl?uterungen (Berlin:Wilhelm Hertz, 1892), 20.
40Reiser, Albert Einstein: A Biographical Portrait, 26. Toward the end of his life, when Einstein's sister Maja visited him in Princeton (as Einstein wrote to Besso), both would spend their time together reading "Herodotus, Aristotle, Russell's History of Philosophy, and many other interesting books." Einstein
and Heine with 41See Besso, was Correspondance-, often and excluded see also the ideas. Solovine to Albert Einstein, Letters to Albrecht F?lsing, cultural Albert Einstein: Eine out
Biographie
(Frankfurt: Suhrkamp,
from
1993),
"official"
Solovine
Library,
1987),
8-9. Auguste
Comte
is
This content downloaded from 147.91.246.195 on Tue, 11 Jun 2013 05:37:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Science
41
Comte remained exchanges. at the turn of the parts of Europe were see the chro to appear; slow
nology inAuguste Comte, Rede ?ber den Geist des Positivismus, tr. and intro. I. Fetscher (Hamburg: Felix Meiner Verlag, 1994; originally published in In 1914, none other than Wilhelm Ostwald translated 1844), xliii-xliv.
Comte's Prospectus des travaux scientifiques n?cessaires pour
r?organiser
la
in 1822.
42Max Talmey, The Relativity Theory Simplified, and the Formative Period of its Inventor (New York: Falcon Press, 1932), 164.
Einstein: 43Seelig, Albert Professor Stadler's Eine lecture Dokumentarische course on "Die Biographie, Philosophie 1987Einstein," ), vol. 17. The I. Kants"; 1, 364. Deutsche Literatur course was see Col
lected Papers:
Princeton, 44Albert N.J.: Einstein,
The Collected
Princeton "Eisbachs Buch:
Papers
Kant
of Albert
und
Einstein
(multiple
vols.;
University
Press,
Macmillan, operative
1929), 113. "Remarks Concerning the Essays Brought Together in this Co 674. Volume," in Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist,
46Albert Einstein,
47This data base for all books remaining after his death was compiled by NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) and is scheduled to be published. A read ing list of additional books may be found in Abraham Pais, 'Subtle is the Lord . ./: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein (Oxford: Oxford Uni versity Press, 1982). 48MaxWeber, Wissenschaft als Beruf(Berlin: Duncker & Humboldt, 1967), 37; cf. Isaiah Berlin, The Crooked Timber of Humanity, ed. Henry Hardy (New York: Vintage Books, 1992), 213-216.
49As Fritz Einstein: Stern "A shrewdly genius observed could the of also first himself be in a passage seen as both mentioning a public nuisance. Goethe ..." and Stern,
Dreams
Knopf, many." on how
and Delusions:
See also 1987). On the uses and Einstein's view
The Drama
abuses
of German History
of
chapter of Goethe
Haber), see Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961). 50Seelig, Albert Einstein: Eine Dokumentarische
51The letter was printed in Holton, The
on this work, "Einstein's Ger as well as German by ideologues, as a Jew differed from others (e.g., Fritz
Biographie,
of
88-89.
and its Bur
Advancement
Science,
dens: The ]effer son Lecture and Other Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni versity Press, 1986), 65; it is also hinted at in a letter toMax Born, cited in Born, "Physics and Relativity," Helvetica Physica Acta, Supplementum IV (1956), 249.
52Collected Papers, vol. 2, 150.
53IssacNewton,
Philosophiae
Mathematical
naturalis
Principles
of Natural
Philosophy
original
(translation of
translation by
principia
mathematica),
2 vols.,
This content downloaded from 147.91.246.195 on Tue, 11 Jun 2013 05:37:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
42
Gerald Holton
Andrew Motte (1729), revised translation by Florian Cajori University of California Press, 1962), vol. 2, 398. (Berkeley, Calif.:
54Holton,
The
Advancement
of Science,
and
its Burdens,
15.
55The theme of unity and unification also played an important role in biology, as Vassiliki Smocovitis has documented in her Unifying Biology: The Evolution
ary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer
commented 1996). William Morton Wheeler (as cited in 109) that itmight take "a few super-Einsteins" to unify biology,
as the icon of the theme of unification.
56Cited inHolton,
57Abraham Pais,
The Advancement
"Subtle is the Lord.
86.
58PaulineMazumdar, Species and Specificity: An Interpretation of theHistory Immunology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
59Gerald Holton, Science and Anti-Science (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer
of
12-15.
Robert Love Press, Culture Schulmann, Letters, 1992), and in Albert Einstein? "Introduction," ed. Renn and Schulmann (Princeton, N.J.: xi-xxviii. ed. Samuel Lipman (New Haven,
University Arnold,
Anarchy,
in 1869).
62Einstein kept sculptured busts of both Goethe and Schiller in his Berlin home. F. Herneck, Einstein privat: Herta W. erinnert sich an die Jahre 1927 bis 1933 (Berlin: Buchverlag Der Morgen, 1978), 47-48.
63In the quite latter common part of the nineteenth "best and book" in the lists to assemble twentieth early of the outstanding century, works it was of lit
erature. In 1911, Heinrich Falkenberg compiled such a bibliography, "Listen it comprised forty der besten B?cher," in the Zeitschrift f?r B?cherfreunde;
six entries. The of Goethe books." earliest 1853; such in Neukirch's a dominant of the bibliography Dichterkanon quent the ones, "ten best Neukirch's Johann as well as in the subse compilation, role. Around the Viennese 1906, responses was in the Jahrbuch was
played A
deutscher Bibliophilen und Literatur freunde, ed. H. Feigl (Zurich: Amalthea Verlag, 1931), 108-127. As one might expect, Goethe figured prominently in these replies, both explicitly and implicitly. At that time, the consensus about
the Much canon. classic has This still the The who literary changed time received almost Zeit canon since were was then. so went it almost without that strong Some the German years later, ninety saying. weekly that they
Die Zeit
intellectuals
three but classic resurrect that now to
about
five works
thought German
Faust, mented project faded. of
Gymnasiasten
numerous complete was intended started to with study
and particularly
of Die
report begin
those
German
nowadays at a university do
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Science
have sounded
43
ut
16May
1997.
3rd ed. (London: Smith, Elder and (New York: New Direc
to cite a
only
countries; Emerson:
single
example, (Ber
Ralph Waldo
Goethe's works.
Emerson
specifically
in order to read
on Fire
See Robert
The Mind
68JohannWolfgang von Goethe, Goethes Werke (Hamburger Ausgabe), (Hamburg: Christian Wegner Verlag, 1962), vol. 13, 7-10. 69Hatfield, Goethe: A Critical Introduction, 70Isaiah Berlin, Concepts and Categories 71 Lewes, The Life of Goethe, 558.
72On this the and other hand, there can be no
114.
doubt,
of
course,
that
many
of
the
Bildungsb?rger
all other
cated elite. Such people were greatly helped by Georg B?chmann's Gefl?gelte Worte: Der Zitatenschatz des deutschen Volkes, 27th ed. (Berlin: Haude ?C
Spenersche Buchhandlung, 1926), a best-selling compilation of classic quota
tions and lengthier excerpts that was first published in 1864, and went through 27 editions by 1926. SeeWolfgang Fr?hwald, "B?chmann und die in der deutschen Folgen: Zur sozialen Funktion des Bildungszitates im 19. Jahrhundert, part II: Bildungsg?ter Literatur," in Bildungsb?rgertum
und Bildungswissen, 197-219. ed. Reinhart Koselleck (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1990),
73WalterMoore,
versity 74Arnold Press,
Sommerfeld,
translation,
Wolfgang
Publishers Boston,
E. M. Dr. Purcell, Faust, who See Roger
1984),
and Magnetism,
a dark Martin's
text would connect them physics cloud these days for his various
Forbidden Knowledge:
Press, 1996).
From Prometheus
to Pornography
(New York:
St.
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44
treatise: nicht
Gerald Holton
"So weiss." his rendering epigraphs, saurem soll ich denn mit For Part II, Boltzmann of Goethe's Schweiss/Euch wrote: "War lines was, for Part ich der I of his selbst diese lehren, was es ein Gott,
78In Boltzmann's
Zeichen schrieb, /Die mit geheimnissvoll verborg'nem Trieb / Die Kr?fte der Natur um mich enth?llen / Und mir das Herz mit stiller Freude f?llen." 79There is no authoritative picture of how Goethe
for stage directions amount of literature Wolfgang von
since no the Macrocosmos, a There of course, is, good Ernst Beutler, ed., Johann
1977), 754-757; Heinrich O. Proskauer, ed., (Basel: Zbinden Verlag), 1982; Rudolf Steiner,
Faust zu Goethes Novalis Erl?uterungen (Freiburg: in Goethes and Die R?tsel "Faust": und exoterisch
esoterisch
Trunz's But we missioned torically two
Steiner Verlag,
Christian satisfied
1949), 496-497,
know
and Goethe?Faust
image
sixteenth-century
in his Vortr?ge und 80Max Planck, "Die Einheit des physikalischen Weltbildes," Erinnerungen (Darmstadt:Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1970), 28-51.
81Originally the rather entitled "Motiv des title Forschens," "Prinzipien der the address was unfortunate Forschung" translation published in Einstein's of the under Mein address
Weltbild
This
in 1934), 107-110.
led to
in Ideas and Opinions (New York: Dell, 1954), 219-222. While the second quote from this address is here taken directly from the published English
translation, the first is my own translation of the original German text (in
Mein Weltbild). 82David Cassidy, Einstein and Our World Press, 1995), 14.
83Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science:
Wilhelm
II toHitler
Peter
Contexts,
"Disunified Sciences," in Richard Q. Elvee, Press, 1996) and Ian Hacking, (Nobel Conference XXV; St. ed., The End of Science? Attack and Defense
Peter, Minn.: Gustavus Adolphus College, 1992), 33-52.
(Boston:
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