Index

A
ABCD parameters of long, mutually coupled transmission lines, 447-453 of relay apparent impedance, 329-332 of faulted system, 332-336 Abnormal unavailability, 1233-1241 Admittance circles of constant m and variable (), 357-358 diagrams, 355-356 input, 358-361 input loci, 356-357 input plot, for various operating conditions, 360 loci for constant m, 357-358 for constant ljJ, 358-359 relay characteristic, 359-364 AND logic, 105 Anti-pumping, 22 Apparent impedance of distance relay, defined, 258 Argand diagrams, 283-285 Asymmetry factor, 155-156 Automatic circuit reclosers, see reclosers. 84-89 Automatic line sectionalizer, see sectionalizer, 89-90

Burden,24,150-160 defined, 24, 150 in undereized CT, 159-160 maximum, by calculation, 159-160 Bus differential protection, 649-653 concepts and problems, 650-653 CT selection, 649-650 high impedance, 657-663 example, 657-663 with linear couplers, 655-656 with overcurrent relays, 653-654 with percent differential relays, 655 Bus fault statistics, 646 Bus protection, 645-670 auxiliary tripping relays, 669-670 combined bus and transformer, 664 differential, 649-663 directional comparison, 669 requirements, 647-648 using auxiliary CT's, 644-669 using backup line relays, 648-649

c
Capacitive potential devices, 30-32 Carrier current, 477 CCVT,30-32 Circuit breaker, 21-22, 77-84 air, 77, 82-83 arc extinction, 82-84 asymmetrical current, defined, 78 asymmetry factor, 81 compressed-air, 84 control circuit, 21 de current component, defined, 78 definitions, 77-79 designs, 82-84 fluids, 82-83 graph of operating time, 79 latching current, defined, 78

B
Backup, 8 relays, defined, 9-10 Blocking, 489-492 directional comparison, 490-492 scheme, direct, 489-490

live tank vs. dead tank, 84 magnetic-air, 84 making current, defined, 78 manual operation, 21 oil, 77,83 oilless, 83-84 operating time, defined, 79 operating voltage, defined, 78 operation, 22 permissible tripping delay, 82 rated permissible tripping delay, 82 rated voltage range factor, 80 rating, rated quantities, 79-82 symmetrical current method, 79-80 total current method, 79 ratings, 79-82 recovery voltage, defined, 78 reignition, defined, 79 restrike current, defined, 79 restrike voltage, defined, 78 standard operating duty, defined, 81 sulfur hexaflouride, 77 symmetrical current component, defined, 78 vacuum, 77 Circuit switchers, 90-91 Clearing time, 7 Coherent logic, 1113-1125 2-relay system, 1114-] ] 16 3-relay system, 1116-1118 analysis, 1118-1125 Comparator, 127-139 alpha and beta planes, 129 amplitude, 128-] 29, 132-133 distance relay, 135-137 general equations, 129-132 phase, 133-135

1295

1296
Comparator, (Continued) phase and amplitude, 128-129 relay design, 127 Compensation theorem, 186-189 applications, 189-193 Complex line protection, 531-570 multiterminallines, 539-546 mutually coupled lines, 547-570 single-phase switching, 531-539 Complex Z and Y loci, 283-314 admittance inversion, 296-299 circle equations, 294-296 conformal mapping, 307-308 half plane mapping, 287-293 impedance at the relay, 312-314 impedance inversion, 284-286 inversion of a circle with center at (1,0),302-304 an arbitrary circle, 304-306 an arbitrary straight line, 301-302 line through (1, 0), 299-301 line and circle mapping, 286-293 line equations, 293-294 orthogonal trajectories, 308-312 properties of, 286-287 summary of line and circle inversions, 307 with respect to the unit circle, 285 Connection 90 degree, 20 Contacts, 18 a,18 b,18 back, 18 front, 18 graphic symbol for, ]8 normally closed, 18 normally open, 18 Control configuration, redundant, 35 Control circuit, 19-21, 35 dc, 19 de, for circuit breaker, 20 series trip, 21 typical configurations, 35 X-Y, 21 Coordination defined,9 Coordination time interval (CTI) defined, 231 CT and VT graphic symbols, 17-18 CT, 17-18,24,29-34,230-231 burden defined, 24 bushing type, 29-30 delta connection, 31 equivalent circuit, 24 graphic symbol for, ]8 markings, 29 optical, 32-34 optical, types, 34 polarity conventions, 29 saturation, 23-29, 159-160 ANSI standard accuracy class method, 23-24 ANSI standard CT accuracy class method, 25-27 excitation curve method, 25-26 formula method, 26-27 simulation method, 28-29 C-Rating, 159-160 terminal markings, 29 wye connection, 30 CTI, coordination time interval defined,228 Current let-through,47 Current transformer, see CT Cutout distribution, 44-45

Index
frequency response, 118 linear transformations, 117 periodic sequences, 118-119 phasor method, 121-123 relaying applications, 123-125 Directional comparison, 490-495 blocking, 490-492 ground fault protection, 495 high speed rec1osing, 494-495 power swing blocking, 495 selectivity, 493-494 switch-onto-fault function, 495 unblocking, 492-493 Disjoint, 1005-1006 Digital relay applications, 123-125 distance protection, 123 example, 125-126 generator protection, 124 Kalman filter, 125 transformer protection, 124 logic, also see relay logic Distance protection, 257-268, 379-417 analysis, 379-417 description, 257-268 Distance relay, 57-58, 257-268 apparent impedance ground faults, 389-394 line-to-line line fault, 386-389 three-phase line fault, 382-386 typical Z plane plots, 400-406. characteristics, 257-262 coordination, 57-58,412-414 dependence on system parameters, 258-260 effect of fault resistance, 265-267 ground protection, 410-412 R- X plane display, 259 reach, as a function of system conditions, 259-260 sequential tripping, 258 settings, GCX example, 406-410 trip threshold, 258 types, 261-262 underreach,259-260 zoned, 262-265 Distribution feeder, 201-207 coordination, 203-207 main and lateral, 202 sectionalizing, 202 also see "Radial" Distribution transformer fusing, 202 Disturbance, 11-12, 1093-1 104 classification of, 11-12, 1097-1099 defined, 11 joint probability density, 1104 probabilistic model, 1093-1096, 1099-1104

o
Definitions protection, 9-10 Degree of series compensation defined,576 Digital relay logic, 115-126 Kalman filter, 125 overcurrent, 123 substation protection, 124 transformer protection, 124 generator protection, 124 unique concepts, 124-125 Walsh function, 125 Digital circuit, 91-93, 109-112 sampling of analog signals, 109-110 the AID converter, 110-112 Digital fault recorders, 91-93 Digital logic circuits, 104-112 AND,105 buffer, 107 exclusive OR, 106 flip-flop, 109 graphic symbols, 105 NAND, 108 NOR, 107 normal, 104 NOT,107 OR, 106 reversed, 104 time delay, 108 Digital relay, 120-126 Digital signal processing, 116-120 common discrete sequences, 116 . data window method, 120-121 fast Fourier transform, 119-120

Index
probability distribution, 1096-1097 rules and methods of analysis, 1158-1169 system nomenclature, 1159 system parameters, I 165-1169 transmission protection, 1169-1193 breaker failure, 1175-1180 functional specification, 1169-] 173 minimal cut sets, 1198-1199 protection failure, I 180-1193 special cases, 1199-1201 the top event, 1173-1175 Fault trees, 1052-1064 analysis methods, 1054-1055 component failures, 1055-1057 construction, 1057-1060 conventions, 1053- I 054 decision tables, 1060-1062 signal flow graphs, 1062-1064 systems and components, 1055 Faults on power systems, 147-160 calculation of, ]50-152 characteristics of, 148-149 near synchronous machines, 152-159 FM, see frequency modulation Frequency, effects of, 807-847 also see "system frequency" Frequency modulation, 508-509 for pilot communications, 509 principles of, 508 Front contacts, also see "contacts," ] 8 Function numbers of devices, 17-18 Fuse,44-56,220-222 characteristics, 44-56 coordination, 51-55 example, 55-56 current limiting, 46-47 cutout, 44-45 defined, 46-48 distribution, 44 E rated, 48-49 electronic, 48 expulsion, 46 filled, 46 heating and cooling cycles, 220-222 link, described, 45 link, example of, 45 power, 44, 49 protected, 52 protecting, 52 ratings, 48, 49 special types, 47, 48 speed ratio, 50 time-current characteristics, 48-55 types, 44-48 types K and T, 50-52

1297

also see "System disturbance"

E
Environmental effect in protection analysis, 1115

vacuum.vlf
zero current clearing, 46 Fusing, special, 47-48 capacitor banks, 47-48 parallel, recommendation, 48

F
Fail dangerous, 1109 Fail safe, 1109-1110 Failure control of, 4 definitions, 1027 Failure modes, 1027-1028, 1109-1116 definition, 1027-1028 dual, .1108-1109 operational (fail dangerous), 1109-1110 optimization, 1110 security (fail safe), 1]09-1110 Failure to trip defined, 10 False tripping defined, ]0 Faraday effect, 32-33 Fast Fourier transform, 119-120 Fault characteristics, 148-152 Fault current, 150-] 59 initial dc component, 158 measurement of, 150-15] near synchronous machines, 152-159 synchronous generator, example, ]55-157 unloaded generator, 157 Fault current computation, 168-172 description, t 68-169 2 line-to-ground, 170-171 3-phase, ]69-170 line-to-line, 171 n-port sequence network, 168-169 one line-to-ground, 171-172 Fault recorders digital, 91--93 Fault tree analysis of protective systems, 1157-1201 analytical methods, 1158-1169 conditional intensities, 1162-1163 parameters, 1159-1163 unavailability, 1162 unconditional intensities, 1159-1161 evaluation, 1193-120 I expected number of failures and repairs, 1161-1162 minimal cut set parameters, ] 163-1165

G
Generator protection, 713-745 bearing failure, 738-739 breaker failure, 743-745 coolant failure, 739 excitation, loss of field, 732-737 induction generator effect, 732 loss of field, 732-737 fire protection, 739 loss of plant auxiliaries, 739-740 loss of voltage measurement, 739 motoring, 737-738 overspeed,737 rotor protection, 728-731 grounded field winding, 729-731 open field winding, 731 overheated field winding, 731 shorted field winding, 729 stator, 715-728 backup protection, 728 ground fault, 717-724 open circuit, 724-725 overheating, 725 overvoltage, 726 phase fault, 716-717 tum to turn fault, 724 unbalanced current, 726-728 stator protection, 715-728 summary, 740-745 types of protection, 714-715 unit generator-transformer protection, 740-743 overview, 740--74 I protective devices, 742 trip modes, 742-743 vibration, 738 Graphic symbols, 17-18 Ground fault protection, 270-277 characteristics of, 271-272 importance of, 270-271 relay polarization, 272-276 types of ground relays, 276-277 Ground relay polarization, 272-276 using current, 273-276 using voltage, 272-273

H
High-voltage direct current (HYDe) protection, 91 3-952

1298
HVDe ac side protection,936-938 ac bus, 937 ac line, 936-937 convertertransformer, 937 filtersand reactive support, 938 HVDe conversion,913-929 basic control concepts, 926-929 control structure,931-934 converterstation design, 929-936 inverteroperation,921-924 multibridge converters,924-926 protectioncategories,936 protectionphilosophy, 934-935 rectifieroperation,914-921 HVDe de protection,938-948 commutationfailure, 940-941 converterovercurrent,939-940 de filter, 947 de harmonics,943 de line, 944-945 dc minimumvoltage,945-946 dc overvoltage, 946 de side differential,944 electrodeopen circuit, 947 excessivedelay angle, 942 pole de differential,946-947 valve misfire,941 valve short circuit, 939 valves,939-943 VOCOL,947-948 voltagestress, 941-942 HVDe fundamentals, 913-929 HVDe protection,913-952 ac side, 936-938 de side, 938-948 dynamic overvoltage, 950-951 reversepower,949 self-excitation, 950 settings,951-952 torsional interaction,949-950 problems,782-788 external hazards, 783-788 low supply frequency, 787 low supply voltage,786-787 reversedphase sequence,787 single phasing, 785-786 stalling due to excessive load, 787-788 unbalancedsupply voltage, 784-785 internal hazards,782-783 starting performance, 763-769 thermal model, 773-782 electric analog, 776 limits, 779-780 lumped, 775-777 parameters,777 pedormance, 777-779 thermal relay, 780-782 Inductionmotor analysis,752-769 normalization, 753-754 symmetricalcomponent transformation, 754-756 the swing equation, 752 Inspectedsystem modeling, 1211-1226 Instrumenttransformer, 17-18, 23-34 analysis, 23-34 connections,28-34 graphic symbols, 17-18 selection, 23-28

Index
Load imbalancedefinition,836-837 relay characteristics,835-846 relay connections,846--847 turbine protectivemargin, 844-846 Load shedding protection,834-846 criteria, 835-836 design concepts, 839-844 example,837 example illustratingsettings, 838-839 Local backup relays defined, 10 Logic defined,97 Logic analog, 99-104 active filter, 103 comparator, 100-101 electronic,99-112 integrator, 102-103 isolator, 100-101 level detector, 100-102 op amp, 100 summer, 102 Logic, digital, 104-112
AID,111

K
k-out of-n G systems, 1220-1226

L
Line fault analysis, 380-381 definitionof d phasor operators, 392 equivalentcircuit, 380 ground, 389-394 one-line-to-ground, 389-392 tabulationof results, 391 phase-to-phase, 386-389 tabulationof results, 388 sequence networkreduction, 381-382 three phase, 382-386 tabulationof results, 386 two-line-to-ground, 392-394 tabulationof results, 394 Line impedance, 167-168,420-423 earth resistivity, 422 equations, 167-168 matrix, self and mutual,420-423

Impedance,317-349, 356 input, 356 seen by relay,317-319 Impedancematrix, line, 420-430 mutual symmetry, 427 of a transposedline, 423 Importance, 1066, 1071 Inductionmotor,751-799 acceleratingtorque, 761-763 analysis,752-769 equivalentcircuits, 756-761 heating,769'-782 conduction,769-772 fundamentals, 769-773 convection,772-773 radiation,773

AND, 105 Boolean, 104-105 buffer, 107 exclusiveOR, 106 flip-flop, 109 NAND, 108 NOR, 107 NOT, 107 OR, 106 sampling, 110 time delay, 108 Long transmissionline, ~5-465 isolated line, 445-447 equations,445 ABeD parameters,446-447 mutuallycoupled lines, 447-453 distance parameters,447-451 identical parameters,451-452 representation, 453 Equivalentcircuits, 453-461 admittancematrix, 453-457 type 1 equivalent,459-460 type 2 equivalent,460-461 type 3 equivalent,457-459 solution for long lines, 461-465 sequence networks,461-463 sequenceirnpedances,463-464 currents and voltages,464-465 Loss of synchronismprotection, 894-902 circuit breaker considerations, 901 out-of-step blocking and tripping, 898-901

Index
out-of-step detection, 897-898 out-of-step performance, 894-897 out-of-step relaying practice, 901-902 pilot relaying considerations, 901 phase fault, 790-791 reversed phase rotation, 794 synchronous, loss of excitation, 795 synchronous, loss of synchronism, 795 synchronous, supply voltage restoration, 795-796 unbalanced supply voltage, 794 undervoltage, 793-794 Multiterminallines,539-546 3-tenninal example, 543-545 common configurations, 540-541 distance protection with three terminals, 542-543 pilot protection, 545-546 Mutual coupling, 419-465 basic equations, 419-420 effect of, 430-437 equivalent circuit for short lines, 437-444 equivalent circuits for transformers, 439 equivalent networks Type 1, 2, and 3,439-443 examples of, 430-437 general network equivalents for short lines, 437-439 general network equivalents for long lines, 453-461 line impedances, 42D-430 short lines with susceptance, 443-444 solution of the long line case, 461-465 Type 1 networks, 439-441 Type 2 networks, 442 Type 3 networks, 442-443 Mutual impedance lattice network equivalents, 437-439 Mutual induction air-core transformer equivalent, 420 equivalent circuit for, 420 Mutual induction, basic equations, 419 Mutually coupled lines protection, 547-570 measurement errors on the parallel line, 566-568 Types I, 2, and 3 defined, 547-548 Type 1, ground distance protection, 548-568 guidelines for settings, 557-562 reach error, 554-557 Zone 2 settings, 562-563 Types 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3, 551-554 Type 1.3 problems, 563-567

1299
Type 2, distance protection, 568-569 Type 3, distance protection, 570

o
Operational amplifier, 99-100 Optical cables described, 37-38 splicing, 38 Optical communications, 36-39 Optical fiber transmission, 36-37 interstation, 38 intrastation, 38 Optical transducers, 37 Optical transmission, 37-38 attenuation properties, 37 modes, 37 sensor requirements, 38 OR logic, 106 Overcurrent relay described, 56-57 need for directional element, 250-252 time dial, 230-231

M
M matrix, 317-322 for relay impedance, 317-319 M parameters, 319-322 Markov modeling, 1205-1245 abnormal unavailability, 1233-1241 modeling inspected systems, 1211-1226 monitoring and self testing, 1226-1230 safeguard systems, 1241-1243 testing, protection, 1206-1211 unreadiness probability, 1230-1233 Measurements, 17-39 circuit breaker controls, 21-22 control configurations, 34-36 graphic symbols, 17-18 instrument transformers, 23-34 optical communications, 36-39 relay connections, 18-21 Minimum operation current (MOC), 229-233 computed example, 233 defined,229 Monitoring and self-testing, 1226-1230 modeling of inspected protective systems, 1211-1226 testing of protective systems, 1206-1211 k-out-of-n G systems, 1220-1226 optimal inspection interval, 1212-1217 redundant system optimization, 1217-1220 Motor classifications, 788-790 by location, 789 by service, 788-789 Motor protection, 790-799 bearings, 797 for large motors, summary, 798-799 multifunction, 797 rotor, 796-797 heating, 796 problems in detection, 796-797 standards for, 751 stator, 790-796 ground fault, 791 locked rotor, 791-792 overload, 792-793

p
Phase comparison, 499-507 described, 499-501 dual, transfer trip, 503 dual, unblocking, 502 segregated, 504-507 single, blocking, 501-502 Phasor measurement, 73-74 Pilot protection, 469-527 EHV line example, 509-515 description, 510-515 general considerations, 509-510 general description, 470-472 monitoring pilot performance, 525-527 non-unit pilot schemes, 482-499 blocking and unblocking, 489-493 directional comparison, 482 directional comparison selectivity, 493-494 distance schemes, 482-483 hybrid schemes, 495-499 other features, 494-495 transfer trip schemes, 484-489 physical systems, 472-481 classifications, 481 communications selection, 480 communucations problems, 480-481 fiber-optic pilot, 479 general concepts, 473-475 microwave pilot, 478-479 PLC pilot, 477-478 wire pilot, 475-477

1300
Pilot protection, (Continued) pilot settings, 515-522 current reversal, 519-520 distance element, 516-517 echo keying, 520-521 instrumental transformer, 516 loss of potential logic, 521 maximum torque angle, 516 phase overcurrent, 517-518 residual overcurrent, 518-519 switch onto fault, 519 weak infeed logic, 521 traveling wave relays, 522-525 unit schemes, 499-509 longitudinal schemes, 507-509 phase comparison, 499-507 PLC, power line carrier, 477 Polarization of ground relays, 272-276 Potential transformers, see voltage transformers, 18,30-32 Power circuit breakers, 77-84 definitions, 77-79 design, 82-84 ratings, 79-82 Power line carrier, 474, 477-478, 511-513 Power system characteristics, 147-193 available fault current, 168-172 compensation theorem, 186-189 applications, 189-193 faults, 147-160 faulted system equivalents, 172-186 solutions, 193 line impedances, 167-168 station arrangements, 160-166 Power system equivalent circuit, see system equivalent, 172-186 Prevention set, 1071 Primary relays defined,9 Primitive impedance defined, 421 Probability distribution, 1015-1023 binomial, 1015-1019 exponential, 1022-1023 normal, 1019-1020 Poisson, 1017-1018 uniform, 1015, 1020 Weibull, 1020-1022 Programmable logic device, 126 Protected component, defined, 1105-1106 Protection, 4-7 economical design, 4 reactionary, 4-6 safeguards, 6-7 Protection design concepts, 469-470 Protection design considerations, 8-9 Protection equivalent M parameters, 319-322 Protection logic, coherent, 1113-1125 analysis, 1118-1125 defined,1113-1114 2 relay system, 1114-1116 3 relay sustem, 1116-1118 Protection of series compensated lines, 575-642 Protection strategy, 8 Protection zones defined, 9 Protective device ratings, 44 Protective device characteristics, 43-93 circuit breakers, 77-84 fault recorders, 91-93 fuses, 44-56 reclosers, 84-89 relays, 56-77 sectionalizers, 89-90 switches, 90-91 Protective device operation, 7 Protective relaying defined,9

Index
example of relay coordination, 232-235 heating and cooling of fuses, 222 instantaneous relay setting example, 238-239 protective strategy, 218-220 Recloser-relay coordination, 223-224 Relay coordination, 225-239 Relay coordination procedure, 226 setting instantaneous relays, 235-237 Radial system study, 203-207 available fault current, 203 data requirements, 204 protective equipment data, 205 step-by-step procedure, 207 substation data requirements, 204 system data, 205 Radial system, coordination example, 211-214 Random variables, 1010-1026 common distribution functions, 1015-1023 continuous distributions, 1013-1014 definitions, 1010-1011 discrete distributions, 1012-1013 moments, 1014 random vectors, 1023-1024 stochastic processes, 1024-1026 the density function, 1011-1012 the distribution function, 1011 Reactionary devices, 4-6 Recloser, 84-89 defined,84 definition of operating times, 85 electronic, block diagram of, 88 ratings, 85 time-current characteristics, 85-89 Reclosing, auto, 873-894 advantages of high speed, 875 arc deionization, 880-881 at generator buses, 889-894 bus protection vs. line protection, 889 definitions, 877-879 delayed, 889 description, 873-875 digital devices, 887-888 disturbance considerations, 875-877 fault types, 876-877 voltage levels, 876 number of reclosures, 877 probability of success, 877 switching options, line and bus check systems, 889 switching options, single-phase switching, 888

R
Radial distribution coordination, 203-207 Radial line lLG fault, 210 2LG fault, 209-210 branch fault example, 217-218 branch faults, 215-217 delta- and wye-connected systems, 208 example of fault calculations, 211-215 fault current calculation, 207-218 fault impedance, 209 L-L fault, 210 line impedance formula, 209 main line faults, 208-215 normalization of impedance, 209 positive sequence impedance, 209 summary of fault current formulas, 211 three-phase faults, 209 zero sequence line impedance, 210 Radial line protection, 201-239 Radial system coordination example, 226-228 coordination of phase and ground relays, 228-232 coordination of reclosers and fuses, 220-225 example of recloser-relay coordination, 224-225

Index
Reclosing relays, 882-888 breaker operation considerations,
882-884

1301
M parameters, 319-322 phase comparison, 344-349 the faulted system, 332-336 the unfaulted system, 330-332 Z loci, 322-323 Relay characteristics, 56-75 Relay connection typical, 18-21 Relay control configurations. 34-36 Relay logic, 97-139 analog relay logic, 112-1 15 directional comparison pilot,
114-115

NOR, 107 NOT. 107 OR. 106

sampling, 109-110

multishot, 886 single shot, 884-886 synchro check, 886-887 Relay, 43-75, ]27-139 adaptive, 73 as a comparator, 127-139 blinder, analysis of, 65--66 characteristics, 56-75 differential, 57, 70-7 ] digital, 71--77 advantages of, 73 configuration. 74-75 functional block diagram, 74 history of, 72--74 directional, 57 distance, 57, 394-406 electromechanical, 59-66 balanced beam, 64 induction cup. 64-65 induction cylinder. 65-66 induction cylinder, blinder, 65 induction disk, 60-64 directional overcurrent, 64 equations of motion, 61-62 instantaneous, 60 inverse overcurrent, 63 inverse overcurrent. numerical parameters, 63 inverse overcurrent, time-current curves, 63 nondirectional, 56 overcurrent, 56 overcurrent, characteristics, 57 percentage differential. 70-71 pilot, 58 solenoid type, 60 static, 66-70 advantages of, 66 overcurrent, 67-68 typical characteristic curves, 69 Relay apparent admittance, 355-372 admittance characteristics,
359-364 example, 360-364

time delay, J 08 hybrid relay logic, 126-127 Relay problems due to series compensation, 611-632 mutual induction, 624-625 phase unbalance, 613 reach measurement, 625-632 subsynchronous resonance (SSR).
613-614

instantaneous overcurrent,
112-113

transient phenomena, 611-613 voltage and current inversions,

614-622

phase comparison distance.

112-114 definitions. 97-98

digital relay logic, 115-126 description, 115-116 digital signal processing,

116-120

linear transformations, 117 frequency response, 118 periodic sequences. 118-1 19 fast Fourier transform,
119-120

voltage inversions, 623-624 Relay characteristics, 60 induction disk, 60 solenoid type, 60 Relay tap. 41, 230, 276 Reliability, 1003-) 245 analysis, minimal cut sets, 1078 minimal path sets, 1078-1079 reliability block diagrams,
1072-1073

data window method. ] 20-] 2] phasor method, 121-123 protection applications,

123--125

overcurrent, 123 distance. ] 23 transformer. 124 generator, 124 substation, 124 other types, 124 unique concepts, 124-125 example. 125-126 electromechanical logic, 98-99
overcurrent, 98

structure functions. 1076-1078 success trees, 1073-1074 truth tables, 1074-1076 basic concepts, ) 003-1039 coherent logic, 11 J 4 Markov process, 1079-1087 basic concepts, J079-1081 failure frequency and duration,
1085-1087

general algorithm for computation, 1082-1085 model of two repairable components, 1084-1085 special failure modes, 1085 stationary state probabilities.
1081-1082

distance. 98--99 electronic logic circuits, analog,

99--104

probability fundamentals,
1004-1010

active filters, 103

comparator, 100-102

classes and partitions,

1006-1007

admittance diagrams, 355-356 input loci, 356-359 parallel lines, 364-368 summary, 371-372 Y plane characteristics, 368-371 Relay apparent impedance, 317-349 a special case, 336-340 construction of M circles, 323-329.
340-344 equivalent 2 port, 329-336 for distance relays, 394-406 mathematical model. 3 17-3 19

integrator. 102-103 isolator. 100. level detector, 100-102 op amp, 99-100 summer, 102 electronic logic circuits, digital,
104-112 AID converter. 110-1 12 AND. 105 Boolean logic, 104-105 buffer. J 07 exclusive OR. ) 06 flip-flop. 109 NAND. 108

combinatorial rules, 1007-1010 events and experiments,

1004-1005

the axioms. 1004 Venn diagrams, 1005-1006 random variables, )010-1026 Reliability concepts in protection,
1093--1152

system disturbance models,

1093-1097,1099-1104

disturbance classifications.
1097--1099

disturbance density and

distribution, 1099-1103

1302
system disturbance models, (Continued) disturbance distribution, 1095-1097 disturbance joint density, 1104 general probabilistic model, 1093-1095 time dependent models, 1104-1142 coherent protection logic, 1113-1125 protection vs. protected component, 1105-1106 protective system analysis, 1125-1138 specifications for protection, 1138-1]42 system reliability concepts, 1106-1113 time independent models, 1142-1152 composite protection systems, 1148-1152 failure distributions, 1143-1148 Reliability block diagram, 1043-1052, 1125-1138 common control and bus arrangements, 1125-1 t 38 of common protective systems, 1043-]052 bridge networks, 1049-1050 cut sets, 1050-] 052 parallel systems, 1046-1047 series systems, 1044-1045 series-parallel and parallel-series systems, 1047-1048 standby systems, 1048-1049 Reliability evaluation, 1064-1071 Boolean algebra, 1069 qualitative analysis, 1064-1067 quantitative analysis, 1067-1071 system availability, 1067 system reliability, 1068 system unavailability, 1068 system unreliability, 1068 Reliability model of protection, 1]04-1152 time independent, 1104-1142 time dependent, 1142-1152 Reliability models, 1028-1039 constant failure and repair rate model, 1037-1039 definition of reliability, ]028-]032 the failure process, 1029-1030 the hazard rate. 103D-l 032 the repair process, 1032-1034 the whole process, 1034-1037 Reliability, 1003-1245 analysis, 1043-:-1087 basic concepts, 1003-1039 concepts in protection, 1093-1152 fault tree analysis, 1157-1201 Markov models, 1205-1245 Reliability specifications for transmission protection, 1138-1142 Reliability state space, frequency and duration, 1085-1087 general algorithm, 1082-1084 Markov processes, 1079-1081 special failure modes, 1085 stationary state probabilities, 1081-1082 two repairable components, 1084-1085 Restoration strategy, 8

Index
Series capacitors, unbypassed 578-590 end-of-line capacitors, 578-586 bus-side voltage, 578-585 line-side voltage, 585-586 mid-line capacitors, 586-589 conclusions regarding effects, 589-590 Series compensated line protection, 632-635 current phase comparison, 632 directional comparison schemes, 632-635 hybrid schemes, 632-633 distance schemes, 633-634 traveling wave schemes, 634-635 directional overcurrent ground, 635 Series compensated line protection problems, see Relay problems due to series compensation Series compensated line protection experience, 634-635 autoreclosing problems 637 effect of transient phenomena, 636 effect of phase impedance unbalance, 636 effect of voltage and current inversions, 636 effect of fault location error, 636-637 effect of transducer error, 637 recommended system studies, 637 Series compensation, reasons for, 575-576 Short circuits, also see "faults," 4-6, 11-12 Shunt reactor protection, 700-704 dry type, 701-702 oil immersed type, 702-704, 888, 891 Single-phase switching, 531-539 control of secondary arcs, 532-536 secondary arcs, untransposed lines, 536-539 single-phase switching, 888, 891 Speed ratio, 50-51 defined,50 examples, 51 Subsynchronousresonance,955-992 also see SSR history of SSR, 962-963 overview of problem, 955-963 example, 957-958 mathematical model, 956-957 spring-mass model, 959 SSR system countermeasures, 963-969

S
Safeguard devices, 4-6, 1241-1245 Saturation, ofCT's, 23-28, 62, 71, 15D-151, 159-160,516,613,637,647, 649-657,662,664-670,791 of relays, 62 of power transformers, 682-685, 695 Seal-in relay, 19 Sectionalizers, 89-90 application example, 90 Security, 7 defined, 9 failure, 1028 Selectivity, 8 defined, 9 Sensitivity, 9-10 defined, 9 Series capacitor bank protection, 59D-611 bank configuration, 591-592 bypass systems, 592-598 bypass gaps, 593 metal oxide varistors, 594-595 gaps and varistors, 595-596 typical system, 597 fundamental frequency varistor model, 598-601 relay quantities including bypass, 601-604 effect of system parameters, 604-611 assumptions, 604-606 external impedance, 606-608 source impedance, 608 fault impedance, 608-611

Index
generator and system modification, 968-969 generator circuit resonance, 969 turbine-generator modification, 968-969 network and generator controls, 964--968 capacitor voltage control, 964-965 system switching, 964 thyristor controlled capacitors, 965-968 unit tripping, 968 SSR unit countermeasures, 969-992 filtering and damping, 970-977 dynamic filters, 973-974 dynamic stabilizers, 974-976 excitation system dampers, 976--977 line filters, 971-973 static blocking filters, 970-971 unit relaying and monitoring, 977-992 comments on SSR relays, 992 SSR monitors, 990-992 SSR protective relays, 977-990 armature current relay, 978-982 subsynchronous current relay, 982-990 Stability, 853-909 automatic reclosing, 873-894 introduction, 873-874 need for fast reclosing, 875 disturbance considerations, 875-877 fault types, 876-877 voltage levels, 876 reclosing considerations, 877-881 arc deionization, 880-881 definitions, 877-879 number of reclosures, 877 reclosing success, 877 reclosing relays, 882-888 breaker operation, 882-884 digital reclosing and synchro-check relay, 887-888 multishot reclosing relays, 886 single-shot reclosing relays, 884-886 synchro-check relays, 886-887 reclosing switching options, 888-889 bus vs. line protection, 889 dead line-live bus, 889 delayed reclosing, 889 live line-dead bus, 889 single-phase switching, 888 reclosing at generator buses, 889-894 loss-of-synchronism protection, 894-902 circuit breaker considerations, 901 out-of-step blocking and tripping, 898-901 out-of-step detection, 897-898 out-of-step relaying practice, 901-902 pilot relaying considerations, 901 system out-of-step performance, 894--897 protection requirements, 896-897 representation in the Z plane, 894-896 review of fundamentals, 853-862 definitions, 853-854 effect of impedance, 854--855 the swing equation, 858-862 two-port representation, 855-857 special protection schemes, 902-909 design procedure, 904-905 critical conditions, 904 operator control, 905 recognition triggers, 904 disturbance events, 903-904 example of an SPS, 905-909 SPS characteristics, 902-903 system transient behavior, 862-873 effect of power transfer, 864--867 effect of circuit breaker speed, 867-868 effect of reclosing, 868 relay measurements during transients, 868-873 stability of test system, 863 State, 4-5 abnormal,5 action, 5 block diagram, 5 nonnal,5

1303
outage, 5 restorative, 5 Static var compensator, also see SVC, 673-674,705,863,866,963, 975 Station arrangement, 160- I66 4 x 6 network, 166 breaker-and-a-half, 164 breaker-and-a-third, 166 crossed ring, 166 double bus, double breaker, 163 double bus, single breaker, 162-163 main and transfer, 161-162 pyrimid,166 ring bridge, 166 ring bus, ]63-164 ring tripod, 166 single bus, single breaker, 160-16] Strategy,8 protection, 8 restoration, 8 Substation computer, 75-77 block diagram, 76 hierarchy, 75 Subsynchronous resonance, 955 SVC protection, 704--708 Switching stations, see "station," Synchro-check relay, 886-887 Synchro-verifier relay, 887 Synchronous motor, 788 loss of excitation, 788 loss of synchronism, 788 System disturbance model, 1093-1104 disturbance classifications, ]097-1099 disturbance distribution, 1096-1097 disturbance joint density, 1104 example with 3 bus system, 1099-1103 probabilistic disturbance model, 1093-1096 probabilistic model distribution, 1099 System protection equivalent, 172-186 4 port, 185-186 3 port, 184--185 2 port parameters, 178 2-port representation, 174--]76 2-port equivalent, 176-178 for protection studies, 172-186 for series faults, 179-180 general description, 172-173 line with shunt fault, 178-179 multiport, 183-186

1304
System protection equivalent, (Continued) numerical example, 181-182 open-circuit impedance matrix, 173-174 series faults, 179-180 two port, 176-177 System frequency, 807-847 abnormal frequency, 807-847 effect of overfrequency on turbines, 808 effect of underfrequency on turbines, 808-810 effect on generators, 808-809 effect on turbines, 810-813 operation, 807 load shedding protection, 834-847 off normal, load shedding, 834 off-normal protection, 831-832 off-normal turbine protection, 832-834 System under frequency protection, 834-847, also see "load shedding," 835 typical turbine protection, 834-835 System frequency response model, 813-831 effect of damping, 825 disturbance size, 819 governor droop, 821-822 high pressure fraction, 823-824 inertia, 822-823 reheat time constant, 823 mathematical model, 813-831 normalization, 819-820 refinements, 827-829 slope of response, 820-821 validation, 825-826 various model comparisons, 829-830 System state, see "state" distribution function, 1143-1148 parallel logic, 1144-1145 sequential logic, 1147-1148 series logic, 1143-1144 standby logic, 1145-1147 probability distribution, 1143 Transfer trip, 484-489 direct overreaching, 487-488 direct underreaching, 484-486 permissive overreaching, 488 permissive underreaching, 486-487 Transformer fault protection, philosophy,680-681 Transformer faults, 674-681 external, 674-675 internal,675-680 internal, active, 676-680 internal, incipient, 675-676 Transformer protection, 673-708 discussion, 673-674 magnetizing inrush, 681-684 current harmonics, 683-684 current magnitude, 681-683 in parallel banks, 684 protection against active faults, 687-697 differential protection connections, 687-690 current transformer ratios, 688-689 delta-wye bank CT connections, 687-688 example, 689-690 differential protection discussion, 690-695 autotransformer protection, 694-695 differential relay problems, 695 parallel transformer banks, 694 percent slope of differential relays, 690-692 suppression of magnetizing inrush, 692-693 three-winding transformer protection, 693-694 overcurrent protection of transformers, 695-696 ground fault protection of transformers, 696-697 protection against incipient faults, 684-687 external incipient faults, 684-685 overheating, 684-685 overfluxing, 685-686 internal incipient faults, 686-687

Index
regulating transformer protection, 699-700 shunt reactor protection, 700-704 discussion, 700-701 dry type reactors, 701-702 oil immersed reactors, 702-704 failure modes, 702-703 protection practices, 703-704 static var compensator (SVC) protection, 704-708 discussion, 704-705 SVC protection requirements, 705-708 typical SVC system, 705 transformer and line combined protection, 697-699 examples, 697-698 non-unit protection schemes, 698 unit protection schemes, 698-699 transformer faults, 674-681 external faults, 674-675 fault protection philosophy, 680-681 internal faults, 675-680 active faults described, 676-680 incipient faults, 675-676 Transmission faults, bypassed series capacitors, 601-604 Transmission fault, series compensated line, parameter effects, 604-611 Transmission faults, unbypassed series capacitors, 578-590 center line capacitors, 586-589 conclusions, 589-590 discussion, 578 end-of-line capacitors, bus side voltage, 578-585 end-of-line capacitors, line side voltage,585-586 Transmission line, mutual induction, 423-453 long line, 445-453 short line, 423-424 Transmission line fault analysis of, 379-394 Transmission line mutual impedance example of 500 kV line, 425-428 Transmission protection, 249-278 distance relay protection, 257-268 distance relay characteristics, 257-262

T
Threshold (of protective action), 5, 7-9 Time (of protective action), 7, 471 action, 7 clearing, 7 comparison, 7 decision, 7 operating, of protective equipment, 471 Time constant of fault current decrement, 149 Time to failure as a random variable, 1143 composite protection system, 1148-1152

Index
zoned distance relays, 262--265 effect of fault resistance, 265-267 summary of distance concepts, 267-268 ground fault protection, 270-277 importance, 270-27J ground fault characteristics, 271-272 polarization of ground relays, 272-276 voltage polarization, 272-273 current polarization, 273-276 types of ground relays, 276-277 introduction, 249-250 overcurrent relay protection, 250-257 loops with one source, 252-254 loops with multiple sources, 254-257 summary, 277-278 unit protection, 268-270 Transmission OC protection, 253-257 example of loop OC relay coordination, 253 example of looped system coordination, 255-257 loops with multiple sources, 254-257 OC relay procedure, 255--257 Trip free, 21-22 Type I networks defined,439-440 with fault on one line, 441 Type 2 networks defined, 442 Type 3 networks defined,442-443

1305

v
Varistor, fundamental frequency model, 598-601 Voltage inversion example, 433 in mutually coupled transmission lines, 431-433 Voltage profile, on series compensated lines, 577-578 Voltage transformer, see VT, 30, 32 Voltage transformer descriptions, 30-32 Voltage transformers, 30-32 graphic symbol for, 18

U
Unblocking, 489-493 directional comparison, 492-493 Undesired tripping defined, 10 Unit protection replica concept, 269 Unit schemes, 499-509 longitudinal differential, 507-509 phase comparison, 499-507 Unreadiness probability, 1230-1233

w
Wire pilot systems, 475-477

z
Z loci, 284-293 line and circle mapping, 286-293 the liZ transformation, 284-286 ZR loci construction, 323-329 k and l/J circles, example, 328-329 k circles, 324-326 l/J circles, 326-327