Mechanisms in Modern Engineering Design

Rotary Wing Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity
Richard L. Bielawa
EDUCATION SERIES J. S. P r z e m i e n i e c k i Series Editor-in-Chief A i r F o r c e Institute of T e c h n o l o g y Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Published by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 370 L'Enfant Promenade, SW, Washington, DC 20024-2518
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., Washington, DC Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bielawa, Richard L. Rotary wing structural dynamics and aeroelasticity / Richard L. Bielawa. p. cm.(AIAA education series) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. HelicoptersAerodynamics. 2. Aeroelasticity. I. Title. II. Series. TL716.B54 1992 629.132'36dc20 92-23815 ISBN 1-56347-031-4 Copyright 1992 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. The code following this statement indicates the copyright owner's consent that copies of articles in this volume may be made for personal or internal use, on condition that the copier pay the per-copy fee ($2.00) plus the per-page fee ($0.50) through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 21 Congress Street, Salem, MA 01970. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying, for which permission requests should be addressed to the publisher. Users should employ the following code when reporting copying from this volume to the Copyright Clearance Center: 1-56347-031-4/92 $2.00 + .50 Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. AIAA is not responsible for any injury or damage resulting from use or reliance, nor does AIAA warrant that use or reliance will be free from privately owned rights.
T e x t s P u b l i s h e d in t h e A I A A E d u c a t i o n Series Re-Entry Vehicle D y n a m i c s F r a n k J . R e g a n , 1984 Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbine and Rocket Propulsion G o r d o n C . O a t e s , 1984 A e r o t h e r m o d y n a m i c s of Aircraft E n g i n e C o m p o n e n t s G o r d o n C . O a t e s , E d i t o r , 1985 F u n d a m e n t a l s of Aircraft C o m b a t Survivability Analysis a n d Design R o b e r t E . B a l l , 1985 Intake Aerodynamics J . S e d d o n a n d E . L . G o l d s m i t h , 1985 C o m p o s i t e Materials for Aircraft Structures B r i a n C . H o s k i n s a n d A l a n A . B a k e r , E d i t o r s , 1986 Gasdynamics: Theory and Applications G e o r g e E m a n u e l , 1986 Aircraft Engine Design J a c k D . M a t t i n g l y , W i l l i a m H e i s e r , a n d D a n i e l H . D a l e y , 1987 A n Introduction to the Mathematics a n d M e t h o d s of Astrodynamics R i c h a r d H . B a t t i n , 1987 Radar Electronic Warfare A u g u s t G o l d e n J r . , 1988 A d v a n c e d Classical T h e r m o d y n a m i c s G e o r g e E m a n u e l , 1988 A e r o t h e r m o d y n a m i c s of G a s T u r b i n e a n d Rocket P r o p u l s i o n , Revised a n d Enlarged G o r d o n C . O a t e s , 1988 Re-Entry Aerodynamics W i l b u r L . H a n k e y , 1988 Mechanical Reliability: T h e o r y , M o d e l s a n d Applications B . S. D h i l l o n , 1988 Aircraft Landing Gear Design: Principles a n d Practices N o r m a n S. C u r r e y , 1988 Gust Loads on Aircraft: Concepts and Applications F r e d e r i c M . H o b l i t , 1988 Aircraft Design: A Conceptual A p p r o a c h D a n i e l P . R a y m e r , 1989 Boundary Layers A . D . Y o u n g , 1989 Aircraft Propulsion Systems Technology a n d Design G o r d o n C . O a t e s , E d i t o r , 1989
Basic Helicopter A e r o d y n a m i c s J . S e d d o n , 1990 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o M a t h e m a t i c a l M e t h o d s in Defense Analyses J . S. P r z e m i e n i e c k i , 1990 Space Vehicle Design M i c h a e l D . G r i f f i n a n d J a m e s R . F r e n c h , 1991 Inlets for Supersonic Missiles J o h n J . M a h o n e y , 1991 Defense Analyses Software J . S. P r z e m i e n i e c k i , 1991 Critical T e c h n o l o g i e s for N a t i o n a l Defense A i r F o r c e I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y , 1991 Orbital Mechanics V l a d i m i r A . C h o b o t o v , 1991 N o n l i n e a r A n a l y s i s o f Shell S t r u c t u r e s A n t h o n y N . P a l a z o t t o a n d S c o t t T . D e n n i s , 1992 O p t i m i z a t i o n of O b s e r v a t i o n a n d C o n t r o l Processes Veniamin V. Malyshev, M i h k a i l N . Krasilshikov, a n d Valeri I. Karlov, 1992 Aircraft Design: A Conceptual A p p r o a c h Second Edition D a n i e l P . R a y m e r , 1992 Rotary Wing Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity R i c h a r d L . B i e l a w a , 1992 Published by American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., Washington, D C
Preface
T h i s text e v o l v e d in spurts o v e r the c o u r s e of several y e a r s . E a c h evolutionary g r o w t h spurt w a s , h o w e v e r , in r e s p o n s e to a s o m e w h a t different objective. L i k e so m a n y other t e x t s , this o n e h a d its inception in a specific need to rapidly p r o v i d e an e n g i n e e r i n g t e a m with the specialized k n o w l e d g e they n e e d e d to d o their j o b s . In this c a s e , the t e a m consisted of fixed w i n g aeronautical engineers and designers at the L o c k h e e d California C o m p a n y w h o were d e v e l o p i n g inn o v a t i v e helicopter c o n c e p t s d u r i n g the 1960s. T o this end L o c k h e e d organized an i n - h o u s e e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m in rotary w i n g t e c h n o l o g y , w h i c h included m a terial o n structural d y n a m i c s and aeroelasticity. T h u s , the original objective of the e m b r y o n i c lecture notes that resulted w a s to p r o v i d e rapid a u g m e n t a t i o n of w o r k i n g fixed w i n g capabilities with appropriate n e w rotary w i n g capabilities. T h e lecture notes w e r e later e x p a n d e d to m e e t the needs of a similar short course g i v e n b y the University of California at L o s A n g e l e s , again for full-time p r a c ticing e n g i n e e r s . In e a c h of t h e s e instances the accent w a s on the rapid d i s s e m ination of fundamental practical information with m i n i m u m attention to rigorous derivation. F u r t h e r evolution of the text o c c u r r e d after several y e a r s ' hiatus with the a u t h o r ' s entry into an a c a d e m i c career at the R e n s s e l a e r Polytechnic Institute, and his participation in the Rotorcraft T e c h n o l o g y C e n t e r of E x c e l l e n c e P r o g r a m residing at that institute. T h e original lecture notes w e r e greatly e x p a n d e d to p r o v i d e suitable material for g r a d u a t e courses in the subject. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the objectives of the e v o l v i n g text b e c a m e modified to the extent that, although the practical aspects of the text w e r e still to b e retained, additional material w a s required to p r o v i d e in-depth specialized education to individuals w h o w e r e p r e p a r i n g for careers in the rotary w i n g industry. In as m u c h as a large portion of this material inherently consists of specialized applications of fundamental concepts in basic ( n o n - r o t a r y - w i n g ) structural d y n a m i c s and aeroelasticity, several of these fundamental c o n c e p t s n e e d e d to b e addressed. Finally, with the p a s s a g e of t i m e the e m p h a s i s of rotary w i n g aircraft t e c h n o l o g y has c h a n g e d from that of a p u r e l y helicopter orientation to a m o r e general nature that n o w includes the d e v e l o p m e n t of operational tilt-rotor and tilt-wing aircraft. T h u s , the final objectives that h a v e driven the evolution of the text are an a m a l g a m a t i o n of both the prior and later objectives: 1) to p r o v i d e an exposition of s o m e of the fundamental c o n c e p t s of structural d y n a m i c s and aeroelasticity (by w a y of r e v i e w ) , 2) to p r o v i d e the practicing e n g i n e e r with the b a s i c , fund a m e n t a l k n o w l e d g e in a practical format w h i c h can b e used a d v a n t a g e o u s l y in the practice of his/her art, and 3) to p r o v i d e a vehicle for the teaching of the material in a university e n v i r o n m e n t at the g r a d u a t e level. A n additional fourth objective is that the first three objectives are to b e met while concurrently serving the special r e q u i r e m e n t s of such n e w l y e m e r g i n g rotor c o n c e p t s as tilt-wing and tilt-rotor aircraft configurations. A c o m p l e t e exposition of all aspects of rotary w i n g structural d y n a m i c s and aeroelasticity w o u l d b e an impossibility d u e not only to the sheer a c c u m u l a t e d
ix
v o l u m e of pertinent material, but b e c a u s e of the constant growth of the techn o l o g y . T h e material presented herein thus deals with fundamental issues that form a matrix into w h i c h all of the m o r e detailed and n e w l y e m e r g i n g engineering studies can b e placed. T o b e certain, m u c h of the text deals with diverse metho d o l o g i e s relating to the rotational d y n a m i c s of rotors. At an even m o r e fund a m e n t a l level basic m a t h e m a t i c a l tools are presented which relate to the analysis requirements of multiple-degree-of-freedom d y n a m i c s y s t e m s . For m a n y p r a c ticing engineers this m a t h e m a t i c a l material might be of limited novelty, but for others its inclusion should p r o v e to be quite useful. B e c a u s e the subject t e c h n o l o g y has t w o main drivers, the minimization of vibration and the assurance of a e r o m e c h a n i c a l and aeroelastic stability, this text has b e e n o r g a n i z e d sequentially as m u c h as possible into these t w o basic areas. As required for both of these a r e a s , Chapters 1-4 present various basic analysis tools w h i c h lay the necessary g r o u n d w o r k for the r e m a i n d e r of the text. B e y o n d the basic tools presented in these first c h a p t e r s , additional m e t h o d o l o g i e s are presented t h r o u g h o u t the text on an as-needed basis. Chapters 5 - 8 are focused on the airframe vibration p r o b l e m with an intended e m p h a s i s on tools for designing vibration out of a n e w design and/or fixing unaccounted-for vibration p r o b l e m s o n c e they h a v e surfaced. T h e rotor d y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t is rich in possibilities for a variety of aeronautical and aeroelastic instabilities. Indeed, those instability p h e n o m e n a presented in C h a p t e r s 1 0 - 1 3 are not intended to constitute an e x h a u s t i v e exposition. Instead, the p h e n o m e n a presented w e r e selected on the b a s e s that they either constitute the m o r e pertinent p h e n o m e n a driving the rotorcraft d e s i g n , or they form the bases for other m o r e c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n a . Finally, b e c a u s e the available analytical tools are as yet not c o m pletely reliable ( m u c h less ' ' u s e r - p r o o f " ) , successful integration of the technology into real-world applications must have experimental verification. C o n s e q u e n t l y , C h a p t e r s 8 and 14 are respectively directed at experimental techniques found to b e useful in each of the t w o basic technology areas. T h e text has been o r g a n i z e d in this m a n n e r so that, hopefully, it will be a practical and c o n v e n i e n t teaching resource for either a t w o - s e m e s t e r or three-quarter course s e q u e n c e at the g r a d u a t e level. T h e objective of providing a vehicle for the formal t e a c h i n g of the material in a university e n v i r o n m e n t consequently required the c o m p o s i t i o n and incorporation of suitable exercise p r o b l e m s . T h e p r o b l e m s c o m p i l e d include a variety of relatively simple ones as well as m o r e difficult o n e s ; in all of the p r o b l e m s presented the intent is to teach and thereby to help readers achieve mastery of the material. T h e objective of addressing the e m e r g i n g , m o r e a d v a n c e d rotary wing concepts required the inclusion of material relating to propeller-nacelle whirl flutter, as well as s o m e analysis material relating to multiple rotor d y n a m i c s y s t e m s . T h e extensive analytical d e v e l o p m e n t presented in A p p e n d i x D was primarily formulated as a r u d i m e n t a r y analysis tool for helicopter ground r e s o n a n c e and air r e s o n a n c e . H o w e v e r , its inclusion in this text was justified on the g r o u n d s that it also serves the useful p u r p o s e of defining a basic, practical aeroelastic rotor m o d u l e , to b e used as a building block for formulating larger analyses of multiple rotor (tilt-rotor and/or tilt-wing) aircraft aeroelastic stability. T h i s t e x t b o o k w a s not written in a v a c u u m and in m a n y instances the text is a selective c o m p i l a t i o n of the findings of m a n y other researchers. F u r t h e r m o r e , without the e n c o u r a g e m e n t of friends and colleagues it w o u l d not h a v e b e e n
written. Special a c k n o w l e d g m e n t s in this category g o to W i l l i a m T w o m e y , W i l l i a m F l a n n e l l y , a n d R o b e r t L o e w y . T h e R e n s s e l a e r Polytechnic Institute Rotorcraft T e c h n o l o g y C e n t e r p r o v i d e d the nurturing e n v i r o n m e n t for the teaching of the material a n d the r e q u i r e m e n t for a c o h e r e n t t e x t b o o k . A l t h o u g h students are notorious for ferreting out errors in their p r o f e s s o r s ' lecture n o t e s , special t h a n k s g o to N i c o l a s T h e r o n a n d W a l t e r H a s s e n p f l u g , w h o s e efforts in this regard w e r e m e t i c u l o u s . Besides p r o v i d i n g p r o d u c t i v e w o r k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s for the m a n y researchers w h o contributed to the t e x t b o o k , K a m a n A e r o s p a c e C o r p o ration and the S i k o r s k y Division of United T e c h n o l o g i e s Corporation d o n a t e d the c o m p u t a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s without w h i c h the timely w o r d p r o c e s s i n g , c o m p u t a t i o n s , and figure generation w o u l d not h a v e b e e n possible. This g e n e r o u s d o n a t i o n is gratefully a c k n o w l e d g e d . M u c h of the pictorial material w a s enthusiastically d o n a t e d b y n u m e r o u s p e o p l e in the rotary w i n g industry, both in A m e r i c a and a b r o a d , too n u m e r o u s to n a m e individually; this help w a s m u c h appreciated a n d m y t h a n k s g o to all of these p e o p l e . Finally, the indefatigable h e l p p r o v i d e d b y J u d y O ' C o n n o r in transforming r o u g h w o r d p r o c e s s i n g into a finished m a n u s c r i p t and in the c o m p o s i n g of s o m e of the figures is gratefully acknowledged.
Richard L. Bielawa
xi
Table of Contents
Preface 1 5 C h a p t e r 1. Introduction
C h a p t e r 2. B a s i c A n a l y t i c a l T e c h n i q u e s 2.1 Linear Single-Degree-of-Freedom System H o m o g e n e o u s Solution Particular Solutions 2.2 Fourier Methods Multiharmonic Responses Discrete F o u r i e r A n a l y s i s Fourier Transform Linear Two-Degree-of-Freedom System O b t a i n i n g the E q u a t i o n s of M o t i o n Characteristic F r e q u e n c i e s and M o d e s Orthogonality (Undamped Case) D e c o u p l i n g with the U s e of N o r m a l M o d e s Frequency Response G e n e r a l C o u p l i n g Issues Structural D a m p i n g A p p r o x i m a t i o n s to Structural D a m p i n g A p p l i c a t i o n to M u l t i p l e - D e g r e e - o f - F r e e d o m S y s t e m s T e c h n i q u e s for D e t e r m i n i n g Structural D a m p i n g Coefficients Matrices Basic Definitions Mathematical Operations S y s t e m s of S i m u l t a n e o u s E q u a t i o n s M a t r i x Partitioning Vector Calculus Definitions of a Vector Mathematical Operations Coordinate Transformations T h e o r e m of Coriolis References Problems
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
xiii
63
Chapter 3 . Rotating Beams 3.1 Basic E q u a t i o n s for B e n d i n g E q u i l i b r i u m of a S p a n w i s e E l e m e n t Basic Differential Equation for T r a n s v e r s e B e n d i n g Transverse Bending Motion Differential E q u a t i o n for Out-of-Plane B e n d i n g E q u a t i o n for M o d a l R e s p o n s e Variable: G a l e r k i n ' s Method F r e e Vibration Characteristics In-Plane B e n d i n g Natural F r e q u e n c i e s Basic R o t o r S p e e d Characteristics and Fan Plots Detailed R o t o r S p e e d Characteristics 3.2 Reference Uniform Blade Scaled Differential Equation for B e n d i n g Solution for Natural F r e q u e n c i e s Numerical Methods Natural F r e q u e n c i e s a n d M o d e Shapes by the HolzerMyklestad Technique Finite E l e m e n t M e t h o d s Approximate Methods Y n t e m a Charts E q u i v a l e n t Distributions Basic Equation for Torsion G e o m e t r i c Description of the Blade Torsion K i n e m a t i c s Basic Elastic Description for the Blade Torsion Equilibrium Linearized Torsion Equation and Torsion M o d e s C o u p l i n g Effects S o u r c e s of C o u p l i n g Elastic C o u p l i n g Inertial C o u p l i n g C o u p l i n g D u e to T w i s t F r e q u e n c y and M o d e S h a p e Characteristics References Problems
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
111
Chapter 4. Gyroscopics 4.1 Rotational M o t i o n of a Solid B o d y A n g u l a r M o m e n t u m and D y n a m i c Equation Alternate F o r m of A n g u l a r M o m e n t u m 4.2 Simplified G y r o s c o p e Equation Mathematical Development Basic D y n a m i c Equation for T w o - D e g r e e - o f - F r e e d o m G y r o 4.3 Precession and Nutation Characteristics Precession: T h e Particular Solution Nutation: T h e H o m o g e n e o u s Solution D y n a m i c s of a Spinning T o p
xiv
4.4
G y r o s c o p i c Characteristics of R o t o r Blades Blade Flapping Motion Rotor Modes Whirl Modes Reactionless Modes References Problems
133
Chapter 5. Drive System Dynamics 5.1 Shaft Critical S p e e d s Introduction Subcriticai and Supercritical Operation P s e u d o g y r o s c o p i c Effects T o r s i o n a l Natural F r e q u e n c i e s of Shafting S y s t e m s Introduction Element Equivalences Basic Natural F r e q u e n c y Calculations Branched Gear Systems Special D e v i c e s Pendulum Dynamic Absorbers H o o k e ' s Joint C o m p a t i b i l i t y of R o t o r D r i v e and Engine/Fuel Control S y s t e m s Introduction Analysis Techniques Stabilization of the D r i v e S y s t e m Torsion M o d e References Problems
5.2
5.3
5.4
163
C h a p t e r 6. F u s e l a g e V i b r a t i o n s 6.1 Dynamic Loads M o d e Deflection and F o r c e Integration A p p l i c a t i o n to R o t a t i n g B e a m s Motion-Induced Loads D y n a m i c Magnification Factors A p p r o x i m a t e B l a d e L o a d s Using D y n a m i c Magnification Factors Harmonic Rotor Hub Loads Basic R e d u c t i o n F o r m u l a t i o n Nonintegral Order Harmonic Rotor Hub Loads N o n r o t o r S o u r c e s of F u s e l a g e Excitation Integral H a r m o n i c S o u r c e s Nonintegral Harmonic Sources Nonharmonic Sources R o t o r - F u s e l a g e Interactions I m p e d a n c e s and Mobilities Characterization of F u s e l a g e D y n a m i c s
XV
6.2
6.3
6.4
Synthesis of I m p e d a n c e from M o d a l Characteristics F o r m u l a t i o n s in the Laplace-Transform D o m a i n M e t h o d s for Evaluating the Y and Z Matrices References Problems
F R
211
C h a p t e r 7. M e t h o d s for V i b r a t i o n C o n t r o l 7.1 Basic Modification M e t h o d o l o g y Design/Modification Variables R e d u c t i o n of D y n a m i c Amplification by D e t u n i n g Extraction of T r e n d Information Cancellation Effects 7.2 Modification of Blade D y n a m i c s Aeroelastic Conformability F o r m a l i z e d Vibration M i n i m i z a t i o n S c h e m e s 7.3 Modification of F u s e l a g e D y n a m i c s Modifications Using Analytical Testing Derivation of Basic Analytical Testing Equation E x a m p l e of U s a g e Structural Synthesis Using Analytical Testing 7.4 Vibration S u p p r e s s i o n D e v i c e s Rotor-Related D e v i c e s Fuselage-Related Devices References Problems Chapter 8. Vibration Test Procedures 8.1 Basic S h a k e Testing Test Setup Instrumentation D y n a m i c Signal A n a l y z e r s Calculation of F r e q u e n c y - R e s p o n s e Functions Test P r o c e d u r e s 8.2 O t h e r T e s t Objectives B l a d e F r e q u e n c i e s and M o d e Shapes Fatigue Testing References Problems C h a p t e r 9 . Stability A n a l y s i s M e t h o d s : L i n e a r S y s t e m s 9.1 N a t u r e of Instability: Basic C o n c e p t s Distinction B e t w e e n F o r c e d Resonant R e s p o n s e and Instability 9.2 Basic T o o l s for Linear S y s t e m s : Constant Coefficients Characteristic E q u a t i o n s Stability B o u n d a r i e s Frequency-Domain Methods
241
257
xvi
9.3
L i n e a r M u l t i p l e - D e g r e e - o f - F r e e d o m S y s t e m s : Constant Coefficients General Matrix Eigenvalue Problem Force Phasing Matrices N y q u i s t Criterion for M u l t i p l e - D e g r e e - o f - F r e e d o m S y s t e m s Kelvin-Tait-Chetaev Theorem L i n e a r M u l t i p l e - D e g r e e - o f - F r e e d o m S y s t e m s : Periodic Coefficients (Floquet T h e o r y ) S o u r c e s of Periodic Coefficients G e n e r a l Characteristics of Floquet T h e o r y R i p p l e M e t h o d of Solution Characteristic Multipliers Transition Matrix Solution References Problems
9.4
289
Chapter 10. 10.1
10.2
M e c h a n i c a l a n d A e r o m e c h a n i c a l Instabilities of Rotors U n s y m m e t r i c R o t o r Instability D y n a m i c Description G e n e r a l E q u a t i o n s of M o t i o n Stability Solution: Internal Stiffnesses Stability Solution: External Stiffnesses Effects of D a m p i n g Quasisteady Aerodynamics V e c t o r D i a g r a m for Q u a s i s t e a d y F o r m u l a t i o n A e r o d y n a m i c Pitching Rate and M o m e n t Table Look-Up Techniques Reversed Flow Perturbational Airloads Rotor Weaving E l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l Description G e n e r a l E q u a t i o n s of M o t i o n Stability Solution Stability Characteristics: P a r a m e t e r Variations B l a d e P i t c h - F l a p - L a g Instability Basic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s and M a t h e m a t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t P i t c h - L a g Stability Characteristics of Articulated Rotors P i t c h - L a g Stability Characteristics of Hingeless Rotors: Z e r o Structural C o u p l i n g F l a p - L a g Stability Characteristics of Hingeless R o t o r s References Problems
10.3
10.4
xvii
331
Chapter 11. 11.1
M e c h a n i c a l a n d A e r o m e c h a n i c a l Instabilities of Rotor-Pylon Systems Multiblade C o o r d i n a t e s and R o t o r M o d e s Collective and Cyclic Rotor M o d e s R o t o r C e n t e r of Gravity R o t o r - N a c e l l e Whirl Flutter E l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l Description A e r o d y n a m i c Description Using Quasisteady T h e o r y Basic Stability Characteristics Effects of W i n g Flexibility Stability Characteristics with Blade Flapwise Flexibility A p p r o x i m a t e Corrections to A e r o d y n a m i c s for Compressibility and Finite Blade S p a n Effects
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
G r o u n d R e s o n a n c e Instability D y n a m i c Description for the Isotopie Rotor C a s e Products of D a m p i n g Criteria E x a c t Stability B o u n d a r i e s for S i n g l e - D e g r e e - o f - F r e e d o m P y l o n s with Isotropic Rotors Two-Bladed Case Aeroelastic Considerations Air R e s o n a n c e Basic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s and D y n a m i c Equations Extended Coleman Diagram Pertinent P a r a m e t e r s and Scaling Considerations M e t h o d o l o g i e s for Stabilization Air M a s s D y n a m i c s Basic C o n c e p t s and A s s u m p t i o n s M a t h e m a t i c a l F o r m u l a t i o n U s i n g M o m e n t u m Considerations Modifications to the Basic Equations Alternate F o r m s of the Air M a s s Equations Use of Air M a s s D y n a m i c s in Aeroelastic A n a l y s e s References Problems
379
C h a p t e r 1 2 . U n s t e a d y A e r o d y n a m i c s a n d Flutter of R o t o r s 12.1 Introduction and Classification Characteristics of the R o t a r y - W i n g A e r o d y n a m i c Environment Basic A s s u m p t i o n s Defining the Analytical D e v e l o p m e n t Classification of R o t o r Unsteady Airloads Theories 12.2 T w o - D i m e n s i o n a l F r e q u e n c y - D o m a i n Theories Theodorsen Function Sears F u n c t i o n Physical Interpretation of Lift Deficiency Function
V a r i a b l e S t r e a m Velocity F o r m u l a t i o n s Loewy Function 12.3 T w o - D i m e n s i o n a l Arbitrary M o t i o n T h e o r i e s Classical M e t h o d s U s i n g T h e o d o r s e n and W a g n e r F u n c t i o n s Unsteady Decay Parameter Pad Formulations e n d i n g - T o r s i o n Flutter Basic Considerations Basic Flutter A n a l y s i s : T w o - D i m e n s i o n a l W i n g Flutter of a Flexible R o t o r B l a d e C o m m e n t s and Interpretation Three-Dimensional Aerodynamic Theories Basic M a t h e m a t i c a l Structure of the F o r m u l a t i o n Mathematical Tools Rotor Wakes M i l l e r ' s T h e o r y for H o v e r i n g R o t o r s D y n a m i c Stall a n d Stall Flutter Introduction Static Stall Characteristics G e n e r a l D y n a m i c Stall Characteristics Effective Pitch D a m p i n g S y n t h e s i z e d U n s t e a d y Airfoil D a t a Stall Flutter of R o t o r Blades References Problems A n a l y s i s of N o n l i n e a r S y s t e m s
12.4
12.5
12.6
455
Chapter 13. 13.1 13.2
Introduction S i m p l e Linearization E q u i v a l e n t D a m p i n g and Stiffness Describing Functions E x a m p l e : Stall Flutter T r a n s i e n t Solutions U s i n g N u m e r i c a l Integration B a s i c S c h e m e s for N u m e r i c a l Integration of E q u a t i o n s C o m p a r i s o n of M e t h o d s E x a m p l e s of T i m e - H i s t o r y Solutions of N o n l i n e a r Aeroelastic P h e n o m e n a Quasilinearization for Explicit Nonlinearities Basic Ideas G e n e r a l i z e d Quasilinearization for S y s t e m s with Periodicity N u m e r i c a l M e t h o d s for Stability Estimation Log Decrement Moving-Block Technique Prony's Method Ibrahim Time Domain (ITD) Method
13.3
13.4
13.5
xix
13.6
F u t u r e Directions Finite E l e m e n t s in T i m e Chaos Theory References Problems
483
C h a p t e r 1 4 . M o d e l R o t o r T e s t i n g for A e r o e l a s t i c Stability 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Scaling L a w s Scaling of the R o t o r Scaling of the P y l o n Scale Factors 14.3 M o d e l Construction Considerations Pylon Constraint B l a d e Construction Aerodynamic Performance Damping 14.4 Instrumentation and Test Procedures T y p i c a l Stability-Measuring Instrumentation Test Preparation Test P r o c e d u r e s and D a t a Reduction Aeroelastic Considerations for Nonaeroelastic Testing A e r o d y n a m i c P e r f o r m a n c e Testing Vibration-Related M o d e l Testing References Problems
14.5
501 507 519
A p p e n d i x A : G l o s s a r y of R o t o r c r a f t - R e l a t e d T e r m s A p p e n d i x B : C h a r t s for B l a d e F r e q u e n c y E s t i m a t i o n Appendix C: Generalized Frequency-Domain Substructure Synthesis Partitioning of Mobility Matrices S i m p l e C o u p l i n g of Substructures G e n e r a l i z e d Mobility C o u p l i n g on S u b s y s t e m s I m p e d a n c e C o n n e c t i o n s B e t w e e n Substructures A p p e n d i x D : B a s i c E q u a t i o n s of M o t i o n for G r o u n d a n d Air R e s o n a n c e Assumptions K i n e m a t i c Descriptions Pertinent D e g r e e s of F r e e d o m E l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l Portions of the Equations Basic D y n a m i c Equilibrium Equations A e r o d y n a m i c Portions of the Rotor Equations Quasisteady Aerodynamics
527
XX
A e r o d y n a m i c Coefficients for the H o v e r i n g Flight Condition A e r o d y n a m i c Integration C o n s t a n t s Constraints on S y s t e m D e g r e e s of F r e e d o m G e n e r a l M o d e l i n g of Constraints D i s p l a c e m e n t Constraint M a t r i x D u e to G i m b a l i n g I n c r e m e n t a l H u b L o a d s as D y n a m i c M o d u l e s Generalized Rotor-Airframe Coupling A p p l i c a t i o n to a R o t o r on W i n g Configuration Passive Elastomechanical Rotor-Pylon Coupling 547 Bibliography Books J o u r n a l Articles Reports Proceedings Subject Index
557
xxi
1 Introduction
At its basic r o o t s , the subject matter of rotary w i n g structural d y n a m i c s and aeroelasticity is c o n c e r n e d with the following p r o b l e m : H o w can structural integrity and p a s s e n g e r comfort b e attained in the vibratory e n v i r o n m e n t peculiar to rotary w i n g aircraft? F r o m this b r o a d p r o b l e m definition has evolved the t w o principal areas of c o n c e r n in rotary w i n g structural d y n a m i c s : vibrations and aeroelastic stability. T h e e m p h a s i s is currently on vibration reduction, but with close attention b e i n g p a i d , n o n e t h e l e s s , to the fact that rotors are subject to a variety of potentially unstable response p h e n o m e n a . T h e advent of n e w rotor c o n c e p t s increases the probability of an otherwise benign characteristic rotor r e s p o n s e b e c o m i n g a major aeroelastic instability issue. In any practical design the instabilities m u s t b e well u n d e r s t o o d , and w a y s must be found to suppress t h e m in all c o n c e i v a b l e flight c o n d i t i o n s . Last, it should be noted that one area of c o n c e r n that closely relates to structural d y n a m i c s and aeroelasticity is that of n o i s e . T h e high d e g r e e of noise characteristic of m o s t rotorcraft has s p a w n e d the g r o w i n g technical areas of rotor acoustics (far-field noise) and acoustoelasticity (structure-borne interior noise). T h e a g e n d a for structural d y n a m i c s and aeroelasticity of rotorcraft is disting u i s h e d from that of fixed w i n g s and/or airborne spacecraft in a variety of w a y s . First, vibration is a major p r o b l e m with rotorcraft in all forward-flight conditions (both steady and m a n e u v e r i n g flight). H o w e v e r , this vibration is not b r o a d b a n d ; rather, it o c c u r s at discrete frequencies related to the main and tail rotor rotational frequencies. I n d e e d , the principal driver of the rotorcraft vibration p r o b l e m is the (essentially u n s t e a d y ) a e r o d y n a m i c s of the m a i n rotor even in steady forward flight. S e c o n d , not only is the a e r o d y n a m i c s of the rotor u n s t e a d y , but at the s a m e t i m e it is also nonlinear, g o v e r n e d by noninfinitesimal motion and periodicity in conditions traditionally held constant with fixed w i n g applications. Presently, the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of rotorcraft a e r o d y n a m i c s is a slowly g r o w i n g t e c h n o l o g y , and despite its k e y role in analyzing rotorcraft vibration and aeroelastic stability, it still requires m u c h m o r e w o r k for practical analysis. In addition to the p r o b l e m s directly arising from unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c s are those related to the fact that the rotor blades of c o n t e m p o r a r y helicopter rotors are " s t r u c t u r a l l i g h t w e i g h t s " c o m p a r e d with their fixed w i n g counterparts. T h e y a c h i e v e a large m e a s u r e of their stiffening from the tension induced by the rotational centrifugal force field. T h e rotational e n v i r o n m e n t of the rotor blades also g i v e s rise to a host of rotation-related p h e n o m e n a : gyroscopic characteristics, Coriolis forces, and a variety of nonlinear inertial loadings. T h e resulting a e o elastic description of rotor blade elastic r e s p o n s e s is c o n s e q u e n t l y fraught with essential nonlinearities. T h e relatively high d e g r e e of rotor flexibility also drives the significant interaction o c c u r r i n g b e t w e e n the rotor and the (also flexible) rotorcraft airframe. At p r e s e n t , the s t u b b o r n n e s s of typical m o d e r n - d a y helicopter airframes to yield
r
ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
to accurate d y n a m i c analysis continues to pose a very important challenge to the rotorcraft structural d y n a m i c i s t . F u r t h e r m o r e , contrary to the case of fixed wing aircraft, w h e r e aeroelastic stability characteristics are the priority issue, the dyn a m i c analysis of rotorcraft airframes must be relatively m u c h m o r e accurate to enable a reasonably accurate calculation of the vibration characteristics. Stated in the context of an engineering solution, the structural d y n a m i c s problem of rotorcraft entails three general concurrent avenues of approach: 1) Knowledge of the vibratory e n v i r o n m e n t of the rotorcraft must be acquired. Principally, this m e a n s k n o w i n g the essentially unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c characteristics of rotorcraft. 2) T h e extent to w h i c h the structure responds to the e n v i r o n m e n t m u s t be calculated. 3) T h e resulting responses must be j u d g e d for acceptability; if they are not a c c e p t a b l e , w a y s must be found to m a k e t h e m so. T o k n o w the vibratory e n v i r o n m e n t requires that m a n y of the concepts relating to frequency-domain analysis be b r o u g h t to bear. A n understanding of unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c loadings is required, as are w a y s of formulating these loadings in both the frequency d o m a i n (for vibration p r o b l e m s ) and the time d o m a i n (for transient response and instability p r o b l e m s ) . K n o w l e d g e of the d y n a m i c responses of structures to their e n v i r o n m e n t requires the idealizations that linear differential equations of motion p r o v i d e . In s o m e cases linear systems are insufficient for an accurate formulation, and nonlinear differential equations must be used. In general, t w o types of responses c o m m a n d our attention almost exclusively: resonant responses and unstable res p o n s e s . E x a m p l e s of resonant responses are the 1/rev accelerations imparted to a helicopter fuselage by an u n b a l a n c e d rotor, and the (no. of blades) per rev accelerations resulting in the fuselage from a periodic m a i n rotor w a k e impingem e n t on the horizontal stabilizer. A n e x a m p l e of an unstable response is the flutter of a w i n g or rotor b l a d e . C u s t o m a r i l y , a resonant response is ideally thought of as the excitation of a structure at o n e or m o r e of its natural frequencies by an external e n e r g y s o u r c e , w h e r e a s an unstable response is thought of as a structure driving itself from an internal energy source. It is a complication with rotorcraft that, in practice, it is often difficult to ascertain which of these responses is in fact o c c u r r i n g . This is b e c a u s e both types of response can exhibit m e a s u r e d b e h a v i o r that " b l o s s o m s " for periods of t i m e , and, furthermore, both types can exhibit limit a m p l i t u d e s of sinusoidal m o t i o n . T o pass e n g i n e e r i n g j u d g m e n t on any given structural configuration, acceptable limits of response m u s t be defined in an appropriate quantitative sense. Such limits are typically defined by the primary considerations of structural integrity and p a s s e n g e r comfort. If the structure is stressed too high, static failure of the material will o c c u r . If the structure is d y n a m i c a l l y stressed too high, too often, it fails in a fatigue m o d e . F u r t h e r m o r e , failure by instability m a y be precipitated by a partial failure or w e a k e n i n g in a subsidiary structure. Ultimately the structural integrity p r o b l e m is o n e of achieving a configuration that is both fail-safe and has an acceptable c o m p o n e n t life. W h e r e a s the structural p r o b l e m has an objectively m e a s u r a b l e solution (structure either is or is not fail-safe, or has the required n u m b e r of hours of m i n i m u m useful life), the p r o b l e m of achieving p a s s e n g e r comfort is m e a s u r e d only relatively. Certainly a reasonable goal is to achieve cabin acceleration levels that are less than those of the last ship built, or, better yet, that are " j e t s m o o t h . " Present goals are to achieve vibratory levels that are generally less than 0 . 0 5 g in all c o m p o n e n t s .
INTRODUCTION
P e r h a p s of m o s t i m p o r t a n c e to the e n g i n e e r i n g j u d g m e n t aspect of the b r o a d p r o b l e m is the ability to c h a n g e the structure to achieve a desired i m p r o v e m e n t in the d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e s of the structure. A s yet, this ability is still s o m e w h a t of a craft i n v o l v i n g e d u c a t e d trial and error. H o w e v e r , this situation is rapidly c h a n g i n g , d u e to t h e e m e r g e n c e of a variety of powerful analysis tools and their increasingly m o r e efficient a n d cost-effective i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s on c o m p u t e r s (both large m a i n f r a m e m a c h i n e s and personal c o m p u t e r s ) . After an initial three chapters c o v e r i n g basic c o n c e p t s needed for all aspects of rotorcraft structural d y n a m i c s , this text is divided into t w o m a i n sections reflecting the e m p h a s i s on the t w o m a i n p r o b l e m areas: vibration and aeroelastic stability. F o u r c h a p t e r s are specifically d e v o t e d to vibration issues, with an e m p h a s i s on m e t h o d s for structural modification for achieving vibration r e d u c tion. Six c h a p t e r s are d e v o t e d to m e c h a n i c a l , a e r o m e c h a n i c a l , and aeroelastic stability issues. In addition to p r e s e n t i n g expositions of well-established instability p h e n o m e n a of r o t o r s , t e c h n i q u e s are presented for analyzing the stability of general multiple-degree-of-freedom s y s t e m s . F o r both the vibration and aeroelastic stability p r o b l e m areas chapters are presented dealing with appropriate experimental procedures. It is to be h o p e d that this text will p r o v i d e an in-depth introduction to the subject material as well as a useful reference source (both for actual formulations and b i b l i o g r a p h i e s ) . T h e theory of linear differential equations is the p r i m a r y requisite m a t h e m a t i c a l discipline e m p l o y e d in this text; most of the analytical formulations involve only the integrating of a handful of b a s i c , relatively simple concepts.
2 Basic Analytical Techniques

T h e essential tools n e e d e d for analyzing the structural d y n a m i c s of rotorcraft must a d d r e s s a variety of issues. T h e principal p r o b l e m areas are characterized by 1) small m o t i o n s , usually sinusoidal in nature; 2) several degrees of freedom of m o t i o n ; and 3) a variety of loadings arising from rotational effects. M u c h attention is therefore paid to identifying and reviewing pertinent m e t h o d s for analyzing linear d y n a m i c s y s t e m s , starting from the simplest configuration (single d e g r e e of freedom) and p r o g r e s s i n g to general configurations involving several d e g r e e s of freedom. Basic techniques dealing with " f r e q u e n c y - d o m a i n " p r o b l e m s are also identified and r e v i e w e d .
2.1
Linear Single-Degree-of-Freedom System
T h e archetypical d y n a m i c system to be understood and used repeatedly as an analog for u n d e r s t a n d i n g m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d systems is the single-degree-of-freed o m ( s p r i n g - m a s s - d a m p e r ) system s h o w n in Fig. 2 . 1 , where the force e l e m e n t s can be assigned e n g i n e e r i n g units [U ( ). based on lbf, ft, and s), given as U ( m a s s , m) = lbf-s /ft
2
(2.la) (2. l b ) (2.lc) (2. Id)
U ( d a m p e r , c) = lbf-s/ft U (spring, k) = lbf/ft U [applied force, F(t)\ = lbf
T h e appropriate d y n a m i c equation is obtained by taking the m a s s as a free b o d y and e x a m i n i n g and equilibrating the forces acting on it. O n e indispensable tool for a n a l y z i n g d y n a m i c s y s t e m s is D ' A l e m b e r t ' s principle, which allows the c o n v e r s i o n of d y n a m i c p r o b l e m s to static o n e s . Typical usage of this principle consists of representing the statement of N e w t o n ' s second law (that F ma) by an " i n e r t i a l l o a d " equal to ma, but directed opposite to the acceleration, a. With this a p p r o a c h the forces acting on the mass can be equilibrated, as shown in F i g . 2 . 2 , w h e r e the individual force e l e m e n t s can be expressed mathematically as
^spring =
-kx
^-^
(2.2a) (2.2b) (2.2c)
^ ( v i s c o u s ) damper
înertia
>.X
w h e r e ( ' ) = d( )/d/, and F , FU).

m
l i n
, is an arbitrary, t i m e - d e p e n d e n t applied force.

spring, k externa/
>
--
force, F(t)
X,
X,
Fig. 2.1
Simple spring-mass-damper dynamic system.
Upon s u m m i n g up the forces and equating the sum to z e r o , the following basic differential equation of motion is obtained: - mx or, m o r e usefully, as + cx + kx = F(t) (2.3b) cx kx + F(t) = 0 (2.3a)
T h e principal properties of this equation are as follows: 1) T h e equation is a linear, ordinary differential equation. 2) T h e total solution to the equation, x(t), consists of a sum of two separate solutions: x(t)
h
= x (t)
fl
x (t)
p
(2.4)
w h e r e x (t) is the homogeneous or " t r a n s i e n t " solution obtained by setting F(t) to z e r o , and x (t) is the particular or " s t e a d y - s t a t e " solution obtained by considering the particular (nonzero) excitation afforded by Fit). 3) For a c o m p l e t e solution, x(t), initial conditions relating the " s t a t e " of . at t 0 , x ( 0 ) = a , and i ( 0 ) = are required. 4) Initial conditions are not required to find gross " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " of the dynamic system.
p
X,
X,
Fig. 2.2
Equilibration of loads acting on mass element.
BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

2 Homogeneous Solution
Here the appropriate differential equation of motion is mx + cx + kx = 0 B e c a u s e the equation is linear, an exponential x (t)
h
(2.5) can be a s s u m e d , so that
solution
xt
xe
w h e r e = a scalar quantity (a n u m b e r ) . Substitution of this solution in the differential equation yields an algebraic equation of the following form: (m\
2
+ c\
+ k) xe
Kt
= 0
(not, in general, = 0) Therefore, m\ This is the basic characteristic is given b y

2
+ cK + A := 0 equation
(2.6)
w h o s e solution (the t w o values of )
,,
Thus,
= -c/2m
iVk/m
- (dim)
(2.7)
x (t)
h
= x exp(XO + x exp(X r)
l 2 2
(2.8)
W e c a n obtain a s o m e w h a t m o r e useful form by noting first that exp(z')/) = e

m
= c o s + / s'mit
(2.9)
T h u s , the h o m o g e n e o u s solution for x(t) can then be written in the following form: x(t) where = exponential decay coefficient, = dim natural frequency, = \fklm (c/2m)
2
= e
iTt
[C c o s r + C ]
D 2
(2.10)
(2.11a) (2.11b)
(D = damped
2
and C , a n d C are arbitrary constants d e t e r m i n e d from the initial conditions. F o r the u n d a m p e d c a s e , c 0 , the h o m o g e n e o u s solution b e c o m e s a simple sinusoid: x(t) = C , cosVkm t + C nVk/m
2
(2.12)
N o t e : T h e frequency increases with spring stiffness k a n d decreases with inertia m.
Effect of damping. T h e value of the d a m p i n g coefficient c determines the attenuation characteristics of the transient r e s p o n s e s , as described by the h o m o g e n e o u s solution. E x a m p l e s of transient responses for varying values of the d a m p i n g coefficient are s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 3 .
Fig. 2.3
Attenuation characteristics of damping for homogeneous solutions.
Critical damping. W h e n the d a m p i n g coefficient c is increased to the point just w h e r e co = 0 , the solution is no longer oscillatory and a condition of critical d a m p i n g exists. This value of d a m p i n g is denoted the critical damping value c . At this condition both of the characteristic v a l u e s , and k , b e c o m e e q u a l , and the appropriate solution then b e c o m e s
D c { 2
x(t)
= ( C , + C t)
2
exp(-c .r/2m)
( D
(2.13)
T h e condition of zero d a m p e d natural frequency (co klm (dim)

2
= 0) then yields = 2\[km (2.14)
= 0,
For s y s t e m s with d a m p i n g levels less than the critical value the responses will always be oscillatory. T h o s e systems with d a m p i n g values equal to or in excess of the critical value will always be aperiodic, and the response with the critical value can be s h o w n to approach quiescence aperiodically most quickly. T h e s e points are depicted in Fig. 2 . 4 . A l t h o u g h it is unlikely that a new class of structures will exhibit d a m p i n g characteristics a n y w h e r e a p p r o a c h i n g critical d a m p i n g in the near future, the concept of critical d a m p i n g is nonetheless quite useful because it separates periodic responses from aperiodic o n e s . This feature provides a clear-cut yardstick for m e a s u r i n g d a m p i n g . Since the d y n a m i c response is seen to depend on the interrelationship of inertia, d a m p i n g , and stiffness, some meaningful m e a s u r e is needed to describe h o w m u c h d a m p i n g is present in any given s y s t e m , irrespective of the scale of the system (as defined by the m a s s and stiffness). O n e m e t h o d for achieving this m e a s u r e of d a m p i n g is afforded by first recasting the form of the basic differential equation of motion by dividing it by the m a s s : + (c/m)x + (k/m)x F{t)lm (2.15)
T h e term n o w multiplying the velocity can then be rewritten as elm = (c/c )(c /m)
c c
= 2(c/c )
c
\fkim
= 2
(2.16)
-0.5
Fig. 2 .4
Attenuation characteristics of critical damping.
w h e r e is d e n o t e d the critical damping ratio for the system, and is the undamped natural frequency. W i t h these t w o concepts the basic equation of motion can then be put into the following useful form: + 2
+
2
F(t)lm
(2.17)
T o s u m m a r i z e , is a n o n d i m e n s i o n a l d a m p i n g p a r a m e t e r a n d , h e n c e , is a m o r e useful w a y of quantifying the d a m p i n g present; and is a frequency p a r a m e t e r that is i n d e p e n d e n t of d a m p i n g and t h u s , when taken with the m a s s , b e c o m e s a useful w a y of d e s c r i b i n g stiffness. With the use of these t w o p a r a m eters the general solution to the h o m o g e n e o u s equation can then be written as before, e x c e p t that the and p a r a m e t e r s can be written as
-
2
(2.18a) (2.18b)
<% = V i
Relationship between period and frequency. T h e sinusoidal content of a response is m e a s u r e d alternatively in terms of its frequency and/or period of oscillation. T h e frequency is typically d e n o t e d by w h e n it has the d i m e n s i o n s of rads per s e c o n d , and b y / w h e n it has the d i m e n s i o n s of cycles per s e c , or hertz ( H z ) . T h e s e t w o w a y s of d i m e n s i o n i n g frequency are related to the period of the oscillation, , as follows: (one cycle) 1 , 2 (rad) \ = - (Hz) = - ^ T(s) T(s)
T (
(2.19)
To summarize,
2/ = ; / = 1/; 2/ =
(2.20)
10 where
/ ( / ) = cycles/s = (Hz);
/ ( ) = rad/s
(2.21)
2.1.2
Particular
Solutions
A l t h o u g h the applied force Fit) can be virtually any c o n t i n u o u s , single-valued function i m a g i n a b l e , w e will concentrate here on only a relatively few basic types. W h e n the particular solution is considered, it is assumed that a sufficiently long period of time has elapsed so that all transients have died out. T h e imposition of "initial c o n d i t i o n s " for a c o m p l e t e time-history solution requires that both h o m o g e n e o u s and particular solutions be taken together before the values of the u n d e t e r m i n e d coefficients in the h o m o g e n e o u s equation can be ascertained. A lot of practical engineering use can be m a d e of both the h o m o g e n e o u s and particular solutions separately without resorting to constructions of c o m p l e t e solutions at this point. P r o b l e m s requiring the detailed construction of such c o m p l e t e time-history solutions d o arise, h o w e v e r , and will be treated in later chapters as n e e d e d . F o r this case let Fit) =
Steady
load.
ro,
IFO,
t < t
2>
o
0
(2.22)
T h e particular solution in this case is obtained by neglecting the differentiated terms in the equation of motion (setting and equal to zero): m ( 0 ) + ( 0 ) + kx = F ( r ) ; -> x
p
= F /k
0
(2.23)
which is merely another w a y of stating a problem in statics: displacement = force/stiffness. If it were necessary to construct the entire solution (using appropriate initial conditions), the approach would be to c o m b i n e the h o m o g e n e o u s and particular solutions to give xit) = ( - ) [C, c o s V l + C sinVl
2
oor
2
,,] + F lk
2
(2.24)
w h e r e , again, Cj a n d C are determined from the initial conditions.

2
Sinusoidal loads. T h e particular solution corresponding to sinusoidally a p plied loads forms the basis of the very important study of vibration analysis and is therefore essential to o u r understanding of vibrational structural d y n a m i c s of rotorcraft. T h e sinusoidal applied load p r o b l e m defines what w e typically refer
11
to as a f r e q u e n c y - d o m a i n solution or a p p r o a c h . Q u e s t i o n s of initial conditions are d i s r e g a r d e d since the m o t i o n is a s s u m e d to h a v e been going on for an ( m a t h e m a t i c a l l y speaking) infinitely long time in the past. Let F(t) = P cosili Re[/V'""'] (2.25)
B e c a u s e w e h a v e a s s u m e d that the forcing function has been operating on the linear s p r i n g - m a s s - d a m p e r system for a sufficiently long time the h o m o g e n e o u s solution can therefore be a s s u m e d to h a v e died out. T h e resulting response p r o d u c e d will then also be sinusoidal and at only one frequency: the s a m e frequency as the applied load frequency, i l . T h e r e f o r e , the particular solution for this case will h a v e the following form: x Consequently, x
p
= A cost
+ sint
(2.26)
= i l ( - A sin i l i + c o s i l i ) - (A
2
(2.27a) - *,,
2
Xp -
cosili
+ sinli) =
(2.27b)
Substitution into the basic differential equation and collecting terms yields [( , 2
)A
2 2
+ 21] cosili l )B]

2
+ [-214
+ (
s i n l i = [P /m]
0
cosili
(2.28)
T h e n , upon e q u a t i n g coefficients of like trigonometric functions (

2
fl )A
2
+ 2 1 = P /m
0
(2.29a) (2.29b)
-24 These A and T h e final in t e r m s
+ (
)B
2
e q u a t i o n s then constitute a set of algebraic equations in the coefficients the solution of w h i c h can be easily a c c o m p l i s h e d using C r a m e r ' s rule. form for the sinusoidal particular solution can be conveniently expressed of a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e : x (t)
p
= X cos(t
) = ^ 8 cosili + 8 sinli]
(2.30)
Therefore, A )8 (2.31a) (2.31b)
= sink
12
so that
tanc) = and
= 2/(
)
2
(2.31c)
= V
or, in final useful form:
(2.31d)
X =
P /m
()
= response amplitude + (2)

2
(2.32)
V(>2 -
)
2
= phase angle
(2.33)
Plots of these t w o basic functions with variations in forcing frequency d a m p i n g are given in F i g . 2 . 5 .
and
Significant points: 1 ) T h e sharp rise in a m p l i t u d e response w h i c h occurs w h e n ~ is d e n o t e d the resonance condition. 2) At = 0 , the r e s p o n s e a m p l i t u d e s for all values of d a m p i n g are the s a m e ( = l / ) . T h i s condition is merely the static deflection result:
2
1 (P /m)
0
X = A; = m z
P lk
0
(2.34a)
3) A s > o c , all responses attenuate. 4) T h e range of the phase angle variation is 0 < < . a) For , O o r i r , d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r or not the excitation frequency is respectively b e l o w or above the natural frequency. b) For = , = 2 for all finite levels of damping (the zero d a m p i n g case has the s a m e value in the limit). c) F o r all d a m p i n g levels:
/?
For: For:
= 0, > ^ ,
0
TT
(2.34b)
T h e p r e c e d i n g material s u m m a r i z e s the basic material used for simple harm o n i c (sinusoidal) m o t i o n . T h e next section generalizes these c o n c e p t s to the case w h e r e i n the simple single-degree-of-freedom system is excited by multiple frequencies, w h i c h are also integral multiples of a basic frequency. As w e shall see in later s e c t i o n s , this situation is of p r i m e importance to rotorcraft d y n a m i c vibration p r o b l e m s .
13
Forcing frequency,
TX
/2
Forcing frequency,
Fig. 2.5 system. Frequency response functions for linear single-degree-of-freedom
2.2 2.2
Fourier Methods Multiharmonic Responses
In this instance w e are c o n c e r n e d with the general (particular) solution to the single-degree-of-freedom system p r o b l e m wherein the excitation is an integer multiple h a r m o n i c of the previously considered frequency ) : F(t) = F c o s t i l i + F,
u
sin/;
= l, 2 , 3 , . . .
(2.35)
14
A g a i n , because the d y n a m i c system is linear, the response will also be at the same frequency: x (t)
p
= A c o s n t + B s i n n t
(2.36)
where A = F (&l - n il ) - ,, 2/21 m[()- / r ~ ) - + (2/)-

2 2 7 ti
(2.37a)
F ( , / r l ) + F
2 2
2 /?
/ 2
( 2
"
/77[(
/rl )
2
+ (2) 1
'
If the excitation were n o w to consist of the steady load as well as a s u m m a t i o n of such h a r m o n i c excitations, wherein is varied with increasing integer values (n = 1, 2, 3 , . . . ) , the excitation is then expressible as a Fourier series:
Fit)
= F
2
// =
\F
cosniit
+ F
smniit]
(2.38)
Because of the linearity of the d y n a m i c system, superposition can be invoked so that the response is also expressible as a Fourier series:
(t) = A
n
{)
\ n c o s / i l + B sinnilt]
A n lh
(2.39) excitation Fourier
where the A and B coefficients derive from the F coefficients as given earlier.
and F
2.2.2
Discrete Fourier Analysis
T h e applicability of the preceding d e v e l o p m e n t is contingent on the excitation being periodic and on the ability to obtain the Fourier coefficients of the excitation. In s o m e cases the periodic function Fit) (with period T) is k n o w n analytically, in which case the Fourier coefficients can be determined by use of the following expressions:
F,i .
t
.s
Fo (Note that = 2u/.) For cases where the excitation function is not k n o w n analytically, numerical m e t h o d s must be e m p l o y e d . O n e such instance is w h e n the function represents an experimentally m e a s u r e d value; in such a case the value is available only as
15
an a n a l o g or discretely s a m p l e d v o l t a g e . Eventually the function b e c o m e s available as a set of discrete numerical (ordinate) values c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a set of equally s p a c e d points in t i m e within the period T. A s s u m e further that the period is divided into 2N + 1 points (so that t h e / and f values are e q u a l ) . Furt h e r m o r e , let the c o r r e s p o n d i n g (abscissa) values of time be given by
1N
= jT/2N(
= ./TT /yVil);
j = 0 , 1, 2 , 3
(27V -
1), 2N
(2.41)
w h e r e is the characteristic " f u n d a m e n t a l " frequency. T h e periodic function to be (discretely) F o u r i e r analyzed can then be represented o v e r o n e period as s h o w n by F i g . 2 . 6 . N o t e that the function is really k n o w n only at t h e / , / j , e t c . , v a l u e s . O n e straightforward m e t h o d of obtaining the Fourier coefficients w o u l d be to a p p r o x i m a t e the integrals defining these coefficients as finite s u m m a t i o n s . This p r o c e d u r e could involve any n u m b e r of a p p r o x i m a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s (various p o l y n o m i a l fitting functions, etc.) with varying degrees of a c c u r a c y . O n e convenient m e t h o d is presented herein that can be used manually (with a hand calculator) or can be p r o g r a m m e d for use within s o m e c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n application. T h e m e t h o d is based on the recognition of the existence of " e v e n " and " o d d " functions, so that the general function to be Fourier a n a l y z e d , / ( f ) , can be used to define t w o auxiliary functions, Fit) and Git):
0
Fit) Git) so that fit)
= Vilfit) = Vilfit)
+ /(-/)] -fi-t)\
(2.42) (2.43)
= Fit)
+ Git)
(2.44)
j O tf
t
3
. . .
âv-r
L ^2
\f Fig. 2.6
Graphical representation of a discretely known periodic function.
16
T h u s , for the discretization s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 6 , the following expressions c a n be written: F

0
= fo Gi = '/2 (/ - , - ) = V2{f - f
2 2 N
(2.45a) (2.45b&c) (2.45d&e)
Fi = Vi(f
/ ,_ )
2 2
_ )
2
F_ , = '/>(/_,
G * , , = '/ (/,_,
2
(2.45f&g) (2.45h)
Note that, by virtue of Eq. 2 . 4 3 , G and G are identically zero. T h e approximate resulting Fourier series is then expressible as:
0 N
N-
fit)
= A +
cosw(2ir/r) +
sin /(2Trr/r)] (2.46)
cosNi2>nt/T)
T h e Fourier coefficients in this representation are obtainable from the F and G functions as follows: 1 F
0
+ F
+ F
+ F^
N
+ F
+
(2.47)
+ F cos ,
+ F cosnjs
2
+ F/v-i c o s % _ , +
-(-\)"F
(2.48) + (2.49) (2.50) (2.51)
-F -F
0
+ F
+ ( - D ^ ' / V . + * ' + G/v-i
^(-\) F
N
B B
= = 0
s i n n j , + G sin;zx
2
sin/2j
y v
_ ]
1
where
JC: = 2/
(2.52)
E x a m p l e of u s e of a p p r o x i m a t e formulas: six h a r m o n i c s , i . e . , / ( / , ) values every 3 0 d e g : A

0
= \Vi{F
0
+ F)
e 2
+ F F
4
+ F F
b
+ Fi + F (F, -
+ F ]/6
5 5
(2.53a) (2.53b)
Ai = [F
+ F
F )|/6

A
2
17
F ]/6
6
= \F
+ F
0
2 F -
+ F
(2.53c) (2.53d)
A A
= [F = [F = [F
2 F
+ 2 F F F
2
F ]/6 F V3
2 4
F, 2
+ 2 F
4
+
5
F ]/6
6
(2.53e) (2.53f)
+ F
(F, F, + F
2
F )/6
4
A, , B
2
= VMFo
+ F) -
F, + F
5
(C
5
F ]/6
5
(2.53g) (2.54a) (2.54b) (2.54c)
= [C, + 2 C , + G =
+ V3 G
4
G )|/6
4
V3 V3
(G, + G G
3
G ]/6
B B
= [G, =
+ G
G J/3
2
[G, -
+ G
5
V3
G ]/6
5
(2.54d) + G )|/6
4
= [G, + 2 C ,
+ G
(G
(2.54e)
2.2,3
Fourier
Transform
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the previous section can be extended and generalized by taking the limit as the period In effect this provides a w a y of transforming arbitrary aperiodic functions into the frequency d o m a i n . This procedure is mathematically a c c o m p l i s h e d using the Fourier transform, which is defined for the arbitrary f u n c t i o n / ( r ) : F(co) = 2 J fit) e~^ at (2.55)
T h e p r i m a r y usefulness of the Fourier transform is that it provides a very general m e t h o d of d e t e r m i n i n g particular solutions for a wide range of (aperiodic) excitations. S o m e p r o b l e m s for which the excitation cannot be expressed in the time d o m a i n , but rather only in the frequency d o m a i n (and, even then, s o m e t i m e s only using statistical c o n c e p t s ) , are intractable with any solution m e t h o d other than the F o u r i e r transform. In particular, a s s u m e for the m o m e n t that the applied excitation to the d y n a m i c system Fit) is expressible only in the form of its frequency content [ i . e . , Fi(x)), a Fourier transform of the e x c i t a t i o n ] . This is often the case with e x p e r i m e n t a l l y acquired data wherein the Fourier transforms are p r o d u c e d in software by the test e q u i p m e n t . T h e frequency response function ( F R F ) of the d y n a m i c s y s t e m , / / ( ) , is a frequency d o m a i n representation of the sinusoidal output of the d y n a m i c system d u e to a sinusoidal input. For the single-degree-of-freedom s y s t e m , / / ( ) w o u l d be expressible as //() Im
2
(2.56)
T h e n , the F o u r i e r transform m e t h o d could be used to obtain the Fourier transform of the p r o d u c t r e s p o n s e , (): () = Hi(j)Fi(u) (2.57)
18

is then obtained using the inverse
Finally, the actual time d o m a i n solution, Fourier transform:
x(t)
H(()F(o))e '
ii
(2.58)
O n e significant d e v e l o p m e n t that m a k e s Fourier m e t h o d s increasingly more applicable for solving vibration-related p r o b l e m s is that Fourier transforms can now be calculated numerically (using discretely sampled data) very quickly using appropriate software. T h e s e software (algorithms) are typically k n o w n as fast Fourier transforms ( F F T ) and are readily available. F u r t h e r m o r e , the wide availability of such software m a k e s the use of Fourier transform m e t h o d s practical in s o m e applications w h e r e other more traditional techniques might appear outwardly m o r e direct. This trade-off arises on the basis that the more traditional m e t h o d o l o g y might often b e c o m e less efficient from a C P U resource standpoint. For instance, the F F T could also be used to obtain discrete Fourier analyses ( D F A ) , as w e l l . H o w e v e r , care must be taken in the use of the F F T due to the fact that it operates only on discretized data and is therefore subject to specific p r o b l e m s such as aliasing and leakage. T h e s e p r o b l e m s , while having a battery of solution techniques d e v e l o p e d to c o m p e n s a t e for the inaccuracies introduced, are b e y o n d the intent of the present chapter and will only be addressed later, as appropriate.
2.3
Linear Two-Degree-of-Freedom System
T h e next step that must be taken to bring ourselves closer to the realities of rotorcraft structural d y n a m i c s is to increase the n u m b e r of degrees of freedom that w e can a n a l y z e . Initially, we begin with only two degrees of freedom and then generalize to an arbitrary n u m b e r . This higher level of complexity is required b e c a u s e most vibrational and aeroelastic stability issues of rotorcraft involve t w o or m o r e d e g r e e s of freedom. Virtually all of the additional concepts we must acquire in order to investigate the multiple-degree-of-freedom system can be exemplified with the use of a relatively simple elastomechanical m o d e l , as s h o w n in Fig. 2 . 7 .
Fig. 2.7
Basic configuration of a two-degree-of-freedom dynamic system.

2 .3. 1 Obtaining the Equations of Motion
19
T w o basic m e t h o d s can be used to obtain the equations of motion; these are briefly described and contrasted in the material to follow. Newtonian approach. T h e N e w t o n i a n approach is a direct extension of the m e t h o d used for obtaining the single-degree-of-freedom equations given in the previous section: Represent the accelerations of the masses as equivalent inertia forces and then use static force and m o m e n t equilibrium to define the equations of m o t i o n . F o r the multiple-degree-of-freedom problem such statements of equilibrium must be m a d e for each m a s s and rotational inertia. Using the s p r i n g - m a s s - d a m p e r configuration s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 7 , w e then proceed b y s u m m i n g separately the forces acting on each of the m a s s e s . T h u s , the forces on w , can be written as k (x
2 2
~~ \)
~ k\ \
x
i( i
x
X\) c x
i
m x\
x
(2.59)
or, m o r e c o m p a c t l y , after rearranging, m x\

x
+ ( e j + c )x\
2
+ ( + k )x\
2 2
cx
2
kx
2
= 0
(2.60)
Similarly, the forces acting on m can be s u m m e d and equilibrated: -k (x

2 2
- jf,) -
c (x
2
- x)
{
mx
2
+ Fit)
= 0
(2.61)
or, a g a i n , in m o r e c o m p a c t form: c X\
2
kx
2
+ mx
2
+ cx
2
+ kx
2
= F(t)
(2.62)
Lagrangian approach. In contrast to the N e w t o n i a n a p p r o a c h , the a p proach using L a g r a n g e ' s equation is m o r e elegant and finds application in those cases wherein the inertial loads cannot be easily formulated by inspection. T h e L a g r a n g i a n a p p r o a c h has the distinct a d v a n t a g e that the terms in the differential e q u a t i o n s relating to inertia loads can be more easily and accurately identified. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e with the m e t h o d is that, being a variational a p p r o a c h , it is a step r e m o v e d from the details of the actual configuration and h e n c e from an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the physics of the resulting d y n a m i c s . Use of the L a g r a n g i a n a p p r o a c h hinges on the concepts of kinetic and potential e n e r g y , and U, respectively, as defined for the total system. T h e Lagrangian a p p r o a c h utilizes a single differential equation that can be used for any d y n a m i c s y s t e m , linear o r nonlinear, and is applicable to every o n e of the ( M ) degrees of freedom: _d 3T dT dq
at
where U D q Fi = = = = =
3U dq,
3D 3q
r
F;
/ =
1, 2
(2.63)
kinetic e n e r g y potential (strain) e n e r g y dissipation function /th generalized c o o r d i n a t e generalized force for /'th generalized coordinate
20
A l t h o u g h the concepts of kinetic and potential energy should be familiar to the reader, the concepts of dissipative function and generalized forces need amplification. T h e dissipative function is basically constructed using the potential energy as an a n a l o g , wherein the velocities are substituted for d i s p l a c e m e n t s and d a m p i n g rates are substituted for stiffness rates. T h e generalized forces must be obtained from a statement of the total system incremental w o r k , bW, produced by variations in the generalized c o o r d i n a t e s , i . e . ,
M
/ For the e x a m p l e s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 7 , = Vi{m x

x 2 x
/=
FM
(2.64)
+ m x\)
2
(2.65a) - *2) 1
2
U = '/[Mi + M * i D = Vi\c x]
x
(2.65b) (2.65c)
+ c (x
2
- x)\
2 2
w h e r e the generalized coordinates and generalized forces are simply given as c = x ; q

x 2
= x\
2
F\ = 0 ; F
F(t)
It can be readily verified that application of L a g r a n g e ' s equation yields equations of motion identical to those obtained by the N e w t o n i a n approach. Note that a characteristic of these derivations is that the forces resulting from simple inertia, stiffness, and dissipative contributions show up as symmetrical t e r m s in the e q u a t i o n s . This feature will b e c o m e m o r e evident when w e discuss matrices in a subsequent section.
2.3.2
Characteristic
Frequencies and Modes
As in the case with the single-degree-of-freedom system, the solution to a set of differential equations involves a h o m o g e n e o u s solution and a particular o n e . For the type of linear systems that w e are treating here, the h o m o g e n e o u s p r o b l e m is defined by setting the excitation force F(t) to zero. T h e solution to the resulting p r o b l e m set has an exponential form. Therefore, we a s s u m e exponential solutions for each of the d e g r e e s of freedom of the form jc, = x e \
Kt x
= xe
2
Xl
(2.66a&b)
With these substitutions in the equations of motion the equation set then b e c o m e s a set of algebraic equations a n d , in e s s e n c e , an eigenvalue problem: [m X
x 2
+ (c
+ c )K
2
+
2 x
+ k )]x
2
(c k
2
+ k )x
2 2
= 0 = 0
(2.67a) (2.67b)
( r \ + k )x
2
+ (m X
2
+ cX
2
+ k )x
W e can m a k e the following observations of this set of equations: 1 ) T h e e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m so defined entails finding a value of the c o m p l e x frequency or eigenvalue, , which leads to n o n z e r o values of the u n k n o w n response a m p l i t u d e s (eigenfunction or eigenvector), [x , x \.
{ 2
21
2) F o r linear e q u a t i o n s of this type the e i g e n v a l u e is to be found by setting the d e t e r m i n a n t to zero: lm K

x
+ ( c , + c )\
2
+ (k
+ k)
2
+ k )\
2
+ (m
2
(c \
2
+
c \
2
k)
2
= ()
Jfc )
2
= 0 (2.68)
(c \
2
and solving the resulting p o l y n o m i a l for . T h i s polynomial is called the characteristic equation. 3) O n c e the various values of are k n o w n , for each , a mode shape, x lx , can be found. T h a t is, only the relation b e t w e e n x and x is obtainable; either x or x can h a v e any arbitrary value w e might select for it. T y p i c a l l y , the selected value is unity.
{ 2 x 2 x 2
Undamped case. F o r the general d a m p e d case the resulting characteristic equation is a quartic and is typically not solved using simple analytical formulas. A l s o , both the e i g e n v a l u e s and eigenvectors are usually c o m p l e x - v a l u e d . H o w ever, the u n d a m p e d case leads to a quartic polynomial characteristic equation devoid of o d d p o w e r s that can then be readily solved using the binomial t h e o r e m . T h u s , the characteristic e q u a t i o n , () 0 , has t w o imaginary root pairs given by the following solutions: = / m (k
2 x
+ k)
2
mk
x
2m m
x
kk
x
m (k
2
+ k)
2
+
nil
mk
x
2m
(2.69)
T h e t w o quantities multiplying ( /) in the preceding equation constitute the resulting natural frequencies for the d y n a m i c s y s t e m , , and . T h e m o d e shapes can then be found from either of the system differential equations: If we arbitrarily set x = 1, then
2 x
[m \
{
+ (k
+ k )\
2
kx
2
= 0
(2.70)
or _ x = m\
x 2
+ (k k
2
k)
2
(2.71) dynamic (2.72a&b)
E x a m p l e : Let us take a simplified version of the aforementioned system wherein the m a s s e s and stiffnesses are equal: m
x
= m
= m\
= k
= k
T h e roots are then given by
22
Thus, , 0 . 6 1 8 Vkm\
2
= 1.618 Vkm
(2.74a&b)
T h e s e are then the t w o ( u n d a m p e d ) natural frequencies for this two-degree-offreedom s p r i n g - m a s s system. If w e alternatively let x = 1, then for each of the t w o natural frequencies (m = 1 , 2 ) ,
2
=
^,
< ' >

A / W
, _
(klm)
Thus, x\ x\
])
= 1 = 1 -
0.382 = 0.618 2.618 -1.618
( m o d e 1) (mode 2)
(2.76a) (2.76b)
2)
T h e s e results are given pictorially in F i g . 2 . 8 . This figure depicts the relative positions the m a s s e s have with respect to each other when they are oscillating freely at the respective natural frequencies. T h e positions of and x (relative to each other) are the natural mode shapes.
2
2.3.3
Orthogonality
(Undamped
Case)
In this section the very important property of orthogonality is formulated. This p r o p e r t y , a feature of the characteristic (or natural) frequencies and m o d e s d e scribed earlier, provides a m e a n s of effectively reducing multiple-degree-offreedom s y s t e m s to an equivalent system c o m p r i s e d of a multiplicity of singledegree-of-freedom s y s t e m s . F u r t h e r m o r e , and as a corollary, it enables reductions to be m a d e in the n u m b e r of degrees of freedom initially used to model any given d y n a m i c s y s t e m . This is especially important, as w e shall find, for reducing

descriptions of c o n t i n u o u s s y s t e m s (which have an infinite of freedom) to a handful of normal modal variables. number of
23
degrees
Basic proof of orthogonality. T h e proof offered for the orthogonality of natural m o d e s is based on the two-degree-of-freedom configuration defined earlier in F i g . 2 . 7 . H o w e v e r , the veracity of the orthogonality principle is not limited to this simple p r o b l e m , but can easily be generalized to other m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , but linear, d y n a m i c s y s t e m s . W e begin by rewriting the t w o h o m o g e n e o u s equations as follows: M\x\ mx
2 2
(k
+ k )x
2 2
kx
2 2 2
(2.77a) (2.77b)
= k x
+ kx
For the natural m o d e s these equations then b e c o m e (for = ] ) m^ x\

2 22 2 {)
= (L
( 2
+ ki)x\ k,x\
l)
k,x r
{
m,i xV (for = ) m^lx\

2)
mode 1
(2.78)
= (k
ki)x\
mode 2
(2.79)
Each of the t w o equations of motions can then be written symbolically (for the /th equation and /?th m o d e and for // = 2) as m^x)'
J)
Kirf '*
1
(2.80)
and similarly for the r t h m o d e the equations b e c o m e m^ x\

2 r r)
=
7=1
x 2
(2-81)
[Note that K is a shorthand representation for combinations of k and k (the / index) as they appear in each of the t w o equations (the /' index).) If n o w the first of these equations is multiplied by x\ and the second by x\ \ and if then s u m m a t i o n s are taken over (/') with each equation (separately), the results are as follows: n ii
r) p
m^y'x'r
KW
<- >
2 82a
/= 1
//
/ = I ./ = 1
// //
;
/= 1
,-xy''x'r
/ = ! . / = ! '
(2.82b)
24

} jh
Since for conservative s y s t e m s , = K the sums on the right-hand sides of these t w o equations are e q u a l . Therefore, if the t w o equations are differenced, the following result is obtained:
(, )
2
/n Jr !-'' J}
, /
r)
(2.83)
S i n c e , for/? r , the first term is clearly n o n z e r o , the second term must be zero. This result is s u m m a r i z e d as follows: 0,
2 m J!- .Yi/,, / n
r (2.84)
M, r =
E x a m p l e (using results from previous e x a m p l e ) : r 1, = 1 : r = 1, = 2: r 2 , /? 1: r = 2 , = 2: = m K 1.618) + (1.0)1 3.618m (2.85d) m t ( - 1.618X0.618) + 1.0| = 0 (2.85c) = m [ ( 0 . 6 1 8 ) ( - 1.618) + l.O 0 (2.85b) m[(0.618)
2
+ (l.O) ) =
2
1.382m
(2.85a)
T h u s , these results indeed demonstrate that the orthogonality principle is real. T h e property is n o less real for larger systems and actually proves to be a good test for the accuracy of m o d e s , as calculated by any given eigenvalue solution s c h e m e . F u r t h e r m o r e , although the orthogonality principle is explicitly formulated earlier for undamped s y s t e m s , the principle is still valid for d a m p e d systems (both s y m m e t r i c and u n s y m m e t r i c t e r m s ) , but requires a different formulation. T h e reader is referred to Hurty and Rubenstein for a discussion of both proportional and nonproportional d a m p i n g c a s e s . (The term proportional damping refers to d a m p i n g terms in the equations of motion that are proportional to linear c o m b i n a t i o n s of already existing inertia and/or stiffness terms.)
2.3.4
Decoupling
with the Use of Normal Modes
T h e orthogonality principle proves to be a useful tool for simplifying systems of multiple degrees of freedom. This c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d , again, using the t w o degree-of-freedom e x a m p l e given earlier using the following procedure: 1) First, a linear coordinate transformation is m a d e wherein the original d e grees of freedom, x and y , are replaced by c o m b i n a t i o n s of t w o n e w v a r i a b l e s .
2

/] and q , w h i c h w e d e n o t e the generalized modal variables:
2
25
coordinates + x?q (t)

2
or, more specifically, (2.86a) (2.86b)
*,(/) x (t)
2 }
= = x q (t)
u 2 {
+ x q (t)
2) 2 2
w h e r e x\ represents the w t h c o m p o n e n t (degree of freedom) of the pth m o d e s h a p e . (Note that here w e h a v e assigned the value of 1 tox J .) 2) T h i s c o o r d i n a t e transformation is then substituted into the differential equations of m o t i o n . 3) F o r each of the t w o values of (1 and 2 ) , the first equation is multiplied by x\ and the second equation by x . 4) F o r each value of this multiplication operation is then followed by a s u m m a t i o n of the t w o e q u a t i o n s . By virtue of the orthogonality principle, each of the t w o resulting e q u a t i o n s ( = 1, 2) is then uncoupled from each other to p r o d u c e e q u a t i o n s of the following form:
{ }) p) p) 2
Mq
p
+ tj,M q
p
= E (t)
p
(2.87)
where q (t)
p
M ,
p ;
= the pth modal variable, a scalar quantity denoting h o w m u c h the pth natural m o d e is being excited = the pth generalized mass c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the pth natural m o d e = the pth natural frequency = the pth generalized forcing function or excitation, the m e a s u r e of h o w m u c h the /?th m o d e is being excited
Note that a c o m p l e t e solution of the equations is then afforded by solving for the generalized ( m o d a l ) variables first and then c o m b i n i n g them as per the previously given c o o r d i n a t e transformation. T h e aforementioned d e v e l o p m e n t , although formulated in terms of only t w o degrees of freedom, can be easily generalized to any n u m b e r of d e g r e e s of freedom. T h u s , by m e a n s of natural m o d e s , multiple-degree-of-freedom s y s t e m s can be reduced to an e n s e m b l e of single-degree-of-freedom p r o b l e m s . For systems with (viscous) d a m p i n g similar (but not identical in detail) techniques can be used to uncouple the m o d e s one from the other. T h e previously given p r o c e d u r e is an e x a m p l e of a more generalized procedure k n o w n as the Galerkin method, which will be covered in more detail in a later section. T h e G a l e r k i n m e t h o d is a powerful solution technique that can be used not only for d e v i s i n g modal solution a p p r o a c h e s to linear s y s t e m s , but for treating modal formulations to nonlinear s y s t e m s of equations and s o m e classes of nonmodal solution formulations as well.
2.3.5
Frequency
Response
Undamped case. A further important e l e m e n t of the t w o - (or more) d e g r e e of-freedom p r o b l e m is the response of the system to sinusoidal excitations. Similar to the tack taken with the single-degree-of-freedom s y s t e m , let the ex-
26
citation to the e x a m p l e two-degree-of-freedom system defined a b o v e be given by a sinusoidal variation: F(t) = P cosr
0 2
(2.88)
T h e n , in the a b s e n c e of d a m p i n g the t w o degrees of freedom, .r, and x , can be similarly defined: x (t)
{
= X, c o s i l i = X
2
(2.89a) (2.89b)
x (t)
2
cosUt
F o l l o w i n g the solution technique given earlier for the single-degree-of-freedom s y s t e m , it can be s h o w n that the solutions for X and X can be written as
{ 2
Pk
0
2
2
/77|W (0)
2
)(^
~
2
il )
2
(2.90a)
X,
P (k
()
} 2
+ k
2 2
/7?) )
2
mi /??->(
)(^ il )
(2.90b)
Plots of the a m p l i t u d e variations of these t w o responses are given in Fig. 2 . 9 . Points to be noted: 1 ) Similar to the single-degree-of-freedom results, the system exhibits resonance conditions ( i . e . , the responses b e c o m e u n b o u n d e d ) when the forcing freq u e n c y a p p r o a c h e s either o n e of the t w o natural frequencies, , and . 2) At a certain frequency, , situated b e t w e e n , and , the response of X b e c o m e s zero. Such a condition is typically denoted an antiresonance con2 3 2 2
Forcing
frequency,
Fig. 2.9 Variation of amplitude responses of the two-degree-of-freedom system with excitation frequency.

x
27
dition. Physically (at this frequency) the first m a s s m is acting as a " v i b r a t i o n a b s o r b e r " to the second m a s s . T h e reason that the response of the second mass can be z e r o (despite the fact that it is receiving the full brunt of the application of the external load) is that the first m a s s , together with the s p r i n g s , d e v e l o p s an equal and o p p o s i t e load i n t u n e " with the forcing frequency f l . F r o m the equation f o r X , this frequency is seen to be
44 2
o>3 = V ( | +
k )lm
2
(2.91)
F r o m a consideration of the physics of the configuration this is also the natural frequency of the first m a s s operating as a single-degree-of-freedom system with the second m a s s constrained to h a v e zero m o t i o n , x = 0. 3) F o r excitation frequencies b e t w e e n , and and from to ^ , the X r e s p o n s e c u r v e s h o w s negative v a l u e s . Similarly, the X] response curve is negative b e t w e e n , and . G e n e r a l l y , a negative value is to be interpreted to m e a n that the r e s p o n s e is 180 d e g out of phase with the excitation F(t). 4) Apart from the antiresonance issue, each of the response curves can be interpreted to be c o m p r i s e d of an e n s e m b l e of single-degree-of-freedom system response curves o v e r l a p p i n g each other. T h e s e single-degree-of-freedom systems are clearly the m o d a l response degrees of freedom treated in a previous section.
2 3 2 2 2
Damped case. T h e reinstatement of the d a m p e r s shown in F i g . 2.7 to n o n z e r o values w o u l d result in a system of four algebraic equations in the four (real) coefficients n e e d e d to describe the response of t w o degrees of freedom. T h e solution c a n n o t be stated easily in a w a y so as to glean out the p h y s i c s . H o w e v e r , resorting to a m o d a l interpretation p r o d u c e s the result that the inclusion of d a m p i n g modifies the results given earlier for the u n d a m p e d case in w a y s suggested by the single-degree-of-freedom results: 1) T h e singular or u n b o u n d e d results at the resonance conditions disappear to be replaced by high (but b o u n d e d ) responses that attenuate with increased values of d a m p i n g . 2) T h e a n t i r e s o n a n c e condition d e v e l o p s a finite (but still small) response level, d e p e n d i n g on the d a m p i n g level. At the m i n i m u m response level the phase angle of the s e c o n d m a s s w o u l d be near 9 0 d e g since the response w o u l d be resisted principally by the d a m p i n g . Thus, it can he inferred that the optimal operation of vibration absorbers based on an antiresonance principle requires a minimization of damping in the system.
2.3.6
General Coupling
Issues
O n e hallmark of the structural d y n a m i c systems encountered rotorcraft applications is an a b u n d a n c e of distinct coupling t e r m s . S o m e e x a m p l e s are presented in this section to s h o w typical w a y s in which coupling can be e n c o u n t e r e d . C o n s i d e r first a very general e x a m p l e of c o u p l i n g , as afforded by a rotational m a s s supported by u n s y m m e t r i c a l support stiffnesses (see Fig. 2 . 1 0 ) . Let the pertinent d y n a m i c response quantities be the plunge d i s p l a c e m e n t and angular rotation of the point P , z , and , respectively. T h e equations of this e x a m p l e can be easily obtained using L a g r a n g e ' s equations: = Vimz ,)
2
'/
(2.92a)
28

F(t)
Fig. 2.10
Simple example of coupling in a structure.
U = Vik z
x
+ V2k [z 2
( +
t )\
2
(2.92b) (2.92c)
bW = F(t)(bz Therefore, F_ -
,)
F(r);
-t F(t)
{
(2.92d&e)
T h e resulting equations of motion then b e c o m e

mz -f (it, +
2
Jt ) ~
2
w i l
k (t
2
*2>
2 {
F()
2 2
(2.93a)
* d i + ) * + ( / + ^ ) + k {t
2
+ )t
(2.93b)
=
where the (
-1,^(0
) and (
) underlined terms represent, respectively, the inertia
and stiffnei?BL/?///i# terms b e t w e e n the t w o degrees of freedom. Free-free systems. Often the d y n a m i c system is not rigidly fixed to a stationary point. In such a case a ' r i g i d - b o d y " m o d e appears that h a s zero frequency and involves zero spring deflections. F u r t h e r m o r e , for free vibrations the system then h a s a center of gravity that does not m o v e in space and hence b e c o m e s a system node point. C o n s i d e r the e x a m p l e given in F i g . 2 . 1 1 of t w o flywheels c o n n e c t e d dumbbell-like to each other by a flexible shaft: Let us find the natural frequency and node point for this system. T h e equations of motion can be easily determined to be
k
, - Kd, = 0
(2.94a) (2.94b)
A s s u m i n g a sinusoidal ( u n d a m p e d ) h o m o g e n e o u s solution,
, = ,<? \ = >'
/ 2 2
(2.95a&b)
29
node point
,
\^
- Od. (massless)
Fig. 2.11
Two flexible shaft connected flywheels.
yields the following s i m u l t a n e o u s equations for the modal r e s p o n s e values: ( -KQ 7,), 2
= 0
2
(2.96a) (2.96b)
+ ( -
)
2
w h i c h results in the following characteristic equation: 7,

4
o> K(J
2
+ J)
2
= 0
(2.97)
w h o s e solutions are
, , <o
2
0 , VK(J
J )U J
2 X
(2.98)
T h e z e r o frequency c o r r e s p o n d s to a rigid-body mode, w h e r e a s the n o n z e r o o n e c o r r e s p o n d s to the only elastic m o d e p o s s i b l e . Solving for this elastic m o d e gives
/,
2
= (
7,)// 2
J IJ
X
(2.99)
Since the twist of the shaft is linear, ,/ then t

{ 2
,/
J IJ
2
(2.100)
= jtU
2 2
= y (
2
t )IJ
X
(2.101)
tJt where
= JJ(J
(2.102)
(2.103)

T h e s a m e result can be obtained by considering the node point to be built-in, as s h o w n in the following sketch:
Jo
Here the natural frequency squared calculation can be m a d e on the basis of a single-degree-of-freedom system:
,2 =
/j
KJJ,
(2.104)
where K
x
= GJIt ,
x
= GJIt
(2.105a&b)
T h e n substitution of these spring values yields GJ/( J

X
= GJIt J -*t
2 2
= (J /J )t
2 x
(2.106)
As a final e x a m p l e of a system c o u p l i n g , consider the more complicated d y n a m i c system of a s p r i n g - m a s s - d a m p e r idealization of a hovering helicopter approximated as a transmission-fuselage c o m b i n a t i o n (see Fig. 2 . 1 2 ) . Three degrees of freedom are needed to describe this system. O n e possible combination is lateral d i s p l a c e m e n t of the g i m b a l , y^, and the roll angles of the transmission and fuselage, , and , respectively. In order to k e e p the total center-of-gravity of the system from translating (in the absence of lateral forces).
;
m ( y , + ) + /w,(y , ; 2 ; A
t $)
x t
(2.107)
which results in a d e p e n d e n c e of the lateral translation of the gimbal on the fuselage and transmission roll angles a n d , as a c o n s e q u e n c e , a reduction in the n u m b e r of independent degrees of freedom needed to describe the d y n a m i c s : mi
i x t
m <\)
f 2
(2.108)
BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES effective rotor stiffness, fa rotor lift, L

rotor hub
31
sj /\
transmission - rotor mass and inertia, m , l

t
transmission \^ (gimbal) mount ? fuselage mass and inertia. m , l

f
FRONT VIEW
Fig. 2.12 Idealization of a hovering helicopter with a flexibly coupled transmission and fuselage. Using L a g r a n g e ' s e q u a t i o n , one can then write the appropriate kinetic and p o tential energy relationships: = Vim (y,
t
,,)
+ Vil M ,)
2
(2.109) (2.110)
U = ViK,M
+ ^ ( ,
32

t
T h e generalized " f o r c e s " appropriated to the transmission and the fuselage, F^ and Fty, respectively, are to be found by considering the incremental work a c c o m p l i s h e d by the forces acting on the t w o m a s s e s . In this case these loads are the gravity loads, W, and W , which are equilibrated by the total rotor lift L. Note that, in this c a s e , since w o r k is accomplished only by virtue of the t w o rotations, the generalized forces will actually be m o m e n t s .
f
W = (W,,<>, - ,,), + ( .
^^,
(2.111)
Therefore, F^(= F* (
f
(!)/
) -
-(Lt
^,,),
(2.112a) (2.112b)
= M* )
f
= -iW ( )4>
f 2
[Note that L (rotor lift) = W + W .\ Substitution of the constraint relationship into the expression for the kinetic energy yields the following a m e n d e d form:
t f
M F
(m, +
m)
f
(,, +
)
2
+ / (/,, +
2
I )
f
(2.113)
Application of L a g r a n g e ' s equation then yields the following preferred form of the equations of motion: mmt
t f 2
-f
m\f
+ /, , + (K + K, + Lt
r
- \ ,,),
m m txt ' m + m
t f 2 t 2
, \ ..
/ +
(2.114)
m mA i
t
x 2
..
'
f
I mm
t f
m, + m
< h
\m
+ m
+
f
f)
'/
(*<
Wf*2)ty
(2.115) T h e s e equations are then similar in form to those of the other two-degree-offreedom systems considered earlier in this chapter, wherein both inertia and stiffness couplings are present.
2.4
Structural Damping
A mathematical description of structural d a m p i n g that is both general and accurate does not yet exist. T h r o u g h experimental studies structural d a m p i n g
Next Page
33
has b e e n found to be both small and a function of a w i d e range of p a r a m e t e r s : material, m e t h o d of c o n s t r u c t i o n , response level, frequency, t e m p e r a t u r e , e t c . A d d i t i o n a l l y , although a n u m b e r of mathematical a p p r o a c h e s h a v e been devised to m o d e l structural d a m p i n g , the m o r e successful of these m o d e l i n g s all too often b e c o m e excessively difficult to apply to any practical multiple-degree-offreedom structural d y n a m i c s p r o b l e m .
2.4.
Approximations
to Structural
Damping
By far the most practical a p p r o a c h found for m o d e l i n g this kind of d a m p i n g has been to represent it either by s o m e form of equivalent viscous d a m p i n g , or by a c o m p l e x form of stiffness wherein the imaginary part of the stiffness is proportional to the e n e r g y dissipative structural d a m p i n g . T h e s e a p p r o a c h e s are represented m a t h e m a t i c a l l y for a simple single-degree-of-freedom system as described in the following. Equivalent viscous damping. Here we express the d a m p i n g in a straightforward m a n n e r as a rate-proportional force: i
eq
+ cx + ;, = 0 damping coefficient,
(2.116) and is
w h e r e c # = 2 o ) , g is the structural the viscous equivalent critical damping ratio.
Complex Stiffness. H e r e the structural d a m p i n g coefficient g is used to a p p r o x i m a t e the physically observable result that for sinusoidal motion the work e n e r g y loss per cycle is, to first a p p r o x i m a t i o n , invariant with frequency. This characteristic can be m o d e l e d as a " c o m p l e x stiffness": + (1 + ig)<*;,x = 0 (2.117)
In each case the structural d a m p i n g is represented by a linear term involving s o m e c o n s t a n t , g, or, alternatively, by s o m e structural d a m p i n g equivalent critical d a m p i n g ratio, T h i s constant must then be assigned a value c o m m e n s u r a t e with the energy dissipative properties of the structure at h a n d . T e c h n i q u e s for d e t e r m i n i n g this constant e x p e r i m e n t a l l y are given in a later subsection. A s stated earlier, an important experimentally observed aspect of structural d a m p i n g is that the e n e r g y loss per cycle of oscillation is relatively invariant with respect to frequency. It is for this fact that the c o m p l e x stiffness form of structural d a m p i n g (which d o e s not have any frequency d e p e n d e n c e ) was form u l a t e d . H o w e v e r , such a form of d a m p i n g presupposes that the motion of the structure is that of sustained simple harmonic motion: t h u s , its use in a more general transient type of a s s u m e d motion is invalidated. It is for this reason that the equivalent viscous d a m p i n g form of structural d a m p i n g is so often used, despite the fact that it gives an e n e r g y loss per cycle of oscillation that is proportional to frequency. H o w e v e r , despite their s h o r t c o m i n g s the t w o app r o x i m a t i o n s for structural d a m p i n g given earlier continue to be used extensively in a w i d e s p e c t r u m of applications for the reason that the terms are both simple and linear and thus are easily i m p l e m e n t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , within those narrow frequency ranges of interest these a p p r o x i m a t i o n s d o a reasonably good j o b .
3 Rotating Beams
B e c a u s e of the a e r o d y n a m i c p e r f o r m a n c e gains a c h i e v a b l e , current helicopter rotor b l a d e s h a v e e v o l v e d into relatively high-aspect-ratio structures. F r o m a structural d y n a m i c s standpoint such a structure is a simplification in that rotor blades can then be treated as o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l ; i . e . , their elastic characteristics can be specified as functions of only the radius. A further c o n s e q u e n c e of this o n e d i m e n s i o n a l i t y is that w e need define the elastic deflections of rotor blades only in t e r m s of b e n d i n g deformations transverse to the b l a d e , torsion, a n d , in s o m e special c a s e s , axial elongation and cross-sectional w a r p i n g . In this c h a p t e r the basic c o n c e p t s relating to blade vibration characteristics are d e v e l o p e d . T h e s e c o n c e p t s include theory for and practical s c h e m e s for obtaining natural frequencies and m o d e shapes in both in-plane and out-of-plane b e n d i n g and in torsion for relatively simple b l a d e s , i . e . , blades that have no pitch, twist, or p r e c o n i n g . Such simplified blade configurations p r o d u c e what w e will refer to as uncoupled mode characteristics. T h e u n c o u p l e d modal responses are characterized as h a v i n g , for any one m o d e , cui of the motion in either the i n - p l a n e , out-of-plane, or torsional degrees of freedom. In reality, rotor blades d o h a v e all of these c o m p l i c a t i n g characteristics (pitch, twist, and p r e c o n e ) , and material is therefore presented explaining h o w the basic u n c o u p l e d characteristics for the simplified blade are modified or " c o u p l e d " by these additional c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
3.1
Basic Equations for Bending
T h e principal characteristics of rotating b e a m s that distinguish t h e m from c o n v e n t i o n a l b e a m s are that they function in a tension field that is variable with span and that they h a v e additional d y n a m i c loadings accruing from the rotational field. B e c a u s e of the o n e dimensionality of the b e a m , the appropriate starting point is to take an infinitesimal s p a n w i s e e l e m e n t of the b e a m and then form the e q u i l i b r i u m conditions g o v e r n i n g it.
3.7.7
x
Equilibrium of a Spanwise
Element
F i g u r e 3.1 s h o w s a (rotating) cantilevered b e a m with a distributed axial loading f (x) [arising from centrifugal force and resulting in distributed tension T(x)], and a distributed transverse loading f (x, t): Let us then c o n s i d e r an arbitrarily located s p a n w i s e element and construct a free-body d i a g r a m (see F i g . 3.2); note that w e include the internal elastic loads and the external l o a d i n g s , as defined in F i g . 3 . 1 . T h e element is then equilibrated with respect to the axial and transverse forces and the m o m e n t s :
z
XF
= 0;
0;
= 0
(3.1)
63
64
ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS transverse load distribution,

f (x.t)
z
radial (centrifugal) force field,
Fig. 3.1
Loading distributions of a rotating cantilevered beam.
3.7.2
Basic Differential Equation for Transverse Bending
T h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d conditions of e q u i l i b r i u m , w h e n taken together with the standard b e a m b e n d i n g e q u a t i o n , M(x, d t) = EIz

1
z ( j c , t)
(3.2)
yield the following basic differential equation for the b e a m in tension: a

2
ex
EI dx
3Z
2
_
dx
dx
dz
- f-_(x,
t)
(3.3)
Boundary conditions. T h e appropriate b o u n d a r y conditions for all rotating b e a m s are that they h a v e zero deflection at the root and zero b e n d i n g m o m e n t and shear at the tip. T h e s e conditions are stated mathematically as z ( 0 , t) =
dz
2
(E, t) =
d'z
(L, t) = 0
(3.4)
f o x
S + dS
M, (moment) T, ( tension)
+ dx
Fig. 3.2
Free-body diagram for a spanwise element of a rotating beam.
ROTATING BEAMS
65
A d d i t i o n a l l y , a fourth b o u n d a r y condition m u s t be i m p o s e d at the b e a m root b a s e d o n t h e type of fixity at that point. If the b e a m represents an articulated rotor blade, then the b e a m h a s t h e b o u n d a r y condition appropriate to a h i n g e , and the b e n d i n g m o m e n t is taken to be zero: dz dx
2 z
(0, 0 = 0
(3.5)
If t h e b e a m represents a hingeless rotor blade, then the b e a m root h a s the cantilevered b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n , a n d the root slope is taken to be constant equal to s o m e built-in c o n i n g value # :
( 0 , t) =
(3.6)
Distributed tension. T h e tension in the b e a m arising from the centrifugal force field c a n b e obtained by integrating the axial load d i s t r i b u t i o n / , ( = m x):
2
T(x,
t) = i l
mx
cLc,
(3.7)
3.7.3
Transverse Bending
Motion
At this point n o n e of the d e v e l o p m e n t given previously takes account of t h e fact that t h e b e a m is in (transverse) m o t i o n . T h e d y n a m i c s of this motion can then b e simulated using D ' A l e m b e r t ' s principle; the transverse inertial load distribution resulting from b e a m transverse motion is included explicitly i n / , . Transverse load distribution. R e g a r d i n g the out-of-plane (z) m o t i o n , the transverse load distribution is also in the direction:
f {x,
z
t)
= f (x,
z
âpplied + / externa]
U , Oinertial
(3-8)
C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , the transverse load distribution for the in-plane motion case is in t h e y direction a n d is similarly interpreted. T h u s , for out-of-plane and inp l a n e m o t i o n s a n d y , respectively, the transverse loadings are given as follows: Out-of-plane b e n d i n g : f~*> Oineitial = In-plane b e n d i n g :
fy(x> 0 inertial = ~
m
dz T7 at
2
< .9a)
3
~ i
+ ^ ^ 7
(3%)
T h e s e c o n d term in the e x p r e s s i o n for the in-plane inertial load distribution arises from t h e fact that t h e centrifugal force field is radial; h e n c e , a c o m p o n e n t of this force field will b e in the direction of t h e in-plane deformation y.
66 3.7.4
ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS Differential Equation for Out-of-Plane Bending
T h e reader can verify that all of the preceding formulations can then be c o m b i n e d to yield the following differential equation for out-of-plane (transverse) bending: mi' + [Elz"]"
2
f
oc
mxx
dx,
a p p
U , t)
(3.10)
This equation can be seen to have the following properties: 1) T h e equation is linear, of fourth order in the spatial variable x , second order in time r, a n d with spanwise variable coefficients. 2) T h e linearity of the equation allows a separation of variables solution s c h e m e c o m b i n e d with superposition:
z(x, 0 = T/UHU) 7=1 (3.11)
w h e r e y(x) is the jth natural mode shape (which satisfies the b o u n d a r y conditions), a n d q(t) is the yth generalized coordinate or modal response variable. O n e m a t h e m a t i c a l significance of the y(x) function is that it satisfies the following orthogonality condition:
L
0
mytfk
(Mj, dx = \ l0,
for k =
j for k j
(3.12)
Calculation of the n o r m a l m o d e shapes y (eigenvectors) and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g natural frequencies (eigenvalues) defines the major computational task in analyzing rotating b e a m s . Unfortunately, although the basic differential equation is linear, general solutions d o not exist even for spanwise constant properties, and s o m e form of numerical m e t h o d must be e m p l o y e d . T w o basic m e t h o d s are presented in this chapter for obtaining these calculations, but first the basic properties of the resulting solution for the free vibration (eigenvalue) problem must b e a d d r e s s e d .
;
3.7.5
Equation for Modal Response Variable: Galerkin's Method
T h e orthogonality property defined in E q . ( 3 . 1 2 ) c a n be used to effect a separation of variables solution for the basic partial differential equation for b e n d i n g . If the equation is first multiplied by the jth m o d e shape function y(x) and the equation is then integrated over the span of the b l a d e , the orthogonality condition then p r o d u c e s u n c o u p l e d response equations in the various m o d e s :
Jo
myj(x)
J
dx
q) +
h'j(x)] Ei
2
dx
[y(x)]
mx d x , Ax \ q = J
x
7/x)/
a p p
dx
(3.13)
ROTATING BEAMS
T h i s u n c o u p l e d e q u a t i o n for qj(t) then h a s the following general form: Mjijj mass + [K
Sj
67
+ Sl K ]qj
2 CFj
Bj(t) (3.14) external force
stiffness
s
w h e r e the generalized structure stiffness K . and generalized centrifugal stiffn e s s KcFj f o l l o w d i r e c t l y from E q . ( 3 . 1 3 ) . N o t e that n e i t h e r of t h e s e g e n e r a l ized stiffnesses, taken separately, d e m o n s t r a t e s orthogonality, but w h e n taken together with the appropriate value of , they d o , in fact, d e m o n s t r a t e orthogonality.
2
Galerkin's method. T h e p r o c e d u r e defined by E q . ( 3 . 1 3 ) was primarily u n d e r t a k e n to effect an u n c o u p l i n g of the m o d a l degrees of freedom by availing ourselves of the orthogonality principle. T h e t e c h n i q u e can actually b e generalized to include cases w h e r e i n the m o d e s , although close to b e i n g orthogonal to e a c h other, are not strictly so. In this case a system of coupled equations will result w h e r e i n both m a s s and stiffness c o u p l i n g t e r m s will be present. In a matrix equation format these e q u a t i o n s then h a v e the following general form: f [M] <
<?2
>
> + [K] <
>
<
A l t h o u g h in this c a s e the p r o c e d u r e d o e s not c o m p l e t e l y d e c o u p l e the various m o d e s , a very useful result h a s still b e e n achieved in that the equations are again ordinary differential e q u a t i o n s in t i m e and a solution in the spatial variable has been effected. T h e general t e c h n i q u e defined by E q . ( 3 . 1 3 ) is alternatively referred to as the G a l e r k i n t e c h n i q u e or Galerkin s method. T h e form of solution so defined can b e applied to a great variety of p r o b l e m s wherein the system is m o s t l y g o v e r n e d b y linear p r o c e s s e s with s o m e nonlinearities present. It is an especially useful solution t e c h n i q u e for p r o b l e m s based on modal formulations. G e n e r a l l y , the G a l e r k i n t e c h n i q u e can b e used according to the following p r o cedure: 1) Isolate the linear portion of the equation as a left-hand side of the equation and (optionally) solve for the n o r m a l m o d e s and natural frequencies. 2) U s i n g the obtained n o r m a l m o d e s or other a p p r o x i m a t e ones (which at least satisfy the b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s ) , premultiply the e q u a t i o n , in turn, by each of these m o d e s h a p e s . 3) Integrate the resulting equation o v e r the length of the structure ( b e a m ) and use the orthogonality condition to r e m o v e t e r m s that are zero. 4) S o l v e the resulting ordinary e q u a t i o n s of motion as either an e n s e m b l a g e of single-degree-of-freedom e q u a t i o n s or as a system of c o u p l e d e q u a t i o n s . T h e key to the use of G a l e r k i n ' s m e t h o d is that the equations be " r e a s o n a b l y l i n e a r . " M a t h e m a t i c a l l y , this m e a n s that the nonlinear t e r m s , if present, can be e x p r e s s e d as a linear c o m b i n a t i o n of the m o d e shapes (and modal variables) a n d that any o n e of the resulting m o d a l contributions is small relative to the corre1
68
s p o n d i n g retained linear t e r m . T h u s , from a practical standpoint the nonlinear terms are generally g r o u p e d together a n d put on the right-hand side of the equation as part of the excitation. T h e r e m a i n i n g linear t e r m s can either b e m a d e to yield a m o d a l solution o r can b e a p p r o x i m a t e d by o n e .
3.1.6
Free Vibration
Characteristics
T o d e t e r m i n e the free vibration characteristics of the rotating b e a m for outof-plane oscillations, w e set the right-hand side of E q . ( 3 . 1 5 ) to zero and a s s u m e sinusoidal m o t i o n :
,
0;
;
/,
q = qe
'
(3.16)
After d i v i d i n g b y the g e n e r a l i z e d m a s s M , w e obtain the following equation for the rotating natural frequency results:
^CF
n *M,
2
(3.17)
where a> is the yth m o d e nonrotating blade natural frequency, and K is an additional t e r m to a c c o u n t for centrifugal stiffening and is alternatively d e n o t e d herein as the rise factor or Southwell coefficient for the /th m o d e .
NR w
3.7.7
In-Plane Bending Natural
Frequencies
E x t e n s i o n of the formulations given in Sections 3 . 1 . 4 through 3 . 1 . 6 to the inp l a n e vibration case is easily a c c o m p l i s h e d by substituting the inertial load distribution a p p r o p r i a t e for in-plane m o t i o n (see Section 3 . 1 . 3 ) . For this c a s e the resulting differential equation looks identical in form to that for out-of-plane b e n d i n g , e x c e p t for the addition of a centrifugal force like term involving inp l a n e deflection: my + [Ely"]" mxx my
2
= / (*.
app
t) (3.18)
additional term T h e n , after t h e orthogonality principle has been applied, a similar m o d a l equation for in-plane b e n d i n g can b e o b t a i n e d . * = where
(3.20)

K
2
(3.19)
N o t e that in this case K
represents the rise factor of the same b e a m but rotated
so that the m o t i o n w o u l d b e out of p l a n e . T h u s , the a p p r o x i m a t e expression for
ROTATING BEAMS
69
the natural (rotating) m o d a l frequency for in-plane bending is the s a m e as the c o r r e s p o n d i n g o n e for out-of-plane b e n d i n g except that the factor multiplying the rotor speed s q u a r e d , t h e rise factor, is reduced in value and can be taken to be that for t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g kth out-of-plane b e n d i n g m o d e , but reduced b y unity.
3.1.8
Basic Rotor Speed Characteristics
and Fan Plots
G e n e r a l l y , within the normal operating rotor speed ranges of rotorcraft the rotating b e a m m o d e s h a p e s (and their derivatives) are weak functions of rotor s p e e d . T h e r e f o r e , the integrated quantities M K , a n d K are also weak functions of rotor speed. C o n s e q u e n t l y , if these quantities are a p p r o x i m a t e d as c o n s t a n t s , then E q . ( 3 . 1 9 ) , w h i c h defines the rotating natural frequency, essentially defines a hyperbolic functional relationship b e t w e e n natural frequency and rotor s p e e d . T h e usefulness of this a p p r o x i m a t i o n is twofold: 1) It provides a c o n v e n i e n t tool for e x a m i n i n g the qualitative characteristics of the modal freq u e n c i e s with variations in rotor speed; a n d 2) it is a reasonably accurate c u r v e fitting function for estimating variations of the rotating natural frequencies over n a r r o w frequency r a n g e s . T h e K constant a p p e a r i n g in the previous equations is alternatively referred to as the yth m o d e Southwell coefficient o r rise factor. It is a m e a s u r e of h o w fast t h e rotating frequency for that m o d e increases with rotor speed. Figure 3 . 3 , w h i c h is alternatively called a Southwell diagram or a fan chart, s h o w s the variability of the natural frequencies with rotor s p e e d , a n d , by plotting the fan lines for each h a r m o n i c of rotor s p e e d , it s h o w s the proximities of the frequencies to integral h a r m o n i c s of rotor speed.
r s CF xv
Rotor speed.
Fig. 3.3 Typical Southwell coefficient plot for a rotating beam in bending.
70
3.1.9

Detailed Rotor Speed Characteristics
In reality, the principal a s s u m p t i o n m a d e in the preceding section, i . e . , that the m o d e shapes d o not c h a n g e with rotor s p e e d , is not true. T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n is quite useful for p u r p o s e s of p r o v i d i n g a basic understanding of the effects of rotor speed and for calculating a p p r o x i m a t e trends within a small rotor speed b a n d . In this section this a s s u m p t i o n is relaxed so that the effects of rotor speed can be investigated in m o r e detail. T o this end w e c a n , in fact, obtain s o m e analytical results, but w e will need to m a k e the a s s u m p t i o n that the blade has uniform m a s s and stiffness distributions along the b l a d e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , it is a s s u m e d that there is zero offset of the root of the blade with the rotation axis e. T h e objective in this section is to look at the limiting cases of the effective S o u t h w e l l coefficient at the t w o e x t r e m e s of rotor speed variation: = 0 and (1 oc. W e will actually look at these cases in reverse order, for simplicity. Limiting case 1, T h e case of rotor speed a p p r o a c h i n g infinity implies that the centrifugal force stiffening term b e c o m e s significantly larger than the elastic stiffening t e r m . T h u s , the appropriate differential equation for free vibration in flapwise b e n d i n g b e c o m e s
L
mi
mxs dx
= 0
(3.21)
If the a s s u m p t i o n of uniform m a s s distribution is i n v o k e d , if the m o t i o n is n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d by the rotor radius ( = z/R), and if sinusoidal motion at the yth natural frequency , is a s s u m e d , then this equation can be written as 2( /)
2 / /
+ [(1 -
)-]'
2
= 0
(3.22)
E q u a t i o n ( 3 . 2 2 ) can b e r e c o g n i z e d as a form of the L e g e n d r e differential equation w h o s e solution is given by any of the L e g e n d r e p o l y n o m i a l s P (x). If w e restrict o u r consideration to the L e g e n d r e p o l y n o m i a l s that are zero at the origin (n o d d ) , then the solution, in t e r m s of natural frequency and m o d e s h a p e , can b e directly written as
n
( /)
7
= j(2j
2
1)
(3.23a) (3.23b)
y (x)
n)
= P ;_,U)
T h e s e results define the vibration characteristics of w h a t a m o u n t s to a flexible cable with vanishingly small elastic stiffness. A s s u c h , they are independent of w h e t h e r the blade has an articulated (hinged) or cantilevered (hingeless) root b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n . H o w e v e r , it should be noted that P\(x) is equal to x, which defines the m o d e s h a p e of the blade in " r i g i d " flapping. T h e rigid flapping m o d e is typically referred to as the zeroth m o d e since (for zero offset) it is not an elastic m o d e . T h i s is the correct limiting case for the first elastic m o d e for a blade with a cantilevered root b o u n d a r y condition. H o w e v e r , P U ) ( = Vix -f Vix ) is the correct limiting case for the first elastic m o d e for a b l a d e with the h i n g e d root b o u n d a r y condition. T h u s , by use of E q s . ( 3 . 2 3 a ) and ( 3 . 2 3 b ) for h i n g e d root b l a d e s , the j index on the right-hand sides must be increased by one.
3 3
ROTATING BEAMS
71
1) Limiting case of the Southwell coefficient for out-of-plane modes. Equation ( 3 . 2 3 a ) forms the basis of the limiting case for flapping m o d e s , wherein the ratio of n o n r o t a t i n g natural frequency to rotor speed ( c o . / ) b e c o m e s negligible; h e n c e , the limiting c a s e of the S o u t h w e l l coefficient is given as
NR
(3.24) (2/ + l ) ( y + 1); hinged root condition 2) Limiting case of the Southwell coefficient for in-plane modes. F o r the free vibration in the in-plane m o d e s , the appropriate differential equation, subject to the s a m e a s s u m p t i o n s of s p a n w i s e uniformity and very high rotor s p e e d , becomes 2[(,/)
2
(2i
1);
cantilevered root condition
l ] y , + [(1 -
x )y' ]
2 k
= 0
(3.25)
F r o m this equation it can then b e inferred that the solution is again expressible in t e r m s of L e g e n d r e p o l y n o m i a l s . T h u s , the limiting values of the Southwell coefficient for in-plane motion are given as
k(2k
1) 1;
cantilevered root condition (3.26)
(2k + l)(k + 1) - 1; hinged root condition T h e p r e c e d i n g results are s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 3 . 1 .
Limiting case 2, 0. T h e b e h a v i o r of the blade characteristics w h e n the rotor speed b e c o m e s vanishingly low can b e addressed by solving for the derivative of natural frequency (squared) with respect to rotor speed (squared). A l t h o u g h a straightforward numerical differentiation could be used to obtain this result, it is instructive to formulate an analytical result. F o r this purpose w e again use E q . ( 3 . 1 0 ) , for out-of-plane b e n d i n g , as a starting point. After uniformity in the m a s s and stiffness distributions and free vibration in the out-ofplane direction are a s s u m e d , the differential equation for the yth n o r m a l m o d e becomes 2{-<jmy
Wl
+ [/y;;,.]"} -
m[(\
2
) : .]'
2
= 0
(3.27)
Table 3.1 Mode no. m 1 2 3 4
Limiting case ( i l ) Southwell coefficients for uniform beams Hinged blades K 6 15 28 45

Vm
Hingeless blades
5 14 27 44
1 6 15 28
0 5 14 27
72
; H
w h e r e and y , a r e , respectively, the natural frequency and normal m o d e shape for the b l a d e at zero rotor speed. T h e next step is to differentiate E q . ( 3 . 2 7 ) with respect to and then set to zero:
2 2 3
El
m x )y[ ]'
2 v
m[{\
= 0
(3.28)
E q u a t i o n ( 3 . 2 8 ) c a n then b e solved using the G a l e r k i n technique w h e r e i n the equation is first multiplied by the jth m o d e shape and then integrated o v e r the span of t h e b l a d e . T h e derivative of the m o d e shape with respect to , dy JdCl c a n b e written as a linear c o m b i n a t i o n of all of the m o d e shapes:
2 2 w
dy
(3.29) T h e n , w h e n E q . ( 3 . 2 8 ) is multiplied by y . and integrated over the b l a d e s p a n , the orthogonality principle will leave the first term in braces equal to z e r o , since it defines the e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m for and y ... T h e rest of the e q u a t i o n , after the G a l e r k i n t e c h n i q u e h a s b e e n i n v o k e d , b e c o m e s :
w ; M
Jo
()
{2{K .
W
)y {x)
w
+ ,
~ x ))'}
2
dx = 0
(3.30a)
where ij (3.30b)
w h i c h , after an integration on parts with the second term in E q . ( 3 . 3 0 a ) , yields the following s i m p l e r form in t e r m s of m o d a l integrals 2(K .
W
) f
y Xx) dx 2
I
JO
y' (x)(\
2
7
~ x)
2
dx = 0
(3.31)
JO
'
T h i s equation c a n then b e r e d u c e d to the final desired result: f y; W(l

2
AL
Jo
x )dx
2
2 \
Jo
ylXx)dx
(3.32)
A g a i n , it c a n b e readily verified that, for both h i n g e d a n d hingeless rotor b l a d e s , the similar limiting c a s e for in-plane m o d e s is K
v
(3.33)
Evaluation of the modal integrals. T h e m o d a l integrals a p p e a r i n g in E q . ( 3 . 3 2 ) c a n be m o r e readily evaluated by considering the actual solution for the uniform b e a m with zero rotation. C o n s i d e r the differential equation for the
ROTATING BEAMS
73
a m p l i t u d e of the jth m o d e of free vibration (with zero rotor speed) for out-ofplane motion 7 : - , .
2 [
+ [EI y:./
= 0
(3.34)
A s s u m i n g for the m o m e n t that the natural frequencies c o are k n o w n (using s o m e a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d , as given in s u c c e e d i n g sections), it can be seen that this e q u a t i o n is linear with constant coefficients and is readily solvable. First, w e define a reference frequency resulting from a n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z a t i o n of the e q u a t i o n :
N R
= VEI/mR
(3.35)
T h e n the general solution of E q . ( 3 . 3 4 ) can be e x p r e s s e d as y (x)

w
= A ^cosVJjc + 5, sin // : + C, cosh Va/-*
+ DysinhV^jc
(3.36)
where =
7
./
(3.37)
and is the s p a n w i s e variable n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d by R. T h e arbitrary constants Aj, , C , and D can be e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g to the appropriate root b o u n d a r y condition. 1) Cantilevered boundary condition (hingeless blades):
; ;
s i n V / + sinhVS/
A
~ i
c
;= ;= ;= 1=2 (sin / , c o s h / , c o s V y S i n h V u ^ )
<- )
3 38a
= ~i
D
2 (sin , cosh / , cos /sinh condition (hinged blades):
cos V / + c o s h V / l l
/,)
!=
<- )
3 38b
2) Hinged
root boundary
Aj = C,- = 0 Bj = 2 s i n h Vco,
l
(3.39a) (3.39b)
Dj =
- 2 sin V ,
l
(3.39c)
w h e r e m e t h o d s for d e t e r m i n i n g the nonrotating natural frequencies c o are p r e s e n t e d in the s u c c e e d i n g s e c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h closed forms for the m o d a l integrals defined in E q . ( 3 . 3 2 ) are not directly a v a i l a b l e , explicit definitions of the i n t e g r a n d s are thus available from E q s . ( 3 . 3 6 - 3 . 3 9 ) . T h e variation of the S o u t h w e l l coefficient with rotor s p e e d , including the p r e c e d i n g ideas of the limiting cases for this coefficient, are d i s c u s s e d in greater detail in the s u c c e e d i n g section.
N R
74 3.2
ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS Reference Uniform Blade
In so far as the rotor blade is reasonably uniform (constant mass and stiffness distributions), a completely accurate solution can b e devised using rigorous numerical m e t h o d s (to b e described in a succeeding section). F u r t h e r m o r e , such a solution can b e scaled to yield accurate predictions of natural frequency for any c o m b i n a t i o n of m a s s and stiffness distributions and rotor speed. T h u s , since most rotor blades tend to h a v e properties that are generally uniform, but with finite s p a n w i s e d e v i a t i o n s , the reference uniform blade results can provide useful a p p r o x i m a t i o n s before rigorous frequency calculations are performed.
3.2.7
Scaled Differential Equation for Bending

0
As a starting point w e again use E q . ( 3 . 1 0 ) . This equation is first n o n d i m e n sionalized by rotor blade radius R and the reference frequency defined by E q . ( 3 . 3 5 ) . After a s s u m i n g sinusoidal m o t i o n , w e obtain the following resulting equation for free vibration in the out-of-plane direction:
X] dx,
(3.40)
w h e r e the differentiations are with respect to (= x/R), and and a r e , respectively, the natural frequency and rotor speed n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d by .
0
3.2.2
Solution for Natural
Frequencies
By u s e of o n e of the numerical m e t h o d s described in succeeding sections, E q . ( 3 . 4 0 ) w a s rigorously solved for its natural frequencies with wide variation on rotor speed. N o attempt w a s m a d e here to impose constraints on the m o d e s h a p e s , a n d , as a result, the frequency variation of the frequencies is exact. T h e concept of the rise factor formulated in the preceding subsections is a very useful tool and c a n still b e retained by m a k i n g the rise factor rotor-speed d e p e n d e n t . Zero rotational speed frequencies. Table 3.2 presents the results for zero rotational speed for hinged and hingeless blades in terms of the nonrotating natural frequencies a n d Southwell coefficients for zero rotor speed for in-plane and out-of-plane m o t i o n .
Table 3.2 Mode no. m
Natural frequency characteristics for uniform reference blade, = 0 Hinged blades

)
Hingeless blades K
w
NR
15.4203 49.9649 104.2477 178.2698
5.3969 16.9030 34.9928 59.6559
6.3969 17.9030 35.9928 60.6559
3.5160 22.0344 61.6972 120.9019
0.1933 5.4782 16.8594 35.0554
1.1933 6.4782 17.8594 36.0554
ROTATING BEAMS
75
Nonzero rotational speed frequencies. T h e exact natural frequencies for the u n i f o r m reference b l a d e at any rotor s p e e d can then be formulated using the c o n c e p t of a rotor s p e e d variable rise factor. T h u s , the variation of the (nond i m e n s i o n a l i z e d ) natural frequency with rotor speed can still be written in the basic form given earlier, but n o w with the rise factor K ( w h e r e a or w, as a p p r o p r i a t e ) , w h i c h is itself variable with rotor speed:
a
nr,
+ K
2
( )
2
(3.41)
where K c a n be e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of the limiting values given in T a b l e s 3.1 and 3.2 and a rise factor variation function ,, defined as
a
,( )
2
K ( ) = ^
2 a
(3.42)
T h e variations of the rise factor variation function with n o n d i m e n s i o n a l rotor speed s q u a r e d are g i v e n in F i g s . 3 . 4 and 3.5 for hinged and cantilevered root b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . E q u a t i o n ( 3 . 4 2 ) can then be rearranged to g i v e the desired variation of rise factor with rotor speed: K
a
( )
2
= K
+ ,( )(/
2
(3.43)
N o t e that, a g a i n , the rise factors for in-plane m o d e s (at any rotor speed) are the c o r r e s p o n d i n g out-of-plane rise factors m i n u s o n e . T h e results of this section are " e x a c t " in that n o simplifying mathematical assumptions were made. The V,
1.1
V.
1.0 0.9
OB
o
C D C
4 o
(0
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 10"

1
\
\
\ \
> o to 4ir

O
\
\
W
\
\
\\
4
10
10
10
10
10*
Nondimensional rotor speed squared,
Fig. 3.4 Rise factor variation functions for first four elastic bending modes, hinged blades.
76

^2 VJ V
4
1.1
c
O
O
1.0 0.9 . 0.7 0.6
c C
D O
\
i i
\
....
V i
t O >
O
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 I 10

1
\\
\
to
\ \
\\
C C
TX 11,1
10
10'
10*
10
10
Nondimensional rotor speed squared.
Fig. 3.5 Rise factor variation functions for first four elastic bending modes, hingeless blades. results of F i g s . 3.4 and 3.5 required the use of an appropriate numerical m e t h o d for solving E q . ( 3 . 4 0 ) . T w o basic numerical m e t h o d s for accomplishing this solution are presented in the next section.
3.3
Numerical Methods
In the p r e c e d i n g discussions m u c h has been said about the characteristics of the solution of the basic differential equation of motion for the rotating b e a m . A l t h o u g h the linearity of the equation allows modal techniques to be used to great a d v a n t a g e , little has been offered as to h o w , in fact, these modal properties c a n be calculated with r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a c y . T h e one basic difficulty that arises with respect to obtaining the required m o d a l solution is the wide spanwise variability of the coefficients in the equation of motion even with constant structural properties. C o n v e n t i o n a l rotorcraft blades are typically constructed with s o m e s p a n w i s e variation in the m a s s and stiffness distributions. O v e r and apart from this variability, h o w e v e r , the tension in the rotating b e a m varies significantly along the span of the b e a m . This variability generally denies us the ability to obtain closedform exact analytical solutions for the modal solution even for b e a m s with constant structural properties. It is thus m a n d a t o r y for numerical m e t h o d s to b e used in obtaining the modal properties.
3.3.7 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes by the HlzerMyklestad Technique

T h e practical vibration analysis of actual structures for the various natural frequencies and their associated m o d e shapes requires idealizations that account
ROTATING BEAMS
m
77
"
-'
//
X
N-1
Fig. 3.6
Multiple-degree-of-freedom spring-mass system
for the various details of the structure to a greater extent than d o " b a c k - o f - t h e e n v e l o p e " a p p r o x i m a t i o n s . T h e m e t h o d presented herein is an orderly p r o c e d u r e for finding these quantities to any d e g r e e of precision desired. T h e m e t h o d has the a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g a m e n a b l e to h a n d h e l d calculator operation as well as to use on a digital c o m p u t e r . T h e basis of the m e t h o d is the ( a s s u m e d ) ability to idealize the structure into a discrete n u m b e r of rigid m a s s e s with interconnecting e l e m e n t s . T h e various m a s s e s are m a t h e m a t i c a l l y tied together in an orderly fashion that thereby facilitates c o m p u t a t i o n . Example 3.1 : C o n s i d e r a longitudinal string of m a s s e s such as that given in F i g . 3 . 6 . Let us e x a m i n e in F i g . 3.7 the forces acting on a single s p r i n g - m a s s e l e m e n t . A s s u m i n g oscillating m o t i o n (based on a trial value of frequency), w e can relate the forces and d i s p l a c e m e n t s across this element: x
n
-*
(3.44)
T h e n the following t w o e q u a t i o n s can be written: _ F

=
(3.45) (3.46)
F +i
n
= n
F
rn ( x
2 n+
n+
or, e x p r e s s e d as a matrix e q u a t i o n ,
x
n+
1 m >
+ 1 2
(1 -
/ + 1
) )J
2
IF
(3.47)
w h e r e , starting at the right-hand ( i . e . , free) e n d , Fl = m , ,

2
X 1
(3.48)
T h e p r e c e d i n g matrix equation defines a transfer matrix b e t w e e n the state c o n d i t i o n s at either e n d of the s p r i n g - m a s s e l e m e n t . This basic equation can then be u s e d r e p e a t e d l y , starting with = 1 and an a s s u m e d trial value for , until the left-hand side of the structure is r e a c h e d . T h e correct value of will p r o d u c e
2 2
Fig. 3.7 Free-body diagram for a typical spring-mass element (Example 3.1).
78
the correct b o u n d a r y conditions at this end of the structure. In general, any given trial frequency will be incorrect, and an iteration must be used to reach a suitably accurate value. Iteration in this case consists of plotting or otherwise " t r a c k i n g " the value of the left-hand end b o u n d a r y condition vs trial values of , as s h o w n in F i g . 3 . 8 . Iteration consists of varying the frequency squared value and testing for a crossing of the frequency squared axis, thereby indicating a zero value. F o r n o n c r o s s i n g s of the frequency axis a variety of appropriate search algorithms can b e e m p l o y e d to accelerate and/or i m p r o v e the accuracy of locating the frequency at w h i c h the curve crosses the axis. Example 3.2: C o n s i d e r an idealization of an elastic d y n a m i c torsional shafting s y s t e m , as a p p r o x i m a t e d by a series of multiple torsional elements each consisting of a concentrated torsional inertia interconnected by massless springs (see Fig. 3.9). T h e iterative solution for torsional natural frequencies of the d y n a m i c system given previously as an e x a m p l e also follows a transfer matrix approach. This a p p r o a c h , as before, entails using statements of equilibrium at the separate node points. Let
2
= the amplitude of torque in the nth shaft segment
= the a m p l i t u d e of angular d i s p l a c e m e n t of the nth inertia v flexibility of the /7th shaft ( = \IK)
T h e pertinent equations for the nth element then b e c o m e , T

+
= = T
n
vT
+ 1
(3.49a)
2 +
+ 7
(3.49b)
solution points
defining
Fig. 3.8 Variation of left-hand end boundary condition with trial frequency (Example 3.1).
ROTATING BEAMS
79
q
Fig. 3.9
7, = J , o )
2
An idealized multiple-degree-of-freedom torsional shafting system.
w h e r e the b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s are i m p o s e d , respectively, by the starting equation (at t h e r i g h t - h a n d e n d ) : (3.50a)
and by the c o n v e r g e n c e criterion (zero t o r q u e at the left-hand e n d ) : T

N
= 0
(3.50b)
A l t h o u g h not really n e e d e d for o b t a i n i n g a solution, the E q s . ( 3 . 4 9 ) and ( 3 . 5 0 ) c a n again be cast in a transfer matrix format: 1
T )
N +
(1
V J ( )_
2 N n+
(3.51)
T h e similarity of this transfer matrix to that of the previous e x a m p l e is o b v i o u s and is typical of a t w o - e l e m e n t state v e c t o r wherein only o n e deflection and o n e load d e s c r i p t o r are n e e d e d to d e s c r i b e the elastic state. Application to a rotating beam. T h e analysis of the free vibration characteristics of a rotating b e a m using the H o l z e r - M y k l e s t a d m e t h o d requires a m o r e e x t e n s i v e e l e m e n t state vector. A l t h o u g h four state vector e l e m e n t s are a mini m u m , any n u m b e r of state variables can be a c c o m m o d a t e d . C o n s i d e r in F i g . 3 . 1 0 the flapping m o t i o n of a rotating b e a m that has been discretized into a
concentrated mass element(s)
Examine a typical segment.

Fig. 3.10 Elastomechanical discretization of a rotating beam.
80
series of s p a n w i s e e l e m e n t s each of which consists of a massless elastic b e a m s e g m e n t and a concentrated point m a s s . W e wish to describe the properties at the end points of an arbitrary nth b e a m segment:
(A7 +
1)
(n)
f displacements ^ rotations forces moments temperature pressure etc.
^ displacements ^ rotations forces moments temperature pressure etc.
A g a i n , the solution t e c h n i q u e is to form a transfer matrix statement relating the state variables at the n o d e point defined on one b e a m element to those at the similarly defined point on the next b e a m e l e m e n t . Note that the sketch s h o w s the b e a m e l e m e n t to be lopsided, with the concentrated mass located at the lefth a n d end; this will be discussed in m o r e detail later. For the time being let the appropriately defined point on the b e a m element be denoted { } . T h e n the transfer matrix statement w e require, with increasing from right to left, can be written as
L
i L = 4
[T
(3 52
>
T h e various transfer matrices can then be cascade multiplied to relate the b o u n d ary conditions at the root to those at the tip: j = [T ][T _ ]
N N X
[rj
(3.53)
L
w h e r e the required b o u n d a r y conditions are incorporated in { }^ and { } , as discussed p r e v i o u s l y . C o n s i d e r n o w the m a k e u p of a typical transfer matrix as defined over an arbitrary s p a n w i s e e l e m e n t . Let us divide the element into t w o distinct parts: a rigid concentrated mass-inertia part (associated with the coincident m a s s , m and inertia, / + i ) , and an elastic massless part, each attached to each other at
{ n + i
ROTATING BEAMS
+
81
the s p a n w i s e p o i n t j u s t to the right of the c o n c e n t r a t e d m a s s (denoted { } ^ ) , as s h o w n in t h e following sketch:
Concentrated mass/inertia part: (point transfer matrix). Let us first look at the c o n c e n t r a t e d m a s s e l e m e n t and define e q u i l i b r i u m load conditions (see F i g . 3 . 1 1 ) , w h e r e the tension loads F and F in F i g . 3.11 are respectively given by
n + l
//
F =
/= 1
rn^
(3.54a)
2
F+i
= F
4- m x
1+l
(3.54b)
T h e n , u p o n b a l a n c i n g the t r a n s v e r s e forces and m o m e n t s on the m a s s e l e m e n t and e q u a t i n g t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s and rotations across the point m a s s , w e obtain the following recursive relationships: S*
1+]
= = M*
+ 1
+ m + /,
+ 1
o> z*
2
+ 1
(3.55a) (3.55b) (3.55c) (3.55d)
+ 1
*
2
+ 1
4+i +
= 4+i =
+
Fig. 3.11
Free-body diagram of arbitrary spanwise concentrated mass element.
82
which can then be e x p r e s s e d in matrix form
, = point transfer matrix, [P ]

n+l
'
(3.56)
Elastic massless part: field transfer matrix. Let us now turn our attention to the massless elastic portion b e t w e e n { and { }(; (see Fig. 3 . 1 2 ) . T h e equation for elastic deformation of this arbitrary elastic element can be obtained by considering the elastic deformation characteristics of a simple cantilevered b e a m in tension (F), of length L , and with constant section properties (m and EI). This b e a m e l e m e n t is supported at the left-hand end so that it has inboard b o u n d a r y conditions of z and z' = z , and is loaded at the righth a n d end by the vertical shear and axial loads S and F , respectively, and by a b e n d i n g m o m e n t M . U p o n taking the spanwise variable to start at the lefth a n d e n d , it can be verified that the differential equation for transverse deformation is then given by
0 T T T
Elz"
= S (x
T
) -
F {z
T
z) + M
(3.57)
Fig. 3.12
Free-body diagram of arbitrary spanwise massless elastic element.
ROTATING BEAMS
T
83
w h e r e z is the transverse deflection at the tip (right-hand e n d ) of the elastic e l e m e n t . Solution of this e q u a t i o n is facilitated by a simple c h a n g e of variable. Let = x and = z , so that
0 r
L/" -
F T)
T
= S (L
T
) +
(3.58)
w h e r e varies from 0 to L and w h e r e the solution () is subject to the following boundary conditions: (0) = z
0
and
'(0)
(3.59)
T h e condition that (,) = 0 follows automatically from the definition of . It can then be verified as an exercise that the solution of this equation is given by the following t w o e q u a t i o n s : tanh XL XL 1 cosh XL 1 cosh XL
+
= zo +
z' L
0
SL
T
tanh XL XL (3.60)
Ft
SL
T
1 -
1 cosh XL
+ ~ [XL tanh XL]

F
T
(3.61)
w h e r e X y/F/EI, and for XL 0 (zero tension c a s e ) , these expressions simplify to the m o r e e l e m e n t a r y expressions for b e a m deflections: z
T
= z
+ zL + S L /3EI
3 T 2 T
+ M L /2EI
2 T
(3.62) (3.63)
z'
= z + S L /2EI
+ MjLIEl
T h e elastic transfer function description is then c o m p l e t e d by relating the shears and m o m e n t s at the t w o e n d s to each other: M
0
= M
=
+ SL
T
F (z
T
z)
0
(3.64) (3.65)
Sq
E q u a t i o n s ( 3 . 6 0 ) t h r o u g h ( 3 . 6 5 ) can then be rearranged and c o m b i n e d into a matrix format. In d o i n g s o , let us rewrite the left-hand and right-hand quantities in t e r m s of the variables defined in F i g u r e 3 . 1 2 . T h e resulting matrix equation is then given by f
<
> R
~1 0
F fn
n
(LIF ){f+\)
n
8n 0
~ FLf
N n n
-(g+l)/F 1
Ff
n n
-fnh
s
M.
0 _()
0 8n
= field
transfer
matrix,
[F]
(3.66)
84
where
sinhXL XL g = coshXL,, LJEI,,
(3.67a) (3.67b) (3.67c)
h = and
VTT
(3.68)
If the p r e c e d i n g results, i . e . , for both the point a n d field transfer matrices [ ] a n d [ F J , respectively, are c o m b i n e d , the required transfer matrix for the total (nth) e l e m e n t [T] is obtained:
+{
-L f
n
(L/F)(f + 1)
-
(gn + D / L ,
gn
(gn
+ 1)/L
2 +
-fnh
[Mn (gn
/ ;
IT]
-m
2
n + x
i Lf
2
(L /F )(f
n n
[1 +
n
+ 1)]
+ 0/L
2 + 1 / ;
Un+i^ 8n
l-In+l< (g
2
[-/ // + ]
-FL f ]
n n
+L /J
; |
(3.69) A s described earlier, all of the spanwise transfer matrices are then used in a c a s c a d e multiplication to relate the state conditions at the root of the b e a m to those at the t i p . B e c a u s e each of the transfer matrices is frequency d e p e n d e n t , an e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m is thereby defined: [T ] [T _\]
N N
[ T ] [T
2
(3.70) ( )]
2
T h e rest of the e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m consists of rewriting the transfer matrix equation [Eq. ( 3 . 7 0 ) ] utilizing a statement of the b o u n d a r y conditions that will result in a standard (matrix) form of an eigenvalue p r o b l e m . T o this e n d , let us first review appropriate statements of the b o u n d a r y conditions: At the tip:
(3.71a)
Next Page
ROTATING BEAMS
At the root:
r
85
0 ^
/
I I-
(3.71b)
articulated rotor
hingeless rotor
T h e n , if these vectors are inserted into t h e transfer equation a n d only those n o n z e r o t e r m s are retained, the following equations are formed: 0 = h\ ( *> = hi Z\ S (M )
N N
+ + + +

1 2
(3.72a) (3.72b) (3.72c) (3.72d)
hi hi hi
= '31 Z\ = hi
w h e r e o n e or the other (but not both) of the t e r m s in parentheses is set to z e r o . T h u s , for each type of rotor, articulated as well as h i n g e l e s s , the explicitly written matrix equation will contain t w o scalar equations involving z , and \\f [Eq. ( 3 . 7 2 a ) , a n d either E q . ( 3 . 7 2 b ) or ( 3 . 7 2 c ) ] , each of which is equal to zero.
]
",, )
2
( )
2 ]2
. ( )
2 {
( )
2 2
(3.73)
w h e r e / = 4 for articulated rotors a n d / = 2 for hingeless rotors. T h e necessary characteristic equation is formed b y equating the determinant of this e q u a t i o n to z e r o . A s before, an eigensolution is obtained w h e n the iterated value of frequency squared drives this d e t e r m i n a n t to zero (determinant iteration solution): ( )
2
( )
2 2
( )
2 2 2 2
( ) , ( )
/ = 4 or 2
(3.74)
A root, and h e n c e natural frequency, is obtained w h e n ( )

2
= 0
(3.75)
O n c e t h e various roots are k n o w n , the m o d e shape calculations follow in a c o n v e n i e n t m a n n e r . B e c a u s e the various (n) transfer matrices will h a v e already been evaluated for the solution root (in the process of obtaining the e l e m e n t s of the characteristic d e t e r m i n a n t ) , they are available to relate the inner e l e m e n t r e s p o n s e s to t h o s e at the t i p . T h e steps required to find the m o d e shape for each root are as follows: 1) Establish t h e n o r m a l i z i n g condition; i . e . , set z or i/j equal to s o m e refe r e n c e value (usually 1.0).
x
Gyroscopics
In the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r the basic vibrational characteristics of a flexible rotating b e a m (representative of a rotor blade) w e r e d e v e l o p e d with the e m p h a s i s placed on the additional stiffening p r o v i d e d by the centrifugal forces. In this chapter w e e x p l o r e another aspect of the d y n a m i c s of rotation wherein the axis of rotation itself is rotated. T h e tools resulting from this d e v e l o p m e n t address a basic dyn a m i c p h e n o m e n o n inherent in rotorcraft structural c o m p o n e n t s in an ever-increasing variety of operational c o n d i t i o n s .
4.1 4.1.1
Rotational Motion of a Solid Body Angular Momentum and Dynamic Equation
C o n s i d e r a s y s t e m of particles such as that s h o w n in Fig. 4 . 1 . N e w t o n ' s law applied to the kth m a s s particle is as follows:
MkP}Rc
P i
= ^(ext)
(4 .1)
where is the time derivative with respect to the (fixed) inertial coordinate s y s t e m . W e can then take the cross product of R with this equation w h e r e R is the vector from the m a s s center of the solid b o d y to the kth m a s s particle, noting that
Ck c Pi
(R
Ck
X m R)
kPi Ck
= R
Ck
X m R
kPi
Ck
(4.2)
After taking the cross product and s u m m i n g o v e r all the particles, we obtain
Pi
'
(Rc
X rn R )
kPi Ck
= ' ^
Rc =
x t
'
(4.3)
= H
c
w h e r e H is the a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m of the system of particles about its mass center. T h e equation of d y n a m i c equilibrium then b e c o m e s
Pi
= M
(4.4)
Two 1) 2) with
difficulties arise with this equation for a rigid body: T h e a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m , as given earlier, is obscurely defined. Differentials with respect to inertial space are a w k w a r d w h e n o n e deals rapidly and c o m p l e x l y rotating rigid b o d i e s .
111
112
mass

center
Fig. 4.1
Rotational kinematics of a mass particle.
4.1.2
Alternate Form of Angular
Momentum
T o eliminate the difficulties identified earlier, the theorem of Coriolis can be used to reduce the expression for angular m o m e n t u m to a m o r e tractable form. T h u s , let us define the angular velocity of the " b o d y - f i x e d " coordinate system relative to the inertial coordinate system as . T h e n
//?
Pi&c
= Pb c
R
+ <*>,/, x
Ck
(4.5)
= 0, for a rigid body Therefore, mR

k Ck
( ,
7
R)
c
(4.6)
and using the formula for the vector triple product yields H
c
m [(R
k
Ck
R)
Ck
ib
(R
Ck
i* )R ]
ib Ct
(4.7)
F r o m this expression it can be c o n c l u d e d that the angular m o m e n t u m and angular velocity, H and ,/,, respectively, are not generally aligned in the s a m e direction. A m o r e tractable form of the angular m o m e n t u m vector can be obtained by e x p a n d i n g out the general expression for H in terms of the c o m p o n e n t s of the particle position and the angular velocity. Let
c c
{Re}
(4.8)
and m e a s u r e d about body axes .
{, J
(4.9)
GYROSCOPICS
c
113
T h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s are then substituted into the definition for H , and the s u m mation is t a k e n . T h e result of this s u m m a t i o n can then be expressed by the following matrix e q u a t i o n for the body-fixed c o m p o n e n t s of H :
c
Ixx
Ar\ (4.10)
v.
w h e r e I , / , and / , , are the mass moments of inertia of the rigid b o d y about arbitrarily defined (orthogonal) x, y, and axes of the b o d y , respectively. T h e off-diagonal t e r m s are the products of inertia, e . g . ,
xx v v
IXV =
mxy
k k
(4.11a) (4.11b) (4.11c)
k
k
ky^k
k k k
rn z x
k
If the " p r i n c i p a l a x e s " are c h o s e n as the body-fixed coordinate frame, the p r o d u c t s of inertia v a n i s h . T h u s , if the resulting principal axis m o m e n t s of inertia are then d e n o t e d with a single subscript, the angular m o m e n t u m vector can be e x p r e s s e d in the following simplified form:

+ / 7 + /-

(4.12)
This result can then be used with an invocation of the t h e o r e m of Coriolis to obtain the desired m o r e tractable form of the d y n a m i c equilibrium equation: pH
h
x H
(4.13)
F r o m this v e c t o r differential equation the following set of equations ( E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n s for rotational motion of a rigid solid, as expressed in body-fixed coordinates) can then b e written:

+ (I
/ )
v
= = =
M M
(4.14a) (4.14b) (4.14c)
lyPty

+ (/ 4- ( /
/-)
/ )

T h e s e e q u a t i o n s are highly nonlinear, and a general closed-form solution does not exist. Successful solutions usually involve a suitable linearization appropriate to the p r o b l e m at h a n d . T h e following section, dealing with simplified general g y r o s c o p i c m o t i o n , presents d e v e l o p m e n t for just such a case w h e r e linearization is p o s s i b l e . In preparation of this d e v e l o p m e n t Fig. 4 . 2 presents a s u m m a r y of the use of v e c t o r representations of rotational quantities.
114
a)

Right h a n d rule for r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r o t a t i o n a l quantity and its uector representation advances \ Sense of rotational quantity
Vector points in direction screw when turned in same sense as given rotational quantity.
right-hand
screw
sense of rotational quantity
Y \ff?'
y
/right
hand
b)
U e c t o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a n g u l a r u e l o c i t y a n d / o r a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m of a s p i n n i n g r o t o r
spin axis
' \ U sense of rotation v ^ ^ - rotating body (rotor)
Q - symbol for rotational quantity vector (= co , for angular velocity; = H, for angular Fig. 4.2
momentum)
Vector representation of rotational quantities.
4.2
Simplified Gyroscope Equation
In this section w e consider a general gyroscopic element; e x a m p l e s include a rotor in a gyroscopic instrument, a spinning t o p , or a spinning propeller. Such a gyroscopic element is basically defined to be a rigid body (either with polar s y m m e t r y , or inertial isotropy about o n e of its principal axes) in rotational motion.
4.2.7
k
Mathematical
Development
T h e ' r o t a t i o n a l " motion of the basic gyroscopic element is typically characterized by being principally of high rotation rate about one of the principal axes (that with polar s y m m e t r y or isotropy). With this generalization in mind we first m a k e the following definitions: H where H H
s c
= H
ns
(4.15)
= the spin angular momentum (vector) of the spinning rotor (H = 7 ) = the nonspin angular momentum ( i . e . , that which is left over w h e n = 0), = -f ly(j + L( k
s = v v
Note that / , / , and / . include all mass that can m o v e , i . e . , more than just that of the rotor. With these definitions w e then m a k e the following a s s u m p t i o n s : 1) T h e rotor spins about an axis of s y m m e t r y or isotropy. 2) T h e spin velocity is constant, i . e . , dwjdi = 0. 3) T h e m a g n i t u d e of the spin angular m o m e n t u m is very m u c h greater than the n o n s p i n , i . e . , H H.
s s
GYROSCOPICS
W i t h these a s s u m p t i o n s the vector form of E u i e r ' s equation b e c o m e s pH ^
s
115
+ pH 0
//?
x H
<a
ih
x H = M
s
(4.16) ( . . . ) (...) T h e resulting e q u a t i o n then b e c o m e s pH

m
+ t*
ib
X H
= M
(4.17)
This equation is then t h e simplified gyroscope equation. T h e m o s t significant characteristic of this equation is that it is linear in the c o m p o n e n t s of the angular velocities defining t h e n o n s p i n a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m . T h e significance of the three terms of this equation are described as follows: T h e variable pH is the source of t h e characteristic d y n a m i c s o r transient r e s p o n s e of the g y r o a n d gives rise to nutation in t w o - d e g r e e - o f - f r e e d o m g y r o s . T h e expression x H is the source of t h e precessional characteristics of t h e g y r o . T h e variable M is the applied m o m e n t defined in t e r m s of body-fixed coordinates (unit vectors i m b e d d e d in t h e n o n s p i n b o d y ) .
ns s
S i m p l e direction rule: A gyro rotor precesses in such a way so as to align spin momentum vector with the applied moment M. T h e precessional motion described is d e m o n s t r a t e d in F i g . 4 . 3 .
the
gyro precession vector, co

ib
applied torque vector, M
applied forces producing torque
gyro precession
Spin angular momentum vector precesses relative to inertial space in an attempt to align itself with applied torque vector. Fig. 4.3
spin" angular momentum vector, H

$
Basic law of precessional motion of a practical gyroscopic element.
116 4.2.2
ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS Basic Dynamic Equations for Two-Degree-of-Freedom Gyro
A l t h o u g h the previously given d e v e l o p m e n t represents an elegantly simple m a t h e m a t i c a l representation for the d y n a m i c s of a gyroscopic e l e m e n t , its direct applicability to a given g y r o s c o p i c e l e m e n t is not o b v i o u s . A s an e x a m p l e of its application, let us c o n s i d e r the derivation of the basic equations of motion for a simple g y r o s c o p i c e l e m e n t using both the Euler equations and the simplified gyroscope equation. Euler'S equation. E u l e r s equations imbedded in the rotating solid. Therefore, to the rotating g y r o e l e m e n t , but defined , describing the motion of the disk as a
1 v
are defined let the XYZ in terms of m o v i n g but
only in an axis system axis system be attached the rotation rates and not spinning solid:
T h e n the following relationships result:
- cos!/ + s i n l r
v
(4.18a) (4.18b) (4.18c)
- sinl/ + cosili

_ = i l T h e c o m p o n e n t s of the applied m o m e n t are given by M

CY
= M =
cosh + M
X
sinilf
Y
(4.19a) (4.19b) (4.19c)
CY
-M
sinlr + M cosilr
= 0
GYROSCOPICS
S i m p l e differentiation yields . = (

117
+ ) cos t

+ (
s'mt
-(
+ ) sint
+ (
) cosili
(4.20)
Substitution of these relationships into the first of E u l e r ' s equations then yields /[(
+ ) cosr + (
sint]
+ (J -
I)
( - . sinlt
+ cosOr) -
cosr +
sin ut
(4.21)
T h e n , upon e q u a t i n g like coefficients of c o s i l r and s i n , we obtain the following desired e q u a t i o n s : (4.22a) -7
+ /
(4.22b)
T h e second Euler equation can be seen to p r o d u c e the same set of equations as these and thus a d d s nothing n e w ; the third equation loses m e a n i n g for this problem.
Simplified
gyroscope
equation. H
s
For this case let = Jk
(4.23a) J) J) (4.23b) (4.23c) (4.23d)
H pH
ns
= /( / + = /(,/ +
Then i j
<A X H
b
- J .
0
MJ
7(
7)
(4.24)
0 M = MJ +
(4.25)
Entering the p r e c e d i n g e x p r e s s i o n s into the simplified gyro equation yields [

x
+ 7 ] + [/
Jfljj
= MJ
+ MJ
(4.26)
from which the s a m e e q u a t i o n s can be obtained as those with E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n s . T h e s e e q u a t i o n s are general and quite basic. T h e y constitute a fundamental analytical tool for the inclusion of gyroscopic effects in any given m o d e l i n g p r o b l e m . A s d e m o n s t r a t e d earlier, these equations are obtainable by more than o n e m e t h o d and thus should a p p e a r in the formulation with w h a t e v e r m e t h o d might be used.
118 4.3 4.3.1
Precession and Nutation Characteristics Precession: The Particular Solution
G y r o s c o p i c e l e m e n t s h a v e a n u m b e r of important characteristics that can be gleaned from the equations of motion derived in the previous subsection for the simple g y r o s c o p i c e l e m e n t . Let us rewrite the equations of motion in terms of the angular velocities about the and y a x e s , and , respectively:

+ 7
x
= M =
(4.27a) (4.27b)
-Ju<
T h e s e equations are clearly linear coupled e q u a t i o n s , and solutions can be o b tained using any of a variety of standard m e t h o d s . In general, the c o m p l e t e solution consists of the s u m of a h o m o g e n e o u s solution and a particular solution. T h e form of the particular solution d e p e n d s on the specific form of the applied m o m e n t s , M and M . T h e h o m o g e n e o u s solution d e p e n d s on the roots of the characteristic e q u a t i o n , which results from setting the characteristic determinant equal to zero. C o n s i d e r first, h o w e v e r , the particular solution which can be obtained from setting the derivative terms equal to zero and a s s u m i n g s o m e specific functionality to the applied m o m e n t s , M and M :
x v x v
"
l 1 '
"
-1 l
M
(4.28a,b)
T h e first important characteristic of gyroscopic elements can be readily seen from setting the c o m p o n e n t s of applied m o m e n t equal to zero: in the absence of applied moments the gyroscopic element retains its orientation in space; i.e., the components of (nonspin) angular velocity are zero. T h e second important characteristic of g y r o s c o p i c elements is that of precession wherein the c o m p o nents of n o n s p i n angular velocity are equal to their respective opposite c o m ponents of applied m o m e n t in such a w a y that the angular m o m e n t u m vector of the g y r o s c o p i c e l e m e n t tends to align itself with the applied m o m e n t .
4.3.2
Nutation: The Homogeneous
Solution
T h e third important characteristic of gyroscopic elements is that of nutation, which describes the transient b e h a v i o r (usually oscillatory) of the gyroscopic e l e m e n t . C o n s i d e r the characteristic equation for the basic gyroscopic element equations given earlier:
Jii
0 -
2 2
+ 7
2
= 0
(4.29)
or, recalling that the polar m o m e n t of inertia J is ideally twice the diametral m o m e n t of inertia / , gives
2
-4
(4.30)
T h e roots of this simple quadratic form are then written as = /2 (4.31)
GYROSCOPICS
T h i s resulting oscillatory root pair then defines the nutation frequency element:

119
of t h e (4.32)
= 2
4.3,3
Dynamics of a Spinning Top
A further e x a m p l e of t h e nutational characteristics of gyroscopic e l e m e n t s is afforded b y e x a m i n i n g t h e d y n a m i c s of a spinning top or gyroscopic e l e m e n t w h i c h pivots about a (fixed) point on the spin axis located a distance t b e l o w the center of gravity. A s s h o w n in F i g . 4 . 4 , the spin axis z ' , as well as the unit vector along this axis k, are inclined to o n e side b y t h e angle ; this vector, as well as t h e x' a x i s , lie in t h e precessionally rotating (but not spinning) x-z p l a n e . T h e w e i g h t of the e l e m e n t creates an applied m o m e n t that can b e e x p e c t e d to precess the spin axis of the t o p in a m o r e or less circular arc about the vertical axis (see F i g . 4 . 4 ) . In t h e following d e v e l o p m e n t w e take the axis system to be rotating about the axis with an a n g u l a r velocity c o m p r i s e d of the s u m of a steady precessional rate a n d a perturbational a n g u l a r rate . T h e and axes are defined so that the inclination angle of the spin axis with respect to the vertical, , is always m e a s u r e d about t h e axis; i . e . , t h e plane of t h e inclined spin axis a n d the vertical axis is a l w a y s n o r m a l to the y axis. T h e axis is then taken normal to the y and a x e s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , an auxiliary coordinate system is attached to the (precessionally rotating, but not spinning) principal axes of the top (x\ z' axes); this
120
auxiliary coordinate system is formed from the basic coordinate system by a angle rotation about the y axis. Using the auxiliary coordinate system as a basis, w e can write the mathematical quantities required by the simplified gyroscopic equation. For this e x a m p l e w e expect that the spinning top will exhibit equilibrium conditions wherein the inclination angle will be c o m p r i s e d of an equilibrium value and a perturbational value and the precessional rate _ will be generally finite and not necessarily " s m a l l . " A s a result, although the resulting equations can be linearized with respect to the perturbational quantities, those nonlinear terms involving the equilibrium values must be retained. With these points in m i n d the following required mathematical quantities can be written:
0
Spin angular m o m e n t u m : H
s
= Jk
(4.33)
A n g u l a r velocity of the (nonspin) b o d y axes: , ,

7
- ( - + ) sinOi + 5 / + ( - + ) cos :
(4.34)
N o n s p i n angular m o m e n t u m : H
ns
- / ( . + ) s i n 0 / + tj
+ J(
+ ) cosdk
(4.35)
w h e r e / and J are, respectively, m a s s m o m e n t s of inertia about axes through the pivot point transverse to and along the spin axis. Applied (gravity) m o m e n t : M = m(gt +
2 d 2
cos0) sine/
2 d
(4.36)
N o t e that, for this configuration, = l + m , w h e r e l is the diametral m o m e n t of inertia of the g y r o disk. Application of the simplified g y r o s c o p e equations and the linearization of the equations about a constant value of the inclination angle then yields the following t w o differential equations of motion:
0
- / ( s i n 6 $ + , c o s 9 ) 4- Jt
0 0
= 0
2
(4.37a)
0 0
/ + J(\\>
+ , ) sin0Q mgt
sin6o + l
sin9 cos6
(4.37b)
Deleting the transient terms in the second of these equations and factoring out the c o m m o n s i n 0 term from the equation gives a quadratic relationship defining the equilibrium inclination angle in terms of the precession angular velocity :
o 0
= mgi
+ /il cose
2
(4.38)
Define t w o n o n d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s , and , as follows: = J\ = mgiiJ \

2
. = -/
(4.39)
T h e n the preceding equation can be solved for the t w o equilibrium precessional rates possible for the top:
GYROSCOPICS
. =
1
121
/ (4.40)
2 cos6
( 1 Vi y
4 cos%
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the c o s i n e of the inclination angle can be e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of the e q u i l i b r i u m p r e c e s s i o n a l rate: cos9

0
= (. 2 o
)/
(4.41)
N o t e that for high spin rates, c o s 6 n
0; h e n c e ,
2
= = mgtIJ
(4.42)
U s i n g the p r e v i o u s l y defined n o n d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s and n o n d i m e n s i o n a l izing the t i m e derivatives with respect to the spin angular velocity , w e can write the t w o perturbational e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n in the following s o m e w h a t simplified form: s i n 0 " + ( c o s G A o 0
1) ' = 0 + " = 0
(4.43a) (4.43b)
sin6 V
0
w h e r e the p r i m e d e n o t e s differentiation with respect to n o n d i m e n s i o n a l t i m e , ( = )^ T h e usual e i g e n s o l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , wherein the perturbational res p o n s e s , and , are a s s u m e d to be of exponential form, are then applied: = <? ;
= Ut
(4.44)
E x p a n s i o n of the characteristic d e t e r m i n a n t gives the following characteristic e q u a t i o n for the e i g e n v a l u e :

2 4
+ (1 - c o s 0 A ) X
o
(4.45)
It can be verified that the solution for yields t w o zero values and an imaginary pair. T h e z e r o pair of roots c o r r e s p o n d to the precessional characteristics of the t o p , w h e r e a s the i m a g i n a r y pair gives the final desired expression for the (nond i m e n s i o n a l ) nutation frequency ^ : (% = - V l - cos% (4.46)
w h e r e is the ratio of m o m e n t s of inertia, as defined earlier. N o t e that in the limit as the pivot to e . g . d i s t a n c e , , goes to z e r o , the top b e c o m e s a simple g y r o s c o p i c e l e m e n t as d e s c r i b e d in the p r e v i o u s subsection. For this case the p a r a m e t e r g o e s to 1/2 and the A p a r a m e t e r goes to z e r o . T h e s e values then p r o d u c e a nutation frequency equal to t w o t i m e s the rotation frequency , as expected.
4.4 4.4.1
Gyroscopic Characteristics of Rotor Blades Blade Flapping Motion
M o m e n t control of rotorcraft rotors is typically maintained by m e a n s of a cyclic variation of the pitch angle part of the blade angle of attack. T h e s e cyclic
122
angles of attack in turn produce cyclic blade loadings that accelerate the blades in a h a r m o n i c fashion. W h e r e a s the blades see the loadings as oscillatory excitations with period 2nr /il, a nonrotating observer would see the cyclic loadings as a constant m o m e n t applied to the rotor disk at some (vectorial) orientation angle in the rotor p l a n e . A l s o , since the rotor blades have a natural frequency of a p p r o x i m a t e l y unity ( l / r e v ) , they will respond to a l/rev excitation 9 0 deg (phase-lagged) after the excitation and " s e c u l a r l y " in amplitude; i . e . , the a m plitude of the flapping response will grow linearly with time. This response w o u l d be viewed by the nonrotating observer as an ever-increasing " t i l t " of the rotor disk at a point 9 0 deg from the point of m a x i m u m effect from the " c o n s t a n t m o m e n t . " T h u s , the disk would appear to " p r e c e s s ' in accordance with the rule of g y r o precession given in a previous subsection. These events are illustrated in Fig. 4 . 5 .
1
4.4.2
Rotor Modes
T h e previously given interpretation of the rotor response in flapping, , i . e . , that of a tilting disk as viewed in the fixed system, can be formalized by the use of rotor modes. W h e n only the * " ^ ti Iti niz of the rotor disk is considered, the response of the /th blade can be expressed as follows: ( r ) = .(/) c o s ( 2 / + ,) + .(/) s i n ( l / + ,.)
7 (
where ut
.(r) cosO,- -f ( / ) s i n e .
( s
(4.47)
-f 2 ,/7/?,
7 =
1,2
b (no. of blades)
(4.48)
cyclic loading Blades cyclically upward here flap
blade "effective" precession resulting cyclic from flapping
cyclic by applied rotor Blades cyclically downward Fig. 4 .5 flap here
loading moment to disk
represented
Precessional characteristics of rotors.
GYROSCOPICS
( v
123
and w h e r e and represent the fore and aft and lateral tilt a n g l e s , respectively, of the rotor disk and are arbitrary functions of t i m e . Indeed, as material in s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r s will s h o w , a e r o m e c h a n i c a l formulations involving rotor m o d e d e s c r i p t i o n s of both flapping and e d g e w i s e m o t i o n s of the blade will g e n e r a t e g y r o s c o p i c - l i k e , s k e w - s y m m e t r i c t e r m s in the equations of m o t i o n .
4.4.3
Whirl Modes
T h e g y r o s c o p i c characteristics of rotors can be further defined using the aforem e n t i o n e d c o n c e p t of rotor m o d e s . First, the earlier equation defining the rotor m o d e s , i . e . , E q . ( 4 . 4 7 ) , can be rewritten using the exponential terms of the t r i g o n o m e t r i c functions: ,-U) .(/)/2|exp(/6 ) +
( /
exp(-/e -)|
7
/ .(/)/2lexp(/e ) A /
exp-Ze,-)]
(4.49)
T h e n a s s u m e that the rotor disk as defined earlier is n o w u n d e r g o i n g sinusoidal m o t i o n , so that the t w o tilt a n g l e s , and , are expressible as
( v
.
(
= .e :
iw
.()
= . ^ '

(4.50)
Finally, let us a s s u m e for simplicity that the a m p l i t u d e s of these t w o angles are equal to each o t h e r , but that their relative phase angle is different: . = ;
(
= *'*
(4.51)
F r o m a physical point of v i e w , represents the a m o u n t of tilt that o n e w o u l d s e e . T h e s e c o n c e p t s c a n b e further visualized by c o n s i d e r i n g the m o t i o n of the h e a d of an arbitrary constant a m p l i t u d e vector m a i n t a i n e d normal to the_disk, N. A s a t o p v i e w (see F i g . 4 . 6 ) of the rotor s h o w s , positive values of . and p r o d u c e c o m p o n e n t projections of this vector, respectively, in the forward (x) and lateral (to port) ( y ) directions w h e r e the x-y plane represents the und e t e c t e d rotor p l a n e . If n o w the first t i m e derivative of is related to . and a value of time is selected in o r d e r to m a k e . h a v e a purely real positive v a l u e , t h e n , d e p e n d i n g on the v a l u e of the relative p h a s e angle , the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l m o t i o n of the h e a d of the v e c t o r can b e d e t e r m i n e d :
( t
= >' '

=
/
= (cos + /sin <|>) .

t
(4.52a) (4.52b)
= />
+ icos<|>)fr.
T h e relationship b e t w e e n , , and a s s u m e d v a l u e s of :
t y
can then be e x a m i n e d for different
C a s e 1 ( = 0 ) : F o r this c a s e the t w o - c o m p o n e n t projection vectors are not only in p h a s e , but are e q u a l to e a c h other. T h u s , the m o t i o n of the h e a d of the v e c t o r w o u l d b e that of a d e g e n e r a t e ellipse (line s e g m e n t ) with s e m i m a j o r axis
124
and out of the

Fig. 4.6
page)
Vectorial representation of a cyclically flapping rotor.
equal to . This type of motion could be described as a back and forth " w o b b l i n g " of the disk:
C a s e 2 ( = /2): F o r this case the real-valued c o m p o n e n t s of and w o u l d be zero and positive respectively; h e n c e , the c o m p o n e n t of the vector w o u l d be m o v i n g in the negative y direction. T h e head of the vector w o u l d therefore describe a circular motion in the same direction as the rotor rotation. This type of motion is called progressive or forward whirl:
v v s
GYROSCOPICS
=-/2
a
125
C a s e 3 ( = /2): F o r this case the real-valued c o m p o n e n t s of and w o u l d be zero and n e g a t i v e respectively and the motion of the head of the vector w o u l d be again circular, but in a direction opposite to the rotor rotation. T h i s type of m o t i o n is called regressive whirl:
s
A mathematical description of whirl m o d e s can be obtained by substituting the a s s u m e d simplified e x p r e s s i o n s for the sinusoidal motion descriptions of . and into the equation for blade flapping:
( y
i exp[/(6 + exp[/(-e or, m o r e c o m p a c t l y , as j(t) = ^Re{(l - h (1 7
+
7
Mt)]e + <t)]e }
i<s>
+ )]
+ /exp[/(-e
(4.53)
+ 8 -
i cos) exp[/(9
)] (4.54)
8 + i ^ ) e x p f / - G , + ) ] }
Let us n o w e x a m i n e this equation for each of the t w o types of whirl. First, c o n s i d e r the c a s e of p r o g r e s s i v e whirl ( = /2). For this case the preceding equation simplifies to the following expression:
126

( ) = ^ R e { 2 e x p [ / ( - e , + cor)]}
7
= cos[(co -
l)t
- ]
7
(4.55)
As c o n c e p t u a l i z e d earlier, the rotor disk tilt angles are measured in the fixed or nonrotating coordinated s y s t e m . Therefore, the oscillation frequency represents a fixed coordinate system frequency and is what would be seen by the nonrotating observer. In the following material this frequency will be denoted by a subscript F. T h u s , the whirling motion (either progressive or regressive) of the vector or, m o r e specifically, the rotor disk itself w o u l d be observed as occurring with a circular frequency of this value. N o t e , h o w e v e r , that the blade oscillating in the rotating coordinate system w o u l d still be g o v e r n e d by its natural frequency, as defined in the rotating frame, oy :
R
( / ) = cosco,,/
7 ;
(4.56)
T h u s , after the frequencies in these t w o expressions are equated, the following frequency relationship e m e r g e s : to,. 1 = > co/. = co,, + i i (4.57)
F o l l o w i n g the same a r g u m e n t for regressive whirl ( = / 2 ) , a similar frequency relationship can be d e d u c e d : ,, + il = /, > co/. = co,, il { = I (Oft ii| ) (4.58)
Note: For this case the fixed coordinate frequency (as expressed by this equation) can reach zero or even negative values. T h e interpretation to be given to these cases is based on the expressions given earlier for relating to . As the fixed coordinate system frequency a p p r o a c h e s z e r o , the observed whirling motion c o m e s to a halt and the rotor a s s u m e s a steady deflected position. As the calculated frequency goes negative (as would most likely be the case with increased rotor s p e e d ) , the whirling motion would begin again, but in the advancing direction. T h u s , for this condition the rotor would demonstrate two advancing whirl m o d e s ; one would be the original progressive whirl m o d e and another, at a significantly lower frequency, would be what originally was the regressive whirl m o d e . It should be noted in the preceding a r g u m e n t that the concept of a " n e g a t i v e f r e q u e n c y " can be used only in the context of a c o m p l e x - v a l u e d representation for the a s s u m e d sinusoidal motion. In reality only positive values of frequency can be observed; the use of a negative frequency is justified only for defining the direction of the whirling motion. It is through the concept of whirl m o d e s that the third identifiable gyroscopic characteristic of rotor b l a d e s , i . e . , nutation, can be defined. For the case of rigid blade flapping (in the limit as the offset approaches zero), the (rotating) blade natural frequency is l/rev, and the two resulting fixed system whirl m o d e frequencies for the rotor are (by the previously given equations) zero for the re(
GYROSCOPICS
127
gressive m o d e (precession) and 2/rev for the progressive m o d e (nutation). T h u s , generalization leads to assigning the progressive m o d e as the " n u t a t i o n equiva l e n t " characteristic of the rotor.
4.4.4
Reactionless
Modes
T h e principal usefulness of t h e c o n c e p t of whirl m o d e s as described earlier is that they p r o v i d e a c o n v e n i e n t tool for coupling the rotor d y n a m i c s with the pylon o r airframe d y n a m i c s irrespective of the n u m b e r of b l a d e s . This is b e c a u s e the whirl m o d e s characteristically involve the generation of h u b m o m e n t s and shears that c a n excite t h e airframe. A c o m p l e m e n t to the whirl m o d e description is the so-called " u m b r e l l a " or collective m o d e , which involves the in-phase flapping m o t i o n of all b l a d e s . Such a rotor m o d e would also be expected to c o u p l e with the airframe by virtue of t h e vertical shears and torques generated by such a collective m o t i o n of all the blades in flapping. In addition to the collective a n d whirl rotor m o d e s , there exists the possibility of higher rotor m o d e s that involve m o d u l a t i o n of higher h a r m o n i c functions: /0 = ${ (t)
m)
cosm(t
+ ,-) + l / ( r ) s i n m ( l r 4- )
M) ;
(4.59)
where m 2, 3 , 4 , . . . . Such a rotor mode description defines the reactionless rotor modes for t h e reason that they indeed p r o d u c e n o net loads on the airframe. P h y s i c a l l y , if the a m p l i t u d e s i a n d *. w e r e constant, such m o d e s would a p p e a r to the fixed c o o r d i n a t e system o b s e r v e r as a " w a r p e d " tip path p l a n e .
m ) /M)
References
Section 4.1 Author(s) Scarborough
()
W r i g l e y , Hollister, and D e n h a r d 4.2 4.3 4.4 W r i g l e y , Hollister, and D e n h a r d Scarborough^ W r i g l e y , Hollister, and D e n h a r d Hohenemser and Y i n
( y )
Problems
4 . 1 A n e l e m e n t of g o o d tail rotor design is providing adequate clearance for teetering (or flapping, as a p p r o p r i a t e , d e p e n d i n g on the n u m b e r of blades) angle r e s p o n s e s c a u s e d b y y a w i n g m a n e u v e r s in h o v e r i n g flight. C o n s i d e r the spinning tail rotor t o be a rigid disk (gyroscopic element) as s h o w n in the following:
128
w h e r e J is polar m o m e n t of inertia; , , is the coordinate system defining undeflected position; and x, y, is the coordinate system attached to the deflected position. a) Using the preceding representation, together with the simplified gyro equation, derive the two differential equations of motion for the teeter angles, a(t) and (t), where 1) T h e angular velocity of the , , coordinate frame relative to the " i n e r t i a l " frame is given by = ( + /
s
2) T h e spin angular m o m e n t u m is H = Jk. 3) T h e c o m p o n e n t s of the applied (aerodynamic) m o m e n t , M MJ, are M M

2 x
= MJ
, -

2 2
= , 4- (
+ )
w h e r e , and M are the effective a e r o d y n a m i c spring and d a m p i n g rates, respectively, as available using rotor a e r o d y n a m i c (strip) theory or experimental e v a l u a t i o n s . b) Find the steady-state teetering angle components, and , due to a constant helicopter yaw rate , equal to 100 degi s, for a tail rotor with the following specifications: J = 30 l b - i n . - s ;
2
=
2
100,000 lb-in./rad
i l = 2 5 0 rad/s;
= 4 0 0 lb-in.-s/rad
GYROSCOPICS
129
4 . 2 Consider the modal differential equation for the first elastic flapwise bending mode of a main rotor blade (as defined in the rotating coordinate system):
/ [ , + (
2 {
+ ) , ] = ,()
2
7p,(*)/>(*, t)dx
where is t h e generalized forcing function for this m o d e d u e to perturbational load distributions [as arising from either a e r o d y n a m i c (control inputs) and/or inertial load c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ] . a) B y representing both and as Fourier series, each truncated after only the first h a r m o n i c c o m p o n e n t s , [ j \(t), 3\(t) and ( i ) ] , i . e . ,

(0
= , (t) c o s i l i + , (t)
s'mt
() = S i ( 0 c o s i l i + , (f) sinli
Derive two differential equations for the Fourier components of flapping motion, and . b) Compare the equations obtained in part 1 with the equations obtained for the basic gyroscopic element; in particular, explain differences and/or additional terms obtained.

4 . 3 T h e equations of the basic g y r o s c o p i c element can be considered to be reversible to the extent that impressed rotation (precession) of the spin axis, , " c r e a t e s " reactionary gyroscopic m o m e n t s in the structure. T h e s e m o m e n t s are d e t e r m i n e d b y the s a m e vectorial equation as developed for the basic gyroscopic e l e m e n t (with the nutational terms d e l e t e d ) . Using this property, develop the additional terms in the equations derived in problem 4.2 to account for the responses resulting from a pitching rate, impressed on the rotor axis, i . e . , = / , w h e r e J is a unit vector in t h e nonspinning rotor p l a n e , pointing t o w a r d s the a d v a n c i n g blade ( = 9 0 d e g position). (Note: R e m e m b e r that the generalized excitation is a mode shape weighted integration, whereas " m o m e n t " is a radial location w e i g h t e d integration.)
|
4 . 4 C o n s i d e r t h e design of helicopter utilizing an advancing blade concept ( A B C ) rotor s y s t e m . This rotor system is characterized b y having t w o counterrotating, coaxial rotors, w h i c h are separated from each other vertically b y a distance a n d w h i c h are c o m p r i s e d of " s t i f f " hingeless rotor b l a d e s . T h e rotor system must b e d e s i g n e d to a c c o m m o d a t e hard landings wherein rapid n o s e - d o w n pitch rates c a n o c c u r d u e to a hard initial impact o n the tail landing gear. Using the results of problem 4.3 determine the minimum safe rotor vertical spacing, , needed to preclude the rotors from striking each other due to the "precession" induced by a hard landing pitch rate of 200 de gl s (nosedown). A s s u m e 1) that t h e rotors r e s p o n d in flapping " q u a s i s t a t i c a l l y , " wherein t h e nutational d y n a m i c s (transients) are disregarded, and 2) that the a e r o d y n a m i c d a m p i n g a n d stiffness are not factors. Operational data:
130
1) T h e u p p e r rotor rotates in the A m e r i c a n sense (counterclockwise w h e n v i e w e d from a b o v e ) and thereby has a positive " r i g h t - h a n d " angular m o m e n t u m , w h e r e a s the lower rotor has a negative angular m o m e n t u m . 2) T h e blade properties are as follows: Rotor radius: R = 30 ft Rotor speed: = 20 rad/s
First blade flapping (rotating) natural frequency:

)
1.6P
First flapping m o d e generalized inertia: L 1

3 1 0
1398 lb-ft-s
First flapping m o d e " c o u p l i n g i n e r t i a " : L

3
J w y j c = 5
)
1677 lb-ft-s
4 , 5 C o n s i d e r an a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the wing-rotor system of the tilt-rotor concept in the vertical nacelle (hover) configuration. T h e d y n a m i c system consists of four d e g r e e s of freedom: the first b e a m b e n d i n g and torsion m o d e s of the (cantilever m o u n t e d ) w i n g , q and q , respectively, and the (inertial) rolling and pitching rotational deflections of the nacelle, and , respectively:
w Q
GYROSCOPICS
131
Assumptions: 1) T h e fuselage h a s z e r o c o m p l i a n c e so that the w i n g root is a " g r o u n d " point for the cantilever w i n g m o u n t . 2 ) T h e nacelle is j o i n e d to the w i n g tip by m e a n s of a roll spring, K , w h i c h c o u p l e s with the w i n g in b e n d i n g , and a pitch spring, K , which c o u p l e s with the w i n g in torsion. 3) T h e w i n g e l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l properties can be expressed in t e r m s of generalized m a s s e s and natural frequencies. 4) T h e m a s s of the nacelle and rotor are included in the wing generalized mass. 5) T h e rotor is rigid and acts as a g y r o s c o p i c e l e m e n t , w h o s e " s p i n " angular m o m e n t u m is given by 7 . 6 ) T h e nacelle has m a s s m , located a distance h (vertically) from the w i n g tip a t t a c h m e n t point, and a m o m e n t of inertia about that e . g . , I , both in pitch and roll. 7) T h e rotor has m a s s m , located at the h u b a distance h from the w i n g tip a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t , and a diametral m o m e n t of inertia, l . a) Derive the four differential equations of motion for the dynamic system thus defined. b) Derive a simplified two-degree-of-freedom (two-equation) set appropriate to the case when both the springs restraining the nacelle, K and K, > oc. [Hint: U s e the basic g y r o s c o p i c e l e m e n t equations as a building block in a free-body d i a g r a m of the system c o m p o n e n t s . Use the equations to relate the internal m o m e n t s (either as carried by the springs b e t w e e n the w i n g tip and the nacelle or directly) to the r o t o r ' s g y r o s c o p i c m o m e n t s . ]
y B N { N R 2 R x d
Drive System Dynamics

5.1 5.7. Shaft Critical Speeds Introduction
N o m a t t e r h o w well a rotor shaft s y s t e m might be b a l a n c e d , there will a l w a y s r e m a i n s o m e infinitesimal a m o u n t of m a s s i m b a l a n c e ( i . e . , the m a s s center of the shaft s y s t e m lies off the rotation a x i s ) . If n o w the shaft rotates at a frequency equal to o n e of the natural frequencies of the shaft in lateral b e n d i n g , this small infinitesimal u n b a l a n c e w o u l d be sufficient to deflect the shaft in the b e n d i n g m o d e s h a p e a p p r o p r i a t e to that m o d e . H o w e v e r , this deflection rotates with the shaft at the rotation s p e e d so that, to the fixed coordinate o b s e r v e r , the shaft a p p e a r s to vibrate or " w h i r l " at rotor speed. T h i s condition is c o m m o n l y referred to as o p e r a t i o n . C o n s i d e r the rotating shaft carrying an u n b a l a n c e d disk at its m i d s p a n location as s h o w n in F i g . 5 . 1 .
shaft critical speed
Let G O k = = = = c e n t e r of gravity of the disk g e o m e t r i c center of the disk c e n t e r of rotation elastic restoring spring rate of the shaft
c = e q u i v a l e n t v i s c o u s d a m p i n g (air resistance and bearing d a m p i n g ) T h e forced m o t i o n d y n a m i c e q u a t i o n s for the shaft/disk system are mx + cx + kx em 1
2
cos fit
2
(5.1a) sinli (5.1b)
my + cy + ky = em
for w h i c h the steady-state solution is given by
u=
where
VU
_ 1
y)
2
T /V[(l
2
r)
2 2
4 ]
2 2
(5.2a) (5.2b)
= tan [2r/(l
r )]
2
r = 1/ - lVmlk
Subcriticai and Supercritical Operation
(5.3)
5.1.2
C l e a r l y , a successful d e s i g n m u s t be o n e w h e r e i n the rotor speed is adequately r e m o v e d from a n y lateral b e n d i n g frequency. If the operational rotor speed is b e l o w the principal b e n d i n g frequency ( r < l ) , the rotor is defined as being w h e r e a s operation at a rotor speed h i g h e r than the b e n d i n g frequency l ) is defined as operation.
subcriticai, (r >
supercritical
133
134
Subcriticai operation. T h e main reason for adopting a subcriticai shaft design is its inherent simplicity. Subcriticai shaft systems are " t r i e d and t r u e " and h a v e n o peculiar d y n a m i c p r o b l e m s other than their need to be balanced to m i n i m i z e vibration. H o w e v e r , their disadvantage is significant for helicopter applications; subcriticai designs are heavier and/or bulkier than equivalent supercritical d e s i g n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the trend has been to operate at higher shaft s p e e d s , m a k i n g subcriticai designs m o r e difficult. Supercritical operation. T h e advantages claimed for supercritical shafts are substantial: 1) Lighter weight: Shafts can be longer (fewer bearing supports). 2) Lower vibration: At supercritical s p e e d s , as s h o w n in the previously given m a t h e m a t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , the m a s s center of gravity G tends to approach the rotation center O. 3) Lower support spring rates are required. 4) There is less sensitivity to structural vibration. As with most attractive things in life, h o w e v e r , successful supercritical shafting c o m e s at a price. First, in order to operate supercritically, the shaft must at s o m e time during r u n - u p rotate at the critical speed. This is accomplished first by providing external dampers to the shaft and second by passing through the critical speeds quickly! A second p r o b l e m area of supercritical shafting is the issue of stability. B i s h o p presents theoretical formulations to account for the catastrophic instabilities s o m e manufacturers have had with supercritical shafting. B i s h o p ' s findings state that the p r e s e n c e of internal shaft d a m p i n g (structural d a m p i n g ) is a contributing factor to the instability. H o w e v e r , the motion can be m a d e stable again with a d e q u a t e a m o u n t s of external d a m p i n g ; h e n c e , a second req u i r e m e n t exists for external lateral d a m p e r s . B i s h o p ' s findings can be s u m marized as follows: For the kth lateral mode to which the shaft speed is supercritical the m o t i o n will be stable provided /, = r<
k
/,
2
= (
int
)/
(5.4)
DRIVE SYSTEM DYNAMICS

where
135
, = the natural b e n d i n g frequency of t h e kth lateral b e n d i n g m o d e = t h e d a m p i n g ratio of t h e shaft in the lateral b e n d i n g m o d e without external damping 2 = t h e d a m p i n g ratio of the shaft in t h e lateral b e n d i n g m o d e with external damping
{
5.7.3
Pseudogy rosco pic Effects
T h e shaft-mounted disk used as an e x a m p l e in t h e introduction to this section (as d r a w n ) h a s t h e property that, w h e n the shaft is deflected, the disk will vibrate or whirl in its o w n p l a n e . W h e n the disk is placed near o n e of the bearings or on the e n d of an o v e r h u n g shaft, h o w e v e r , it will not whirl in its o w n p l a n e . W h e n this is t h e case the disk will generate a centrifugal m o m e n t stiffening that will give a h i g h e r critical speed. This p h e n o m e n o n is customarily referred to as the pseudogyroscopic effect, w h i c h is actually a m i s n o m e r as it d o e s not involve a rapid spinning m o t i o n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a slow motion of the axis of rotation ( i . e . , n o precessional d y n a m i c s ) . T h e e x a m p l e presented in F i g . 5 . 2 illustrates the effect m o r e fully. C o n s i d e r a disk attached t o t h e e n d of a constant section cantilevered shaft of length L . T h e effects of t h e disk are thus seen to b e an incremental force proportional to a n d an incremental m o m e n t proportional to :
F = mil ;
2
M =
-/
(5.5)
F r o m basic elasticity relationships for a b e a m the following influence coefficient matrix is obtained: (5.6)
vCl m
2
Fig. 5.2
Cantilevered shaft with attached disk.
136
ii
o "
asymptote(s)
c c o >> c

D
li-
D
v_
Disc
inertia
parameter,
\l(l /mL )
2 d
Fig. 5.3 Change in the natural frequency of a rotating shaft caused by the pseudogyroscopic effect of a disk. W h e n these t w o sets of equations are c o m b i n e d , the following equation set for a n d is obtained: [m L /3EI
2 3
1] d
[I L /2EI}$
2 2 ( 2
= 0
(5.7) (5.8)
[m L /2EI]
2 2
[l LIEl
+ 1] = 0
A nontrivial solution for a n d requires that the determinant of coefficients be zero (typical statement of an eigenvalue p r o b l e m ) , which then yields R 2(1 1/3D) + 2 V ( 1 1/3D)
2
+ 1/3D
(5.9)
w h e r e R is the frequency with the disk effect divided by the frequency without the disk effect, and D = IJmL
2
(5.10)
This result, together with the results for other similar configurations, is presented in F i g . 5 . 3 . N o t e that each of the curves is asymptotic to the value that w o u l d be obtained if the disk h a d r e m a i n e d in its initial p l a n e , thereby providing a zero slope restraint to the lateral b e n d i n g of the shaft.
5.2 5.2.7
Torsional Natural Frequencies of Shafting Systems Introduction
F r o m a forced response standpoint p r o b l e m s normally associated with system torsional vibration c a n best be solved by avoiding excitation of the drive system at any of its natural frequencies. Typical sources of drive system excitation

include b l a d e p a s s a g e frequency loads from either the main or tail rotors (or p r o p e l l e r s ) , H o o k e ' s j o i n t c o u p l i n g s , and m e c h a n i c a l couplings with torsionrelated airframe s u b s y s t e m s ( e . g . , transmissions and/or e n g i n e s ) . A l t h o u g h the general p r o b l e m of natural frequency calculation has been c o v e r e d in earlier sections a n d despite the present general availability of applicable finite e l e m e n t analysis p r o g r a m s , significant details of the torsional vibration p r o b l e m of drive s y s t e m s require e x a m i n a t i o n . Basic preliminary e l e m e n t s of the torsional vibration p r o b l e m are the p r o p e r definitions of the torsional m a s s e s and stiffnesses of discrete e l e m e n t s , as well as the identification of practical m e t h o d s of m o d e l i n g and a n a l y z i n g distributed p r o p e r t i e s , g e a r s , and b r a n c h e d s y s t e m s .
5.2.2
Element
Equivalencies
T o find the torsional natural frequencies and m o d e shapes of a drive system it is n e c e s s a r y to r e d u c e the various c o m p o n e n t s (shafts, g e a r s , rotors, etc.) to equivalent rotary inertias and torsional springs. Rotary inertia equivalences. Basic rotary inertia is expressible as J = Mk ; k is the polar radius of gyration. T h e use of m a s s and polar radius of gyration to d e s c r i b e torsional inertia provides a c o n v e n i e n t basis for calculating this quantity for a variety of solid s h a p e s . Figure 5.4 presents formulas for calculating polar radii of inertia for a s a m p l i n g of basic ( h o m o g e n e o u s ) solids representative of typical drive train c o m p o n e n t s .
2
Torsional stiffness equivalences. T h e basic torsional stiffness for any constant circular solid section shaft is given by where G = shear m o d u l u s of elasticity [ = 7 2 ( 1 + = P o i s s o n ' s ratio L = length of the shaft e l e m e n t )]
TTD G/32L
4
(5.11)
F o r shafts with v a r y i n g sections o n e t e c h n i q u e is to form equivalent lengths of reference d i a m e t e r shaft (D). T h e s e lengths are added together to form a single c o n s t a n t section length of shaft (with d i a m e t e r D ) , and the formula given earlier is then u s e d . T h u s , for basic shaft types (of length L , ) , the equivalent lengths are given as follows: Solid cylindrical shaft of d i a m e t e r D , :
L =
LJD/D,]
(5.12a)
x
H o l l o w cylindrical shaft of inner d i a m e t e r

L = L [D I(D\
A X
d\
d\)]
(5.12b)
(Solid) tapered shaft:

L L
X
3(D,
[\id\
\ID]
(5.12c)
138
a) Solid shaft:
c) Tapered shaft:
Fig. 5.4
Polar radius of gyration equivalences for basic solids.
C y l i n d e r of material G
(different from the reference material G ) : L = L [D G/D G ]

4 4 x X
(5.12d)
Effect of gears. T h e torsional system is most conveniently analyzed if all of the e l e m e n t s are rotating at the s a m e speed, N. T h e conversion through the gears is obtained using the following formulas based on the gear ratio (Nj/N = rij), w h e r e N is the shaft speed of the shaft element to be converted: Moments: M/Mj,
(5.13)

Angles: 67 /> Inertias:
JIJj,
139
(5.14)
(5.15)
Stiffnesses:
K/Kj,
(5.16)
where = r p m of jth shaft (original system) = r p m of all shafts (equivalent system) See F i g . 5.5 for an e x a m p l e ,
pure
inertia
,
shaft 1
pinion (with inertia)
gear ( w i t h inertia)
shaft
pure
inertia
a) Original system
nJ
2
.
shaft 1
* shaft
. 2
b) Equivalent system Fig. 5.5 Example of a simple geared shafting configuration.
140
5.2.3

Basic Natural Frequency Calculations
F o r s o m e s i m p l e torsional s y s t e m s either closed-form or graphical m e t h o d s of solution for the natural frequencies are possible. A l t h o u g h most practical p r o b l e m s typically involve several d e g r e e s of freedom, these p r o b l e m s can often be r e d u c e d to simpler s y s t e m s by m e a n s of the equivalences considered in the p r e v i o u s section. T h r e e such basic systems are considered herein. Two-inertia (free-free) problem. Since torsional systems typically do not h a v e an infinitely rigid point of a t t a c h m e n t , the two-inertia p r o b l e m with a single c o n n e c t i n g stiffness is the simplest basic form. T h e natural frequency of the single free-free m o d e is given by VK(J
{
+ J )U J
2 X
(5.17)
T h e n o d e point is given by the length L, :

L
X
= J LI(J
2
+ J)
2
(5.18)
Three-inertia (free-free) problem. T h e next most c o m p l i c a t e d of the b a s i c , simple s y s t e m s is the three-inertia p r o b l e m , again with the assumption of a freefree constraint (see F i g . 5 . 6 ) . This system has only t w o natural frequencies that are d e t e r m i n e d from the solution of the following (essentially quadratic) characteristic equation:
*^2^3 \ 4 Ml ^ 2
\ ^1
2
. +
J\J?>
. J\J?> h
. ^2^3 +
K\K
&l
3
&2
+ (J, + J
+ J ) = 0
(5.19)
Two-inertia problem (with a zero compliance end). For cases wherein the free-free constraint is not met and there are t w o inertias, t w o stiffnesses, and an infinite effective i m p e d a n c e constraint at o n e end ( i . e . , zero c o m p l i a n c e ) , then there will again be t w o natural frequencies. T h e appropriate characteristic

J.
141
O
K. shaft 1 , shaft 2
Fig. 5.6
{
+ +
K] K\ K
2
Simplified representation of a three-inertia shafting configuration.
equation can be written using the results of the previous three-inertia case by taking the limit as J a p p r o a c h e s J1 J - J - + 1 = 0 (5.20)
Shafts with significant mass. In s o m e cases the m o m e n t of inertia of the shaft s y s t e m resides principally in the shaft itself, in which case either an appropriate simplified t e c h n i q u e must b e used or recourse must be m a d e to the use of higher degree-of-freedom t e c h n i q u e s such as those considered in subsequent sections. C o n s i d e r the (three-) inertia system given in F i g . 5 . 7 , which is c o m prised of the t w o concentrated inertias at the e n d s , J , and J , as well as the polar m o m e n t of inertia of the c o n n e c t i n g shaft, J .
2 0
M a k e the following definitions: G
Fig. 5.7
(5.21)
Simplified shaft configuration having significant distributed inertia.
142
where is the density of the shaft, and m = J IJ \

X 0
= J /J
2
(5.22)
T h e a p a r a m e t e r can be seen to be the propagation speed of shear w a v e s in the shaft material. T h e d y n a m i c s of the shaft (with inertia) is then defined by an appropriate differential equation. T h e mating of this shaft with discrete inertias at the e n d s of the shaft is a c c o m p l i s h e d using appropriate boundary conditions: G70(O) = -7, (0);
2
GJQ^L)
= 7 io e(L)
2 2
(5.23)
T i m o s h e n k o presents the basic classical solution technique to this p r o b l e m in the form of the solution of the following transcendental equation:
;
(mn)
[,-tan,] -
[tanfy/,-] = m + n\
;
, = afy/L
(5.24)
y
w h e r e the solution for yth natural frequency, , is thus given in terms of . N o t e that m o r e than o n e solution exists to the aforementioned transcendental e q u a t i o n . Since the equation represents the d y n a m i c s of a distributed inertia system without discretization, it therefore contains the information for all the natural modes. Consequently, the various solutions obtainable represent the modal frequencies of the s y s t e m . Solution using tabulations of functions: Until the advent of ubiquitous c o m putational resources (both personal c o m p u t e r s and/or p r o g r a m m a b l e hand calculators), the solution for the eigenvalues was typically obtained iteratively using a table of functions for [x tanx] and [ t a n x / x ) . T h e s e functions (as extracted in part from J a h n k e and E m d e ) are numerically tabulated in Table 5.1 and graphically depicted in Fig. 5 . 8 . In this type of solution the value of is varied until a value is found that satisfies the previously given transcendental equation, using (linear) interpolation to solve for (once bracketing values have been f o u n d ) . I n d e e d , for purposes of obtaining a r o u g h , quick calculation for the first m o d e , the use of such a table can be quite useful.
7 7
Solution using numerical iteration: Apart from the tediousness and inconvenience of extracting a solution to the previously given equation iteratively from tabulated data, this m e t h o d of solution also suffers from the inability of being able to find all of the roots of the transcendental equation. T o correct both of these deficiencies a numerical (iterative) approach is preferred. T o this end we first rewrite the eigenvalue p r o b l e m in a s o m e w h a t different form, recognizing that the tan function is repetitive with a period of . T h e solution, , can therefore be expressed as a s u m of a ' ' p e r i o d i c p a r t , " / CTT , and a " p r i n c i p a l value p a r t , " ( i . e . , the total solution is given by = ku + ) . T h e basic transcendental equation is then recast as a function of , and put in the standard form for any of a variety of numerical iteration solution s c h e m e s : / ( ) = mn(ki + ) tan {m + ) = 0 (5.25)
ki
F r o m this form of the equation it can readily be appreciated that the tabulated function a p p r o a c h described in the preceding section would not be of use for the second and higher m o d e s since the equation now contains a function w h i c h is not tabulated w h e n k > 1.
Table 5.1
X
Tabulations of the functions tanjc and tanx/jc tanx/x 1 1.0000 1.0001 1.0003 1.0005 1.0008 1.0012 1.0016 1.0021 1.0027 1.0033 1.0041 1.0048 1.0057 1.0066 1.0076 1.0086 1.0097 1.0109 1.0122 1.0136 1.0150 1.0165 1.0180 1.0197
X
tan* 0 0.0001000 0.0004001 0.0009003 0.0016009 0.002502 0.003604 0.004908 0.006414 0.008122 0.010033 0.012149 0.014470 0.016996 0.01973 0.02267 0.02582 0.02918 0.03275 0.03654 0.04054 0.04476 0.04920 0.05385 0.05873
tanjc 0.2174 0.2279 0.2387 0.2499 0.2614 0.2732 0.2853 0.2977 0.3105 0.3237 0.3372 0.3511 0.3654 0.3800 0.3950 0.4105 0.4263 0.4426 0.4593 0.4765 0.4941 0.5122 0.5308 0.5499 0.5695
tan.vAv 1.0735 1.0771 1.0808 1.0846 1.0885 1.0926 1.0968 1.1011 1.1055 1.1101 1.1147 1.1196 1.1245 1.1296 1.1348 1.1402 1.1458 1.1515 1.1573 1.1633 1.1695 1.1759 1.1825 1.1892 1.1961 (continued on next page) D
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24
0.45 0.46 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69
< m co <

m
D -<
O 00
CO
Table 5.1 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.38 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.44 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.06384 0.06917 0.07473 0.08051 0.08654 0.09280 0.09930 0.10604 0.11303 0.12027 0.12776 0.13550 0.14351 0.15178 0.16031 0.16912 0.1782 0.1876 0.1972 0.2071 1.3141 1.1706 1.2082 1.2470 1.2871
(continued) Tabulations of the functions tanx and tanx/x 1.0214 1.0232 1.0250 1.0270 1.0290 1.0311 1.0333 1.0356 1.0380 1.0404 1.0429 1.0456 1.0483 1.0511 1.0540 1.0570 1.0601 1.0633 1.0666 1.0700 1.4002 1.4136 1.4275 1.4418 1.4566 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.79 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 0.5896 0.6103 0.6315 0.6533 0.6757 0.6987 0.7223 0.7466 0.7716 0.7973 0.8237 0.8509 0.8788 0.9075 0.9371 0.9676 0.9989 1.0312 1.0645 1.0988 6.0145 6.3558 6.7309 7.1449 7.6043 1.2033 1.2106 1.2181 1.2259 1.2339 1.2421 1.2506 1.2593 1.2683 1.2775 1.2870 1.2969 1.3070 1.3174 1.3281 1.3392 1.3506 1.3624 1.3746 1.3872 3.3002 3.4364 3.5862 3.7518 3.9357
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19
1.3285 1.3712 1.4154 1.4611 1.5084 1.5574 1.6081 1.6607 1.7152 1.7718 1.8305 1.8915 1.9549 2.0209 2.0896 2.1612 2.2359 2.3139 2.3953 2.4805 2.5697 2.6631 2.7612 2.8642 2.9725
1.4720 1.4879 1.5043 1.5214 1.5391 1.5574 1.5764 1.5962 1.6167 1.6381 1.6603 1.6834 1.7075 1.7326 1.7588 1.7861 1.8147 1.8446 1.8759 1.9087 1.9430 1.9791 2.0171 2.0570 2.0991
1.40 1.41 1.42 1.43 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1.51 1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57 /2 1.58 1.59 1.60 1.61 1.62 1.63 1.64
8.1170 8.6932 9.3452 10.089 10.947 11.945 13.123 14.534 16.255 18.401 21.152 24.806 29.898 37.483 49.990 74.522 144.488 1971.55
OC'
4.1413 4.3726 4.6346 4.9339 5.2790 5.6814 6.1566 6.7261 7.4212 8.2885 9.4009 10.880 12.940 16.012 21.079 31.018 59.372 799.85
oc
-171.67 -82.786 -54.772 -41.046 -32.898 -27.500 -23.660
-68.765 -32.746 -21.395 - 15.835 - 12.535 - 10.350 -8.7970 (continued on next page)
Table 5.1 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.80 1.81 1.82 1.83 1.84 1.85 1.86 1.87 1.88 1.89 3.0866 3.2069 3.3340 3.4684 3.6108 3.7620 3.9227 4.0940 4.2769 4.4727 4.6827 4.9087 5.1524 5.4162 5.7025 -7.7153 -7.4219 -7.1515 -6.9013 -6.6691 -6.4529 -6.2511 -6.0623 -5.8851 -5.7185
(continued) Tabulations 2.1435 2.1904 2.2400 2.2925 2.3483 2.4077 2.4708 2.5383 2.6104 2.6878 2.7708 2.8604 2.9571 3.0619 3.1758 -2.3813 -2.2655 -2.1590 -2.0608 - 1.9698 - 1.8854 -1.8069 - 1.7336 - 1.6651 -1.6009
functions tan* and tanjc/jc 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.70 1.71 1.72 1.73 1.74 1.75 1.76 1.77 1.78 1.79 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 -20.789 - 18.560 -16.779 -15.323 -14.110 -13.084 -12.205 -11.442 -10.775 -10.185 -9.6607 -9.1909 -8.7675 -8.3840 -8.0347 -2.7869 -2.7427 -2.6994 -2.6569 -2.6152 -2.5742 -2.5339 -2.4943 -2.4554 -2.4170 -7.6359 -6.7353 -6.0163 -5.4290 -4.9404 -4.5274 -4.1738 -3.8677 -3.6001 -3.3641 -3.1545 -2.9671 -2.7985 -2.6461 -2.5076 -0.5505 -0.5370 -0.5239 -0.5111 -0.4987 -0.4866 -0.4749 -0.4634 -0.4523 -0.4414
Q ^ g O O < ^ O
1.90 1.91 1.92 1.93 1.94 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.98 1.99 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16
-5.5615 -5.4132 -5.2729 -5.1399 -5.0136 -4.8935 -4.7790 -4.6699 -4.5655 -4.4657 -4.3701 -4.2783 -4.1902 -4.1055 -4.0240 -3.9453 -3.8695 -3.7963 -3.7255 -3.6570 -3.5907 -3.5264 -3.4640 -3.4034 -3.3446 -3.2873 -3.2316
- 1.5406 -1.4838 - 1.4304 - 1.3799 -1.3321 - 1.2869 -1.2440 -1.2033 -1.1646 -1.1277 - 1.0925 - 1.0590 - 1.0269 -0.9963 -0.9669 -0.9388 -0.9118 -0.8860 -0.8611 -0.8372 -0.8142 -0.7921 -0.7707 -0.7502 -0.7303 -0.7112 -0.6926
2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 2.40 2.41 2.42 2.43 2.44 2.45 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.49 2.50 2.51 2.52 2.53 2.54 2.55 2.56 2.57 2.58 2.59 2.60 2.61
-2.3793 -2.3421 -2.3054 -2.2693 -2.2336 -2.1984 -2.1637 -2.1293 -2.0954 -2.0618 -2.0286 -1.9958 - 1.9633 -1.9311 - 1.8992 - 1.8676 - 1.8362 - 1.8051 -1.7743 -1.7437 1.7133 1.6831 1.6531 1.6233 1.5936
-0.4308 -0.4205 -0.4104 -0.4006 -0.3910 -0.3817 -0.3725 -0.3636 -0.3549 -0.3463 -0.3380 -0.3298 -0.3218 -0.3140 -0.3063 -0.2988 -0.2915 -0.2843 -0.2772 -0.2703 -0.2635 -0.2568 -0.2503 -0.2439 -0.2376 -0.2314 -0.2253 (continued on next page)
O
< m
co co H
m
o co
- 1.5642 - 1.5348
4^ vi
Table 5.1 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.70 2.71 2.72 2.73 2.74 2.75 2.76 2.77 2.78 2.79 -3.1773 -3.1244 -3.0728 -3.0224 -2.9732 -2.9251 -2.8781 -2.8320 - 1.2764 -1.2481 -1.2199 - 1.1917 - 1.1636 - 1.1355 -1.1075 - 1.0795 -1.0515 - 1.0235
(continued) Tabulations of the functions tanx a n d tanx/x -0.6747 -0.6574 -0.6407 -0.6245 -0.6088 -0.5935 -0.5787 -0.5644 -0.17508 -0.16994 -0.16488 -0.15990 -0.15499 -0.15015 -0.14538 -0.14069 -0.13605 -0.13148 2.62 2.63 2.64 2.65 2.66 2.67 2.68 2.69 2.95 2.96 2.97 2.98 2.99 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 - 1.5057 - 1.4766 - 1.4477 -1.4189 - 1.3902 - 1.3616 -1.3331 - 1.3047 -0.5722 -0.5435 -0.5147 -0.4858 -0.4568 -0.42764 -0.39840 -0.36903 -0.33954 -0.30991 -0.2193 -0.2135 -0.2077 -0.2021 -0.1965 -0.1910 -0.1856 -0.1803 -0.06575 -0.06203 -0.05835 -0.05470 -0.05109 -0.04752 -0.04397 -0.04046 -0.03698 -0.03353
2.80 2.81 2.82 2.83 2.84 2.85 2.86 2.87 2.88 2.89 2.90 2.91 2.92 2.93 2.94
-0.9955 -0.9675 -0.9395 -0.9115 -0.8835 -0.8554 -0.8273 -0.7992 -0.7711 -0.7428 -0.7146 -0.6862 -0.6579 -0.6294 -0.6008
-0.12697 -0.12253 -0.11814 -0.11381 -0.10954 -0.10532 -0.10115 -0.09703 -0.09296 -0.08894 -0.08497 -0.08104 -0.07715 -0.07331 -0.06951
3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14
TT
0.28014 0.25023 -0.22017 -0.18995 -0.15956 -0.12901 -0.09829 -0.06738 -0.03629 -0.00500 0
-0.03011 -0.02672 -0.02336 -0.02002 -0.01671 -0.01343 -0.01016 -0.00692 -0.00370 -0.00051 0
150
Fig. 5.8
Plots of the functions t a n x and t a n x / x .
N o t e , h o w e v e r , that the tabulated function method forms a c o m p l e m e n t to the numerical a p p r o a c h , especially w h e n one of the concentrated end inertias (m or n) is zero. In this case the transcendental eigenvalue equation reduces to [tan,/,] = -(m + ) (5.26)
T h u s , for this case a negative value of t a n x / x is appropriate and the first m o d e value of will have a value between / 2 and , which can be easily interpolated from the values in the above table. Thereafter, a numerical interpolation m e t h o d solution could then be obtained (with as m u c h accuracy as is desired) using the tabulated m e t h o d solution value as a starting value in the iteration.
;
Four or more inertias. For m o r e complicated systems that cannot be simplified d o w n to three inertias or less, recourse must be m a d e to more systematized m e t h o d s such as the H o l z e r - M y k l e s t a d m e t h o d (see Section 3.2.1 for details) or the Porter m e t h o d as outlined in Tuplin. T h e Porter method is similar to the H o l z e r - M y k l e s t a d m e t h o d but has the advantage of being able to a c c o m m o d a t e systems with distributed inertias directly. For approximate a n s w e r s , h o w e v e r , the system can be coarsely a p p r o x i m a t e d by " e f f e c t i v e ' concentrated inertias and springs to obtain a t w o - or three-inertia system of one of the basic types considered earlier, for which the frequency is easily calculable.
1
5.2.4
Branched Gear Systems
In the material discussed thus far it was implicitly a s s u m e d that all of the e l e m e n t s of the drive system were connected in series. H o w e v e r , for most
151
helicopter applications the engine(s) are driving m o r e than one inertia element (main and tail rotors and possibly a propeller) through various branch points (transmissions a n d / o r gear b o x e s ) . A n a l y z i n g such s y s t e m s requires t w o prior steps: 1) R e d u c e the b r a n c h e d system to an equivalent system all of w h o s e e l e m e n t s rotate at the same revolutions per m i n u t e . 2) Set the net s u m of the inertia torques at each of the branch points to zero. O n c e these steps h a v e b e e n t a k e n , the frequencies are calculable using either the H o l z e r - M y k l e s t a d m e t h o d (or the similar Porter m e t h o d ) or a formal matrix e i g e n v a l u e statement solution. C o n s i d e r the application of these t w o techniques to the e x a m p l e given in F i g . 5 . 9 . At the b r a n c h point, [(7
2 4 4
+ 7 ) + (^,,) + (7 )] 3 3 2 2
(5.27)
Holzer method. Using the d e v e l o p m e n t given in Section 3 . 2 . 1 , w e can write the pertinent e q u a t i o n s as follows: , = 7 , ,
2
=
2
7, (1)
2
(5.28a) (5.28b)
= ./
2 2
= T
7
2 3
2
(5.28c)
2 2
. l
4
V 7^, 3
(5.28d) (5.28e)
k k
7
2 4
(5.280
where v = \IK . T h e s e e q u a t i o n s can b e then c o m b i n e d to yield the following m o r e tractable forms: , = 7, !

2
(1)
2
(5.29a)
.
T
Fig. 5.9
Simplified shafting configuration having a branched gear system.
152
2 2

= (
= ,
2 2
)/ (
2 2
)
2
(5.29b) (5.29c)
- , = 1 - , ,
3 3
7\ = [ /
3
+ /,(
2
) + / (|
2 2 2
)]
2
(5.29d) (5.29e)
VjTj
2 4 4
T + J < Q where
( = 0 , as o n e of the b o u n d a r y conditions)
(5.290
l/v .y,;
{ 2 4
/V J
7
i /V y
3
3
(5.30)
N o t e that , , and are the frequencies that each of the respective b r a n c h e s w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e if the branch point were a n o d e ( i . e . , had zero torsional deflection). Points to note: 1) If ! = , o n e natural m o d e will have a node at the branch point and the resulting natural frequency w o u l d b e given by = , = . 2) Similar situations can arise b e t w e e n the other t w o paired c o m b i n a t i o n s of branches. 3) If ( 0 1 = 0 ) 2 = ^ ^ 3 7 0 , then there are only t w o distinct n o n z e r o frequencies ( = , = = ) , a n d that given by
2 2 a n < e 4 2 4
2 4
= (7, + J
2 3
+ J
3
+ y )/y
4
(5.31)
4) If = = and J = 0 , then = 0 and the inertia torques d u e to J, y , a n d J must b e in b a l a n c e . 5) T h e situations depicted in points 3 and 4 above define variants of a nodal drive configuration.
2 4
Matrix eigenvalue method. Using either a Lagrangian approach or applying net m o m e n t equilibrium for each inertia yields the following basic (matrix) equation for the four-inertia system: J
t
0 h
<
0
2
0
-
3
2 2
4 >
0 -. 0
0
~ * 3
~ * 3
* 3
.
4
(5.32)
T h e condition of zero net torque at the branch point is given as a constraint equation conveniently expressed in matrix form: 0
2
0
2
f
2
-JxIJi
-J /J
3
-J /J
4
e,
, >
0 0
1 0
0 1
< , > = m <
V
4
(5.33)
4.
153
When this constraint equation is combined with the preceding set of dynamic equations and the second of the resulting equations (second row of the matrix equation) is discarded, w e obtain 0 0 .0 where (5.35)
3
0 0
JA<
3
0 - 0
{
KB
-, , _
<
> >
= {0}
(5.34)
-,
i=
(5.36)
1
(5.37) W h e n sinusoidal m o t i o n is a s s u m e d , this equation can be reduced to a standard matrix e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m of t h e form [[]
2
[ / ] ] { } = {0}
(5.38)
where = . This matrix equation is n o n s y m m e t r i c but can still be solved using any of a variety of standard matrix e i g e n v a l u e t e c h n i q u e s . Note that a symmetrical form of the matrix equation c a n b e obtained by instead retaining the second r o w after the substitution of t h e constraint matrix and then premultiplying by the transpose of T(= T = T" ). T h e resulting matrix equation is then 3 x 3 and symmetric.
T {
5.3 5.3.7
Special Devices Pendulum Dynamic Absorbers
In a m a n n e r similar to the operation of the vibration absorber discussed in Section 2 . 3 , a p e n d u l u m d y n a m i c absorber eliminates vibratory responses of e l e m e n t s in a torsional d y n a m i c s y s t e m . H o w e v e r , the lineal vibration absorber achieved its frequency characteristics using an elastic spring and w a s thus effective at only o n e frequency of excitation, contributing to resonant frequencies a b o v e a n d b e l o w this frequency. O n the other h a n d , the torsional p e n d u l u m absorber will attenuate r e s p o n s e s at a frequency that is a constant factor of the shaft rotation frequency regardless of that frequency. Let t h e drive system h a v e a torsional natural frequency of nil, and let it be excited at that frequency by a t o r q u e of a m p l i t u d e , T . C o n s i d e r a pendular m a s s , m, attached to the drive system as s h o w n in F i g . 5 . 1 0 . T h e equation of motion for the p e n d u l u m r e s p o n s e is
0
mL(L'
+ /?) =
2
-m(R
+ L)Ly
(5.39)
154
Fig. 5 .10
Schematic of a torsional pendulum absorber.
w h e r e y is the torsional response of the shaft to be attenuated. Let the responses be sinusoidal: 7(0 = () then / [RIL
2 2
-(n) T
2
s'm(nt) )
(5.40a) (5.40b)
sin(nt
n ]/[n (R
2 2 2
+ L)/L]
(5.41)
C o n s e q u e n t l y , = 0 if RIL = . This represents the tuning condition required to attenuate the torsional vibrational r e s p o n s e s . T h e torque generated by the motion of the p e n d u l u m is easily calculable to be T
Q
= mil (R
2
+ L)R&
(5.42)
In practice, for a given application, the value of L required is usually small [ O ( L ) = 0.1 i n . ] , and the value of m a s s required to k e e p of the order of m a g n i t u d e of 10 deg is impractically large. T h e s e considerations m a k e a " s i m p l e " p e n d u l u m design difficult. For cases of this type a bifilar type of torsional p e n d u l u m absorber b e c o m e s practical (see F i g . 5 . 1 1 ) .
5.3.2
Hooke's Joint
A c o m m o n (and relatively inexpensive) type of universal joint is the H o o k e ' s joint depicted in F i g . 5 . 1 2 . T h e input and output rotation speeds are related by the following expression:
2
cos 1 sin cos 0

2 2
(5.43)
where , = angular velocity of the driving shaft = angular velocity of the driven shaft
2
155
here:
R .
3roller pin (s) pendular mass, m Rifilar configuration for a torsional pendulum absorber.
Fig. 5.11
= a n g u l a r d i s p l a c e m e n t of the driving shaft from the position w h e r e the pins on the drive shaft y o k e lie in the plane of the t w o shafts = a n g u l a r m i s a l i g n m e n t b e t w e e n the axes of the t w o shafts
Characteristics of the Hooke's joint: 1) T h e input and output angular velocities through the joint are not in a constant ratio. F o r small shaft angles ( 1), this ratio contains a significant second h a r m o n i c (IP) in the angular frequency of the driver end of the joint. 2) A velocity ratio of unity m a y b e obtained at any angle using t w o H o o k e ' s joints with an intermediate shaft, as long as the input and final output shafts are parallel and the pins on the e n d s of the intermediate shaft are oriented parallel. A n e x a m p l e of the use of a H o o k e ' s joint and the usage of Eq. ( 5 . 4 3 ) is the calculation of the 2P torque in a tail rotor drive shaft which is driving a (rigid) tail rotor c o n n e c t e d b y m e a n s of a H o o k e ' s joint (gimbal) (see F i g . 5 . 1 3 ) . A s s u m p t i o n s that can be m a d e to define the d y n a m i c s are as follows: 1) T h e flapping angle is small. 2) T h e perturbational torsional deflections inboard and outboard of the gimbal are and , respectively, and are also small.
2
input
shaft
output
shaft
Fig. 5.12
Kinematics of a deflected Hooke's joint,
156

(< 1)
,,
+ ,
torsonally elastic shaft This end of shaft rotates at constant (without elastic deflections).
\
,
2
+ ,
Fig. 5.13 Simplified representation of a gimbaled tail rotor driven by a torsionally flexible drive shaft.
Using these a s s u m p t i o n s w e can write the velocity ratio equation between the input and output ends of the shaft: , Differentiation yields
2
cos(l
+ sin
2
cosÔ
(5.44)
] c o s d
+ sin
2
cos^)
2
+ ( + ) c o s t - s i n 8 2 ]
(5.45)
w h e r e the underlined terms are small relative to the terms with which they are added. Therefore,
2
= cos(! -
sin
2
xilu)
(5.46)
T h e torque applied to the e n d of the shaft is then given by 7, = -cosJ

/ ? 2
= elastic restoring torque
GJ
(5.47)
Substitution for and m a k i n g the small-angle assumption on yields

2
, + , =
2 2
nlit
(5.48)
where
2
GJ /U
S
(5.49)
157
The solution to this linear equation presents no difficulties, and w e can write the particular solution as
, =
sin2flf
2
(5.50)
from which the acceleration can be calculated:

,
4
2
sinlt
2
(5.51)
Then the torque in the shaft can be expressed as follows: T\ = -7

2 2
41 4
2
(5.52)
Thus, the amplitude of the 2P (twice/rev) torque is given by _

M L
7
2 2
(5.53)
5.4 5.4. 1
Compatibility of Rotor Drive and Engine/Fuel Control Systems Introduction
T h e engine-fuel control system of any m o d e r n helicopter is typically c o m p r i s e d of a variety of servo-controlled s u b s y s t e m s . T o a great extent the details of these s u b s y s t e m s are dictated b y the operating characteristics of the free p o w e r turbine e n g i n e p o w e r p l a n t presently used in all m e d i u m - to large-sized helicopters. T h e detailed d y n a m i c description of any o n e engine/fuel control system is c o n s e quently m o s t meaningfully described by m e a n s of a typical block d i a g r a m that can include a n y n u m b e r of gain scheduled p a r a m e t e r s , limiters, a n d other nonlinear features. In addition to a n d partly motivated by these characteristics, present strategies for fuel control system design include a digital implementation of the selected control system d y n a m i c s . All of these factors m a k e it difficult to define a ' ' t y p i c a l " engine/fuel control system transfer function. F o r present purposes suffice it to say that t h e c o u p l e d rotor/engine/fuel control system d y n a m i c s is d o m i n a t e d by r e s p o n s e s in t w o frequency ranges: a low-frequency m o d e of operation that characterizes the r e s p o n s i v e n e s s of the rotor speed to control inputs, and the higher-frequency m o d e s associated with the torsional d y n a m i c s of the drive train. T h e s e features are put into the context of t h e c o m p l e t e frequency spectrum of interest to the helicopter d y n a m i c i s t in F i g . 5 . 1 4 , w h i c h w a s extracted from K u c z y n s k i et al. T h e design of m o d e r n helicopter engine/fuel control systems is driven by t w o m a i n considerations: m a x i m i z a t i o n of control system responsiveness in the lowfrequency m o d e a n d stabilization of the higher-frequency drive system torsion m o d e , w h i c h e x p e r i e n c e h a s s h o w n t o b e potentially unstable.
158

HELICOPTER MANUFACTURER'S CONCERN PERFORMANCE HANDLING QUALITES
<
>
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROLS
ROTOR / AIRFRAME AME
j^&^t
'
ROTOR/DRIVE TRAM TORSIONAL SYSTEM
" n
^ ?
5.0
fi
/ REV
i i
20.
ûJ^ks
ENGJNE MANUFACTURER'S CONCERN I I I I I l 100. 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 10.0 50.
0.1
Frequency,
Hz
Fig. 5.14 Frequency spectrum of rotorcraft dynamic related phenomena of interest (after Kuczynski et al.).
5.4.2
Analysis
Techniques
T h e key to analyzing the c o m b i n e d drive/engine/fuel control system is to have suitable transfer function representations for each of the major s u b s y s t e m s . Using basic control system techniques the c o m p o n e n t subsystems are integrated into a total system and a n a l y z e d . For the systems that are basically linear, root-locus techniques w o u l d be applicable along with appropriate Z-transform m e t h o d s for systems that use a s a m p l e d , computer-controlled control implementation. O t h e r system configurations often lend themselves to Bode plot analysis techniques wherein p a r a m e t e r variations are m a d e to ensure m a x i m u m control system responsiveness along with suitable gain and phase margins at the high-frequency end. Finally, because of the details involved (i.e., nonlinearities) and the present c o m p u t a t i o n a l resources available, the total system is often analyzed using timehistory simulations. T h e s e simulations are constructed by c o m b i n i n g the differential equations inherent in the block d i a g r a m s of the transfer functions for the engine and fuel control systems with a set of time-dependent integro-differential equations defining the torsional motions of the drive system. T h e transfer function block d i a g r a m (together with the applicable time constants and gains) for the engine and fuel control system are normally provided by the engine manufacturer.
Dynamic subsystems. T h e detailed analysis of the c o m p o s i t e control syst e m with digital implementation is b e y o n d the scope of this text, and the reader
159
is referred to any of several excellent texts on c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d s y s t e m s ( A s t r o m and W i t t e n m a r k , for e x a m p l e ) for appropriate analysis t e c h n i q u e s . T h e intent h e r e is to p r e s e n t the basic d y n a m i c characteristics n e e d e d to define the s y s t e m in anticipation of the application of the m o r e exact theory and design practices a p p r o p r i a t e to c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d s y s t e m s . 1) Control system. T h e up-front control s y s t e m , w h i c h p r o d u c e s a fuel flow c o m m a n d in r e s p o n s e to a throttle input, can be thought of as a classic regulator and can typically be i m p l e m e n t e d in a variety of w a y s . At the heart of this s u b s y s t e m w o u l d b e s o m e form of servo-controlled flow v a l v e , s o m e form of t r a n s d u c e r to c o n v e r t throttle position to a c o m m a n d signal, and a servo amplifier. T h e details of such an a r r a n g e m e n t is subject to the controller specifications and d e s i g n a s s u m p t i o n s m a d e by the control system d e s i g n e r . For present p u r p o s e s it is sufficient to a s s u m e that the flow v a l v e could be represented by a first-order lag and that the r e m a i n d e r of the controller could be a s s u m e d to be of the form of a standard P I D (position, integral, derivative) controller. T h u s , let us d e n o t e the throttle position as X , the fuel flow valve c o m m a n d as X , and the c o m m a n d e d fuel flow as X - T h e n the L a p l a c e forms of these t w o portions of the control s y s t e m c o u l d b e written in the following m a n n e r :
0 x 2
(5.54)
1 +
Tp
v
(5.55)
w h e r e K is the proportional gain; T is the integral time constant; and T is the derivative t i m e c o n s t a n t . In the derivative portion of the controller there is typically a filter, with t i m e constant T IN, with residing in a typical range of 3 - 1 0 . F o r the simple first lag K and T are the appropriate gain and time constants. 2) Engine/fuel control system. T h e d y n a m i c s of the e n g i n e and its attendant fuel control s y s t e m are d e s c r i b a b l e by m e a n s of the transfer function p r o v i d e d by the e n g i n e m a n u f a c t u r e r . In g e n e r a l , the engine/fuel control d y n a m i c system is excited by the pilot throttle control (both directly and indirectly through coupling with the collective pitch angle) and by the turbine speed feedback loop (governor). 3) Drive system. T h e drive s y s t e m , as we h a v e seen earlier, consists of the e n g i n e p o w e r turbine s p o o l , rotors and/or p r o p e l l e r s , and all interconnecting shafts, inertias, and g e a r i n g . S o u r c e s of d a m p i n g that must be c o n s i d e r e d include the turbine itself, all a e r o d y n a m i c e l e m e n t s (rotors and propellers), a n d , in the case of articulated r o t o r s , the lead-lag d a m p e r s . Excitation of the s u b s y s t e m consists of the controls acting on the a e r o d y n a m i c e l e m e n t s (blade pitch a n g l e , e t c . ) a n d the g a s torque acting on the p o w e r turbine disk of the e n g i n e . Figure 5 . 1 5 s u m m a r i z e s the interconnection of these s u b s y s t e m s .
P D D v v
160

FUEL FLOW
THROTTLE CONTROL SYSTEM
(VALVE) ENGINE S FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM DYNAMICS
BLADE PITCH ANGLES OF ROTOR (SJ
GOVERNOR ENGINE TORQUE TURBINE SPEED
FLIGHT
SPEED
DRIVE
SYSTEM
DYNAMICS
Fig. 5.15 Flow block diagram for the composite engine, drive, and control system.
5.4.3
Stabilization
of the Drive System Torsion Mode
T h e aforementioned t w o basic objectives of a successful design of the total drive system are both speedy responsiveness of the control system and stabilization of the higher frequency drive system torsion m o d e . Unfortunately, the m e a n s of achieving the former (to operate at as high a gain in the control system as possible) are detrimental to the latter. T h e t w o basic m e t h o d s that h a v e evolved for stabilizing this m o d e , without resorting to unacceptably low gain v a l u e s , are to p r o v i d e the drive system with sufficient d a m p i n g and/or to incorporate a stabilizing filter in the engine/fuel control system. T h e addition of d a m p i n g to the drive system torsion d y n a m i c system is most practically a c c o m p l i s h e d for the case of articulated rotors by using the lead-lag d a m p e r s already present. Indeed, for s o m e rotor configurations, stabilization of this m o d e is what sizes these d a m p e r s . M o r e typically, h o w e v e r , stabilization of this m o d e is a c c o m plished by the incorporation of a notch filter in the ( d o w n s t r e a m ) portion of the control system to attenuate the gain at the higher frequency characteristic of the drive system m o d e . A notch filter is essentially a filter with a nominal gain for e /e of unity except at the notch frequency, , where the output, e , goes to zero. T h e standard Laplace form of the notch filter is given by
out in out
+ .2

+ 2
+ ;
(5.56)
As can be readily verified with a B o d e plot of this transfer function, the output g o e s sharply to zero at the notch frequency, but has a value close to unity for all frequencies r e m o v e d from . For cases wherein the natural frequency of the drive system is subject to variation (due to changes in flight c o n d i t i o n s ) , adaptive m e t h o d s can be e m p l o y e d to k e e p the notch filter " t u n e d " to the actual natural frequency (see G r e e n s i t e , for e x a m p l e ) .
/;
161
References
Section 5.1 Den H a r t o g Bishops Tse Tuplin
( ) ( ) ( )
Author(s)
5.2
Myklestad Timoshenko Tuplin

( ) ( )
( )
( )
5.3
Schwamb D o u g h t i e and J a m e s
( )
5.4
K u c z y n s k i , C o o p e r , T w o m e y , and Howlett (./) Corliss H o w l e t t , M o r r i s o n , and Z a g r a n s k i Greensite A s t r o m and W i t t e n m a r k

( / ) (y) ( ) ( )
Problems
5.1 Derive the expression for the frequency ratio R given in Section 5.1.3.
5 . 2 Derive the transcendental equation statement for the eigenvalue problem defining the natural frequency characteristics of the simple three-inertia problem wherein the shaft connecting two outer inertias also has significant inertia. 5 . 3 Deduce an equation for determining the torsional natural frequencies for a shaft with two end inertias and significant torsional inertia wherein one of the end inertias approaches infinity. (This c o r r e s p o n d s to a case of a " b u i l t - i n " condition at o n e e n d of the shaft with significant inertia and a finite inertia at the other e n d . ) 5 . 4 C o n s i d e r the tail rotor drive shafting of a certain helicopter wherein the (hollow) shaft is m a d e of a l u m i n u m , is 12 ft in length, and has an outside d i a m e t e r of 3 in. and a wall thickness of 0.1 in. This shaft drives a tail rotor that turns at the s a m e speed as the shaft and has a polar m o m e n t of inertia of 14 l b . - s - i n . For each of the two cases of 1) inboard attachment inertia approaching infinity (rigid attachment to the remainder of the drive system, i.e., main rotor, transmission, engine, etc.), and 2) zero inboard attached inertia (representative of a failed coupling), calculate the first three torsional natural frequencies. Additional useful information: weight density of A l : w 0 . 1 0 1 l b / i n . ; shear m o d u l u s of A l : G = 3.9 x I O l b / i n . .
2 3 6 2
Fuselage Vibrations
In the p r e v i o u s chapters the e m p h a s i s is placed on the diverse m e t h o d o l o g i e s for o b t a i n i n g the d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e s of rotorcraft structures, with particular attention b e i n g paid to the rotating substructures (rotors and shaft s y s t e m s ) . In this c h a p t e r w e address p e r h a p s the m o s t important and directly discernible c o n s e q u e n c e of these r e s p o n s e s : fuselage vibrations. T o approach this p r o b l e m w e m u s t p r o c e e d from the c o n c e p t of d y n a m i c responses of substructures to that of the d y n a m i c loads i m p a c t i n g on t h e m , with e m p h a s i s on the influence of the rotor loads on the fuselage. F u r t h e r m o r e , since the rotor and the fuselage are both d y n a m i c structural s u b s y s t e m s , t h e y , in effect, talk to each other, and the c o n c e p t of rotor-fuselage c o u p l i n g m u s t therefore be addressed. Finally, it must be stressed that the general p r o b l e m of d e s i g n i n g rotorcraft with fuselage vibrations that are not only acceptable but " j e t s m o o t h " is still u n s o l v e d . T h i s state of irresolution is d u e to t w o principal difficulties: 1) Precise k n o w l e d g e of the loads (in particular, those of a e r o d y n a m i c origin) acting directly on the rotor and acting indirectly on the fuselage is far from c o m p l e t e . 2) T h e ability to calculate the structural d y n a m i c characteristics of the airframe in terms of natural frequencies, m o d e s h a p e s , and mobilities d o e s not yet exist with sufficient a c c u r a c y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , at present h e a v y reliance must be m a d e on the use of various vibration alleviation d e v i c e s to bring any given rotorcraft airframe design to a point of at least h a v i n g a m o d e r a t e l y acceptable vibration level.
6.1 6.7.7
Dynamic Loads Mode Deflection and Force

ideas.
Integration
Basic
F o r any elastic structure the following relationship holds: / t h e applied forces \ and m o m e n t s
/ e l a s t i c restoring forces \ _ y and m o m e n t s J or, m o r e s i m p l y stated,

êlastic
âpplied
loads
(6.2)
F o r any d y n a m i c s y s t e m k n o w l e d g e of either of these quantities constitutes k n o w l e d g e of the d y n a m i c loads. M e t h o d s of d y n a m i c loads calculation that are based on k n o w l e d g e of the left-hand side of this equation are generally referred to as mode displacement m e t h o d s , w h e r e a s m e t h o d s based on the right-hand side of the equation are alternatively referred to as force integration, force summation, or mode acceleration methods. Illustrative examples. T h e following e x a m p l e s illustrate the c o n c e p t s behind these t w o basic m e t h o d s of d y n a m i c loads analysis:
163
164

Example 6.1
G i v e n a simple s p r i n g - m a s s s y s t e m , as s h o w n in the following sketch, k n o w l e d g e of the d y n a m i c load at the point P, F , is required.

P
F(t) Solution: T h e differential equation for the single-degree-of-freedom is, by n o w , familiarly given by mz + kz = F(t) and the load at point is alternatively given by F = kz F = F(t) (via elastic restoring force) mz (via applied forces) system (6.3)
T h e s e t w o alternate m e t h o d s for formulating the load at point define the basis for the m o d e deflection and force-integration m e t h o d s , respectively, for calculating d y n a m i c loads. T h e p r o c e d u r e for calculating the d y n a m i c load can then be stated as follows: 1) Solve for the r e s p o n s e , z(t). 2) Calculate the load F at the point using either of the t w o expressions given earlier. C o n s i d e r a step function for the applied load, F(t):
P
F(t)
fO; U;
r < 0 t > 0
(6.4)
T h e resulting r e s p o n s e , for quiescent initial c o n d i t i o n s , is given by z(t) z(t) = (\/k)(\

2
COSGDO]
= (( /k)cosct
P
> J
where
= \/(k/m)
(6.5)
T h e load at point P, F (t), Mode displacement Fp(t)
is then calculated using the two m e t h o d s :
method: = kz = k[(\lk) (1 cosoor)] 1 cosoof (6.6)
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
Force integration Fp(t) (summation) = F(t) = mz
2
165
method:
1 m[(u> lk)
(1 -
coseni)] =
1 -
cosoo
(6.7) exactly
T h u s , for the single degree-of-freedom equivalent.
system the t w o m e t h o d s are
Example 6.2
F i n d the shear and b e n d i n g m o m e n t at the m i d s p a n of the nonuniform cantilevered b e a m s h o w n in following sketch.
Solution: 1) Differential equation of motion: mz + (Elz")" = F(x, t) (6.8)
the solution of w h i c h can be e x p r e s s e d using natural m o d e s :

OC
(, o =
,7
7W (o
n
(6.9)
= 1
w h e r e the forced r e s p o n s e equation for q (t)

n
is given by H(f) (6.10)
M (q
n
+ ^ )
and w h e r e the nth generalized m a s s and excitation, M and H , respectively, are defined as
M = J
myl(x)
dx
(6.11)
/KO
7nU)
dx
(6.12)
166
2) L o a d s by the m o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d : a) B e n d i n g m o m e n t M :
h
M / ?
('')
E l w
"
^ ^
q(t)
(M )q(t)
h
(6.13)
b) S h e a r s : q {t)
n
Sq (t)
n
(6.14)
3) E v a l u a t i o n of the loading coefficients M and S: Since the shear and m o m e n t are directly definable using the second and third s p a n w i s e derivatives of the m o d a l deflection shape function, it is t e m p t i n g to try to form appropriate derivatives and thereby e v a l u a t e these loading quantities directly. H o w e v e r , practical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , involving the loss of accuracy with numerical differentiation, especially with EI variations that are abrupt and not easily differentiable, p r e c l u d e the use of such an a p p r o a c h . T h e loading coefficients can be alternatively e v a l u a t e d with r e a s o n a b l e accuracy using either of t w o main m e t h o d s d e s c r i b e d in the following, d e p e n d i n g on h o w the m o d e shapes h a v e been obtained. a) Semianalytical method: W i t h this m e t h o d it is a s s u m e d that the A?th natural b e n d i n g m o d e s h a p e and c o r r e s p o n d i n g m o d a l frequency are k n o w n for the b e a m . T h e appropriate starting point is the relationship b e t w e e n internal shear and load distribution:
b
dS = dx
f{x,
t)
{transverse
loading)
(6.15)
F o r unit d i s p l a c e m e n t of the nth b e n d i n g m o d e the appropriate loadings are the inertia l o a d s , f (x, t), generated by the m o d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s . T h e s e loadings are in turn equilibrated by the internal b e n d i n g stresses:
n
f(x,
t) =
-mz
= il[m(x)^ ix)\q {t)

ti u
(6.16)
T h e n the required shear coefficient can be obtained by an integration of the s p a n w i s e derivative (as given earlier) to give the following integral representation: S ix)
n
= Six), =
2
mix^yniXi)
dx,
(6.17)
Similarly, since dM/dx

h
then m(x )y (x )
2 n 2
M ix)
dx
(6.18)
w h e r e , for this e x a m p l e , = LI2. b) Lumped-mass representation: This m e t h o d of representing the m o d a l shear and m o m e n t coefficients consists of simply using the shear and m o m e n t distri-
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
167
b u t i o n s that fall out from the use of the H o l z e r - M y k l e s t a d t e c h n i q u e for obtaining the m o d a l solution. Recall that the solution obtained from this a p p r o a c h g i v e s , for e a c h s p a n w i s e station, a solution vector (eigenvector) of the following form: { = [ , , S, M}
T
(6.19)
B y this a p p r o a c h the m o d a l shear and m o m e n t s are thus directly available. 4) L o a d s by the force integration m e t h o d : F o r the given e x a m p l e b e a m the force integration m e t h o d can b e i m p l e m e n t e d to predict the internal shear by integrating the total l o a d i n g , both the external l o a d i n g , F(x, t), as well as the motion-induced loading, i . e . , the loading p r o d u c e d by the b e a m in r e s p o n d i n g to the external loading:
<
=
2 n
[F(x,
t) mi]
F ( * . o d , shear
(|)(o
(6.20)
pseudostatic
w h e r e the G m o d a l coefficients are related to the previously defined M shear coefficients: G(x) = j ra(x,)y(x,) dx, = 5 ( ) /
2
modal
(6.21)
T h i s representation of the internal shear thus consists of t w o distinct parts: 1) the part that w o u l d be calculated if the external applied l o a d i n g , F(x, t), w e r e applied as a static loading and the b e a m w e r e not allowed to respond structurally; and 2) a part that is d u e to the inertial loading induced in the b e a m by virtue of its d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e to the applied l o a d i n g . It is for this reason that the force integration m e t h o d is often referred to as the mode acceleration method. In a like m a n n e r the force integration m e t h o d can b e used to calculate the b e n d i n g m o m e n t in the b e a m :
pseudostatic
moment G
n
w h e r e the H coefficients are defined in a m a n n e r similar to that for the coefficients: H (x)
n
= J
(x, -
x ) m ( x , ) 7 ( x , ) dx, = ^ ( ) /
(6.23)
168
T h e following observations can be m a d e : 1) T h e pseudostatic shears and m o m e n t s are the shears and m o m e n t s that w o u l d result if the b e a m w e r e infinitely rigid. 2) T h e terms involving the s u m m a t i o n s over the m o d e s represent " c o r r e c t i o n s " to the infinitely rigid results arising from b e a m flexibility. 3) F o r infinite s u m m a t i o n s the t w o m e t h o d s would give identical results. H o w e v e r , for finite s u m m a t i o n s , the results will always be different (to s o m e d e g r e e ) , but w o u l d approach each other as the n u m b e r of m o d e s is increased. 4) T h e relations given earlier, > G = S and , ,//,, = M , are not generally true for the rotating b e a m case.
2 2 h
Example 6 . 3
T h e following classic e x a m p l e taken from Bisplinghoff et al. concerns the wing root b e n d i n g m o m e n t s and shears of an idealized fuselage-wing c o m b i nation. C o n s i d e r an unrestrained uniform wing attached to a central fuselage m a s s with a disturbance force loading having the form of a half sine w a v e . For this simplified d y n a m i c structure w e require the transient distributions of the m a x i m u m shear and b e n d i n g m o m e n t in the unrestrained wing (see Fig. 6 . 1 ) . Solution: 1) T i m e - h i s t o r y response: T h e vertical response of the slender b e a m can be represented by a superposition of natural m o d e shapes of the freely vibrating b e a m as follows:
D C
( , t) =
q (t)
0
t' =
/()
7,(0 (6.24)
. rigid translation
, , elastic deformation
T h e excitation is taken to be a half sine w a v e w h o s e describing frequency is taken as a parameter: /(') = sinlr; 0 < t <
0;
/ ^ t > /
0
(6.25)
T h e equations of motion for the generalized coordinates q and q are as follows: Mq (t)
0
= Ho(0
(6.26) (6.27)
M(q
+ <?,.) = ,
2
w h e r e the m o d e shapes , ( ) are so normalized that m c ) ( y ) dy = M = M

2 F
Jo
+ mt\
i = 0, 1, 2 , . . . ,
(6.28)
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
169
sec. Fig. 6.1 Uniform wing attached to fuselage mass subject to half sine wave external force distribution (after Bisplinghoff, Ashley, and Half man). F u r t h e r m o r e , the generalized excitations can be written in t e r m s of the t i m e function f{t): , = C - / ( i ) ;
f
c,
Jo
, d y ,
/ =
1,2,.
(6.29)
(See Bisplinghoff et al. for detailed d e v e l o p m e n t and formulas for the evaluations of C.) T h e time-history solution for (, t) then b e c o m e s the p r o b l e m of solving for the generalized c o o r d i n a t e s q(t):
I
?o(0
=
Mil t
9
t -
^sinj;
0<</ (6.30) t > /
(/ ( -
)
2
(sin
8 );
/
0 < t < /
)
2
^ + 8 ( -
/2)
(6.31)
[sino),? + 8 ( / 2 ) ] } ;
;
t > 7
2) Calculation of the d y n a m i c loads: Fi u m the time-history r e s p o n s e s obtained earlier, the internal loads in the w i n g can then be calculated by each of the t w o methods:
170
a) Mode displacement method: A s with the e x a m p l e s given earlier, the shear and b e n d i n g m o m e n t distributions c a n be represented, respectively, b y s u m m a t i o n s of ( s p a n w i s e - d e p e n d e n t ) shear and m o m e n t coefficients multiplying the (time-dependent) modal displacements: Shear: Sa, Moment: M (&
h
t)
lS tt)\qM
{i)
(6.32)
/) = WiOllM
( ) = mt(} J ( )
(6.33)
where 5
( / ,
(6.34)
^()
t j
S (k)
{i)
(6.35)
and w h e r e / = 1, 2 , 3 , . . . (see F i g . 6 . 2 ) . b) Force-integration method: T h e force integration method can be applied as given earlier to include the pseudostatic and m o t i o n - i n d u c e d ( m o d e acceleration) parts explicitly: Shear:
t) = Scucio <//(')
(6.36)
static Moment:
/=!
, , ( , t) = (Mftjpseud,, static where

Spseudo = (M mOO
/=!
\1 j
{)
37)
)^ (0
0
(6-38)
static Wpseudo = ( 7 2 ) {M static mt)(\ 0 (j (t)

2 Q
(6.39)
N o t e that the pseudostatic shear a n d m o m e n t , S u d o a n d ( M ) e u d o , respectively, static static are o b t a i n e d by treating the b e a m (wing) as a rigid body. 3 ) N u m e r i c a l calculations a n d c o m p a r i s o n of results: Results for the shear and m o m e n t coefficients for the first five symmetrical m o d e s are given in F i g . 6 . 2 for t h e case w h e r e the fuselage and w i n g m a s s e s are equal (R = F 1). T h e results of calculations of m a x i m u m shear and m a x i m u m b e n d i n g m o m e n t along t h e span b y the t w o m e t h o d s are s h o w n in F i g s . 6 . 3 a n d 6 . 4 . T h e s e calculations w e r e m a d e for the case of TIT 0 . 5 , w h e r e T, is the time to peak
pse /? ps X
M imi =
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
a) Shear distributions 1.0
171
-0.4 ' 0.0
0.2
J
0.4 spanwise
0.6
' 0.8
1.0
(ND)
variable,
b) Moment distributions 0.8
-0.2 0.0
1
0.2 (ND)
0.4 spanwise
0.6
0.8
1.0
variable,
Fig. 6.2 Shear and bending moment distributions for displacements of the vibratory modes (R = 1) (after Bisplinghoff, Ashley, and Halfman).
172

a) Shears by mode displacement method 0.4 0.9
b) Shears by mode acceleration method 0.4 0.9
0.3
- y
/
2, 3, 4, 5 A lodes
0.8 Mo
0)
.y
0.2
.S*
0.7
<
kr
^ Time
0.1
Pst
, S - J
N
0.6
X
N
Hjdostatt c
0.0 0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6 spanwise
0.8 variable,
0.5 1.0
Nondimensional
Fig. 6 .3 Maximum shear distribution (T/T = 0 .5, R = 1) (after Bisplinghoff, Ashley, and Halfman).
{
Fig. 6.4 Maximum bending moment distribution ( / , = 0.5, R = 1) (after Bisplinghoff, Ashley, and Halfman).
7
174
value of the forcing function, and , is the period of the fundamental natural mode. Figure 6.3 s h o w s the spanwise variation of m a x i m u m shear and the instants of time that the m a x i m u m shears occur, as determined by the t w o m e t h o d s . It is apparent that the m o d e acceleration (force integration) m e t h o d gives m u c h better c o n v e r g e n c e than the m o d e displacement m e t h o d , particularly in the vicinity of the root, w h e r e the higher m o d e s contribute quite substantially to the shear w h e n the m o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t method is used. In fact, it can be seen that, even with five m o d e s , satisfactory c o n v e r g e n c e of the shear is not obtained by the m o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d . Figure 6.4 shows the spanwise variation of m a x i m u m b e n d i n g m o m e n t and the instants of time when the m a x i m u m bending m o m e n t s o c c u r , again as calculated using the t w o m e t h o d s . T h e significantly m o r e rapid c o n v e r g e n c e of the force integration m e t h o d is again readily apparent. T h e following general c o m m e n t s on the t w o m e t h o d s can be m a d e : 1) In the limit (n c) the t w o m e t h o d s are equivalent. 2) T h e m o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t method is mathematically " c l e a n e r " and will give reasonably accurate a n s w e r s if three or more m o d e s are involved in the response calculation (as in a system of discrete masses and springs). 3) T h e force integration m e t h o d is mathematically more c u m b e r s o m e , but gives better c o n v e r g e n c e characteristics ( i . e . , the use of fewer m o d e s ) . Furt h e r m o r e , the pseudostatic loads, as tools for understanding the total loads, are directly available. 4) In g e n e r a l , for structural loads analysis, w h e n accuracy is important, the force-integration m e t h o d w o u l d be preferable.
6.1.2
Application to Rotating
Beams
In the previous sections the t w o basic alternate m e t h o d s of calculating the d y n a m i c loads in an elastic structure ( m o d e displacement and force integration) were d e v e l o p e d . In this section these m e t h o d s are extended to cover the case of a b e a m vibrating in a centrifugal force field ( i . e . , a rotor b l a d e ) . For the subassemblies on a rotorcraft not operating in such a centrifugal force field (such as the basic airframe and horizontal lifting surfaces), the previously d e v e l o p e d tools should suffice. As with the d e v e l o p m e n t in the previous section, consider descriptions of the flapwise (out-of-plane) b e n d i n g m o m e n t and shear at a spanwise station on a rotor blade using the two basic m e t h o d s ( i . e . , the m o d e disp l a c e m e n t m e t h o d and the force-integration m e t h o d ) .
Loads by the mode

l) Bending moment M (x,
h
displacement
M:
h
method:
t)
Elz
El{x)Y {x)q {t)

n n
(6.40)
2) Shear
S:
S(x,
t) =
-\EIz"\'
\EI{x)yl(x)\'q (t)
n
(6.41)
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
175
T h e only n e w e l e m e n t here is the p r o b l e m of finding appropriate expressions for the load coefficients for rotating b e a m s w h e n the second- and third-order s p a n w i s e derivative forms of the coefficients are not used in the e v a l u a t i o n s . C o n s i d e r the application of the semianalytical (integral) m e t h o d (as given earlier) for evaluating the coefficients. In particular, consider the inertial loads acting on the b e a m w h e n it is deflected in o n e of its flatwise natural m o d e s , as depicted in the free-body d i a g r a m given in F i g . 6 . 5 . U p o n equilibrating the inboard internal forces and m o m e n t s with those arising from the loads acting on the b e a m over its o u t b o a r d p o r t i o n , o n e can then write the following expressions:
(6.42)
T h u s , the m o d a l b e n d i n g m o m e n t coefficients can be written in the following abbreviated form: M

h
() = ()
tt H (x)
2 n
(6.43)
w h e r e H(x) is n o w the contribution d u e to centrifugal forces. In a similar m a n n e r the m o d a l shear coefficients can be written as follows:
(6.44)
O r , a g a i n , in a m o r e c o m p a c t , abbreviated form,
S(x) = Q) ,G U)
2 / 7
ii G (x)
2 n
(6.45)
Fig. 6.5 Free-body diagram of an outboard portion of a modali deflected rotating beam.
176
n
T h e G (x) and H(x) coefficients are as defined in the previous section and the new G ( x ) and H (x) coefficients are s u m m a r i z e d as follows:
n
G (x)
n
= y' (x)
n
m ( x , ) x , dv, -
1^
JXv^ tension
(6.46)
H(x)
= i
/ ( . | ) ( . | ) . | dx, -
y{x) \
m ( x , ) x , dx, = T(x)/iV
(6.47)
As in the case without rotation, the results of a Myklestad technique for obtaining the m o d e shapes can also be used to give values for S(x) and M {x) directly.
h
Loads by the force-integration method. T h e application of the forceintegration method to the rotating b e a m (rotor blade) follows the same general tack as that d e v e l o p e d in the previous sections. A g a i n , let us consider the uncoupled flapwise bending of the blade d u e to out-of-plane loads:
M (x,
h
t) =
(, - x ) [ F ( x , , t) -
mz\\ d x , (6.48)
(z, -
z)mx
dx,
After breaking out the parts of the load distribution d u e to flapwise motion and the part of the out-of-plane deflection d u e to steady flapping (or, in the case of hingeless rotor b l a d e s , built-in c o n i n g ) , the expression for out-of-plane bending can be stated as follows: t) = j (x, - x ) F ( x , , t) dx pseudostatic flapwise
M (x,
h
fl
( )
m , (, - ) dx,
bending m o m e n t
//= 1
[H(jr)</ + i H(x)q\
2
(6.49)
Note that the b e n d i n g m o m e n t relief d u e to steady c o n i n g , , b e c o m e s readily apparent with this formulation. In a similar m a n n e r w e can write a force-integration expression for the flapwise shear:
()
S(x,
t) = j
[ F ( x , , t) -
mz\] d x , -
1V j
mx, d x ,
(6.50)
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
177
A n d , a g a i n , after separating out the part of the loading due to modal acceleration, the final requisite form of the flapwise shear can be written as S(x, t) = J
^
F U i , t) d x , '
mx, dx,
*
pseudostatic flapwise lG (x)q

n
shear (6.51)
+ G (x)q ]
2 n n
//= T h e following points should be noted: 1) Pseudostatic loads for the rotating blade n o w contain " r e l i e f effects due to c o n i n g (either built-in or steady e q u i l i b r i u m ) . 2) T h e force-integration m e t h o d n o w involves m o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t s as well as modal acceleration t e r m s . 3) A l t h o u g h not substantiated herein, general c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n the t w o m e t h o d s regarding c o n v e r g e n c e are unaltered due to the inclusion of rotating effects. W e n o w c o m p l e t e this section with a consideration of the t w o loads analysis m e t h o d s as applied to the in-plane b e n d i n g m o m e n t and shear of a rotating b e a m ( i . e . , rotor b l a d e ) . 1) Mode displacement method: Semianalytical (integral) representations of the load coefficients for the in-plane b e n d i n g case can be written using the results of the p r e v i o u s section by noting that the principal difference b e t w e e n these t w o cases is the presence of an additional centrifugal loading term in the transverse ( m o d a l ) loading expression:
1
f (x,
y
t) = my(x)()~ + )q{t)
2
(6.52)
w h e r e it is to be noted that in this instance, y(x) is n o w the m o d e shape appropriate to in-plane m o t i o n . By inspection, the previously given modification to the transverse loading then leads to expressions for the modal b e n d i n g m o m e n t and shear that can be respectively written as M (x)
h
= ()
2
+ [H (x)
2 n
{)\
(6.53)
and S(x) = a> G(x) + [ G ( x ) 2 2
G(x)l
(6.54)
2) Force-integration method: A g a i n , by inspection and c o m p a r i s o n with the results for the case of flapwise b e n d i n g , the force-integration formulation for inplane b e n d i n g can be written as M,,(x, t) = j (, x ) [ F ( x , , t) y ) m x , dx, m ( y , + i l y , ) J dx,
2
(y, -
(6.55)
178
or M (x,
b
*) = j
(*i
x)F(*i,
t) -
e tt
0
m(x
x) d*,
pseudostatic in-plane
//= 1
bending moment H(x)\q) (6.56)
{H(x)q
[//(*) 2
N o t e that here the b e n d i n g m o m e n t relief c o m e s from e , the equivalent of a steady-state lead-lag angle. In a similar m a n n e r we can write a force-integration expression for the in-plane shear:
0
S(x,
0 = j
[F(x ,
{
t) -
m(y
+ i l y , ) l dx, 2
' j
2
mx
dx,
(6.57)
A n d , again, after separating out the part of the loading due to modal acceleration, the final requisite form of the in-plane shear can be written as S(x, t) = j F ( x j , t) djc, e
0
pseudostatic in-plane {G(x)q a [G(x)

2
shear G(x)]q} (6-58)
T h e in-plane offset d i s t a n c e , e , which provides in-plane load relief, is defined in F i g . 6 . 6 . N o t e that, in the case of rotor blades with in-plane articulation, the offset distance e is simply related to the hinge offset distance e and the equilibrium lag angle :
0 0 0
= esino
(6.59)
reference
axis
Fig. 6.6
In-plane offset distance providing centrifugal load relief.
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
179
In all of the p r e c e d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t the portions of the transverse load distribution d u e to the inertial acceleration and the centrifugal force loadings w e r e explicitly b r o k e n out in order to i m p l e m e n t the t w o basic types of internal load calculation. In the next section the w h o l e issue of loads d u e to motion is m o r e generally developed.
6.7.3
Motion-induced
Loads
Inherent in the t w o m e t h o d s of d y n a m i c loads analysis is the prior requirement of a calculation of the actual d y n a m i c responses of the elastic structure. T h u s far the d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e s c o n s i d e r e d herein h a v e generally consisted of representations of the r e s p o n s e s in t e r m s of natural m o d e s . T h e solutions for the modal r e s p o n s e s are typically achieved by solving single-degree-of-freedom equations for the forced r e s p o n s e s for e a c h of the natural m o d e s . T h e s e steps are s u m m a r i z e d as follows: 1 ) Let the transverse deflection of a blade e l e m e n t be expressed as
z(x,
0 =
yWq(t);
N-+
(6.60)
2) T h e resulting differential e q u a t i o n s b e c o m e M {q
n
+ 4 ) - ()
2
(6.61)
where M =
J structure
myl(x)
(6.62)
is the generalized m a s s for the nth m o d e , and ,, J structure
my(x)F(x,
t)
(6.63)
is the generalized excitation for the nth m o d e . T h e expression F(x, t) is the external applied l o a d i n g . In all of the d e v e l o p m e n t heretofore it has been a s s u m e d that the external applied l o a d i n g , F(x, r), is a k n o w n explicit function of t i m e . H o w e v e r , usually this applied loading is also a function of the response(s) of the structure itself. T h e p r o b l e m is further c o m p l i c a t e d in aircraft structures in that this loading usually arises from r a t e - d e p e n d e n t p h e n o m e n a , which introduce significant c o m plexities to the d y n a m i c description. T y p i c a l l y , m o t i o n s of the a e r o d y n a m i c surfaces create additional pressure l o a d i n g s , which a b o u n d with rate-dependent t e r m s . F o r this case the applied loading considered earlier, F(x, t), is conceptually b r o k e n up into t w o parts: a part d e p e n d e n t only on the external disturbances, F (x, t), and a part d e p e n d e n t on the motion of the structure, F (z, z, z, t). If natural m o d e s are again used to describe the structure, and if orthogonality is
D M
180
used to u n c o u p l e the m a s s and stiffness t e r m s , the resulting equation then b e comes M(q = + i q )
2 n n
E(q ,q ,
{ 2
<2to. q\,
q,
N
t) + H?(i)
(6.64)
T h e principal observation to be m a d e is that the terms n o w couple the (previously) u n c o u p l e d natural modal equations. T h e system can no longer be represented by a series of single-degree-of-freedom forced e q u a t i o n s . A s s u m i n g for simplicity that are functions of only the generalized velocities, q then the system of equations is expressible in the following matrix format:
h
0
<
4l,
/
? 2 ^
<7l
2
_ 0 ,
2 2
*
N
2.
__ q\
C /V2
.4^
a?(r)
> = <
M 2N_
H?(r)
(6.65)
Before we discuss w a y s to solve such a matrix equation, let us use the preceding ideas on s o m e e x a m p l e s .
Example 6 . 4
C o n s i d e r the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l airfoil section of an earlier that is characterized by the presence of inertia coupling. e x p e r i e n c e a freestream velocity of air of 100 m p h . Find the describing the response of the airfoil section to a step gust ft/s. homework problem Let the airfoil n o w equations of motion velocity, w , of 10
G
Solution: T h e differential equations of m o t i o n , assuming generalized forces, are given by mz + k z

:
mxfi
= f
a)
(6.66)
l ]
-rnx/z
+ (/ + mxj)'
a)
+ = f '
(6.67)
w h e r e the generalized forces f[ and/1)"* are now assumed to be the result of a disturbance gust penetration and motion d e p e n d e n c y . F u r t h e r m o r e , let these loads be defined using a simplified " q u a s i s t a t i c " a e r o d y n a m i c formulation wherein the lift acts at a c h o r d w i s e point, x , in front of the elastic axis. (Note that this quasistatic formulation is d e e m e d " s i m p l i f i e d " because we are neglecting, for
a
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
181
illustrative p u r p o s e s o n l y , the effects of pitch rate .) T h e n , with this simplification in m i n d , w e obtain the required generalized forces:
2
. d/
+ - (w + - (w
(6.68) (6.69)
/<> = pV*cc,x
1? ^
2
w h e r e w is the disturbance vertical gust velocity. U p o n setting l / 2 p V c ' ( d c / / d a ) = K w e can rewrite the differential equations in the following form:
c 2 cn
m
mxj
(I
mxj
<
o"
+ mxj)_
+ -
UJ
_0
lej
(6.70)
A solution for the time-history response of this system can be obtained using a variant of the Galerkin technique wherein the physical variables and are first represented by a c o m b i n a t i o n of the t w o natural m o d e s as obtained from the zero air density eigenvalue solution (K = 0 ) . T h u s ,
a
" 1 _
1 _
2
. U
1 -3.68 0.0218J lq
2
(6.71)
[] T h e n , the p r e c e d i n g coordinate transformation is substituted into the system equations of m o t i o n and the resulting (matrix) equation set is premultiplied by the transpose of the matrix. It can b e readily appreciated that this invocation of the Galerkin t e c h n i q u e is consistent with and in fact utilizes the orthogonality principle: T h e e l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l terms in the d y n a m i c equations are then d e c o u pled and a p p e a r only as diagonal t e r m s . T h e resulting equation set then b e c o m e s
Ml
0 "
M _
2
_ 0
UJ
f i UJ
+
k_
21
q\
(6.72)
182
It can then b e verified that the various coefficients in this equation are given b y M , = m + 7 . 3 6 mx, + 13.5(7 + mxj) M
2
(6.73a) (6.73b) (6.73c) (6.73d)
= m + 0 . 0 4 3 6 mx, + 0 . 0 0 0 4 7 5 ( 7 + mx,) = c
l2
cn c
*
2l
= K (\
a
+ 3.68*)/V
= c
22
= / ( - 0.0218*,,)/V
K (3.6S
a
!
2
13.5JC )
(
(6.73e)
l2
= T (0.0218 + 0.0802*,,) = 7 ^ , ( - 3 . 6 8 + 0.0802*,,) = \

2
(6.73f) (6.73g) (6.73h) (6.73i)
* k
2 1
22
+ #(0.0218 - 0.000475^,)
a
= - ( 1 + 3.68x );
= ( - 1 + 0.0218xJ
T h e preceding transformed (modal variable) equation set is thus seen t o b e similar in mathematical form to the original physical variable equation set, and, indeed, L a p l a c e transform and Heaviside expansion techniques could b e used to obtain exact solutions for t h e responses (either a n d , o r q a n d q ). O n e primary a d v a n t a g e of using the decoupling provided by the natural modal variables and the use of the Galerkin technique is that it can reduce the n u m b e r of degrees of freedom that need to b e carried in the problem description. H o w e v e r , in this simple e x a m p l e such an advantage does not arise because w e started off with such a small n u m b e r of physical degrees of freedom. In this case the advantage of the natural m o d e / G a l e r k i n approach lies rather in the ability to form reasonable a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t o the responses b y neglecting the off-diagonal terms in the resulting C and matrices and thereby to approximate a set of uncoupled single-degree-of-freedom equations:
x 2
M q\
x M
+ cq
xx 22
+ kq
u 22
= (K /V)w f
a 2
G x
(6.74) (6.75)
22
+ cq
+ kq
= (KJV)w f
G 2
w h o s e solutions are then given b y qM where = 1 1 - exp(-Li<ut)
[-^====8,
+ c o s e n i (6.76)
, = - c /Vi\
u
= VTMi Vn^T?;
/=
1,2
(6.77)
In this e x a m p l e t h e calculation of the internal loads could b e accomplished using either of the t w o basic m e t h o d s . T h e m o d e deflection method would have o n e advantage in the simplicity afforded by only calculating the modal responses and then simply multiplying t h e m by appropriate constants. T h e force-integration m e t h o d in this case (and generally for most aeroelastic problems) requires t h e
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
183
consistent calculation of all of the external l o a d i n g s b o t h inertial and aerod y n a m i c f o r an accurate solution. In this e x a m p l e this requirement involves the use of the time-histories of the m o d a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s and velocities, as well as the accelerations.
Example 6 . 5
Examine the in-plane response and resulting in-plane bending characteristics of an articulated rotor with a lead-lag damper (see F i g . 6 . 7 ) . This e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w m o t i o n - d e p e n d e n t loads can enter the d y n a m i c description t h r o u g h the b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s , in this case as a result of the loads imparted by the lead-lag d a m p e r . T o this e n d , w e denote the in-plane elastic deformation by the variable v(x, t), and m a k e the following simplifying assumptions: 1) T h e in-plane loads result solely from inertia considerations. T h e airloads, represented b y / ( j t , t), d o not d e p e n d on the in-plane r e s p o n s e s ; i . e . , the transverse load distribution is given by
v
f (x,
y
t) = f
m[v -
]
2
(6.78)
2) At the b l a d e root the b e n d i n g m o m e n t is related to the time derivative of the slope and the d a m p e r rate of the lead-lag d a m p e r : El = dx
2
dxdt
(6.79)
Solution: T h e basic differential equation of motion is that of the rotating b e a m for in-plane m o t i o n (as given in C h a p t e r 3) with the addition of the disturbance transverse l o a d i n g , / f : [EIv'T A s s u m e a m o d a l solution: j v(x, 0
7 = 0
[v
T'Y
= /?
m[v
il v]
2
(6.80)
7/(*H-(0
(6.81)
184
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e shapes are those for the " p i n n e d " b o u n d a r y condition at the root. N o t e that, in this case the index, 7 = 0 , c o r r e s p o n d s to the rigid-body rotational " m o d e " [y (x) = x] about the h i n g e point. W e then invoke a standard use of the G a l e r k i n t e c h n i q u e wherein w e multiply the equation by the kth m o d e shape and integrate o v e r the b l a d e . C o n s i d e r the integration of the elastic stiffness t e r m , d e n o t e d for this p u r p o s e by K , using integration by parts:
0 s
=
Jo
y(x)
[EIvT
dx
(6.82)
T w o applications of integration by parts yields ()"["} dx
K,
s
y'iWIEiv"]
j
f
= '(0) where b
u
y j(0)q(t) ./ '
= bijiit) ,/ =
(6.83)
= ;(0) ;(0)

(6.84)
T h u s , o n c e a g a i n , the m o t i o n - i n d u c e d loads at the root d u e to the lead-lag d a m p e r result in a c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n the natural vibrations m o d e s . T h e resulting (matrix) differential equation is again of the form described earlier: [M]{q] + [C]{q} + [i M\{q}
2
= {B(t)}
(6.85)
A solution can then be obtained for the response vector, {q(t)}, by either a rigorous solution with the modal variables q(t) being coupled by the fully p o p u l a t e d C m a t r i x , or by an a p p r o x i m a t e o n e wherein the off-diagonal C matrix c o u p l i n g t e r m s are neglected ( , = 0, w h e r e / j) and then q(t) are solved for i n d e p e n d e n t l y . O n c e the r e s p o n s e s are obtained the loads in the blade can then b e solved for using either of the t w o basic load calculation m e t h o d s . H o w e v e r , o n e p r o b l e m with the use of the m o d e deflection m e t h o d is that, b e c a u s e " p i n n e d " root b o u n d a r y condition m o d e s w e r e a s s u m e d , there is no m e c h a n i s m present that can give a n o n z e r o b e n d i n g m o m e n t at the blade root, consistent with the b e n d i n g m o m e n t imparted by the lead-lag d a m p e r . H o w e v e r , this difficulty is o v e r c o m e with the force-integration m e t h o d .
7
O n e note of caution with the force-integration method: B e c a u s e the m e t h o d implies a d e g r e e of b a l a n c i n g of the l o a d s , the statement of the loads calculation m u s t be consistent with that for the response calculation. For instance, if an a p p r o x i m a t e solution s c h e m e is used, then the force-integration m e t h o d will give c o m p l e t e l y e r r o n e o u s results. H o w e v e r , the m o d e deflection m e t h o d is not typically p r o n e to this type of i n a c c u r a c y .
6.1.4
Dynamic Magnification
Factors
T h e t w o basic m e t h o d s of load analysis discussed in the previous s u b s e c t i o n s , m o d e deflection and force-integration m e t h o d s , respectively, both have t w o
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
185
important characteristics: T h e y are both general and are h e n c e adaptable to a w i d e variety of a p p l i c a t i o n s , and they are both capable of yielding any d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y desired ( i . e . , if sufficient c o m p u t a t i o n a l effort is e x p e n d e d ) . H o w e v e r , they both h a v e the d i s a d v a n t a g e of requiring considerable m a t h e m a t i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n , w h i c h is potentially e x p e n s i v e as well as t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a " b a l l p a r k e s t i m a t e " type of m e t h o d is n e e d e d to c o m p l e m e n t the m o r e exact m e t h o d s and to p r o v i d e quick estimate a n s w e r s that d o not require the use of c o m p u t e r s . T h e use of d y n a m i c magnification factors fulfills this need. T h e d y n a m i c magnification factor ( D M F ) is generally defined as follows:
DMF =
( d y
(static displacement)
"
d i s
l a c e m e n t
> a*
m
m a x
T h u s , if the pseudostatic loads are k n o w n for a structure, the D M F gives an estimate of the d y n a m i c loads: (dynamic l o a d )
m a x
= D M F (pseudostatic l o a d )
m u x
(6.87)
T h e D M F is, in g e n e r a l , defined for only single-degree-of-freedom systems for a variety of " s t a n d a r d " forcing functions. S o m e of these standard forcing functions are c o n s i d e r e d in this section. 1) Step function ( u n d a m p e d s p r i n g - m a s s system): Basic equation: i + = , , K O
2
(6.88)
unit step function T h e solution for the r e s p o n s e (subject to zero initial conditions) is given simply as = 1 coscan (6.89)
w h i c h is g r a p h e d in F i g . 6 . 8 . F o r this case the D M F is clearly equal to 2.
186
First
overshoot
x(t)
Mean value
0.0
1.0
2.0
co t/2
D
7x, s e c
Fig. 6.9 Response of a damped spring-mass system to a unit step input. 2) Step function ( d a m p e d spring-mass system): Basic equation: + 2 w h o s e solution is given by +
2
1(0
2
(6.90)
X(T) = 1 -
QXPI-,,)
sinco r + cosco /
D D
(6.91)
w h e r e t h e d a m p e d natural frequency is given by
= Vd
- )
)
2
(6.92)
In a similar m a n n e r the solution for this case is graphed in F i g . 6 . 9 . F o r this case the D M F is given by DMF
1 + exp(-7r/vT -
(6.93)
3) Sinusoidal function ( d a m p e d modal response): Let us n o w focus o u r considerations on t h e simple d a m p e d spring-mass system, in the form of the singledegree-of-freedom representative of the kth modal response of a rotor blade. Let the rotor blade b e excited b y the nth harmonic of (aerodynamic) loading based on t h e fundamental frequency : Q
k KN
+ WKN + v A Q
2 2 K
KN
= C
kn
i n i h
(6.94)
k
w h e r e v fi = = the kth modal ( u n d a m p e d ) natural frequency, and is t h e kth modal damping coefficient (resulting principally from a e r o d y n a m i c loadings). A s s u m i n g sinusoidal m o t i o n , w e can write the (steady-state) solution as Q
KN
= Q exp[i(nt
KN 1 / 7
+ .)]
kn
(6.95)
w h e r e , b y providing for a phase angle, , w e can select q to be a real-valued quantity. W i t h this solution form the amplitude can b e written as *
k n =
{[1 -
(n/v ) }
2 k
(,,)-
(6.96)
T h e pseudostatic response is obtained b y neglecting the acceleration and velocity terms: v IL [Q ] .

2 2 K KN P X
= C e
kn
inih
(6.97)
FUSELAGE VIBRATIONS
T h e D M F is then obtained b y ratioing these t w o quantities:
D M F
187
* ' < = 7F1
{[1 -
( /
{nlv YY
k
[/^/^] } 2 7
/ O MVA Magnification
6 9 8
6.7.5 Approximate Factors
Blade Loads Using Dynamic
T h e previously d e v e l o p e d c o n c e p t s c a n b e applied to the rotor blade to form r u d i m e n t a r y a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to the blade b e n d i n g m o m e n t s a n d shears subject to t h e following a s s u m p t i o n s : 1) T h e h u b d o e s not translate or rotate. This forms the so-called infinitely rigid h u b a p p r o x i m a t i o n , w h i c h denies the very real effects of rotor-fuselage coupling. 2) I n t e r m o d a l c o u p l i n g d u e to a e r o d y n a m i c or other effects is negligible, as per the d e c o u p l i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n given in the preceding section. 3) I n t e r h a r m o n i c c o u p l i n g d u e to forward-flight a e r o d y n a m i c loadings is negligible. 4) Pseudostatic b e n d i n g m o m e n t a n d shear distributions h a v e been calculated a priori (or are available from s o m e other source). B a s e d o n these (actually s o m e w h a t shaky) a s s u m p t i o n s , the maximum values of t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t s a n d shears can be expressed as follows: M (x))
h
<

kl
\M (x)}
b
(DMF),
S (x) J
m
(6.99)
ax (pseudostatic)
S {x)
J max
harmonics
w h e r e (DMF) is as given earlier. W i t h this formulation it should b e noted that 1) (DMF) will be a p p r o x i m a t e l y unity ( 1 . 0 ) for m o d e s w h o s e natural freq u e n c i e s (v ) are well a b o v e t h e h a r m o n i c s of excitation a n d will b e ~ 0 for m o d e s w h o s e natural frequencies are well b e l o w these h a r m o n i c s . This follows directly from t h e well-established frequency-response characteristics of a singledegree-of-freedom d y n a m i c s y s t e m . 2) T h e formula tends t o b e c o n s e r v a t i v e since it a s s u m e s that t h e m a x i m u m d i s p l a c e m e n t s of e a c h m o d e o c c u r simultaneously. T h e s e c o n c e p t s c a n then b e illustrated b y considering the flapping excitation of a rotor b l a d e . F i g u r e 6 . 1 0 s h o w s t h e velocity c o m p o n e n t s contributing to the airloading at a typical b l a d e section ( w h o s e flapping motion is again defined in t h e d o w n w a r d direction).
k
TI.,
1
modes
Using a simple t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l strip theory formulation of the a e r o d y n a m i c loads on this section, an a p p r o x i m a t e loading distribution can b e written. Of p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e is t h e role of the " i n d u c e d v e l o c i t y " v, appearing in this formulation. Induced velocity. T h e induced velocity is the c o m p o n e n t of the air velocity i m p i n g i n g on the airfoil blade section that arises from the presence of the lifting rotor itself. G e n e r a l l y , t h e induced velocity, as encountered by the lifting airfoil
Next Page
188 airfoil ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS section at radial station x:
\f{x,t) airfoil plunging motion
Fig. 6.10 Velocity diagram for airloads at a typical rotor blade section.
section, is highly variable both in time and space ( i . e . , spanwise position). T h e zero-frequency c o m p o n e n t of the induced velocity can be attributed to the response of the airmass to the action of the rotor in producing a thrust. In a similar m a n n e r time-variable c o m p o n e n t s of the induced velocity arise from the h a r m o n i c responses of the blade sections. T h e s e responses cause motion-induced h a r m o n i c loadings on the blade and must therefore also be a c c o m p a n i e d by h a r m o n i c c h a n g e s of m o m e n t u m in the a i r m a s s . At this point, such a description is a necessarily overly simplified explanation of a complicated p h e n o m e n o n that e n c o m p a s s e s a variety of other important fluid d y n a m i c effects. But it is sufficient to establish the case that the induced velocity v can b e considered to be c o m p r i s e d of a steady part, v , and a multiharmonic part that is also a spanwise variable, v i . This latter c o m p o n e n t provides the major harmonic excitation of the blade d y n a m i c s . Upon taking the geometric blade pitch angle to be comprised of a steady part, , and the ( I P a n d higher) h a r m o n i c part, , , w e can then write the (upwardly directed) lifting airload distribution. [ H e r e , w e have a s s u m e d again that the effects of pitch rate are negligible (for illustrative purposes) and that w e have essentially a hovering flight condition.) T h e resulting simplified expression is given by
0 ) ( H) 0
f (x, t) :
\pac{x) 2
r
V
U 6
2
( - xRX]
^pac
< {steady
loads) (6.100)
+ ^pacl[lx Q
2
+ xz - xv\ \
H)
w h e r e , denotes h a r m o n i c feathering and perturbational torsion deflection; xz denotes the (flapping) m o t i o n - i n d u c e d c o m p o n e n t ; and v denotes h a r m o n i c inflow. A l s o , is the rotor inflow ratio, a nondimensionalization of the uniform and constant part of the induced velocity plus any " r a m " velocity of the rotor
( H) j
Methods for Vibration Control

In the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r the basic tools are identified (if not as yet c o m p l e t e l y formulated) for a n a l y z i n g the helicopter/rotorcraft for vibration. T h e basic vibration analysis p r o b l e m boils d o w n to k n o w i n g the following items with sufficient a c c u r a c y : 1) the aerodynamic environments of both the rotor and the fuselage; 2) the a e r o d y n a m i c and aeroelastic r e s p o n s e characteristics of the (rotating) rotor in the form of integrated hub loads; 3) the structural characteristics of the (nonrotating) fuselage, in the form of accurate frequency r e s p o n s e functions (fuselage mobilities); and 4) the rotor-fuselage interactions, in the form of rotor impedances. O n c e e a c h of these separate items can be predicted accurately, coupling tools exist for c o m b i n i n g t h e m to give reliable vibration predictions. Such predictive capability, if available sufficiently early in the design p r o c e s s , should lead to the q u a n t u m reduction in vibration (with m i n i m u m weight) that is so highly prized. H o w e v e r , the required k n o w l e d g e to achieve this state of affairs is not yet at h a n d and aircraft d e s i g n , fabrication, and certification must continue without the benefit of this f o r e k n o w l e d g e . T h u s , m e t h o d s that h a v e necessarily been devised for modifying the aircraft design " a f t e r the f a c t " will continue to be used to r e d u c e vibration to s o m e tolerable level. This chapter describes major m e t h o d s devised and presently either used outright or seriously being considered for controlling vibration.
7.1
Basic Modification Methodology
G e n e r a l l y , the structural modification m e t h o d o l o g y available to the designer is of three basic types: 1) d e t u n i n g the structural responses through passive structural c h a n g e s , 2) using (passive or active) vibration alleviation d e v i c e s , and 3) altering the excitation forces to m i n i m i z e the vibrational content. Material presented in this c h a p t e r deals with c o n c e p t s addressing all of these aspects. In addition this c h a p t e r describes ' ' v i b r a t i o n o p t i m i z a t i o n " techniques that could potentially impact on the p r o b l e m directly in the design process itself before the r a n g e of modification options b e c o m e s narrowly restricted d u e to the design becoming " f r o z e n . "
Design/Modification
Variables
Inherent in the c o n c e p t of structural modification is the notion that there does indeed exist s o m e finite n u m b e r of p a r a m e t e r s that can be varied regardless of h o w far along the design has p r o g r e s s e d (despite the fact that the design m a y e v e n be c o n s i d e r e d to b e " f r o z e n " ) . N o r m a l l y such p a r a m e t e r s w o u l d be referred to as design parameters, but in the present context w e can denote t h e m modification parameters as well ( p ). S u c h a notion m a k e s sense for cases wherein
m
211
212
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S
systematic modifications must be m a d e to a relatively mature design. As with design p a r a m e t e r s , which are conceptually most appropriate at an early stage in the d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s , modification parameters can furthermore be classified as either detailed or derived. Detailed parameters are parameters that are typically directly identifiable by virtue of d i m e n s i o n s obtainable on a d r a w i n g or specifications for one or m o r e of the structural c o m p o n e n t s . T h e y could be linear d i m e n s i o n s , a n g l e s , densities, and/or material selections. As such, these parameters can be readily related both to each other and to individual ranges of variability by m e a n s of appropriate constraints. A n e x a m p l e of such a constraint might be the requirement that t w o or m o r e c o m p o n e n t m a s s e s must not o c c u p y the s a m e space. Constraints typically can be expressed m a t h e m a t i c a l l y in terms of both equalities and inequalities. Derived parameters are those parameters upon which the structural d y n a m i c s are most naturally formulated mathematically and are typically c o m b i n a t i o n s of the detailed p a r a m e t e r s . E x a m p l e s of derived parameters are m a s s and stiffness distributions, center of gravity ( e . g . ) and elastic axis (e.a.) offsets, aerodynamically effective areas, and effective spring rates. For such modification parameters appropriate constraints are typically not directly available. Thus, analytic treatments using derived parameters are often instructive but are not practical because of the inattention of the real constraints posed by the detailed modification p a r a m e t e r s .
7.7.2
Reduction of Dynamic Amplification
by Detuning
On the basis of what we generally k n o w of the responses of d y n a m i c s y s t e m s , we can immediately identify one method for controlling vibration: Reduce all instances of dynamic amplification due to close proximity to resonance conditions. This can be achieved by detuning the structure in either of two basic w a y s : by c h a n g i n g existing unfavorable frequency placements, or by changing unfavorable modal orthogonality placements. In the former case the n a r r o w b a n d excitation p r o b l e m characteristic of the rotorcraft problem is to be controlled by keeping the structural natural frequencies well separated from the excitation frequencies, typically multiples of the blade passage frequencies. In the latter case the p r o b l e m is to be controlled by m a x i m i z i n g the orthogonality of the structural m o d e shapes to the spatial variability of the applied loadings, a process s o m e t i m e s referred to as modal shaping. In either case s o m e k n o w l e d g e of h o w more favorable conditions are to be achieved is required; for this we seek appropriate vibrational trend information.
7.7.3
Extraction of Trend
Information
In all cases the process of structural modification is to be guided by the principle of reducing the d y n a m i c magnifications through either frequency and/or spatial ( m o d e shape) d e t u n i n g . For any given d y n a m i c p r o b l e m this process requires s o m e k n o w l e d g e of h o w the resonant magnification varies with the set of design p a r a m e t e r s appropriate to the p r o b l e m . This variation of the resonance characteristics constitutes trend information, which must s o m e h o w b e c o m e k n o w n to guide the modification p r o c e s s . T h e information can of course be obtained by calculating an in-depth e n s e m b l e of results for wide variations in the design p a r a m e t e r s . T h e s e results typically take the form of graphs s h o w i n g the explicit
M E T H O D S F O R VIBRATION C O N T R O L
213
variations of the characteristics of interest for all feasible values of the design p a r a m e t e r s . A n alternate m e t h o d of dealing with trend information is to c o m p u t e the derivatives of t h e pertinent r e s o n a n c e characteristics directly either analytically, if p o s s i b l e , or by direct numerical calculation of the partial derivatives constituting this trend information. T h e following sections deal with m e t h o d s for c o m p u t i n g the trend information. Analytic evaluation. E v a l u a t i o n of the variability of the u n d a m p e d m o d a l characteristics with respect to the design p a r a m e t e r s can b e achieved using the basic e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m w h e r e i n the various d y n a m i c matrices are found to b e readily expressible, explicit functions of the design/modification p a r a m e t e r s . T h u s , for this c a s e t h e e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m c a n b e expressed in t e r m s of the m a s s and stiffness m a t r i c e s , [M] a n d [K], respectively, both of w h i c h are analytic functions of the d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s , p :
m
lM(p )]{Z]
m
+ lK(pJ]{Z]
= 0
(7.1)
w h e r e the r e s p o n s e vector {Z} is given b y a m o d a l d e c o m p o s i t i o n using the first J modes:

./
{} =
{(*> Pm)} e J';

ia
where
, = ,.(/> )
/
(7.2)
N o t e that since the e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m is defined in terms of the modification p a r a m e t e r s , p (m = 1, 2 , . . . , M ) , both the m o d a l matrix [ 1 (a J x i matrix w h o s e c o l u m n s are the m o d e shapes) a n d the J natural frequencies , are implicit functions of the d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s . T h e solution of the p r e c e d i n g e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m for a given set of modification p a r a m e t e r s , p = p yields a set of natural frequencies a n d m o d e s h a p e s :
m m r
= (/?,);
{,,} = {(/),)}
(7.3)
Derivatives of the eigenvalues. If the a b o v e eigenvalue equation is differentiated with respect to the mth modification p a r a m e t e r and the Galerkin proc e d u r e is applied to the resulting equation the following result is obtained for the derivative of the ith natural frequency:
,= - '"" p
m
/J \ ~ }

+ ,,,,,,-}
(7.4)
2 -
w h e r e M is the ith g e n e r a l i z e d m a s s . Derivatives of the eigenvectors. T w o principal m e t h o d s exist for calculating the derivatives of t h e e i g e n v e c t o r s with respect to the modification p a r a m e t e r s . O n e m e t h o d is b a s e d on the representation of the derivative of the ith e i g e n v e c t o r as a linear c o m b i n a t i o n of the e i g e n v e c t o r s t h e m s e l v e s . A l t h o u g h this m e t h o d d o e s p r o d u c e a calculation of the desired d e r i v a t i v e s , it has the distinct disadv a n t a g e that all of t h e e i g e n v e c t o r s for the system must be k n o w n , a r e q u i r e m e n t of tall p r o p o r t i o n s for typical finite e l e m e n t m o d e l i n g ( F E M ) solutions. C o n s i d e r that such F E M formulations invariably involve m a n y d e g r e e s of freedom; cons e q u e n t l y , only a small n u m b e r of the (lowest-frequency) m o d e s are calculated.
214
F u r t h e r m o r e , a characteristic of F E M solutions is that the accuracy of the o b tainable higher-frequency m o d e s , if they are calculated, are usually less accurate than the lowest o n e s . A s a result of this d i s a d v a n t a g e , an alternate m e t h o d h a s been formulated that utilizes the derivative information of the given d y n a m i c m a t r i c e s , as before, but only the eigenvector for t h e m o d e in q u e s t i o n , . A g a i n , w e begin with the basic statement of the eigenvalue p r o b l e m , w h o s e c o m p o n e n t matrices are analytic functions of the modification p a r a m e t e r s :
1-}\( )\
+ [K(p,)\]
{ } (/)
[] {">} = {0}
(7.5)
which c a n be partitioned with o n e arbitrary degree of freedom, 1 ' \ separated out, as follows:
Zk\ ' kk _ z
3 I
Zu
z
t
<
{0}
(7.6)
Z _
.<
T h e n t h e derivative of the e i g e n v e c t o r can be expressible as

V'l
I "'' > + { "} =

( (
{V'"' }
1
,{ "
(
(7.7)
Let { '"} be t h e n o n z e r o c o m p a c t i o n
T h e n the solution for this vector is obtained from the following s i m u l t a n e o u s equations:
Z.3
{*<}
" 'U
l t
{ }
(/)
(7.8)
33
T h e constant c is d e t e r m i n e d on the basis of h o w the eigenvector is n o r m a l i z e d . If . is taken to be unity (normalization on the basis of the largest e l e m e n t ) , then the constant c is z e r o . In s o m e instances the eigenvector is n o r m a l i z e d on the basis of the following relationship:
[
( / ) 7 ( / )
\ [S\ {
()
1
( / )
(7.9)
where [ ] [ i . e . , = { } | is the c o m p l e x conjugate of { } , and [S\ is s o m e s y m m e t r i c matrix (often taken to be the mass matrix). F o r this case the inconstant is d e t e r m i n e d by
c; = - R e ( [ O
/ ) r
] |5J { v } ) + 2[ ]
(/) {)
[5 , |{ }
(/) / 1
(7.10)
215
It should be kept in mind that the derivatives of the [Z \ partitionings, with respect to the p a r a m e t e r s p , require not only the derivatives of the d y n a m i c matrices [M] a n d [K] but those of the eigenvalues as well, as per the prior d e v e l o p m e n t . N o t e also that the preceding expressions for the eigenvalue and e i g e n v e c t o r derivatives are to be calculated from the results of the e i g e n v a l u e solution for the particular set of modification p a r a m e t e r s , p = p .
ik m m m
Numerical evaluation. Evaluation of the trend information is often required w h e n the variability of the system matrices with respect to the modification p a r a m e t e r s is not explicit and therefore cannot be expressed as analytic functions. For this case the calculation of the required trend information typically requires the u s e of " b r u t e f o r c e " numerical evaluations of the partial derivatives: , . . . , p
2
+ , . . .
Y(p
p,
2
. . . , p
, . . .)]/
(7.Il)
w h e r e Y represents a n y of the e i g e n v a l u e quantities considered in the previous subsection.
7.1 A
Cancellation
Effects
A l t h o u g h the modal detuning m e t h o d for vibration control described earlier can b e used to achieve reductions in vibratory response for a n y selected m o d e or c o m b i n a t i o n of m o d e s , the m e t h o d h a s the d r a w b a c k that it cannot account for vibration p r o b l e m s w h e r e i n significant cancellation effects are present. C a n cellation refers to the situation wherein the response of a critical point in the structure is the result of significant contributions from a n u m b e r of m o d e s all r e s p o n d i n g to the s a m e sinusoidal excitation. F o r this case the net response of the critical point is the vector s u m of the c o m p o n e n t modal responses that can often involve substantial mutual cancellation. T h u s , for this case a significant reduction of only o n e modal c o m p o n e n t of the response can actually result in an increase of the net r e s p o n s e . F o r this reason detuning must be used in a m u c h more comprehensive manner than would be indicated by the preceding subsection.
7.2
Modification of Blade Dynamics
T h e m o s t typical m e a n s used for modification of the blade d y n a m i c s is that of d e t u n i n g the design as described earlier. Generally this form of modification is limited with respect to w h a t is available to be c h a n g e d . All t o o often the only modification p a r a m e t e r available is the addition of weight. This form of blade modification is less than optimal not only in that it is practical at usually only a few n o n o p t i m a l b l a d e locations, but also in that it counterproductively detracts from the rotorcraft's pay load-carrying capability. F u r t h e r m o r e , as can be s h o w n from the basic b e h a v i o r of rotating b e a m s (as considered in a previous c h a p t e r ) , the addition of nonstructural weight typically p r o d u c e s significant c h a n g e s only in t h e in-plane natural frequencies. Additional structural stiffening is usually required for alteration of the flatwise and/or out-of-plane natural frequencies.
216
7.2.7
Aeroelastic
Conformability
O n e approach to the favorable modification of blade d y n a m i c s is the so-called technique of aeroelastic conformability, wherein the rotor blade is purposely designed with specific nonlinear distributions of the basic elastomechanic parameters. T h e s e p a r a m e t e r s include the basic spanwise mass and stiffness distributions, as well as a variety of couplings between the various c o m b i n a t i o n s of flatwise, e d g e w i s e , and torsion m o d e s . T h e s e couplings are introduced so that " c o r r e c t i v e " secondary aeroelastic responses might be generated by the blade itself w h e n it would otherwise respond in a m o d e tending to produce high vibratory h u b shears and m o m e n t s . Basic m e t h o d s identified for achieving these couplings are 1) to alter the blade e l a s t o m e c h a n i c s , by devising appropriate spanwise distributions of the various c h o r d w i s e offsets centers (elastic axis, gravity center, tension center, e t c . ) ; 2) to alter the a e r o d y n a m i c l o a d i n g s , by incorporating special a e r o d y n a m i c refinements (taper, twist, and special tip shapes); and 3) to devise new elastic couplings n o w possible with the use of anisotropic c o m p o s i t e s . O n e difficulty of the aeroelastic conformability approach is that the resulting blade response is typically a c o m p o s i t e of m a n y contributions resulting from the several loads acting on the rotor b l a d e . T h i s , in effect, is an e x a m p l e of reduction by cancellation as discussed in an earlier subsection. Figure 7.1 typifies this p h e n o m e n o n for the case of rotating blade lateral shear. This figure points to the difficulty in attempting to reduce any c o m p o n e n t of hub loading by modifying any one c o m p o n e n t using a passive coupling effect.
O Phase, deg Fig. 7 .1 Polar diagram of predicted 3 /rev rotating lateral shear for an articulated blade in high-speed flight.
217
T h a t i s , b e c a u s e of the high d e g r e e of cancellation present, reducing o n e c o m p o n e n t without r e d u c i n g all c o m p o n e n t s c o m m e n s u r a t e l y might result in marginal i m p r o v e m e n t or e v e n a w o r s e n i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , the introduction of certain passive aeroelastic c o u p l i n g s to achieve the desired " c o n f o r m a b i l i t y " could limit the favorable cancellations to a small n u m b e r of specific flight conditions wherein the passive c o u p l i n g s w o u l d be " w e l l - t u n e d . " T h e concept is an attractive o n e , h o w e v e r , a n d could potentially achieve the desired reductions in vibration with little o r n o increase in w e i g h t . T h e appropriate m a n n e r of applying such couplings is not intuitively o b v i o u s in light of the considerations of the present cancellations. T h u s , any successful i m p l e m e n t a t i o n must be achieved using an appropriate m a t h e m a t i c a l tool; p r e s e n t l y , an attractive tool identified for this purpose is a formalized optimization s c h e m e applied to the rotor vibration p r o b l e m .
7.2.2
Formalized
Vibration Minimization
Schemes
T h e process of d e s i g n i n g for m i n i m u m vibration using the previously described aeroelastic conformability c o n c e p t is typically a p p r o a c h e d by casting the p r o b l e m in a form to w h i c h well-established nonlinear optimization techniques can b e applied. T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s are necessarily quite d e p e n d e n t on the availability of (usually large mainframe) c o m p u t e r r e s o u r c e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the material presented herein only defines the basic issues of i m p l e m e n t i n g these techniques to the rotorcraft vibration m i n i m i z a t i o n p r o b l e m . In any optimization p r o b l e m there are three main considerations to b e addressed: 1) the definition of the design (modification) p a r a m e t e r s , 2) t h e definition of a suitable cost function J which is to b e o p t i m i z e d , and 3) the identification and definition of the constraints. A d d i t i o n a l l y , since t h e optimization process is an iterative o n e , it must start with an initial design that d o e s satisfy the constraints. T h e condition that a design satisfies all the constraints is defined by stating that the vector of design p a r a m eters lies within t h e feasible design space. Design parameters. T h e set of design p a r a m e t e r s , p , for the rotor blade p r o b l e m c a n include a variety of e l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l and a e r o d y n a m i c descriptors, as discussed earlier. T h e p r o b l e m of defining a practical set of design parameters is that of k e e p i n g t h e n u m b e r d o w n to a sufficiently " s m a l l " n u m o e r to k e e p the optimization i m p l e m e n t a t i o n tractable. N o t e that s o m e of the constraints to be c o n s i d e r e d in the following m u s t b e m a d e on the design parameters t h e m s e l v e s ; h e n c e , detailed p a r a m e t e r s should be used and defined in as simple a m a n n e r as practical.
m
Cost function. F o r the vibration minimization p r o b l e m several appropriate cost functions could be defined, d e p e n d i n g on the ability to define the function quantitatively. Since w e wish to m i n i m i z e the c o m p o n e n t s of vibration in an essentially n a r r o w b a n d sinusoidal p r o c e s s , w e could define the cost function in terms of t h e cosine a n d sine (Fourier) c o m p o n e n t s of s o m e vibratory q u a n t i t y , , at a point in t h e structure. T h u s , alternative formulations for the cost function J could b e
3
J
=
j=\
(Ql
+ Qj ) <*p
n
where
= kb,
= 1 , 2 , . . .
(7.12)
218 or
J
(I/
I + I/
I) y;
a i n
'
= kb,
k = 1, 2, . . . (7.13)
and w h e r e is a set of arbitrarily weighting factors that must be (user) selected to reflect the priorities assigned to the various c o m p o n e n t s . Ideally, o n e would want to u s e s o m e " b o t t o m l i n e " description of the actual vibratory accelerations at s o m e critical point (or points) in the aircraft structure for the Fourier c o m ponents of . H o w e v e r , the ability to analyze the entire aircraft, including the effects of rotor-fuselage c o u p l i n g , would require a substantial formulation and c o m p u t a t i o n a l c h o r e . F u r t h e r m o r e , as w e have seen, such a formulation is not presently a reliably accurate basis. A n alternate selection of quantity for the basis of the cost function might be the various c o m p o n e n t s of the h u b shears and/or m o m e n t s , H(x, v, z ) and M(x, v, z ) , respectively.
;
Constraints. Constraints must be applied to t w o different groups of quantities, the design p a r a m e t e r s themselves and quantities which define blade response. 1) Constraints on the design parameters. T h e constraints on the design p a r a m e t e r s w o u l d consist of more or less generic limitations on any set of detailed design p a r a m e t e r s : p V ^ P n ^ P ^ rn = 1 , 2 , . . . , M (7.14)
which specifies l o w e r and upper b o u n d s on each p a r a m e t e r ' s range of variability and G(pJ ^ 0; = 1, 2 , . . . , (7.15)
which specifies that there shall be n o interference b e t w e e n the design p a r a m e t e r s . 2) Constraints placed on supplementary responses. Besides achieving a m i n i m u m vibration p r o b l e m , the designer of the rotor blade must also achieve one that is aeroelastically stable. A l s o , the vibration minimization process can be assisted at this point by constraining the d a m p i n g to be positive and the natural frequencies to have values separated from integral h a r m o n i c values: y W - 1 ^ 0 ; k = 1, 2 , . . . , (7.16)
which specifies the lower b o u n d s on aeroelastic stability for all the coupled aeroelastic m o d e s and ?/? 1 1> 0 \\ |/ ^ 0 J
> t m
= 1, 2 , . . . , *
n \ < )
7 1 7
which specifies the frequency p l a c e m e n t s within b o u n d s and away from nearest integral h a r m o n i c s . Iteration process. B e g i n n i n g with s o m e initial design (one w h o s e design p a r a m e t e r s lie within the feasible design s p a c e , i . e . , those that actually d o satisfy
219
the c o n s t r a i n t s ) , the optimization process can then iterate to those design p a r a m eters that m i n i m i z e the cost function J. T y p i c a l l y , this minimization process ultimately m u s t be c a p a b l e of generating and using " t r e n d i n f o r m a t i o n " reg a r d i n g both the constraints and the cost function. A s an e x a m p l e , let the totality of constraints b e given by a vector, {G}, w h o s e d i m e n s i o n is represented by ( = 2M + + 3K, as defined earlier). T h e n the functionality of the constraints can b e e x p r e s s e d , in the vicinity of an existing d e s i g n , by a T a y l o r series: {G(p)} = {G( )}
Po
dG(Po)
d
P
2
{p d G(p )
0
Poi (7.18)
dp
{ ~ Poi
Similarly, the cost function can be expressed as: J(p) = J(p )

0
dJ(Po) dp
2
{P J(Po) dp
2
Poi (7.19)
- iP
2
Pol
{ -
Poi
T h e various partial derivative (gradient) matrices in these expressions can b e calculated by any of a n u m b e r of m e t h o d s available, as appropriate to the specific p r o b l e m . T h e choice of m e t h o d o l o g y for calculating these gradient m a t r i c e s , as well as using t h e m to effect iterative c h a n g e s in the right direction to the o p t i m u m v a l u e , are subject to a variety of s c h e m e s and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s . T h e application of n o n l i n e a r optimization t e c h n i q u e s to the rotorcraft vibration p r o b l e m is still in its infancy. It has received the positive interest it has principally b e c a u s e of the e m e r g e n c e of increasingly m o r e powerful (and yet less expensive) c o m p u t e r resources and the increasing a c c e p t a n c e of c o m p u t e r - a i d e d design systems in the design r o o m .
7.3
Modification of Fuselage Dynamics
All of the r e m a r k s presented earlier regarding basic modification m e t h o d o l o g y pertain to the fuselage p r o b l e m as well as to the blade and rotor p r o b l e m . Potentially, the use of these basic t e c h n i q u e s should be m o r e straightforward for the nonrotating fuselage than for the rotating blades and rotor. H o w e v e r , the fuselage p r o b l e m is c o m p l i c a t e d by the fact that this substructure is subject to a r a n g e of variations in m a s s d u e to the spectrum of operational loading conditions and stores. T h u s , a twofold need exists for analyzing the d y n a m i c characteristics of the fuselage structure for modifications that w o u l d essentially a m o u n t to variations about s o m e b a s e set of characteristics. A n u m b e r of general theoretical m e t h o d s currently exist for predicting total system structural d y n a m i c c h a r a c teristics from those of the c o m p o n e n t s and/or of modifications. H o w e v e r , relative to the b r o a d s p e c t r u m of applications for which such theories can be used the rotorcraft vibration p r o b l e m is s o m e w h a t u n i q u e in that it is a narrowband process. F o r this reason it b e c o m e s a d v a n t a g e o u s to analyze the p r o b l e m in the frequency d o m a i n and to w o r k with mobilities (and c o n v e r s e l y , with i m p e d a n c e s )
220
as the principal vehicle for describing these characteristics. T h e following sections present material useful for analyzing structures with this s c h e m e in mind.
7.3.7
Modifications
Using Analytical
Testing
T h e s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s l y n a m e d technique of analytical testing relates to a potentially powerful technique for analytically obtaining the modified vibratory responses of a structure for which a basic set of (usually unsatisfactory) responses have already been obtained from s o m e form of testing. T h u s , the method has the potential for saving m a n y expensive flight test hours that would otherwise have been spent in solving a vibration p r o b l e m experimentally in a hit-or-miss m a n n e r with relatively little coherent direction. T h e specific steps o n e w o u l d use to solve a vibration problem using analytical testing consist of the following: 1) C o n d u c t a flight test with an assortment of (vibratory) response measuring transducers (accelerometers) at several locations in the airframe, both where vibration is critical, and w h e r e potential (interface) modifications might be m a d e , {*},. For both locations we denote these responses as the original or old responses: {*} . 2) C o n d u c t a g r o u n d - b a s e d shake test to measure Y , the mobilities of the critical response locations relative to the (interface) points in the structure wherein modifications are c o n t e m p l a t e d , and for which response test data were originally acquired as per step 1. Additionally, the mobilities of the structure at the interface p o i n t s , Y , are to be m e a s u r e d . 3) S o m e form of d y n a m i c modification or correction is selected for attachment at the interface point(s). This modification has a mobility associated with it, Y ^ , which can either be identified by analytical or experimental m e a n s . 4) T h e quantities identified in steps 1-3 can then be brought together to form the modified r e s p o n s e s at the critical response locations due to the addition of the modification mobilities at the interface point(s):
0 f / / 7
w,} =
v
> '
[iv/i
\y.i + ^ r
x
,}
1
. '
'
. '
20)
new
old
interfaceat interface interface mobility
7.3.2
Derivation of Basic Analytic Testing Equation
T h e basis of the preceding equation for analytical testing is not intuitively o b v i o u s . In order to show that the preceding equation is indeed correct and, furthermore, to illustrate the definitions of the c o m p o n e n t matrices in the equation, a formal derivation of the equation is in order and is therefore presented in the following material. First w e describe the sinusoidal responses of the original (unmodified) structure in terms of the applied loads, {/}, the responses of the structure at the points of interest {q } and at the interface points, {q}, and the mobilities at these locations:
F
(7.21)
221
N o t e that, as long as there are n o applied loads at the selected interface location ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to {q}) the equation is actually simply stated as {q } = [Y ]{f}. In F i g . 7 . 2 w e n o w d e n o t e the unmodified (fuselage) structure as b o d y A and the " a d d - o n " modification as substructure B . A s s h o w n there n o w exists an additional load vector at the selected interface location, {/,}. With the addition of substructure B , the w h o l e structure is n o w the union of A and B , and the interface location loads are n o w internal loads of this c o m b i n e d structure. As with any investigation of the internal loads b e t w e e n t w o substructures, the internal loads m u s t b e defined in o p p o s i t e directions relative to each of the s u b s y s t e m s . T h u s , in the figure the internal loads at the interface are depicted with load vectors as " s e e n " b y each of the respective substructures. Note that the mobilities for e a c h of the substructures at the interface location are defined in terms of the load and deflection vectors both being directed inward to the substructure and in the s a m e direction. T h u s , the deflection vector at the interface as seen by substructure A is d e n o t e d as {qj} and that as seen by substructure as {q} . C l e a r l y , these t w o vectors are negatives of each other [{q\ [qr) ]. T h e basic a p p r o a c h to deriving the analytical testing equation is first to define the interface load vector and introduce it into the mobility equation for the fuselage (substructure A ) . W h e n this load is so introduced, the n e w response is then the required modified response:
F FF a h a h
(7.22) N o t e that, since the i m p e d a n c e matrix partitions were m e a s u r e d on the fuselage alone the deflection vector is identified as looking into substructure A [ i . e . , {*}"]. T h e l o w e r partition of the deflection vector can then be related to the deflection vector looking into substructure B : W,Y = -W,f = -YfAif,} (7.23)
structura/ modification
Fig. 7.2 Schematic of the dynamic interaction between an existing structure and a dynamic subsystem modification.
222
Then the previous equation can be rewritten to isolate the interface load vector:
(7.24) T h e second partitioning of this equation can then be c o m b i n e d with the previous result to give
-\n\{fi} =
{.//} -
{*/}" + lYiAifi)
(7.25)
F r o m this equation the required expression for the interface load vector can be found: i n ; + /\~

(7.26)
T h e derivation is then c o m p l e t e d by using this expression to eliminate the interface load vector from the previous equation. It should be noted that the preceding expression is for a structure that is being excited at some point(s) separate from either the critical response points or the interface points. T h u s , in the case of a rotorcraft vibration problem the " o l d " responses at the points F and / are those resulting from excitation located at s o m e other point, / / , which might correspond to one of the rotor h u b s . An important assumption inherent in the preceding formulation is that the excitation at point H does not change due to the modification at the interface point. This is not always the case with rotorcraft p r o b l e m s , and the analytical testing methodology has been e x p a n d e d to treat this m o r e general case.
7.3.3
Example of Usage
T h e A H - 1 G helicopter has been used extensively as a test bed for fuselage vibration research. Based on the mobility m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e on this aircraft (as depicted in following Fig. 7 . 3 ) , it provides a realistic vehicle for exemplifying the basic analytic testing m e t h o d o l o g y . T h e following e x a m p l e (Flannelly, Fab u n m i , and N a g y ) is that of a hypothetical configuration of an A H - 1 G helicopter that had never flown with rocket p o d s . An addition of rocket pods weighing 181 kg (400 lbw) each to the outboard wing stations is contemplated. For this hypothetical configuration we wish to introduce flight acceleration test data taken of the clean aircraft (no rocket p o d s ) , on an as-available basis from another project. W e wish to predict what the fuselage responses would be with the addition of the rocket p o d s . T h e addition of the rocket pods clearly defines a structural modification (addition of m a s s ) . Data resulting from a set of selected points within the fuselage for a variety of flight tests were analyzed. Conditions of highest peak-to-peak vibration for the selected set of locations were a s s e m b l e d a n d , in each class of flight condition, were analyzed with a h a r m o n i c analysis over five to eight rotor revolutions. T h e accelerances (acceleration-based mobilities) of the left and right wing stores position for vertical motion constitute a 2 x 2 c o m p l e x matrix. T h e s e are at butt lines (BL) 60 and are identified as Z 2 0 0 L and Z 2 0 0 R . T h e following
223
Fig. 7.3 Location and direction of components of motion measured on AH -1G helicopter. evaluation of this mobility m a t r i x , for a frequency of 10.8 H z , has the units of ( n o n d i m e n s i o n a l ) acceleration ( i . e . , vibrational load factor, rc)/force (in N e w t o n s ) , and herein specifically, of n/N: 0 . 0 5 4 / - 8 deg lYrri . 0.012/14 deg 0 . 0 1 2 / 1 4 deg 0.040/8 deg . 1 0 ~ (/)
3
(7.27)
Analytic testing predictions are then m a d e for the nine motion coordinates s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 3 . T h e matrix of mobilities for these nine coordinates (the j index) relative to forcing at locations Z 2 0 0 L and Z 2 0 0 R (the r index) is given by Eq. ( 7 . 2 8 ) . This matrix has the units of load factor per N e w t o n for sinusoidal motion at a frequency of 10.8 H z : Z200L Z200 Z90L Z140L Z396R Z400 Y380 Y440 Y490 Y517 0 . 0 3 3 / - 4 deg 0.017/22 deg 0 . 0 4 6 / 5 deg 0 . 0 4 6 / - 19 d e g 0 . 1 0 0 / - 4 9 deg 0.193/144 deg 0 . 0 9 1 / - 167 d e g 0.065/77 deg 0 . 1 6 8 / 1 3 0 deg Z200R 0 . 0 5 2 / 9 deg 0 . 0 2 4 / - 140 deg 0 . 0 1 8 / - 176 deg 0 . 0 6 8 / 1 1 deg 0 . 0 4 9 / - 9 7 deg 0 . 2 0 8 / - 4 8 deg 0 . 0 8 6 / 8 deg 0 . 0 8 4 / - 9 6 deg 0 . 1 5 1 / 53 d e g
X
10
(7.28)
224
T h e vibration, in units of vibratory load factor, resulting from the change is obtained from the basic analytic testing equation:
W,} =
{C/,}
lY,r\
181 0
0 1 181 {q }
r
(7.29)
w h e r e G is the gravitational acceleration ( = 9.81 m / s ) .

2
7.3.4
Structural Synthesis Using Analytical Testing
T h e modification of a structure can be thought of as a combination or synthesis of t w o lesser structures: the original or unmodified structure and the structural modification. T h u s , the concept of analytical testing can be e x p a n d e d to include several concurrent " m o d i f i c a t i o n s " or substructure syntheses, the totality of which forms the entire structure. This extension of the analytical testing metho d o l o g y w a s d e v e l o p e d by J e t m u n s e n et al. and is s u m m a r i z e d in A p p e n d i x C.
7.4
Vibration Suppression Devices
A specific modification that can be m a d e to any vibration prone structure is s o m e form of vibration suppression d e v i c e . T y p i c a l l y , these devices are passive in nature and thereby require s o m e finite response in order to generate counteracting forces and/or m o m e n t s . Such devices can be a p p e n d e d to either the rotor b l a d e , the rotor h e a d , and/or the nonrotating fuselage. T h e y c a n , furthermore, be classified according to w h e t h e r they are amplitude reducers (which d o not reduce the excitation force level) or source alleviators (which work to reduce the excitation force level). A key feature of the former device is the necessity for using mass elements to " a b s o r b " the d y n a m i c load (see C h a p t e r 2). Note that the use of these m a s s e l e m e n t s is usually tempered by the need for m i n i m i z i n g weight as well as the fundamental constraint of being able to m i n i m i z e the static deflections u n d e r load. Large deflections are often the result of the low spring rates typically required to tune the selected absorption m a s s e s . As we will see, the distinction b e t w e e n the t w o basic types of vibration suppression devices s o m e t i m e s b e c o m e s fuzzy and d e p e n d s on where in the structure we are measuring the r e s p o n s e s and/or where we are measuring the excitations.
7.4.1
Rotor-Related
Devices absorbers (pendabs). O n e of the simplest
Blade appended
pendulum
of the rotor-related devices is the pendulum absorber (pendab) which is based on the basic d y n a m i c s of the simple two-degree-of-freedom vibration absorber considered in C h a p t e r 2. T h e basic operation of a p e n d a b is the generation of o p p o s i n g d y n a m i c shear loads (due to a near resonance condition) in order to relieve the d y n a m i c shears fed to the rotor h u b . An e x a m p l e of a typical installation of a blade p e n d a b on an operational helicopter is presented in Fig. 7 . 4 .
225
Fig. 7.4 Installation of pendabs on MMB BK-117 helicopter. (Reproduced courtesy of the Helicopter Division of Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm Helicopter Military Aircraft Group,)
and
T h e distinction of a rotor-appended blade p e n d a b from m o r e conventional configurations is that its stiffening c o m e s almost exclusively from the centrifugal force field; t h u s , the p e n d a b is essentially " t u n e d " to a specific per rev freq u e n c y . This characteristic can be appreciated by considering the p e n d a b geo m e t r y given in Fig. 7 . 5 . F r o m c o n c e p t s derived in a previous chapter on blade d y n a m i c s , w e can readily find that the natural frequency of the p e n d a b , , is independent of p e n d a b m a s s and is given as
= nVl
+ R lr
h
(7.30)
T h e essential operation of the p e n d a b is to alleviate at their source the vertical hub loads that interact with the fuselage. At the properly tuned condition the response of the p e n d a b is phased so as to counteract the vibratory blade out-ofplane shears generated by the blade outboard of the p e n d a b attachment location.
226
Fig. 7.5
Basic geometry of typical blade appended pendab.
T h e operation of the p e n d a b is most meaningfully described by m e a n s of the load attenuation characteristics with variation of the p e n d a b frequency as typically depicted in F i g . 7 . 6 . N o t e that o p t i m u m p e n d a b performance is usually achieved at a tuned freq u e n c y , which is s o m e w h a t less than the excitation frequency, in this case the blade p a s s a g e frequency bfi. Note also that for tuned frequencies above the excitation frequency, the p e n d a b actually amplifies the hub loads. T h e a d v a n t a g e s of using p e n d a b s are as follows: 1) P e n d a b s are relatively s i m p l e , both to analyze and design and to install.
2) P e n d a b s are effective in substantially reducing (if not eliminating outright) the h u b shears at the blade root.
4.3
Pendulum tuning frequency, per rev Fig. 7.6 Typical load attenuation characteristics of blade appended dynamic pendulum absorber (pendab).
227
3) F o r r e a s o n a b l e b l a d e root shear attenuation, without excessive p e n d a b r e s p o n s e , the p e n d a b should b e m a d e as massive as possible. H o w e v e r , the addition of substantial nonstructural m a s s to t h e rotorcraft design impacts n e g atively o n t h e p a y load productivity. 4) T h e p r e s e n c e of d a m p i n g in t h e p e n d a b h i n g e is inevitable. H o w e v e r , this d a m p i n g is detrimental t o the operation of the p e n d a b . 5) P e n d a b s typically r e d u c e only vertical blade root shears at o n e n o n d i m e n sional frequency. A separate p e n d a b must therefore b e installed for each h a r m o n i c of b l a d e root shear to b e attenuated. 6) S i n c e p e n d a b s m u s t b e m o u n t e d directly to the blade they c h a n g e orientation with blade pitch a n g l e . W i t h this orientation c h a n g e coupling (usually adverse) invariably occurs with the blade inplane m o t i o n . A principal d i s a d v a n t a g e is that they create a e r o d y n a m i c drag a n d are thereby s o m e w h a t detrimental to p e r f o r m a n c e . Rotor bifilar absorbers. A n o t h e r passive device used to attenuate rotor loads before they interact with the fuselage d y n a m i c s is the (in-plane) bifilar absorber. T h e s e devices are similar to t h e bifilar absorbers used to quiet torsional vibrations c o n s i d e r e d in an earlier chapter. In this case the bifilar absorbers are used to a b s o r b rotor in-plane h u b shears. It should b e carefully noted that, in o r d e r to attenuate blade p a s s a g e frequencies in the fixed coordinate s y s t e m , M l , the bifilar absorbers m u s t b e tuned t o (b 1 ) i l in the rotating coordinate s y s t e m . T h u s , since for a four-bladed rotor the 4P in-plane h u b shears arise from both 3P a n d 5P rotating b l a d e root s h e a r s , both 3 and 5P bifilar absorbers might be used c o n c u r r e n t l y to attenuate the 4P nonrotating h u b shears. F r o m the blade g e o m e t r y given in F i g . 7 . 7 it c a n b e s h o w n that the bifilar absorber, like the p e n d a b , is tuned to a specific per rev frequency. T h e tuned frequency for this device is given b y
i 2 x
= VL
2
(7.31)
w h e r e L = (d - d ), a n d d and d are the diameters of the bifilar hole and roller b e a r i n g m a n d r e l , respectively.
Fig. 7.7
Basic geometry of a rotor hub appended bifilar dynamic absorber.
228
T h e a d v a n t a g e s c l a i m e d for the bifilar absorber are as follows: 1) T h e device is relatively s i m p l e . It incorporates roller bearings with reasonable e n d u r a n c e and low inherent d a m p i n g and is h u b m o u n t e d with no blade attachment p r o b l e m s and no couplings d u e to blade pitch angle. 2) T h e attendant drag d u e to a b l a d e - m o u n t e d device is reduced. Its d i s a d v a n t a g e s are as follows: 1) T h e device is relatively heavy. 2) T h e d e v i c e can only attenuate inplane h u b loads, and does so only indirectly. That is, the bifilar absorber is typically tuned to the blade passage frequency ( + ) or ( ) the rotor frequency. This tuning condition is invoked in order to reduce frequency c o m p o n e n t s of the in-plane loads, which result in blade passage frequency d y n a m i c h u b loads in the nonrotating coordinate system. H e n c e , s o m e of the load-reducing motion of the bifilar absorber is wasted on the h a r m o n i c c o m p o n e n t of in-plane load that does not contribute to the blade passage freq u e n c y c o m p o n e n t of the nonrotating coordinate system h u b load. Blade higher harmonic control. Blade higher harmonic control ( H H C ) is distinguished from the previous devices in that it is an active d e v i c e . This device d e p e n d s on the u s e of an active p o w e r source as well as a c o m p u t e r to adjust the operation of the several m e c h a n i s m s required to impart higher h a r m o n i c values of blade pitch angle (over and above that of the usual \P cyclic variation imparted by the swash plate). H H C is a device/system that is aimed at the cancellation of the excitations of the blade at the source. Typically, the blade pitch angle h a r m o n i c content d u e to the operation of H H C consists of cosine and sine c o m p o n e n t s each of the nP, (n + 1 ) P , and (n \)P frequency contributions. This is typically achieved by hydraulic actuation of the swash plate at frequencies of (n \)P, nP, and (n + \)P as shown in F i g . 7 . 8 . T h e basic h a r d w a r e c o m p o n e n t s of an H H C system are 1) some form of instrumentation ( e . g . , accelerometers) to measure the vibratory load factors (g)
blade pitch horn/push rod attachment point(s)
oscillatory motion of swash plate [as controlled by actuator(s)]
hydraulic actuator(s) [operating at in-Dp np, and (n+ Dp]
Fig. 7.8
Mechanical implementation of an HHC system.
229
at s o m e selected locations in the airframe; 2) an o n b o a r d dedicated c o m p u t e r (controller) to interpret the values of the m e a s u r e d vibratory accelerations and to calculate the appropriate values of the six c o m p o n e n t s of higher h a r m o n i c pitch control a n g l e s ; and 3) a m e a n s , usually a set of hydraulic actuators, for i m p l e m e n t i n g the values of H H C angles d e t e r m i n e d by the c o m p u t e r . T h e calculation of the appropriate (optimal) values of H H C within the c o m p u t e r can be achieved by a n u m b e r of existing optimal control m e t h o d o l o g i e s . T h e calculation of the gradient matrices for establishing the sensitivities of the c o m p o n e n t s of vibratory g to each of the six c o m p o n e n t s of H H C pitch angles is typically achieved using s o m e form of p a r a m e t e r identification ( e . g . , K a i m a n filtering). T h e s e features are schematically represented in F i g . 7.9. 1) Vibration measurement. In addition to m e a s u r i n g the total vibration at the selected airframe locations, m e a n s must be provided for extracting the nP vibration c o n t e n t , both a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e . This can be achieved in a n u m b e r of w a y s using both a n a l o g and digital a p p r o a c h e s . 2) Controller operation. T h e controller has t w o primary functions that must be i m p l e m e n t e d in the c o m p u t e r at a sufficiently high sampling rate (typically several t i m e s per s e c o n d ) to ensure an accurate and rapid response to a c h a n g i n g vibration e n v i r o n m e n t . First it m u s t perform a parameter estimation to establish the vector of r e s p o n s e s and the gradient m a t r i x , which are n e e d e d for the use of the optimal control m e t h o d o l o g y . Specifically, the following equation defines the quantities n e e d e d for i m p l e m e n t i n g the optimal control theory:
{,} = {Z } + [TIM
0/
(7.32)
w h e r e {Z,} is the vector of m e a s u r e d vibrational quantities (to be m i n i m i z e d ) , { Z } is the {Z,} vector without H H C c o n t r o l s , and \T] is a matrix of influence coefficients relating c h a n g e s in {Z,} to the vector of H H C control a n g l e s , {u}. Both { Z } and [T] are typically evaluated using K a i m a n filtering t e c h n i q u e s . T h e s e c o n d p r i m a r y function that the controller must perform is that of calculating the optimal controls that m i n i m i z e s o m e cost function based on the m e a s u r e d c o m p o n e n t s of vibration. It must be stressed that the vibration envi0 0
start
Initialize Algorithm
Calculate Optimal Controls
Apply Controls
Measure Vibrations
Estimate Parameters
Fig. 7.9 Schematic representation of a higher harmonic control system for vibration reduction.
230
r o n m e n t of the rotorcraft is subject to constant c h a n g e d u e to c h a n g e s in the flight condition and/or the initiation of m a n e u v e r s . T h e usual implementation of the H H C system therefore involves the use of an adaptive control algorithm to achieve the optimal control settings. T h e vibration level(s) are sampled at several times p e r second in order to p r o d u c e accurate updates of both the zero control vibration level, {Z .}, and the gradient matrix, [T]. T h e s e updates are then continually used to d e t e r m i n e the values of the H H C pitch angles needed for an optimal o r minimal value of the vibration-related cost function. T h e a d v a n t a g e s c l a i m e d for H H C are as follows: 1) T h e m e t h o d is effective. Experimental implementations have verified the ability to p r o d u c e substantial reductions in vibration. T h e advantage of an active vibration control system is that it does not require s o m e residual value of vibration in order to drive it. 2) T h e controller is generic in that it need not be sized to any o n e specific aircraft. 3) T h e u s e of H H C has been s h o w n to have negligible or even beneficial effects with regard to both blade vibratory stresses and a e r o d y n a m i c p e r f o r m a n c e . H o w e v e r , the balancing disadvantages with H H C are as follows: 1) O n e p a y s a weigh penalty with the H H C system. T h e extra weight associated with the c o m p u t e r , the hydraulics and associated servo v a l v e s , and the additional airframe strengthening is not negligible and could be a decisive factor in s o m e designs for which payload productivity is a primary consideration. 2) C o m p a r e d with the passive systems and devices available for the attenuation of fuselage vibrations the H H C system is quite c o m p l e x a n d , therefore, subject to considerations of reliability and maintainability. 3) Despite the increasingly m o r e rapid computational speeds available with m i c r o c o m p u t e r s the calculations are not instantaneous. C o n s e q u e n t l y , for s o m e high-frequency b a n d the H H C system would not track r a n d o m or otherwise rapidly c h a n g i n g vibration levels well. It should be noted that with the increasing c o m p a c t n e s s and speed of c o m putation and the c o m m e n s u r a t e decrease in weight of m i c r o c o m p u t e r s H H C a p p r o a c h e s should b e c o m e m o r e competitive with respect to weight, reliability, and maintainability.
0
7.4.2
Fuselage-Related
Devices
D e v i c e s that are attached to the fuselage and applicable to reducing vibrations directly in the fuselage are all subject to evaluation with respect to basic d y n a m i c considerations. In particular, all such devices must operate both in a steady-state or static load e n v i r o n m e n t and in a vibratory o n e . T h e static load condition creates the specification that static deflections through the device must be less than s o m e prescribed value. T h e vibratory load condition creates the specification that the device have a useful life with minimal w e a r in the b e a r i n g s , e t c . Transmissibility. T h e yardstick by which the performance of the various devices can b e assessed is that of transmissibility, T. Transmissibility is defined as the ratio of the acceleration of s o m e secondary substructure, which is to be v i b r a t i o n a l ^ quieted, to the base motion acceleration of the primary structure to which the s e c o n d a r y substructure is attached. A s an e x a m p l e , let u s consider the characteristics of a simple passive isolator.
METHODS FOR VIBRATION CONTROL

Simple sketch: passive isolator.
231
T h e simple isolator is depicted in the following
y ,
r=
base with prescribed oscillatory motion ~
T h e transmissibility characteristics of an isolator with respect to frequency of b a s e m o t i o n are as given in F i g . 7 . 1 0 , w h e r e r equals the frequency ratio, /. Dynamic absorber. T h e d y n a m i c absorber is a device that is best suited to those c o n d i t i o n s w h e r e i n the excitation is d u e to a direct application of vibratory load as s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 1 . T h e general r e s p o n s e characteristics of this device are s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 2 . N o t e the e x i s t e n c e of an antiresonance point located at s o m e frequency point b e t w e e n the t w o r e s o n a n c e p o i n t s . A s discussed in an earlier chapter, this response is characteristic of t h e general two-degree-of-freedom system. T h e antir e s o n a n c e frequency is the natural frequency of t h e a p p e n d e d absorber treated as an u n c o u p l e d single m a s s - s p r i n g - d a m p e r s y s t e m . N o t e that the p e r f o r m a n c e of this d e v i c e in the frequency range of the antiresonance point is d e g r a d e d with increasing levels of d a m p i n g .
6
0.1
10
Frequency Fig. 7.10
ratio, r
General transmissibility characteristics of a simple passive isolator.
232
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S absorber mass, m
y(t)
direct/y applied force, F(t) mass isolated, to be M
Fig. 7.11
Schematic representation of a dynamic absorber.
Nodamatic isolation system. A n o t h e r passive method for isolating the vibratory responses of the fuselage is the use of the so-called nodamatic suspension system, w h e r e b y the isolation is achieved, first by m o u n t i n g the high vibration excitator, the rotor and transmission on a b e a m a n d , s e c o n d , by attaching this b e a m to the fuselage at the n o d e points of the b e a m , as s h o w n in Fig. 7 . 1 3 . T h e n o d a m a t i c system is based on the principle that the reaction loads of a b e a m at its n o d e points ( i . e . , locations on the b e a m w h e r e , for a b e n d i n g m o d e w h o s e frequency is close to the excitation frequency, there is zero b e a m motion) are substantially r e d u c e d . This feature has the potential for giving load attenuation
0.2
Frequency Fig. 7.12
ratio, r
General transmissibility characteristics of a dynamic absorber.
METHODS FOR VIBRATION CONTROL
233
VERTICAL
=^
EXCITATION
TRANSMISSION
-FRAME
NODE
POINT
NODE
POINT
TUNING MASS NODAL FUSELAGE BEAM ^
TUNING MASS
A TTACHMENT(S)
Fig. 7.13
Schematic representation of a nodamatic isolation system.
o v e r a r a n g e of frequencies. A l t h o u g h t h e n o d a m a t i c system is quite simple and r e a s o n a b l y effective, it h a s the p r i m a r y d i s a d v a n t a g e of being relatively h e a v y . Dynamic antiresonant vibration isolator (DAVI). T h e d y n a m i c antiresonant vibration isolator ( D A V I ) w o u l d be used in situations wherein a simple isolator w o u l d also b e used. Figure 7 . 1 4 presents a schematic representation of the features of t h e D A V I . T h e transmissibility of the D A V I is given b y the following equation: j _y h
2
r
z
R R + m - I r \r
2
1 (7.33)
,R
- + m I \r
1
T h e antiresonant frequency
is given by the following expression: (7.34) 1

2
R (R + m 2 -r I r
z
w h e r e / is t h e m a s s m o m e n t of inertia of the a r m containing the m element about its m a s s center. F i g u r e 7 . 1 5 contrasts the transmissibilities of the basic simple isolator a n d of t h e D A V I for the s a m e installation for w h i c h a static load of 100 lbf p r o d u c e s a static deflection of 0 . 1 1 in. N o t e that for the set of p a r a m e t e r s used in this c o m p a r i s o n the spring stiffness is the s a m e for both isolators. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e resonant frequency for t h e D A V I is a l w a y s lower than that for t h e simple isolator. T h e r e then exists a range of frequencies, starting from s o m e point b e t w e e n t h e t w o resonant frequencies to a point a b o v e the D A V I
234
mass to isolated,
be M
base with prescribed oscillatory motion
Fig. 7 .14 Schematic representation of kinematics of the dynamic antiresonant vibration isolator (DAVI). antiresonant frequency, wherein the D A V I will have a lower transmissibility than that of the simple isolator. H o w e v e r , it should also be noted that for sufficiently high frequencies the simple isolator will have superior p e r f o r m a n c e . Finally, for s o m e configurations the tuned antiresonance condition of the D A V I m a y be so narrowly frequency b a n d e d as to be u n u s a b l e , especially for those cases wherein the excitation frequency is subject to relatively wide fluctuations. A graphic d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the ability of the D A V I to suppress vibration is given in Figs. 7 . 1 6 and 7 . 1 7 . N o t e in F i g s . 7 . 1 6 and 7.17 that the D A V I units (at the four corners of the platform) exhibit significant motion in the arm parts. Although the lower base
10
20
40
Excitation
frequency,
Hz
Fig. 7 .15 Comparison of transmissibilities for simple and dynamic antiresonant (DAVI) vibration absorbers.
235
Fig. 7.16 DAVI platform installation showing antiresonant isolation. (Reproduced courtesy of Kaman Aerospace Corporation.) of the platform, as well as the D A V I a r m s , register as blurs in the p h o t o g r a p h s , the upper (isolated) platform is quite s m o o t h . IRIS rotor isolation system. T h e improved rotor isolation system (IRIS) is a passive system d e v e l o p e d by the Boeing Helicopter C o . This system is s h o w n schematically in F i g . 7 . 1 8 , and is seen to be s o m e w h a t a combination of the n o d a m a t i c and the D A V I s y s t e m s . It would appear to possess the antiresonance characteristics of the D A V I without the need for low d a m p i n g b e a r i n g s , but it would also appear to share the relatively high weight penalty disadvantage associated with the n o d a m a t i c s y s t e m . Focused pylon. W h e r e a s most of the devices discussed earlier are directed at eliminating vibratory shears, the focused pylon device is directed at eliminating vibratory moments. A s s h o w n in F i g . 7 . 1 9 , the device consists principally of a m e a n s of supporting an inertia with nonparallel linkages so that its motion is constrained to occur about the point at which the support linkages are " f o c u s e d . " Usually, the focal point is taken to be the center of gravity of this inertia so that the inertia will be forced to act as a " r o t a t i o n a l " isolator. A s with the simple passive (linear motion) isolator, the focused pylon will function best with a m i n i m u m of d a m p i n g in the s y s t e m .
236
Fig. 7.17 DAVI pilot seat isolation laboratory test, 1 . 0 g's at 10 Hz. {Reproduced courtesy of Kaman Aerospace Corporation.)
harmonic airloads,
Fig. 7.18
Schematic of the IRIS vibration alleviation device.
237
bearing(s)
Fig. 7.19
linK{s
>
Schematic of a focused pylon vibration alleviation device.
References
Section 7.1 7.2 7.3 Nelson
(y)
Author(s)
F r i e d m a n n and S h a n t h a k u m a r a n
(/?)
(>/)
F l a n n e l l y , F a b u n m i et a l . J e t m u n d s e n , B i e l a w a , and F l a n n e l l y Loewy
U )
(J)
7.4
Desjardin and H o o p e r Flannelly Loewy Paul T a y l o r and T e a r e Halwes

(P) ( i ) (/,) ( / ) ( / , )
a )
238
Problems
7.1 F o r a certain d y n a m i c multiple-degree-of-freedom (zero d a m p e d ) system the mass and stiffness matrices are given to be the following functions of a p a r a m e t e r x: ~ 1 0 + 2x [M] =
A:
3 2 10V5_
5 "
1 3
+ 5 2
3
IO JC
[/
3 _JC 5
2
4JT
21
21
3
2.4JC
For a value of JC = 5 , the e i g e n v a l u e solution is as follows: Natural frequencies: [ , , , ] = 1 1 . 5 5 1 1 , 1.8792, 2 . 4 6 8 8 ]

2 3
M o d e shapes: "~ 1.0000 [

( 1 )
-0.5287 1.0000 -0.0206
-0.2436" -0.0360 1.0000 and
( 2 )
, >]
(3
0.2393 0.0412
Calculate (using analytical means) the derivatives mode shapes with respect to the parameter x.
of the natural frequencies
7.2 Verify ( using numerical means) the derivatives found in Problem 7. / . [Note that access to a reliable e i g e n v a l u e solution (computational software) is required for this p r o b l e m . ] 7.3 U s i n g the basic analytical testing e q u a t i o n , we may wish to specify a n e w (required) r e s p o n s e vector, {q }, thereby defining a specific c h a n g e in r e s p o n s e ; the p r o b l e m is then to solve for the mobility (or inversely i m p e d a n c e ) at the selected interface location that will achieve the required response c h a n g e . Show that a solution for this required interface mobility change is expressible
Fi
(7.35) where (7.36a) and {Qi)
= fa/J + [] i.}
(7.36b)
239
[BV[[B][BV]
- 1
(7.37a)
Ucf [ C ] ] - ' [CV
(7.37b)
7 . 4 Derive (linear) simplified equations of motion governing the pendular motion ( ) of a rotor-appended pendular vibration absorber (pendab) attached to a rotor blade whose flatwise bending flexibility is described by a single flatwise bending mode generalized coordinate (q J. T h e following a s s u m p t i o n s can be made: 1) Let the b l a d e out-of-plane b e n d i n g w(x, t) be expressible with a single m o d a l r e s p o n s e description, Ry (x) q (t), wherein the modal variables are taken without the p e n d a b . A l s o , let the b l a d e h a v e infinite in-plane stiffness. H e n c e , the m o d a l equation with the addition of the p e n d a b can then be expressed in the following simple form:
P w Wi W
M (q
Wl
Wi
+ 2 .,
,)
2
=
) a)
+ [ .,(9) + H ^ A C n U e
to pendab
(7.38)
w h e r e ^ is the generalized modal excitation due to the applied ( h a r m o n i c ) airload distribution (pi ). T h e effects of motion induced airloads are a s s u m e d to be c o n t a i n e d within the d a m p i n g ratio A l s o , 9% and A C F a r e , respectively, the incremental force in the flatwise direction and the incremental cen? trifugal force (caused by the p e n d a b ) . N o t e that 3 , is taken to be a concentrated force at the h i n g e location (x R ) and ACF is taken to be an incremental tension existing b e t w e e n the blade root and the hinge location. 2 ) T h e p e n d a b h a s a h i n g e located at a distance R from the center of rotation and consists of a c o n c e n t r a t e d m a s s , m , c o n n e c t e d to the hinge by a massless rod of length r. Let the r e s p o n s e of the p e n d a b b e represented by the deflection angle relative to a (inertially) horizontal p l a n e , and let the d y n a m i c description be g o v e r n e d by that of a simple " s p r i n g - m a s s " system w h o s e excitation c o m e s from the " b a s e m o t i o n " of the h i n g e location resulting from the blade first flatwise m o d a l b e n d i n g r e s p o n s e .
h b P
7 . 5 a) Derive an expression for the hub shear load (per blade) 7.4 due to the applied airload, pi , and the accelerations of both bending, q > and the pendab response angle, . b) Show (using the results of part a) that, if it is assumed that responses change negligibly due to the effects of the pendab, then hub shear per blade, H, can be expressed as
a) w
in Problem the blade in the the flatwise vertical
~ ^without pendab +
//
c) Using the results from parts a and b develop a mathematical explanation to show why, for an inboard installation of the pendab (where there is typically a negative antinodal condition with y ) , the pendab reduces the hub shear per
w
240
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S the pendab natural frequency is less than the excitation
blade for the case wherein frequency.
7.6 Derive an expression for the mobility damper) for use as a modification mobility
of a simple (Yf ).
f
isolator
(spring-mass-
7.7 Derive an expression for the mobility of a dynamic 7.11 ) for use as a modification mobility (Y ).
u
absorber
(as per
Fig.
Vibration Test Procedures

A s the p r e v i o u s chapters h a v e stressed, the ability to analyze rotorcraft for vibration requires a g o o d k n o w l e d g e of the d y n a m i c characteristics of the fuselage. T h e s e characteristics generally i n c l u d e , as a m i n i m u m , the natural frequencies of the airframe in the general frequency range of the blade passage frequency. Of increasing i m p o r t a n c e are the mode shapes, the structural damping descriptors, and the various mobility matrices [ i . e . , frequency-responsefunctions ( F R F s ) ] in the frequency range of the fundamental blade p a s s a g e frequency. Until such t i m e as the d y n a m i c i s t has the tools (and the skill for using t h e m ) for accurately calculating these d y n a m i c characteristics, s o m e form of vibration testing will r e m a i n as part of the d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w rotorcraft configurations. A n adjunct to the direct vibration testing of the airframe and airframe c o m p o n e n t s is the testing for c o m p o n e n t fatigue life. Just as in the case of natural frequency and m o d e prediction, the prediction of component fatigue life is an inexact science that requires s o m e form of e x p e r i m e n t a l verification. T h e s e t w o related types of vibration testing are similar to the extent that they deal with structures operating in an e n v i r o n m e n t that is almost wholly in the frequency d o m a i n ; therefore, s o m e of the t e c h n i q u e s o v e r l a p .
8.1
Basic Shake Testing
Present analytical m e t h o d s for predicting fuselage vibration characteristics rely heavily o n finite e l e m e n t m o d e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s . A s s u c h , the structural details of the structure are a s s u m e d to be idealized into " e f f e c t i v e " linearized m a s s e s and stiffnesses. In real life, h o w e v e r , things are m o r e c o m p l e x and are often not all that o v e r w h e l m i n g l y linear. H e n c e , present analytical techniques generally give a p p r o x i m a t i o n s that require validation by test. F u r t h e r m o r e , for those cases w h e r e i n e v e n the m o s t r u d i m e n t a r y analytical predictions (natural frequencies and m o d e shapes) are u n a v a i l a b l e , s o m e form of actual test data is the only other source of this information. Shake testing is the appropriate form of testing that fulfills these r e q u i r e m e n t s . S h a k e testing basically consists of 1) shaking the structure at discrete points u s i n g s o m e form of variable-frequency e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c or servo-driven hydraulic shakers; 2) m e a s u r i n g both the excitations and r e s p o n s e s of the structure (generally with strain-gage-instrumented load cells and a multiplicity of accelero m e t e r s ) ; and 3) systematically analyzing the m e a s u r e d responses to obtain the required e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a , as identified earlier. T h e simplest form of vibration testing is to excite the structure in a systematic fashion to obtain peak r e s p o n s e s that are typically indicative of r e s o n a n c e conditions and thereby identifiable with the natural frequencies of the structure. A l t h o u g h in c o n c e p t this p r o c e d u r e is relatively straightforward, p r o b l e m s arise with regard to the m o s t efficient setup of the e q u i p m e n t , its actual u s a g e , the m e t h o d s for reducing the d a t a , a n d , p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , interpretation of the results.
241
242
T h e principal vibration p r o b l e m s of rotorcraft are aerodynamically related and vibration is clearly an issue only in flight a n d , in particular, forward flight in transition and at high speed. T h u s , it would be highly desirable to conduct shake tests in an airborne configuration. Such a p r o c e d u r e is not generally practical for a n u m b e r of r e a s o n s : 1) A n y form of flight testing is t i m e - c o n s u m i n g and e x p e n s i v e . 2) S h a k e testing typically involves the issue of rotor-fuselage c o u p l i n g , which requires m e a s u r e m e n t s of forces and responses at the rotor h u b , quantities that are very difficult to m e a s u r e in flight. 3) T h e information that shake testing is to provide is generally required prior to actual flight; t h u s , delaying shake testing until it can be d o n e in flight is counterproducti ve. H e n c e , shake tests are c o n d u c t e d on the ground in a m a n n e r that simulates as closely as possible the pertinent d y n a m i c s of the airborne configuration. T h e following sections of this chapter define and describe the various basic parts of any shake test p r o g r a m .
8-7.7
Test Setup
Fuselage configuration. F o r o b v i o u s reasons shake testing cannot be performed with (at least) the main rotor rotating. Since the nonrotating characteristics of the rotor blades are completely different from those at the operational rotor speed, it is inappropriate to shake test with the rotor blades on the rotorcraft. F u r t h e r m o r e , since the fuselage must be suspended to give as close an a p p r o x imation t o the free-flight condition, it must be suspended by s o m e suspension device not generally used in flight. Typically a special purpose hub replacement fixture, w h i c h c a n attach conveniently to that d e v i c e , must be fabricated. This hub r e p l a c e m e n t fixture (or modified h u b ) must enable the fuselage to be elevated off its landing gear a n d , furthermore, must account for the m a s s of the rotor blades that are r e m o v e d for the shake test. T h e structure to be shake tested should be equivalent to the 1 0 0 % weight of all the actual items excluding the blades. H o w e v e r , the equivalent blade weight to be attached to the h u b replacement fixture should b e reduced from the full weight (a typical value is 6 0 % ) . T h e purpose of reducing the equivalent weight of the rotor blades is to provide the fuselage structure with an equivalent rotor i m p e d a n c e s o m e w h a t closer to that of the rotating flexible blades than a concentrated m a s s equal to 1 0 0 % of the rotor m a s s w o u l d p r o v i d e . In this m a n n e r the shake tested fuselage will respond with r e s o n a n c e s a n d antiresonances reasonably close to those that the free-flying aircraft w o u l d manifest. Fuselage suspension. A s discussed earlier, in order to h a v e any relevancy, the appropriate d y n a m i c s of the airborne configuration must be a p p r o x i m a t e d to a reasonable d e g r e e . F u r t h e r m o r e , since the nonrotating characteristics of the rotor blades are c o m p l e t e l y different from those at the operational rotor speed, it is inappropriate to shake test with the rotor blades on the rotorcraft. T h u s , for such testing t h e o n e basic practical m e t h o d for m a k i n g the free-flight approximation that h a s evolved is to suspend the fuselage (from the h u b ) in a m a n n e r that results in the required low-frequency configuration. A s is described first,
VIBRATION T E S T P R O C E D U R E S
243
this has b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d for m a n y years using a system of bungee cords that w h e n greatly e x t e n d e d , typically h a v e a vanishingly small extensible stiffness. B u n g e e cord configurations physically consist of m a n y coiled loops of cording o v e r t w o m a n d r e l s , e a c h of w h i c h is attached to o n e of the t w o tension load points (the fuselage h u b and an elevated suspension hard point). Such configurations are essentially very soft nonlinear springs. T h e y tend to be b u l k y , entail large elastic d i s p l a c e m e n t s , are subject to progressive failure (and, h e n c e , d e g radation in load-carrying capability), and require the equalizing of the loads in the m a n y loops before they can b e used. H o w e v e r , o n e principal a d v a n t a g e of b u n g e e configurations is that they are relatively inexpensive and completely p a s s i v e . F i g u r e 8 .1 presents a schematic a r r a n g e m e n t of a typical b u n g e e suspension s y s t e m . In recent years air spring, or air bag, devices h a v e been finding application to the shake testing setup b e c a u s e of the c o n v e n i e n c e of being able to control the spring rate and centering position of these d e v i c e s . Figure 8.2 presents a s c h e m a t i c of a typical installation of an air-bag-based suspension s y s t e m . A s the figure m a k e s quite clear, the use of air b a g s is most important for excitation test conditions entailing significant vertical motion of the h u b . If, for e x a m p l e , in
Steel " beam Chain hoist
\ \ \ \ \ \ \
" beam
Steel cable (24') 32'-7"
Chain hoist
Bungee
Steel cable
Fig. 8.1 Schematic of a typical bungee fuselage suspension system. courtesy of Sikorsky Aircraft Division, UTC.)
(Reproduced
244
the " i n - p l a n e " configuration s h o w n in F i g . 8 . 2 , a fore and aft excitation excites a fuselage vertical b e n d i n g m o d e , the cable stiffness could significantly affect the r e s p o n s e . A c o m p a r i s o n of Figs. 8.1 and 8.2 s h o w s the air b a g configuration to be s o m e w h a t " c l e a n e r " and m o r e c o m p a c t . H o w e v e r , special care must be taken with an air-bag-type configuration in that the d y n a m i c characteristics of an air bag are m o r e involved than those of the simple passive d y n a m i c s of the b u n g e e type support. C o n s e q u e n t l y , appropriate modeling of this type of support b e c o m e s an issue in attempting correlation with a finite element analysis of the configuration. A n e x a m p l e of a link chain supported helicopter fuselage wherein an air spring suspension system w a s e m p l o y e d is s h o w n in F i g . 8 . 3 . G e n e r a l guidelines to be followed in the configuring of the fuselage suspension system are as follows: 1) T h e frequencies of the suspended fuselage d u e to the spring rate of the suspension d e v i c e should be less than and w e l l - r e m o v e d from the first natural elastic m o d e frequency of the fuselage. Values within the range of 1-2 H z , or half t h e first elastic natural frequency, are generally acceptable. 2) T h e linkage b e t w e e n the suspension device and the airframe should be long e n o u g h to p r o v i d e a p e n d u l a r frequency that is sufficiently r e m o v e d from the rotor operating frequency. A g a i n , frequencies in the range of 1-2 H z are acceptable. 3) T h e gantry structure to which the suspension system is attached should b e well isolated from the test airframe. H e r e the u s e of low-frequency air spring supports p r o v i d e m i n i m a l feedback from the gantry m o d e s of vibration into the test airframe. 4) T h e suspension system should h a v e a m i n i m a l a m o u n t of d a m p i n g . This is especially important in the blade p a s s a g e test frequency range of interest. H o w e v e r , this r e q u i r e m e n t is difficult to control with either type of passive suspension s y s t e m . 5 ) T h e soft part of the suspension system should b e placed as close as possible to the o v e r h e a d hoist to m i n i m i z e excitation of the suspension s y s t e m ' s lateral modes. 6) T h e part of the suspension system that is attached to and m o v e s with the h u b m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d in any F E M correlation study. Excitation equipment (oscillatory). T h e p r i m a r y m e t h o d for exciting the structure is with the u s e of a n y of a w i d e variety of c o m m e r c i a l l y available e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c and/or servo-controlled hydraulic actuators configured as shakers. M o s t of these c o m m e r c i a l units h a v e dedicated p o w e r supplies that are driven b y a user-supplied controlled vibratory signal (voltage). M o r e will b e said about the required driving vibratory signal in a later section. T h e principal excitation quantities are the five c o m p o n e n t s of load at the hub [the three c o m p o n e n t s (x, y and z) of vibrational force, and the roll a n d pitch c o m p o n e n t s of vibrational m o m e n t ] and at selected fuselage locations that are either locations of s e c o n d a r y sources of vibration (the tail rotor h u b , e . g . ) and/ or are to b e considered to b e interface locations for potential vibration suppression modifications. T h u s , the linkage b e t w e e n the actuator and the h u b should contain three principal e l e m e n t s : 1) w h e r e appropriate, an elastic attachment element such as a coil spring (or torque tube for m o m e n t s ) to convert relatively large
Hoist
4 ai
A
A
Ve r t ica 1
In-pl a
Fig. 8.2 Alternate operational modes of fuselage suspension for shake testing using an air bag Bell Helicopter Textron Inc.)
246
Fig. 8.3 Typical helicopter fuselage shake test setup using an air spring suspension system. {Reproduced courtesy of McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company.)
actuator strokes into controlled forces (or m o m e n t s ) ; 2) a load cell fixture located close to the airframe to m e a s u r e the applied load; and 3) a drive rod or appropriate appliance to connect the elements together. T h e actuator system should be configured for high p e r f o r m a n c e by the selection of a sufficiently large, high performance servo valve for the hydraulic s y s t e m s . T h e shakers should be capable of adequate excitation at frequencies s o m e w h a t in excess of twice the m a x i m u m frequency of interest in the fuselage structure. F o r main rotor h u b excitations this frequency is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 x 25 H z , or 50 H z . For tail rotor excitation purposes this frequency can run about four times greater.
Excitation equipment (impulsive). O n e m e t h o d of vibration excitation available for general structural d y n a m i c s testing is the instrumented h a m m e r for impulsive load excitation. This system is based on the incorporation of an accurate load cell in the head of a h a m m e r so that a precise measure of the impulsive energy imparted to the structure can be m e a s u r e d . Although this type of excitation is widely used at present, it is generally not appropriate for testing of helicopter airframes because it is often difficult to impart e n o u g h energy into a full-scale airframe and still not d a m a g e the structure locally.
247
8. 1 .2
Instrumentation
Basic measurement devices. T h e t w o types of basic m e a s u r i n g devices n e e d e d for s h a k e testing are load cells a n d accelerometers. T h e load cells are part of t h e excitation e q u i p m e n t as discussed earlier and are used not only as part of a mobility (transfer function) m e a s u r e m e n t , but also t o e n s u r e that sufficient e n e r g y is i m p a r t e d into t h e structure at all frequencies tested. W i t h each of these d e v i c e s ( a c c e l e r o m e t e r s and load cells), m e a s u r e m e n t is m a d e using either of t w o physical principles. O n e principle is typically to u s e a flexible m e m b e r that is i n s t r u m e n t e d for elastic deflection: Either a conventional straingage o r a piezoresistive d e v i c e is u s e d that deflects in r e s p o n s e to an applied or inertial load. T h e s e c o n d principle is to u s e t h e strain of a suitable crystalline material directly (piezoelectric d e v i c e s ) . Strain-gaged units h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e s of b e i n g relatively i n e x p e n s i v e a n d " t r i e d - a n d - t r u e . " T h e y also h a v e the adv a n t a g e of b e i n g able to m e a s u r e both d c a n d vibratory loads or accelerations. Piezoelectric a n d piezoresistive devices h a v e t h e advantages of having lower c o m p l i a n c e characteristics than those of strain-gaged d e v i c e s , h a v i n g excellent sensitivity, a n d b e i n g generally m o r e r u g g e d . W h e r e a s piezoelectric devices h a v e relatively p o o r steady m e a s u r i n g capabilities, they h a v e the a d v a n t a g e of c o m p a c t n e s s a n d t h e ability to b e configured for m e a s u r i n g multiple c o m p o n e n t s of load and/or acceleration with a single d e v i c e . A l t h o u g h piezoresistive devices d o not generally h a v e t h e multiple-axis capabilities of piezoelectric d e v i c e s , they d o h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g usable in m u c h t h e s a m e fashion (circuitry) as strain-gage d e v i c e s a n d of b e i n g able to m e a s u r e both steady and vibratory components.
Advanced measuring devices. W h e r e a s t h e required load cells are relatively few in n u m b e r a n d are relegated for u s e in the excitation s y s t e m , t h e n u m b e r of a c c e l e r o m e t e r s used in a s h a k e test can b e quite high (often m o r e than 100). T h e n u m b e r of a c c e l e r o m e t e r s is dictated by considerations of b e i n g able to identify r e s p o n s e s at k e y locations in t h e structure such as t h e pilot seats, e n g i n e s , a n d h u b s ; b e i n g able to describe fundamental m o d e s ; a n d being able to identify local m o d e s relating t o specific c o m p o n e n t s such as w i n g s a n d p y l o n s . A n o t h e r reason for t h e large n u m b e r of required accelerometers is the fact that m o s t a c c e l e r o m e t e r s typically m e a s u r e only linear m o t i o n , and suitable rotational motion accelerometers are relatively n e w and h e n c e s o m e w h a t e x p e n s i v e . T h u s , rotational m e a s u r e m e n t s are usually obtained indirectly using multiple accelero m e t e r s appropriately positioned near e a c h other. A n o t h e r a d v a n c e m e n t currently b e i n g m a d e in vibrational m e a s u r e m e n t s is t h e laser/fiber-optic vibrometer. Such v i b r o m e t e r s o p e r a t e b y illuminating t h e vibrating structure with laser light and using optical p h e n o m e n a ( D o p p l e r frequencies and interference fringes) t o m e a sure vibrational a m p l i t u d e s of both d i s p l a c e m e n t s a n d velocities. T h e i r a d v a n tages are that they c a n m e a s u r e with significantly i m p r o v e d sensitivities and accuracies relative t o a c c e l e r o m e t e r s , they d o not need repeated calibration a n d they c a n m e a s u r e t h e vibratory r e s p o n s e s at any location on t h e structure that can b e illuminated with t h e laser b e a m s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , they c a n m e a s u r e either in an absolute m o t i o n m o d e or in a differential motion m o d e (using t w o optical s o u r c e s ) . T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s of t h e n e w devices are that they are presently e x -
248
p e n s i v e , they are not as r u g g e d as c o m p a r a b l e a c c e l e r o m e t e r - b a s e d m e a s u r e m e n t s y s t e m s , a n d they c a n n o t directly m e a s u r e load. Data acquisition. D a t a of the type that is typically acquired during shake tests c a n be stored o n m a g n e t i c tape (either in F M , direct a n a l o g , or digital forms) a n d / o r s o m e similar form of high-density data storage d e v i c e . State-ofthe-art data acquisition s y s t e m s typically provide for c o m p u t e r control of t h e test o p e r a t i o n , data acquisition a n d often s o m e sort of on-line data reduction. A variety of a p p r o a c h e s are presently e m p l o y e d and are to a large extent driven by the e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g availability (and affordability) of c o m p u t e r - b a s e d e q u i p ment on the m a r k e t . S o m e of the major features of such e q u i p m e n t are described in the next section.
8.7.3
Dynamic Signal Analyzers
C o n t e m p o r a r y vibration testing is increasingly being a c c o m p l i s h e d using digitally-based e q u i p m e n t that is d e n o t e d either dynamic signal analyzers or spectrum analyzers. S u c h e q u i p m e n t is typically precision-manufactured units e m b o d y i n g state-of-the-art technologies in electronics and m i c r o c o m p u t e r s , as well as in a d v a n c e s in digital signal p r o c e s s i n g . Because of features of the signal p r o c e s s i n g a l g o r i t h m s " b u i l t i n t o " these a n a l y z e r s , they are typically configured to accept t w o c h a n n e l s of analog instrumentation signals. Figures 8.4 and 8.5 show the physical aspects of t w o e x a m p l e s of state-of-the-art signal a n a l y z e r s . T h e s e analyzers generally h a v e several physical characteristics in c o m m o n : 1) E a c h of at least t w o c h a n n e l s of analog data are s a m p l e d , using analog to digital conversion ( A / D ) circuitry, at as high a s a m p l i n g rate as possible. Rates
UO
f l O P ' i
l*/?i8 ic^vji S I
^ L w J p
^ S f f l f l f * ^??>-
ffibHOT
III n ^ pn j j ^ i
e s s
IP ! IP IPvl
3
irvi
. .
kj
e s e o o
c a n o a s
o o
Fig. 8.4
The Hewlett-Packard Model 3562A Dynamic Signal Analyzer.
(Reproduced courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company.)
249
DUAL C H A N N E L S I G N A L Type 2032 2034
ANALYZER
Fig. 8.5 The Brel & Kjaer Model 2032 Dual Channel Signal Analyzer. (Reproduced courtesy of Brel & Kjaer Instruments, Inc.) as high as several h u n d r e d kilohertz are typical. A l s o , provision is m a d e for m a s s storage of the digitized data in s o m e form of d y n a m i c R A M d e v i c e . 2) A m i c r o p r o c e s s o r is incorporated for dedicated calculation of specific digital signal processing c h o r e s . Perhaps the most important of these is & fast Fourier transform (FFT) calculation algorithm. (See Section 2 . 2 . 3 . N o t e that inverse FFTs are digitally calculated with essentially the same algorithm and are thus available with the s a m e speed and accuracy characteristics.) This is important with regard to all the digital signaling processing required for m o d e r n frequency analysis. H i g h - s p e e d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s of F F T s on microprocessors with architecture specialized for digital signal processing ( D S P ) , and F F T c o m p u t a t i o n s in particular, are n o w fairly standard, and later we shall see that this algorithm forms the heart of the analysis and processing capability of these analyzers. 3) M e a n s are provided for p r o d u c i n g a variety of specialized excitation signals for driving the s h a k e r s . T h u s , in addition to a straightforward s w e e p of stationary frequencies with incrementally indexed frequencies, a variety of alternate nonstationary excitations are provided; these are discussed in greater detail in a later section.
250
Average
Charnel A (input)
Instant Time a(t)
_JS -v>
Instant Spectrum A(f)
IS
Autospectrum
Autocorrelation ,(T)
fi=0
Average Cross 7 spectrum ^=t>
Frequency Response Function
=0>
Impulse
h(T) Cross Correlation

b
(T)
n=0
Average Channel (input) Instant Time b(t) I Recording | | Instant Spectrum B(f) Analysis | Autospectrum C (f)
nn
Coherence y (f)
2
Coherent Output Power (f)
GBB
<f)
Autocorrelation
Averaging
\|
Post
Processing
Fig. 8.6 Typical block diagram of a dual channel dynamic signal analyzer, spectrum averaging mode. 4) A l t h o u g h not universal, s o m e m o d e l s h a v e built-in antialiasing filters in the signal flow prior to the A / D conversion. 5) A n o t h e r feature present in m a n y m o d e l s is built-in " f i r m w a r e " relating to modal analysis, w h e r e i n typical m o d a l p a r a m e t e r s such as natural frequency, m o d e s h a p e , and d a m p i n g are calculated (see Section 2 . 4 , e . g . ) . Figure 8.6 s u m m a r i z e s the basic functions of the spectrum analyzer.
8.1A
Calculation of Frequency-Response
Functions
T h e operations s h o w n in F i g . 8.6 represent a systematic w a y of identifying the linear b e h a v i o r existing b e t w e e n the t w o input c h a n n e l s . T h e mathematical m e a s u r e of this linearity is the transfer function or frequency-response function (FRF) of channel relative to channel A . In the context of vibration testing this frequency-response function c o m p r i s e s o n e element of the mobility description of the structure. T h e operations have been d e v e l o p e d in the m a n n e r indicated to m a x i m i z e the utilization of averaging techniques and thereby filter out noise and e n h a n c e a c c u r a c y . A s s h o w n in F i g . 8 . 6 , this operation begins with the digitization of record lengths (of selected size) of time-history data (each consisting of data at J discrete values of time) for each channel [a(t) and b(t) , w h e r e j = 1, 2 , . . . , J and 1, 2 , . . . , ]. T h e s e record lengths are then i m m e d i a t e l y Fourier transformed, as denoted by the & s y m b o l , to produce the respective instantaneous spectra, A(f ) and B(f ) (again, w h e r e k 1 , 2 , . . . , J). T h e s e 2N spectra are typically stored in the a n a l y z e r ' s R A M units in preparation of the averaging function.
u n k k
251
Autospectra and cross spectra. T h e a v e r a g i n g function is a c h i e v e d b y forming t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l m a t h e m a t i c a l quantities: t h e autospectra, o r averaged power quantities, S (f), S (f), a n d t h e t w o cross spectra, S (f) and S (f). T h e s e spectral quantities are formed b y a v e r a g i n g , o v e r the record lengths a n d at each f r e q u e n c y , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o d u c t s of t h e Fourier-transformed t i m e r e c o r d s , i . e . , t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s spectra, A(f ) a n d B(f ):
AA BB AB BA k k
1 SAAVIC) = Vr M) T V =
N
' A*(f )n
k
(8.1)
1 SBB()
= ~
N
B(f )
k n
B*(f )
k
(8.2)
SAB()
1 = , Mfk)n /V /,= i 1
N k n
' B*(f )
k n
(8.3)
SBA() = : B(f ) where ( )* denotes the complex conjugate.
A*(f )
k n
(8.4)
Frequency-response functions. If t h e dual c h a n n e l p r o c e s s being m e a sured w e r e c o m p l e t e l y linear a n d free of noise the frequency-response function c o u l d b e calculated from o n e record in the following straightforward m a n n e r : B(f) H (D
AB
(8.5)
In p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r , such ideal c o n d i t i o n s are n e v e r m e t a n d t h e " s m o o t h i n g " capability of t h e a u t o s p e c t r a a n d cross spectra c a n b e used t o yield i m p r o v e d m e a s u r e s of t h e f r e q u e n c y - r e s p o n s e function. In particular, these spectra c a n b e used to define two alternate e x p r e s s i o n s for t h e frequency-response function:
/>. | ^
and
= ^77! BAVJ )
( 8
>
7
Significant differences b e t w e e n these t w o versions of the f r e q u e n c y - r e s p o n s e function relate to t h e p r e s e n c e of noise in the s y s t e m . It c a n b e s h o w n that H t e n d s to m i n i m i z e noise in t h e output of the p r o c e s s . In the case of vibration testing this takes t h e form of s e n s o r a n d amplifier n o i s e . C o n v e r s e l y , it c a n also be s h o w n that H t e n d s to m i n i m i z e noise in t h e input of the p r o c e s s . S u c h noise c a n take p l a c e w h e n t h e s y s t e m is vibrating near r e s o n a n c e s and/or w h e n the force levels are l o w relative to b a c k g r o u n d excitations. T h e principal i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s e t w o e s t i m a t e s for the f r e q u e n c y - r e s p o n s e function is that they p r o v i d e a m e a s u r e of t h e linearity of t h e m e a s u r e d r e s p o n s e . T h i s m e a s u r e is the c o h e r e n c e function d e s c r i b e d in t h e next s u b s e c t i o n .
{ AB 2) A B
252
Coherence function. T h e autospectra and cross spectra defined earlier provide a convenient definition of the system coherence function as follows:
It can b e readily s h o w n that the c o h e r e n c e is always equal to the ratio of the t w o previously defined frequency-response functions: (/)
2
= H%{f)IH (f)
2 A B
(8.9)
T h u s , since the linearity of the process is equivalent to the equality of the t w o frequency-response functions, the required m e a s u r e of linearity is the nearness of the c o h e r e n c e (function) to unity. N o t e that, as s h o w n in F i g . 8 . 6 , the calculation of the c o h e r e n c e is an integral calculation within the d y n a m i c frequency analyzer.
8.1.5
Tesi Procedures
Narrowband low-frequency testing. A variety of procedures exist for c o n d u c t i n g shake tests with the previously described e q u i p m e n t . Perhaps the simplest of p r o c e d u r e s is that used in connection with assessing the so-called ground resonance characteristics of the helicopter. A s developed in detail in a later chapter, g r o u n d resonance is not really a resonance condition, but a true m e c h a n i c a l instability. F o r d e t e r m i n i n g these characteristics k n o w l e d g e of the effective m a s s M and effective stiffness T characteristics of the fuselage at the h u b is required. Since ground resonance is a relatively low-frequency p h e n o m e n o n occurring at a frequency less than rotor speed, the fuselage r e s p o n d s effectively as a rigid b o d y . F o r the evaluation of the ground resonance characteristics, only the effective m a s s and stiffness characteristics are required. T o d e t e r m i n e these characteristics, the previously described e q u i p m e n t can b e e m p l o y e d , with the exception that the airframe is not suspended off of its landing gear. T h e m e t h o d for d e t e r m i n i n g the required characteristics is to m e a s u r e the natural frequency of the fuselage (in the lateral and fore and aft directions) with incremental additions of mass ( ) at the h u b . A s s h o w n in F i g . 8 . 7 , if these characteristics are plotted as ( l / ) vs ( ) , then the slope of the resulting line is proportional to (i/K ) a n d the effective mass is given by AT x ( l / ) for ( - 0).
e t T etT 2 2 e[[ erf
Wideband frequency testing. T h e m o r e usual purpose of shake testing is to m e a s u r e the fuselage d y n a m i c characteristics pertinent to b a n d s of frequencies in ranges each centered about multiples of the blade passage frequency. T o this end there are a n u m b e r of basic w a y s to conduct shake testing: 1) Discrete (fixed) frequency excitation: This form of testing is the simplest and represents the mainstay m e t h o d for m a n y years. T h e m e t h o d consists very simply of exciting the structure at a discrete frequency until a steady oscillatory response has d e v e l o p e d , taking a n u m b e r of data r e c o r d s , and then proceeding to the next frequency, e t c . O n e technique that is used to increase the accuracy of the data reduction is to acquire data at a rate to ensure that the sampling rate
253
Fig. 8.7 Graphical determination of generalized hub masses and stiffnesses for low-frequency modes involving lateral hub motion.
exactly divides the current oscillatory period by s o m e integer (typically s o m e p o w e r of t w o : e . g . , 16). W i t h this kind of data sampling inaccuracies d u e to l e a k a g e effects are m i n i m i z e d . T h e a d v a n t a g e s of this type of testing are 1) it provides a direct control of the accuracy [the presence of higher h a r m o n i c s of r e s p o n s e (due to nonlinearities and/or transients) can be monitored for subside n c e ] , and 2) it is relatively simple and easily i m p l e m e n t e d . T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s are that it can be t i m e - c o n s u m i n g ( a n d , c o m m e n s u r a t e l y , costly) and it d o e s not allow for the use of the statistical data c h e c k i n g algorithms c o m m o n l y available with the m o r e c o m p l e x excitations. 2) Random excitation: T h i s form of excitation consists of supplying random noise at a prescribed level across the selected frequency range for the entire r e c o r d . This stimulus signal m a k e s the record susceptible to leakage p r o b l e m s and s o m e form of " w i n d o w i n g " is typically required. R a n d o m excitation requires a source of r a n d o m input and a servo controller that can a c c o m m o d a t e a w i d e b a n d w i d t h of required frequencies. T o avoid aliasing p r o b l e m s the bandwidth of the excitation must b e at least twice the b a n d w i d t h of frequencies required by the test. T h e a d v a n t a g e s of this m e t h o d of excitation are that with suitable data reduction t e c h n i q u e s it can excite all of the resonant frequencies at the s a m e t i m e , and it also e n a b l e s the use of various statistical data c h e c k i n g t e c h n i q u e s (see N a g y ) . T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of the m e t h o d is that it does require a d v a n c e d m e t h o d o l o g y and m o r e skill in utilization. 3) Frequency sweep excitation: T h i s form of testing is characterized by c o n tinually increasing the frequency of excitation in s o m e specific m a n n e r (constant rate, logarithmic rate, e t c . ) . S o m e t i m e s d e n o t e d sine chirp, this m e t h o d of excitation supplies a fast sine s w e e p o v e r a selected frequency r a n g e that repeats with the s a m e period as the t i m e record. T h e m e t h o d has the a d v a n t a g e that it c a n , if used p r o p e r l y , r e d u c e the t i m e of testing o v e r that achieved by discrete frequency testing. T h e m e t h o d has the d i s a d v a n t a g e in that, like that of r a n d o m excitation, it requires m o r e c o m p l e x data reduction m e t h o d o l o g y (see N a g y and J o n e s et a l . ) .
254
4) Burst chirp and burst random: Both of these excitation m e t h o d s entail the supplying of the signal only during a specified percentage of the time record and not for the r e m a i n d e r of the record; usually there is no signal at the start of the record and at the e n d . D u r i n g the n o n z e r o record the signal is either swept sine or r a n d o m . It should b e noted that the m o r e a d v a n c e d m e t h o d s of testing are clearly the " w a v e of the f u t u r e , " as noted in present design standards ( e . g . , A D S - 2 7 , which defines appropriate test procedures for future military helicopter d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s ) . Additionally, as n e w concepts of vibration b e c o m e formulated, new m e t h o d s of testing will e m e r g e . O n e e x a m p l e of such a new concept is that of chaos, w h i c h can be thought of as being just a more complicated form of orderly motion subject to its o w n appropriate mathematical descriptors. W h e n such descriptors are well d e v e l o p e d , they will most certainly be i m p l e m e n t e d with dedicated algorithms in the frequency analyzers of the future.
8.2 8.2.7
Other Test Objectives Blade Frequencies and Mode Shapes
T o a certain extent the s a m e basic techniques used for fuselage vibration testing can also be applied to the rotor b l a d e s . Nonrotating frequencies and m o d e s are obtainable by fixing a rotor (blades and hub) rigidly to an appropriate support fixture and shake testing it, as described earlier. In general, m o d a l frequencies tend to be m e a s u r e d m o r e accurately than m o d e s h a p e s . If p o s s i b l e , inclusion of m o r e than j u s t o n e blade and shaker is preferable to insure rigidity of the h u b attachment. Rotating natural frequencies are o b t a i n a b l e , at best with difficulty, on whirl t o w e r s by either of t w o m e t h o d s . T h e first is to vary rotor speed to obtain a resonant crossing with o n e of the integral h a r m o n i c s (P order frequency). This m e t h o d is c o m p l i c a t e d by the small a m o u n t s of higher h a r m o n i c excitation in h o v e r i n g whirl conditions and by the fact that blades receive significant levels of d a m p i n g d u e to the airloadings. T h e second m e t h o d is to oscillate the s w a s h plate to obtain a e r o d y n a m i c excitation; this is c o m p l i c a t e d , in turn, by the structural limitations of the control system and by the obtainable oscillatory r e s p o n s e and nonlinearity characteristics of the control system at high frequencies. O n e n e w m e t h o d for testing b l a d e s , at least at model scale, is to test t h e m in v a c u u m spin rigs and then to excite t h e m structurally in a systematic m a n n e r with piezoelectric crystals ( i . e . , in wafer form, attached to the blade surface). T h e s e crystals are t h e m s e l v e s excited with an ac voltage (typically of about 100 V A C ) , and the blade responses are measured with suitable conventional instrumentation (strain g a g e s , e . g . ) . This form of testing poses difficulties by virtue of the need to p r o v i d e electrical excitations to the crystals and to retrieve the electrical instrumentation signals from the transducers going through a rotating to nonrotating coordinate system barrier. This can be a c c o m p l i s h e d using either a slip-ring a s s e m b l y or telemetrie principles.
8.2.2
Fatigue Testing
Just as frequency and m o d e shape prediction analyses must b e t e m p e r e d by validation with test results, so t o o , and to an even greater d e g r e e , must fatigue
VIBRATION T E S T P R O C E D U R E S Table 8.1 Scatter factors for typical aerospace metals
255
Material Steel Aluminum Titanium Magnesium 4 5-6 8 8-10
analyses b e validated with test results. T h e test p r o c e d u r e here is basically very simple: Subject t h e structural c o m p o n e n t s to repeated loads of a p r e d e t e r m i n e d intensity for a n u m b e r of cycles a n d check for failure. Loading spectrum. T h e intensity of t h e loads applied to the structural e l e m e n t is defined b y t h e stress (or load) t i m e histories appropriate to the projected service life of t h e e l e m e n t . H o w e v e r , to save t i m e , since the part m u s t b e tested to t h e service life, t h e t i m e histories should b e applied to the structural e l e m e n t at an accelerated t i m e scale; this is justified since it is the n u m b e r of cycles that is important for fatigue, a n d not t i m e , p e r s e . Number of cycles to be tested. A l t h o u g h t h e chosen service life m a y define a s p e c t r u m of load levels, each with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g n u m b e r of m a x i m u m c y c l e s , t h e structural e l e m e n t s are usually tested at t i m e s the n u m b e r s of cycles to e n s u r e that t h e parts that survive the cyclic loadings are not lucky scatter points o n t h e S-N c u r v e s . This n u m b e r , N, is defined as the scatter factor. T h e m a g n i t u d e of this n u m b e r d e p e n d s o n t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s (usually) of t h e governm e n t a l a g e n c y i n v o l v e d , e . g . , t h e F . A . A . , for c o m m e r c i a l certification, a n d u p o n t h e a m o u n t of a c c u m u l a t e d data available o n t h e material of w h i c h the part is m a n u f a c t u r e d . S o m e typical values of scatter currently in u s e are s h o w n in Table 8 . 1 .
References
Section 8.1 Author(s) Nagy J o n e s et a l . A e r o . Design S t n d r d Randall Broch Fabumni
( / ) / ? ) ( ) ( ) ( J )
(/?
256
Problems
For p r o b l e m s 8 . 1 , 8 . 2 , and 8 . 3 , consider a b u n g e e - s u s p e n d e d fuselage shake test e x p e r i m e n t as typified in Fig. 8 . 1 . A suitable b u n g e e arrangement must be designed subject to the following specifications: T h e s u s p e n d e d fuselage weight W ( = m g) is 10,000 lb and has a e . g . located 18 in. aft of the main rotor. T h e fuselage is supported as shown in Fig. 8.1 from the main rotor h u b and from the tail rotor hub location, which is a distance of 391 in. aft of the main rotor h u b . Denote the distance from the e . g . to the main rotor h u b as i and that from the e . g . to the tail rotor as - T h e pitching m o m e n t of inertia of the fuselage about its e . g . , / , is 3 7 2 , 7 0 0 l b - s - i n . It is required that the b u n g e e support be designed so that a) T h e lowest natural frequencies of the fuselage-bungee support system are each l o w e r than 1 H z . b) All b u n g e e supports (main rotor h u b and tail rotor hub) are m a d e with identical b u n g e e cords (but the t w o supports have different n u m b e r s of loops) which all h a v e the s a m e steady strain (due to static support). T h u s , all cords will h a v e the s a m e preload F w h e n the fuselage is suspended. A l s o , b e c a u s e of the s a m e steady strain of each cord, all individual cords will h a v e the s a m e extensional spring rate K.
F F x 2 2 VV() 0
8.1 A s s u m i n g zero d a m p i n g and that the fuselage-bungee support system can be a p p r o x i m a t e d as a simple bar with vertical springs at either e n d , show that the sum of the two natural frequencies can be expressed as
2
= -^K [m Z t mI
x F F yyo
x 2
+ /
VV()
] [1 + , / ]
2
(8.10)
w h e r e K is the total spring rate of the main rotor hub support b u n g e e pack (= n K, w h e r e n is the n u m b e r of cord strands in the main rotor hub b u n g e e pack).
{ x x
8 . 2 U s i n g the p r e c e d i n g equation, and a s s u m i n g that there are 180 strands (90 loops) in the m a i n rotor h u b b u n g e e p a c k , determine the steady load in each of the bungee cords, F , and the required (per cord) spring rate, K.
0
8.3
A s s u m e that the (per strand) b u n g e e force-strain relationship is given by F = F

X X
tanhZ?e
w h e r e F , the saturation force level, is given by 6 0 lb. Calculate the value of the coefficient, b, which is needed to achieve the spring rate and steady load values found in Problem 8.2 so that the total (steady load strained) bungee strand lengths are 96 in. 8.4 Verify the result that the coherence function is the ratio of the two quency-response functions [i.e., y (f) = FI (f)/H (f)].
2 [ ) 2 ) AB A B
fre-
Stability Analysis Methods: Linear Systems

9.1 Nature of Instability: Basic Concepts
W e recall that the simplest of forced elastomechanical systems can be described by the following differential equation: m(x inertia + )
2
fit) applied load
(9.1)
stiffness
In the case of most aeroelastic and aeromechanical systems the applied load typically contains c o m p o n e n t s that arise from a e r o d y n a m i c loadings. Furtherm o r e , these loadings contain c o m p o n e n t s that arise from a variety of external excitations ( i . e . , d u e to a control angle input or a gust) and o n e or m o r e that arise from the r e s p o n s e of the structure itself. T h e s e loads are classified as motioninduced loads:
fit) = /(')duee + fi') due blade response
(9.2)
external excitation
motion-induced load (contains state variables in description)
F o r m o s t aeroelastic systems the m o t i o n - i n d u c e d loads contain terms that are proportional to both rate and deflection, the presence of which yields differential equations of the following general and by n o w familiar form:
Mq
n
+ Cq + ( M q
2 n n
= B it)
(9.3)
9.1.1 Distinction Between Forced Resonant and Instability
Response
If in the p r e c e e d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t w e take the applied load to consist of only that d u e to an external excitation sinusoidally varying at a frequency of , while omitting that d u e to the m o t i o n - i n d u c e d loads, then the resulting differential equation has the following form: + = A sincv;
2
;c(0) = 0;
jc(0) =
(9.4)
T h e solution to this equation is x(t) = Vi(Alt )

n
[sincri as t.
( t c o s e n i ] + (1/) s i n o d i
n
(9.5)
i . e . , for this case x(t) grows
257
258
If instead, w e take the applied load to consist of only that due to the motioninduced loads and specifically that it b e proportional to velocity, then the resulting differential equation has the following form:
+
= A x;
JC (0) =
0;
jc(0) =
(9.6)
T h e solution to this equation is
i . e . , for this second case x(t) grows as e . Generalizations that can be d r a w n from these e x a m p l e s are as follows: 1) R e s p o n s e s that g r o w linearly with time are typically due to one or m o r e applied external loads oscillating at the system resonant frequency. 2) R e s p o n s e s that g r o w exponentially with time are typically due to o n e or m o r e m o t i o n - i n d u c e d loads that are in phase with the response velocity such that they feed energy into the system from s o m e outside source. 3) In practice, h o w e v e r , it is often difficult to distinguish b e t w e e n the t w o types of response because of the presence of d a m p i n g , nonlinearities, and timevarying d y n a m i c p a r a m e t e r s , etc. T y p i c a l l y , a clear-cut exponential growth behavior m a y only be in e v i d e n c e over a short period of time before a (nonlinear) limit cycle m e c h a n i s m might begin to p r e d o m i n a t e . However, all identified instabilities should be regarded as being capable of producing responses that can grow exponentially to the point of structural failure! For most of the stability p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d , the governing differential equations are linear with constant coefficients. Of the two types of solution to such e q u a t i o n s , transient ( i . e . , h o m o g e n e o u s ) and steady state ( i . e . , particular), we will be primarily c o n c e r n e d in the following chapters with only the former type of solution.
{
9.2 9.2.1
Basic Tools for Linear Systems: Constant Coefficients Characteristic Equations
T h e p r o c e d u r e for finding the transient solution and its attendant stability information is generally as follows: 1) Set the external forcing f u n c t i o n , / ( f ) , equal to zero. 2) A s s u m e an exponential solution:
a p p
x(t)
= ye
Xt
(9.8)
w h e r e y is an u n d e t e r m i n e d constant, herein referred to as the eigenfunction or characteristic amplitude or mode, and is an u n d e t e r m i n e d coefficient, herein d e n o t e d the eigenvalue or characteristic root. 3) Substitute the previously given expression into the differential equation(s), cancel the resulting e factor, and obtain algebraic equation(s) involving the characteristic root(s) and linear c o m b i n a t i o n s of the characteristic amplitude(s).
Xt
STABILITY A N A L Y S I S M E T H O D S : LINEAR S Y S T E M S
259
In the case o f a single-degree-of-freedom system this process will yield a single equation o f the following form: (" + a \"x
+ a "
2
- 2
+ + a)y = 0
(9.9)
B y requiring that the characteristic amplitude shall be nonzero this equation then reduces to a single polynomial equation in . This resulting polynomial w e denote the characteristic equation. In the case o f a multiple-degree-of-freedom system the process will yield a system of simultaneous equations in the characteristic amplitudes. Again requiring that the characteristic amplitudes ( i . e . , the mode shape) shall be generally nonzero and upon setting the determinant of the simultaneous equations to zero yields a polynomial in that is also denoted the characteristic equation. 4) The characteristic root is typically complex: = (9.10)
where is the characteristic damping coefficient, and is the damped natural frequency.
Stability of the system is assured when all o f the characteristic roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts (all are negative). Complex characteristic root plane. For systems that are described by linear differential equations w h o s e (constant) coefficients are all real-valued the characteristic roots must necessarily occur as either real roots or as complex conjugate pairs: kj = \
f R
(9.11a)
or \
j J + i
(9.11b)
For the latter case o f complex conjugate characteristic roots the differential equation defining the motion o f the corresponding characteristic amplitude can be written in the following alternate form: q + 2<7 + o f o = 0 which is equivalent to the following characteristic equation: and, upon solving for , = Thus, = -; =. V ( l )
2 # 2
(9.12)
+ 2 +
= 0
(9.13)
- /V(l -
)
2
(9.14)
(9.15)
where is denoted the undamped natural frequency quantities are graphically described in Fig. 9 . 1 .
for the mode. These
260
.0)
= cos
- 1
! I
rea/ <3x/s
f = 1 ^
(point of critical damping)
Units on each axis ~ 1/sec.
\
ste/6>
/
neutrally stable unstable
Fig. 9 .1
Complex plane and nomenclature defining characteristic roots.
Solution of polynomials. F o r single-degree-of-freedom d y n a m i c systems the characteristic equation is simply a binomial for which a solution c a n be obtained using the binomial t h e o r e m . H o w e v e r , for multiple-degree-of-freedom systems the characteristic equation is a polynomial of a degree higher than t w o ; in most applications the degree is greater than or equal to four. B e y o n d a degree of four there is n o general explicit formula or set of formulas for the solution of high-degree p o l y n o m i a l s ; h e n c e , iterative solutions must be used. 1) Basic Newton-Raphson method. T h e r e exist a variety of m e t h o d s for extracting the roots of p o l y n o m i a l s all with varying degrees of accuracy and c o n v e r g e n c e . O n e such m e t h o d that has generally good convergence characteristics is the N e w t o n - R a p h s o n m e t h o d , which is reasonably good for solving for real roots. T h e m e t h o d is an iterative o n e that is described by the following e q u a t i o n s . L e t / ( ) = 0 be the characteristic equation (polynomial) and k , \ b e the M i and k + 1st iterations. Then
k k + i
*
+
-fihVf'ih)
(9.16)
A graphical interpretation of this algorithm is given in F i g . 9 . 2 . T h e N e w t o n - R a p h s o n m e t h o d b e c o m e s inefficient when the characteristic equation ( p o l y n o m i a l ) , / ( ) , h a s an inflection point near the point of solution. H e n c e , a m o r e convergent iteration algorithm that helps to o v e r c o m e this difficulty is as follows:
+ \ (JV)
Wik)
{f lf'
k
(9.17)
261
fiX
Fig. 9.2
Graphical interpretation of Newton-Raphson iteration.
2) Quadratic factorization. F o r m o s t characteristic equations in structural d y n a m i c s the roots typically o c c u r in o n e or m o r e c o m p l e x conjugate pairs. C o n s e q u e n t l y , for this case the N e w t o n - R a p h s o n m e t h o d described earlier will not w o r k b e c a u s e it is c o n v e r g e n t only to roots located on the real axis. This difficulty can be c i r c u m v e n t e d by first iteratively solving for the quadratic factors c o m p r i s i n g the characteristic e q u a t i o n . Let the given characteristic equation b e expressible as / ( ) = 0 = " + , " " = (
2 1
+ X' '
2 2
1 2
+
3
+ + + b-)
n 2
+ q) ( " ~
+ b ""
x
(9.18)
W e seek an algorithm for and 7, (and for b through b _ )- T o this end w e construct a table w h o s e successive pairs of c o l u m n s are successive iterations (see T a b l e 9 . 1 ) .
x n 2
Table 9.1 p*q =
Typical solution setup for quadratic factorization (p

k
//),
(q
+ ^*)
1
1
a
1
b
2
c
1
<
2
1
1
1
C2
K-\
c -\
n
Il D = D, D = /?, f\q =
P q
Ap
Aq
262 where
bj = aj - pbj-i
qbj-
(j o = l
1,2,...)
(9.19a) (9.19b) 2) (9.19c) (9.19d) (9.19e)
_ , = 0; Cj = bj - pcj_
i
qcj_
(j = 1, 2 , . . . , 0; co 1
^c_3
<:_, -i =
- / ^ ' - 2
w h e r e , for the first p a s s , and q are taken to be zero for c o n v e n i e n c e , and where
D = cjj_
^ =
2
3
^/iCi,-3
(9.20a)
*,,-I'-2
(9.20b)
2
D Then
= - o - i _ , + c_
n
(9.20c)
= D ID\
p
Aq = D / D
/
(9.21)
O n c e the quadratic factor is obtained, the binomial theorem can be used to obtain the t w o inherent roots. F u r t h e r m o r e , in the iteration b_ j and b will tend to z e r o , a n d the r e m a i n i n g (nonzero) b will b e c o m e the coefficients of the reduced p o l y n o m i a l multiplying the quadratic factor just extracted. T h e basic algorithm as outlined earlier c a n then be used repeatedly on the subsequently reduced p o l y n o m i a l s to obtain thereby all of the quadratic factors. Hildebrand gives other techniques for iteratively solving p o l y n o m i a l s .
n
9.2.2
Stability
Boundaries
Very often explicit k n o w l e d g e of the roots of the system is not needed so m u c h as k n o w l e d g e of the conditions under which the system b e c o m e s neutrally stable. F r o m the material presented earlier, the neutrally stable case results w h e n one of the characteristic roots has a real part exactly equal to zero ( i . e . , = 0 ) . T h e functional relationships of the system p a r a m e t e r s , wherein the system is neutrally stable, are denoted the stability boundaries; such boundaries define the ranges of p a r a m e t e r s that produce stable responses and those that produce unstable o n e s . T h e r e are t w o basic ways of solving for the stability b o u n d a r y using the characteristic equation: the graphical method and the R o u t h - H u r w i t z criterion, to b e discussed in the following subsections. Graphical method. At the stability b o u n d a r y , the characteristic root is purely i m a g i n a r y , = . W h e n this expression is substituted into the characteristic e q u a t i o n , that equation often b e c o m e s complex-valued: /(/) Re(o>) + / Im(oo) = 0 + / O (9.22)
263
H e n c e , e a c h of t h e c o m p o n e n t s of t h e c o m p l e x - v a l u e d characteristic equation m u s t separately b e equal to zero also: R e ( o ) = 0; () 0 (9.23)
T a k e for e x a m p l e , a fifth-degree p o l y n o m i a l characteristic equation: /() = a Then Re(co) =

0
+ a
+ + a
= 0
(9.24)

3 2
+ a
3
=
4
(9.25)
() or
=
0
= (
0
+ )
4
= 0
(9.26)
T h e a s s u m p t i o n that = will b e fulfilled only w h e n Re(co) a n d Im(<o) both equal z e r o for t h e same value of . In g e n e r a l , they will not both equal z e r o , since only at certain c o m b i n a t i o n s of the s y s t e m p a r a m e t e r s . It is precisely these c o m b i n a t i o n s of p a r a m e t e r s that are desired. T o this e n d , a r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o a c h is t o solve for using each of the c o m p o n e n t equations a n d to vary the pertinent s y s t e m p a r a m e t e r until t h e t w o values of are e q u a l . T h i s p r o c e d u r e is illustrated in F i g . 9 . 3 . Routh-Hurwitz criterion. T h e R o u t h - H u r w i t z stability criterion is an alg e b r a i c m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e coefficients of t h e characteristic equation w h e r e i n a c o n d i t i o n of stability (or instability) is indicated b y t h e signs of various derived q u a n t i t i e s . A n i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n this criterion is used is that t h e coefficients defining t h e characteristic ( p o l y n o m i a l ) equation are required. T h u s , for s y s t e m s with several d e g r e e s of freedom m e a n s m u s t b e found for e x p a n d i n g the characteristic d e t e r m i n a n t to obtain the required coefficients explicitly. T h i s criterion c a n b e e x p r e s s e d in either of t w o w a y s : the Hurwitz determinant and Routh's criterion. A l t h o u g h t h e specific algebraic m a n i p u l a t i o n s involved with
imaginary
equation
solutions /
Fig. 9.3
' parameter
system
Graphical method for solution of characteristic equation.
264
the t w o are s o m e w h a t dissimilar each essentially determines the same stability information from the explicitly e x p a n d e d characteristic equation as given by f(k) a
0
k" + a
X"~
H ~ a
(9.27)
1) The Hurwitz determinant. Using the above form of the characteristic equation the H u r w i t z determinant . is actually a sequence of determinants that are defined in the following general manner:
a a a
a a a
0 a a
x 3
0 a
2
0 0 a
x
0 0 a
0
0 0 0
0 0 0 (9.28)
k +2
k +
w h e r e k 1, 2 , 3 , . . . , n. T h e w a y the H u r w i t z determinant is used is that the necessary and sufficient conditions for stability are a , ,
Q 2
. . . , (all) > 0
(9.29)
F u r t h e r m o r e , if all a are > 0 , then the H u r w i t z determinants need include only through _ . Finally, the conditions for which the stability is exactly neutral (the stability boundary) c o r r e s p o n d s to the conditions wherein one or m o r e of the H u r w i t z d e t e r m i n a n t s goes to z e r o . 2) Routh array. A n alternate (essentially equivalent, but in s o m e ways m o r e convenient) p r o c e d u r e is to construct the following array devised by Routh:
x
a a (a a _x 2
aa)
0 3 x
a (Aa
3
Ba )
x
T h e array is continued until no n o n z e r o terms r e m a i n . Although not necessary to the use of the array, the associated p o w e r of the e i g e n v a l u e , , is indicated for each r o w at the left of the array. T h e Routh array is then used in the following manner: If all of the terms in the first column are of one sign, the equation has no roots with positive real parts; the number of roots with positive real parts equals the number of changes in sign.
STABILITY A N A L Y S I S M E T H O D S : LINEAR S Y S T E M S 3) Specific Cubic:

0 3
265
results for
low degree
polynomials.
+
2
+ a
= 0
(9.30)
F o r stability, i) ii) Quartic:

0 4
a,
0 x
a,
x 2
a,
2
a
3
(all) > 0 > 0
(9.31a) (9.31b)
aa
aa
0
+ ,
+
2
"
fl
(9.32)
F o r stability, i) ii) a,
0
a,
{ 2 3
a,
2
a,
3 2 4
(all) > 0
2 0
(9.33a) (9.33b)
aaa
x
aa
aa
> 0
4) Auxiliary equation. A n interesting and useful feature of the R o u t h array is that, w h e n e v e r s o m e of the characteristic roots h a v e polar s y m m e t r y relative to the o r i g i n , then o n e of the r o w s of the R o u t h array will g o to z e r o . It can b e a p p r e c i a t e d that at this point the construction of the array ceases and the array c a n n o t then b e u s e d in the usual m a n n e r . H o w e v e r , the last n o n z e r o r o w (ass u m i n g that it is not the coefficients of the characteristic equation itself) can b e used to obtain root p l a c e m e n t information. T h e coefficients of this p r e c e d i n g n o n z e r o r o w can b e used to form the auxiliary equation, w h i c h is the p o l y n o m i a l c o m p r i s e d of the factorization of the characteristic equation c o n t a i n i n g the roots that are s y m m e t r i c a l l y located about the origin. G e n e r a l l y , the auxiliary equation is of e v e n - n u m b e r e d d e g r e e and takes for the p o w e r of its h i g h e s t - d e g r e e root t e r m the p o w e r of the e i g e n v a l u e that w o u l d b e written to the left of the array, as e x e m p l i f i e d in the p r e v i o u s l y given representation. This auxiliary equation w o u l d then h a v e only e v e n p o w e r s of the e i g e n v a l u e , a condition that w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to h a v e the roots s y m m e t r i c a l l y placed about the origin. In s o m e instances this auxiliary e q u a t i o n is of small e n o u g h a d e g r e e that it can b e solved to d e t e r m i n e t h e s e s y m m e t r i c a l l y placed r o o t s . 5) Modifications for very lightly damped systems. F o r m a n y cases w h e r e i n the R o u t h array is u s e d to obtain stability b o u n d a r i e s , variations of certain p a r a m e t e r s (usually d a m p i n g ) are to be m a d e that i n c l u d e , in the limit, zero v a l u e s . In such instances either of t w o difficulties can d e v e l o p . O n o n e h a n d , the array c a n d e g e n e r a t e to the c a s e d i s c u s s e d earlier w h e r e i n o n e row of the array is z e r o , in w h i c h c a s e the array construction terminates p r e m a t u r e l y . O n the o t h e r h a n d , o n e of t h e calculated coefficients in the first column can take on a z e r o v a l u e t h e r e b y r e n d e r i n g the sign c h a n g e criterion as undefined. F o r t h e s e t w o c a s e s r e c o u r s e can b e m a d e to the use of a small fictitious p a r a m e t e r , e, w h i c h is then taken to b e z e r o in the limit (after the construction of the a r r a y ) . A s w e h a v e s e e n , the c a s e of o n e of the r o w s of the array b e c o m i n g zero a m o u n t s to a c o n d i t i o n w h e r e i n s o m e of the roots are s y m m e t r i c a l l y located a b o u t the origin. If, h o w e v e r , the roots are (artificially) displaced to the " r i g h t " in the c o m p l e x p l a n e a d i s t a n c e e, then the s y m m e t r y condition w o u l d b e dis-
266
rupted and the Routh criterion could then be applied. T h u s , if in the characteristic equation [ ^ ( ) = 0] the following substitution is m a d e : 9?() = ^ ( + e) = 0 (9.34)
w h e r e is n o w the " d i s p l a c e d " eigenvalue from the line = e; then the n e w characteristic equation in will typically be " c o m p l e t e " in that the previously zero-valued r o w will be finite. T h e coefficients will generally be proportional to s o m e p o w e r of e. If the Routh array is then constructed as usual the sign c h a n g e criterion can then b e validly invoked with the provision that the e p a r a m e t e r be taken to zero in the limit. In such a w a y a sign c h a n g e can b e detected even though the coefficients might be vanishingly small. In the case of o n e of the coefficients in the first c o l u m n b e c o m i n g z e r o , this coefficient can be replaced by e and the array construction can be continued as usual. T o b e s u r e , s o m e of the ensuing construction m a y involve divisions by e. If n o w in the limit, as e goes to z e r o , the criterion is invoked, then s o m e of the terms m a y b e c o m e vanishingly small and others b e c o m e singular, but the sign c h a n g e criterion, as previously defined, can still be applied with validity despite the size of a n y of the t e r m s .
9.2.3
Frequency-Domain
Methods
Adaptations of fixed-wing flutter calculations. O n e m e t h o d of solving for rotor aeroelastic stability is to adapt o n e of the frequency-domain types of solution used for m a k i n g flutter calculations of fixed wings ( e . g . , the so-called V-g m e t h o d ) . S u c h m e t h o d s h a v e the following general characteristics: 1) Sinusoidal motion is a s s u m e d : = . O n e advantage of w o r k i n g in the frequency d o m a i n is that the unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c formulations currently available for u s e in rotary-wing aeroelastic calculations are in large m e a s u r e a d a p tations of fixed-wing formulations and are generally most accurately formulated in the frequency d o m a i n . 2) Artificial d a m p i n g is introduced into the system by m a k i n g the usual simplified structural d a m p i n g representation assumption but leaving the actual d a m p ing level g and the frequency of oscillation as the eigenvalue c o m p o n e n t s of the p r o b l e m . G e n e r a l l y , the equations can b e rearranged in order to reduce the (flutter) e i g e n v a l u e to a single c o m p l e x quantity: = ( / ) ( 1 + ig)
2
(9.35)
w h e r e is o n e of the uncoupled natural frequencies of the structure ( e . g . , either in b e n d i n g or torsion). 3) T h e resulting e i g e n p r o b l e m is solved, using a n y of a variety of m e t h o d s , with a variation on s o m e flight condition variable, such as flight velocity U o r , in the case of rotorcraft, rotor speed . T h e actual final aeroelastic instability (flutter) calculation is obtained by plotting the variation of the g portion of the flutter e i g e n v a l u e with the selected flight condition variable. Instability is indicated w h e n the g portion of the eigenvalue is positive and equal to the actual value of structural d a m p i n g coefficient a s s u m e d to be available. F o r a two-degree-of-freedom system the behavior of these eigenvalue q u a n -
267
U/bco
Fig. 9.4 Structural damping and frequency required for neutrally stable motion vs air speed.
tities w o u l d be typified b y the variations of the g and ( / ) portions of the t w o e i g e n v a l u e s (1 a n d II) s h o w n in F i g . 9 . 4 .
Nyquist stability criterion. T h e Nyquist stability criterion is based on the c o n c e p t of treating differential e q u a t i o n s as block d i a g r a m s involving " t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s " a n d , in particular, of d e t e r m i n i n g the behavior of closed-loop block d i a g r a m s by a n a l y z i n g their respective open-loop block d i a g r a m s . T h u s , in its most simple form the block d i a g r a m w o u l d consist of a forward loop with a transfer function KG a n d a positive feedback loop with a transfer function H as s h o w n in F i g . 9 . 5 . G e n e r a l l y , the transfer functions in these loops are k n o w n since they a r e , in fact, the t e r m s of the differential equations defining the aeroelastic stability p r o b l e m . O n c e the transfer functions are k n o w n , then the following p r o c e d u r e is followed: 1) Sinusoidal motion is a s s u m e d : d( )/dt is set equal to a n d the amplitude and p h a s e of the resulting transfer functions, KG(O) and / / ( ) , are evaluated. 2) T h e locus of the product of KG and / / , KGH, is plotted in the c o m p l e x p l a n e , as the frequency is varied from 0 to o c .
KG
Fig. 9.5 Block diagram for a linear positive feedback system.
268
3) For positive feedback, as s h o w n in the previously given simplified d i a g r a m , the system is determined to he unstable if this locus encloses the + / point on the real axis. (1) Single-degree-of-freedom system. An e x a m p l e of this technique is the analysis of a simple single-degree-of-freedom system (spring-mass-damper) as defined by the following differential equation: mx + cx + kx = 0 which can be rewritten in the following e x p a n d e d form: mx + C\k + kx = y = c x
2 x 2
(9.36)
(9.37)
where c = c c . For this form of the equation the appropriate transfer functions are as follows: KG = - = 2
k + cyoo woo
(9.38)
z
H = - = evo) T h u s , the c o m b i n e d open loop transfer function is given by KGH = k + f

C/
(9.39)
; woo-
(9.40)
A s s h o w n in Fig. 9 . 6 , the locus of this product forms a loop that encloses or d o e s not enclose the + 1 point on the real axis d e p e n d i n g on whether c respectively greater or less than c.
x 2
is
dkl A
Fig. 9.6 Loci of open loop transfer functions, KGH, showing stability characteristics.
269
F r o m the p r e c e d i n g e q u a t i o n s w e k n o w that w h e n C\ is equal to c the total d a m p i n g c is zero and the s y s t e m is neutrally stable. This condition c o r r e s p o n d s to the case w h e r e i n the locus p a s s e s exactly t h r o u g h the + 1 point. (2) Two-degree-of-freedom system. T h e e q u a t i o n s of motion for a t w o d e g r e e - o f - f r e e d o m s y s t e m can be written in the following abbreviated form:
2
a (X)x
u 2
+ a (\)x
i2 22
= 0 = 0
(9.41a) (9.41b)
()
+ ()
F o r this c a s e the t w o transfer functions b e c o m e X\lx x lx

2 2
= =
()/ ()
2
(9.42a) (9.42b)
- ()/ ()
2 22
T h u s , the required o p e n l o o p transfer function b e c o m e s KGH ()

2
()/ ()
2 ]
()
22
(9.43)
w h i c h , a g a i n , can be e v a l u a t e d to form the required locus.
9.3 Linear Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems: Constant Coefficients 9.3. General Matrix Eigenvalue Problem
W i t h the a d v e n t of readily available and increasingly m o r e powerful digital c o m p u t e r r e s o u r c e s , as well as efficient matrix e i g e n v a l u e a l g o r i t h m s , a practical w a y of solving stability ( e i g e n v a l u e ) p r o b l e m s is to solve for the e i g e n v a l u e s a n d e i g e n v e c t o r s directly rather than first obtaining the characteristic e q u a t i o n . In m o s t of the material p r e s e n t e d in s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r s , the standard form of the m u l t i p l e - d e g r e e - o f - f r e e d o m e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m ( e i g e n p r o b l e m ) is a matrix form a n a l o g o u s to the s i m p l e single-degree-of-freedom system: [[]
2
+ [C]k
4- \K\]
{X} = 0
(9.44)
w h e r e [M], [ C ] , a n d [K] d e n o t e , respectively, the inertia, d a m p i n g , and stiffness m a t r i c e s . T h i s f o r m , h o w e v e r c o n v e n i e n t for defining the p h y s i c s of structural d y n a m i c s , is not in a standard (canonical) form as typically formulated for any of a w i d e variety of standard matrix e i g e n v a l u e extraction r o u t i n e s . For this p u r p o s e w e first rewrite the p r e c e d i n g equation in the following " s e m i c a n o n i c a l " form: M 0
o"
j = 0
(9.45)
or, using an a b b r e v i a t e d n o t a t i o n , [[A]K []] {Z} = 0 (9.46)
270
With s o m e matrix eigenvalue routines this semicanonical form is sufficient. With others the full canonical form is required: [\D]\ where ID] = []]
[/]] {Z} = 0
(9.47)
[B]
(9.48)
Note that the [A], [/?], and [D] matrices are not generally s y m m e t r i c , and the resulting eigenvalues (roots) and eigenvectors (modes) are typically c o m p l e x . For the cases wherein these matrices are real-valued, the resulting c o m p l e x roots and m o d e s will occur as c o m p l e x conjugates.
9.3.2
Force Phasing Matrices
T h e theoretical d e v e l o p m e n t of the force phasing matrix ( F P M ) technique follows from three simple ideas g o v e r n i n g the unstable motion of any linear multiple-degree-of-freedom system: 1) T h e nature of any unstable system is that it has destabilizing forces acting on it that have c o m p o n e n t s in phase with velocity. T h u s , for unstable motion these forces produce work on the system. 2) Within any such unstable d y n a m i c system each degree of freedom has a multiplicity of forces that have c o m p o n e n t s correspondingly in phase with the velocity of that degree of freedom. Such forces are herein denoted as driving forces. That each degree of freedom has drivers in a condition of instability is presented without proof, but follows heuristically from the properties of linear differential e q u a t i o n s . 3) For any instability involving two or more degrees of freedom there will exist a multiplicity of energy flow paths ( i . e . , vicious circles) wherein the t w o or m o r e degrees of freedom will mutually " p u m p ' energy into each other.
1
T h e principal function of the F P M technique is to identify the force terms in the equations of motion that, for an unstable m o d e , are so phased by the m o d e shape (eigenvector) that they act as " d r i v e r s " of the motion. T h e technique is perhaps nothing m o r e than a formalization of the intuitive use an experienced dynamicist w o u l d m a k e of the eigenvector information. T h e basis of the technique can be seen by considering the eigensolution of the basic form of e i g e n p r o b l e m given earlier in this section, wherein the M , C , and matrices are a s s u m e d to be constant. For this case the general solution to the h o m o g e n e o u s differential equation is
A'
=
k=
k )
{ '

(9.49)
1
)
w h e r e K denotes the kth eigenvalue and { } denotes the c o r r e s p o n d i n g kth eigenvector. In g e n e r a l , both X and { } are c o m p l e x - v a l u e d . T h e e i g e n v a l u e s , ( = ), which give stability level and natural frequency information, are obtained from the solution to the matrix eigenvalue p r o b l e m . U p o n inserting the preceding general solution into the eigenvalue e q u a t i o n s , each row of the resulting equation set represents the equilibrium of forces acting on a c o r r e s p o n d i n g degree of freedom. Each equation can be written as the sum of the m a s s , d a m p e r , and spring forces of the nth diagonal element degree of
k
271
freedom along with t h e r e m a i n d e r of the terms lumped together as a c o m b i n e d excitation force / : . . (inertia force) ( d a m p e r force) (spring force)
k) nj
+ + +
Cnn *
P .
( nj
m
. . ? +
nJ
M"
C * + k W = 0
(9.50)
= f
For the u s u a l , nonpathological case m , c, and k are all positive n u m b e r s ; that is, each a u t o g e n o u s m a s s ( i . e . , w h e n uncoupled from the others) is generally a stable s p r i n g - m a s s - d a m p e r s y s t e m . Since the eigenvalue k is generally c o m p l e x , the p r e c e d i n g equation can be interpreted as the sum of four complex quantities o r vectors in the c o m p l e x plane that m u s t , furthermore, be in equilibrium. A s s u m i n g that for a n y c o m p l e x pair the eigenvector with the positive i m a g i n a r y part is used t h r o u g h o u t , w e can state that the a r g u m e n t of the eigenvector Q is the angle b y w h i c h the inertia force vector is rotated (counterclockwise) relative to the d a m p e r force and the d a m p e r force is rotated relative to the stiffness force. F o r unstable motion the real part of k ( i . e . , ) is a positive n u m b e r a n d , h e n c e , d will be less than /2 ( i . e . , 9 0 d e g ) . If a point in time is taken w h e n the velocity of the nth degree of freedom is pure real and positive, then t h e a u t o g e n o u s d a m p e r force ( i . e . , ^',,,,^) will correspondingly also be pure real but n e g a t i v e .
nn nn k k k k
F u r t h e r m o r e , if it is realized that the four vectors represent forces that are in e q u i l i b r i u m a n d g o v e r n e d by the previously d e v e l o p e d constraint on ., then the real parts of the a u t o g e n o u s spring, d a m p e r , and inertia forces will all be negative; h e n c e , the r e m a i n i n g l u m p e d s u m of all of the off-diagonal terms must always h a v e a positive real part. Figure 9 . 7 d e m o n s t r a t e s this a r g u m e n t ; the four force vectors are shown in the complex plane for an unstable oscillatory mode [Re(co .) = . > 0; Q < /2] a n d unit negative real d a m p i n g . Since t h e / , , vector is a s u m of all t h e off-diagonal terms for the nth degree of freedom, any of the individual t e r m s within / that h a s a positive real part must be d e e m e d a driver for that degree of f r e e d o m . C o n v e r s e l y , a n y of the individual terms w i t h i n / , , that h a s a negative real part c a n be d e e m e d a quencher for that degree of freedom. This fact thus p r o v i d e s the d y n a m i c i s t with the c o m p l e m e n t a r y information regarding w h i c h p a r a m e t e r s might be increased to stabilize an instability.
A k
T h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d interpretations of unstable motion can be quantitatively i m p l e m e n t e d by forming herein defined force phasing matrices. F o r any unstable e i g e n v a l u e k these matrices have a one-to-one c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to the original M , C , a n d system matrices defining the equations of motion: Any positive real element in one of the force phasing matrices signifies that the corresponding system matrix element is a driver.
k
Mathematical implementation. Force phasing matrices are essentially formed by dividing each r o w of the original system of equations by a scalar quantity
272
ROTARY WING S T R U C T U R A L DYNAMICS
(damper
force)
(driving
force)
I
= a r g ( ^ ) < 90 deg.
nn
(inertia
Fig. 9.7
force)
Force vector diagram for th degree of freedom, kth mode.
that renders the diagonal d a m p i n g term pure negative real. For the case of constant coefficient matrices this can be easily a c c o m p l i s h e d using the eigenvalue and e i g e n v e c t o r information. T h e force phasing matrices corresponding to the M , C , and system matrices, for the i&h eigenvalue can be written, respectively, as
Re
(A)
(9.51)
ik)
Re
k ,y]
(9.52)
: ' <,,.
s
ip(k an
1 1
-Re
[*,y]
(A)
(9.53)
w h e r e the < 8 > s y m b o l denotes a Hadamard or term by term matrix multiplication. T h e af\ !, and 7, vectors are formed from the results of the basic eigensolution:
AI A)
(9.54)
{:, }
A )
(9.55) (9.56)
Note that this formulation is general in that it covers both oscillatory and aperiodic instabilities. A l t h o u g h not strictly required for the m e t h o d o l o g y , the division by Cu in the a b o v e e q u a t i o n s serves the useful normalization of the matrices relative
STABILITY A N A L Y S I S M E T H O D S : LINEAR S Y S T E M S nth degree of freedom mth degree of freedom
273
nth equation
mth equation
IP 1
U
[P ]
G
and/or
[P ]
K
Critical drivers = terms in original dynamic equations acting as mutual drivers for unstable motion, as identified by (+) terms in corresponding force-phasing matrices. ^ Energy-flow Fig. 9.8 path
Definitions of critical drivers and energy flow path. diagonal
to the diagonal d a m p e n i n g t e r m s . C l e a r l y , this division will render all t e r m s in [P^] equal to 1.
Use of force phasing
matrices:
energy
flow paths.
T h e interpretation
and u s a g e of the force p h a s i n g matrices can be s u m m a r i z e d as follows: 1) Identify the most active d e g r e e s of freedom from the eigenvector information for the unstable m o d e in q u e s t i o n . 2) L o o k for relatively large positive ( 4- ) values in the force phasing matrices involving the m o s t active d e g r e e s of freedom as identified from the eigenvector. S u c h e l e m e n t s are the ' ' d r i v e r s " for the unstable m o t i o n . 3) O f the drivers identified look for those that involve degrees of freedom that m u t u a l l y drive each other. Such drivers we denote critical drivers. As illustrated in F i g . 9 . 8 , such critical drivers w o u l d occur in the simplest form as off-diagonal terms involving two distinct degrees of freedom, say the nth and with. 4) T h u s , critical drivers w o u l d s h o w up as relatively large ( 4- ) values in both the ( ), and ( ) e l e m e n t s of o n e or m o r e of the three force phasing matrices. T h e interaction t h r o u g h these t e r m s is defined herein as the energy flow path.
n i n
9.3.3
Nyquist Criterion for Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom
Systems
T h e N y q u i s t criterion, as formulated for single variable d y n a m i c feedback s y s t e m s , is briefly described in an earlier subsection. T h e m e t h o d can be e x t e n d e d to multiple-degree-of-freedom s y s t e m s as well. T h e use of a multiple-degree-
274
G,
{Y}
Fig. 9.9
Block diagram showing cut in loop closure.
of-freedom N y q u i s t criterion would be w a r r a n t e d for those cases wherein the frequency r e s p o n s e characteristics of t w o separate multivariable s u b s y s t e m s that eventually c o u p l e with each other are available, but from separate s o u r c e s . T h e basis of this extension can be seen by referring to Fig. 9 . 9 , w h i c h depicts the loop closure b e t w e e n t w o d y n a m i c s u b s y s t e m s that couple with each other. A s s h o w n in Fig. 9 . 9 the feedback is deliberately cut, and the system responses are then a s s u m e d to be u n d a m p e d sinusoidal rather than the d a m p e d (or divergent) sinusoidal as w o u l d be obtained with actual loop closure. T h r e e simple relationships define the closure condition:
{Y}
2
[G,(>)] {X,}
(9.57)
{X } =
[ G ( ) ) 1 {Y}
2
(9.58)
C o n d i t i o n s across the loop closure:

{ X } = {,}
2
(9.59)
T h e last of these e q u a t i o n s i m p l e m e n t s the m a n d a t e that the responses at the end of the o p e n e d loop X shall be proportional to those at the start of the loop X , . T h e u n d e t e r m i n e d constant of proportionality A at this point is allowed to be arbitrary and c o m p l e x - v a l u e d . T a k e n together the aforementioned frequencyd e p e n d e n t matrix e q u a t i o n s define an ( x N) eigenvalue p r o b l e m :
2
[G (co)] [,()1 { X , } 2
( ) {,}
(9.60)
w h e r e the frequency d e p e n d e n t e i g e n v a l u e s ( ) are denoted the characteristic loci. T h e multivariable N y q u i s t criterion can then b e simply stated as follows: The combined system (with loop closure) shall be unstable if any of the characteristic loci, A, crosses the real axis in the complex plane at a point greater than unity (i.e., + 1 iO).
9.3.4
Kelvin-Tait-Chetaev
Theorem
O n e characteristic of the d y n a m i c s of rotating systems is the presence of g y r o s c o p i c - l i k e m o m e n t s . T h e s e m o m e n t s typically show up in the equations of m o t i o n in the form of s k e w - s y m m e t r i c portions of the d a m p i n g matrix. T h u s ,
275
for s o m e d y n a m i c p h e n o m e n a the basic matrix equation of m o t i o n can b e written in the following specialized form: \M\ {X} + [ [ C , ] + [ C l ] {X} + [] {X} = 0
{
(9.61)
w h e r e [C \ is a s y m m e t r i c d a m p i n g matrix and [ G ] is a s k e w - s y m m e t r i c matrix (typically of g y r o s c o p i c o r i g i n ) . T h e K - T - C t h e o r e m a d d r e s s e s stability issues w h e r e i n the system of e q u a t i o n s defined b y only t h e m a s s and stiffness matrices possesses unstable m o t i o n . T h u s , it is a s s u m e d that t h e following " t r u n c a t e d ' matrix equation p o s s e s s e s o n e or m o r e unstable roots:
1
[M] {X} + [K\ {X} = 0
(9.62)
Stabilizing effect of gyroscopic terms. T h e impact of the K - T - C t h e o r e m can best b e a p p r e c i a t e d by noting the role the g y r o s c o p i c t e r m s h a v e in stabilizing an o t h e r w i s e unstable s y s t e m . A n unstable s y s t e m , w h e n defined by the p r e c e d i n g matrix set of differential e q u a t i o n s ( [ C ] a n d [ G ] both z e r o ) , can be m a d e at least neutrally stable b y the addition of g y r o s c o p i c terms to the equations of m o t i o n . T h i s c a n b e seen for a t w o - d e g r e e - o f - f r e e d o m system by including the g y r o s c o p i c t e r m s a n d using a c o o r d i n a t e transformation that d i a g o n a l i z e s the m a s s a n d stiffness m a t r i c e s . S u c h a transformation can be found that also leaves the g y r o s c o p i c matrix s k e w s y m m e t r i c . S u c h a transformation w o u l d result in a matrix e i g e n v a l u e p r o b l e m of the following form:
t
[/]
0
21
# 1 2
*11
0
a r e
{X} = 0
(9.63)
where g i ~Sn d l ^22 both < 0 . F o r this c a s e t h e characteristic e q u a t i o n is

= a n a n < 2
<gl2
+ k
4- / c )
2 2
k k~>2
n
(9.64)
S o l v i n g for s h o w s that both values of this quantity can be m a d e negative for sufficiently large g , t h e r e b y c a u s i n g to h a v e pure imaginary values ( i . e . , neutral stability). F u r t h e r m o r e , it c a n b e s h o w n that this reasoning c a n b e e x t e n d e d to t h o s e cases w h e r e i n either o n e o r the other of the k o r k values is n e g a t i v e a n d t h e o t h e r is p o s i t i v e , and/or the total system is c o m p r i s e d of pairs of d e g r e e s of freedom that c a n b e so r e d u c e d to diagonal form.
1 2 u 22
Basic K-T-C result for positive-definite matrices. F o r the cases wherein both the [M] a n d [C ] matrices are positive-definite a n d w h e r e the [K] matrix has n o z e r o e i g e n v a l u e s , t h e K - T - C t h e o r e m states the following: For nonzero (positive-definite) damping matrix [ C ] the number of unstable roots of the total system is equal to the number of unstable roots of the truncated system. That is, the addition of damping cannot stabilize an unstable system and will destabilize a system neutrally stabilized by gyroscopic moments. T h e basis of t h e t h e o r e m proof is that the p r e s e n c e of d a m p i n g d e n i e s the s y s t e m from h a v i n g purely i m a g i n a r y roots ( = / ) . T h e r e f o r e , any roots
{ 7
276
that reside in t h e right half-plane with zero d a m p i n g and gyroscopics must remain in that half-plane with the addition of d a m p i n g and gyroscopics.
Modified result for semi-positive-definite
matrices.
If the damping ma-
trix is semi-positive-definite, i . e . , the determinant of C , is z e r o , then o n e useful result from the K - T - C t h e o r e m is that if all of the roots of the truncated system are stable (or u n s t a b l e ) , then all of the roots of the total system are respectively stable (or u n s t a b l e ) .
9.4 Linear Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems: Periodic Coefficients (Floquet Theory) 9.4.7 Sources of Periodic Coefficients
T h e structural d y n a m i c s a n d aeroelastics of helicopter (rotorcraft) rotor blades are subject to d y n a m i c forces w h o s e descriptions contain periodic coefficients. T h e resulting matrix differential equations of motion can be expressed generally as [M] {X} + iC(t)] {X} + [K(t)] {X} = 0 (9.65)
w h e r e the [ M ] matrix is generally, but not a l w a y s , constant and the d a m p i n g and stiffness matrices are periodic: (9.66) O n e of the h a l l m a r k s of rotary wing a e r o m e c h a n i c a l and aeroelastic formulations is their a b u n d a n c e of equations of motion with periodic coefficients. Major sources of these periodic coefficients are the a e r o d y n a m i c s of blades in forward flight, rotor a n i s o t r o p y , and the presence of nonlinearities. Each of these sources is briefly described in the following material as a prelude to m o r e detailed investigations in later c h a p t e r s . Forward flight aerodynamics. In forward flight the mathematical description of the airloads acting on a typical airfoil section will contain terms periodic in the rotor rotation period. F o r m a n y rotorcraft aeromechanical and aeroelastic p r o b l e m s efficient formulations of the d y n a m i c s are obtained by first n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z i n g the time derivatives by the rotor rotation speed :
This n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z a t i o n can then be applied to the simplified a e r o d y n a m i c description of the typical airfoil section, as s h o w n in F i g . 9 . 1 0 , w h e r e the tangential a n d p e r p e n d i c u l a r c o m p o n e n t s of air velocity, U and U , are respectively given b y
T P
= ClR(x flR(K
+ simj)
(9.68) (9.69)
Up = -
+ w + ' cosi)/)
277
Fig. 9.10
Typical blade section showing velocity components.
w h e r e and w a r e , respectively, the s p a n w i s e position r and the flapping disp l a c e m e n t (either rigid b o d y and/or elastic), both n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d by rotor radius R, a n d w h e r e and a r e , respectively the rotor inflow ratio a n d the rotor advance ratio ( = forward flight speed n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d by rotor tip speed ClR). T h e flapping airloads description, which gives the basic flapwise a e r o d y n a m i c d a m p i n g ( i . e . , the coefficient multiplying vv) is then obtained from the following formulation: (,
=
) = -
pcU c
2
(9.70)
T h u s , the d a m p i n g for the flapwise motion is seen to be proportional to (x + sini;) a n d the " a e r o d y n a m i c " spring proportional to [ cosi;(.x + sim/)]. Rotor anisotropy. A s will b e d e v e l o p e d in subsequent sections, m a n y rotor a e r o m e c h a n i c a l formulations require descriptions of the rotating rotor elastom e c h a n i c s in the nonrotating coordinate system (for coupling with a nonrotating p y l o n o r airframe). A characteristic of the coordinate transformation required to achieve these descriptions is that rotor properties that are anisotropic in the rotating frame a p p e a r as similar properties in the nonrotating coordinate frame, but with periodic t e r m s . F o r e x a m p l e , the diametral m a s s m o m e n t of inertia of a t w o - b l a d e d rotor is different d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r the diametral axis of rotation is taken along the d i a m e t e r defined by the axis of the blades or perpendicular to the blade a x i s . N o r m a l l y , for all rotor s y s t e m s the blades are (or very nearly are) identical. H e n c e , for three- (or m o r e ) bladed rotor systems the elastomechanical properties of the total rotor are isotropic a n d , h e n c e , independent of the diametral axis about w h i c h the properties are taken. F o r such systems the rotating to nonrotating c o o r d i n a t e system transformation leaves the properties invariant with respect t o rotor a z i m u t h . H o w e v e r , even for three- (or more) bladed rotor s y s t e m s anisotropy can o c c u r d u e to any difference b e t w e e n a n y of the blades ( e . g . , an inoperative b l a d e lead-lag d a m p e r o r a d a m a g e d b l a d e ) . S u c h anisotropy can a g a i n , as in the case of t w o - b l a d e d rotors, give rise to periodic terms in the e q u a t i o n s of motion w h e n the rotating to nonrotating coordinate system transformation is i n v o k e d .
278
Nonlinearities. M a n y rotor aeroelastic formulations contain nonlinearities that are of sufficiently high an order of m a g n i t u d e that they simply cannot be neglected. F o r such cases the appropriate matrix differential equation b e c o m e s [M] { X } + )] {X} + [ * ( ) ] {} = {F(i,, , )} (9.71)
For this case the p r o b l e m is twofold: First, there js the p r o b l e m of determining equilibrium (trim) responses [{X} = { X } = {X}], which are generally periodic. T h e n there is the p r o b l e m of determining the stability of the trim solution; that is, d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r the trim solution stays periodic and b o u n d e d . T h u s , the total response vector can be represented by the s u m of the trim values and perturbation values:
trim
{X} = {X} + {X}
(9.72)
w h e r e {( )} = {( + 2)}. W h e n this representation of the trim responses ( a s s u m i n g that they are s o m e h o w obtained) are inserted into the equations of motion (including the nonlinearities), the following matrix equation of motion for the perturbational responses is obtained: [M] { } + [ , , )] {} + [(, , ) ] {} 0 (9.73)
In the a b o v e equation the [ C ] and \K\ matrices are periodic, and the equation then represents a standard form of a set of linear equations with periodic coefficients. Trim solutions. T h e principal reason for making trim calculations is to obtain the proper values of the control angles and rotor attitude angles that produce the required values of the integrated hub loads (thrust, propulsive force, pitching m o ment, and rolling moment), i.e., performance trim. A secondary reason for obtaining trim calculations is to obtain the equilibrium responses, { ( )}, i.e., response trim. Typically, all trim calculations must be made iteratively since both the trim force and moment relationships and the equations of motion are nonlinear; some form of numerical solution of the equations of motion is usually the only practical way of getting accurate solutions. These two trim calculations (performance and response) are sometimes referred to as major and minor iterations, respectively. Within any one (major) iteration can be several minor iterations. With each major iteration the calculated integrated hub loads are compared with those required (or specified) and then variations of the controls are made (using gradient methods) in order to drive the errors in these quantities to specified tolerances. T h e p r o b l e m of obtaining response trim solutions, {( )}, is a nontrivial o n e a n d , indeed, o n e that can be approached from a n u m b e r of w a y s . O n e straightforward approach to the p r o b l e m is to integrate numerically the full set of (nonlinear) equations of motion (with or without periodic coefficients) until the solution c o n v e r g e s to periodicity. This a p p r o a c h , although quite s i m p l e , has t w o serious s h o r t c o m i n g s . First, for lightly d a m p e d systems this process can take a long time to c o n v e r g e . S e c o n d , because the entire equation set is being used, the solutions thus obtained inherently contain not only the desired trim solutions but the perturbation solutions as well. T h u s , if a solution is indeed obtained in this m a n n e r , then it must necessarily be stable since the perturbations will have died o u t . C o n v e r s e l y , if the solution refuses to die out or actually d i v e r g e s , then
279
a trim solution is not obtainable by this m e t h o d and the perturbational solution m u s t b e d e e m e d u n s t a b l e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , this a p p r o a c h is merely d o i n g what the Floquet theory w a s intended to d o ( i . e . , check for stability), but m u c h m o r e expensively. O n e particularly intriguing a p p r o a c h is that d u e t o Peters a n d I z a d p a n a h . This a p p r o a c h still uses s o m e form of numerical integration to solve the (entire) n o n l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n s for the forced response case [ i . e . , retaining the full description for {F(i/, , X)}]. Solutions are obtained repeatedly, but each time only o v e r o n e rotor revolution, a s s u m i n g a specified set of response initial conditions at t h e start of each revolution. F r o m these separate responses a partial derivative matrix c a n b e formed so that a truly h a r m o n i c solution for the responses can b e calculated i n d e p e n d e n t l y of the response stability. This a p p r o a c h h a s the dual a d v a n t a g e s that it will not be o v e r p o w e r e d by any inherently unstable perturbational solution, a n d that a transition matrix, useful in itself for stability a n a l y s i s , falls out as a b y - p r o d u c t . A l t h o u g h the m e t h o d could be used as a superior basis for forming a m i n o r iteration, the t w o iteration loops can be c o m b i n e d into a single iteration s c h e m e . T h u s , in e s s e n c e , the m e t h o d treats the aeroelastic r e s p o n s e s at the e n d of each rotor revolution as additional trim quantities a n d treats the initial conditions of these responses as trim variables (along with the control a n d rotor attitude a n g l e s ) .
9.4.2
General Characteristics
of Floquet Theory
A l t h o u g h the physics of rotary wing structural d y n a m i c s is most conveniently e x p r e s s e d with a matrix differential equation of m o t i o n , using m a s s and (periodic) d a m p i n g a n d stiffness m a t r i c e s , the mathematical tool for solving for the stability characteristics (Floquet theory) requires at least a semicanonical form of the matrix e q u a t i o n . T h u s , w e rewrite the basic matrix equation in the following form:
+N
[A] {Y} +
= -
lB e *l
in n
IT) = 0
Fourier series = [ ( ) 1
N
(9.74)
Note that in order for [?( )] to be real-valued, [B \ and [ _ J must be c o m p l e x conjugates. General solution. Floquet theory gives as a general solution to this equation the following expression: { ( )} = | / / ( ) ] [ \ ( . ) \ ] }
(9.75)
w h e r e the [] matrix is periodic
and generally fully populated: (9.76)
[ / / ( ) ] = [ / / ( + 2)1
w h e r e t h e kth characteristic exponent, , is an analog to the usual eigenvalue (characteristic root) arising in s y s t e m s with constant coefficient s y s t e m s , and w h e r e {a } is a vector of u n d e t e r m i n e d c o n s t a n t s , again an analog to the eigenk
280
vector or m o d e shape arising in these s y s t e m s . Specifically, the characteristic e x p o n e n t for s y s t e m s with periodic coefficients contains the same type of stability information as that for constant coefficients: = Unir; = 1, 2 , . . . , ^ (9.77)
Note that the characteristic e x p o n e n t s in Floquet theory are distinguished from the characteristic roots of systems with constant coefficients by the presence of the multiples of 2 in the imaginary or frequency part of the characteristic e x p o n e n t . This multifrequency content can be interpreted as follows: For transient motion defined by any one of the characteristic e x p o n e n t s , , the response would be o b s e r v e d as having a basic frequency content ( = ) , with a multiplicity of secondary frequencies defined by the t w o frequencies and | - f | , each all integral h a r m o n i c s of the frequency , defined by the period of the timevariable coefficients, ( = MT). This p h e n o m e n o n is referred to as an aliasing of the frequencies. It is a real p h e n o m e n o n that can be observed from attempts to frequency analyze the responses of d y n a m i c systems that are characterized by periodic coefficients in their system matrices. A l t h o u g h the presence of the frequency aliasing m a k e s the interpretation of the imaginary parts of the characteristic e x p o n e n t s difficult, the real of the characteristic e x p o n e n t is completely and u n a m b i g u o u s l y a measure of the stability of the s y s t e m . Just as in the case of systems with constant coefficients, stability is assured w h e n the real parts of all of the characteristic e x p o n e n t s , , have negative values.
9.4.3
Ripple Method of Solution
A meaningful (and actually an historical) link between the theory for systems with constant coefficients and those with periodic coefficients is the so-called ripple method of solution. T h e rationale for the ripple method derives from early attempts to analyze the a e r o m e c h a n i c a l stability of rotor blades (Horvay) when our m o d e r n Floquet theory techniques were not well-formulated, and, perhaps more importantly, extensive computational resources were not available. In ess e n c e , the ripple m e t h o d a s s u m e s that over finite azimuth angle ranges the a e r o d y n a m i c properties of the blade sections are changing slowly e n o u g h that the properties can he taken to be constant. T h u s , with this assumption the wellformulated linear theory with constant coefficients could be i m p l e m e n t e d over each of these azimuth ranges to define a solution pertinent to each range. Each of these solutions is then " p a t c h e d " together at its boundaries (initial and end conditions) by requiring that the responses have continuous displacements and velocities. Stability is determined by investigating how the responses match up beginning to end o v e r one period (rotor revolution). As w e shall see, this m e t h o d is actually a precursor to the transition matrix approach presented in a later section. T h e ripple m e t h o d , m o r e o v e r , also has practical meaning especially for the rotorcraft a e r o m e c h a n i c a l p r o b l e m . As s h o w n in Fig. 9 . 1 1 , in forward flight the a e r o d y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t of the rotor disk has four distinct z o n e s , each with s o m e w h a t exclusive characteristics. T o be sure, the mathematically defined zones indicated in Fig. 9.11 (zone separations at = /4, 3 / 4 , 5 / 4 and 7 / 4 ) are but rough idealizations to the
281
rotor
disk
LE
reversed flow conditions
area with significant transonic flow effects
high angleof-attack, \ incompressible flow conditions
rotor disk TE
f low angleof-attack, high subsonic flow conditions
Fig. 9.11 Idealized characteristic aerodynamic zones of the rotor disk in forward flight.
indistinctly defined aerodynamicalYy characteristics residing around the a z i m u t h . As an a p p r o x i m a t i o n , h o w e v e r , w e note that in both zones 1 and 3 the aerod y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t can be p r e d o m i n a n t l y characterized by 1 ) being relatively low subsonic a n d , h e n c e , effectively i n c o m p r e s s i b l e , and 2) having substantial radial flow. In z o n e 2 in contrast, the a e r o d y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t can be characterized by b e i n g relatively high subsonic and even transonic near the tip; radial flow characteristics are negligible in zone 2. Finally, all three z o n e s , 1, 2 , and 3 , can be characterized as being in forward flow and having unstalled airfoil operation: i . e . , the small angle a p p r o x i m a t i o n on a e r o d y n a m i c angle of attack is reasonably valid. In contrast, although the a e r o d y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t in zone 4 is similar to that in zones 1 and 3 in being i n c o m p r e s s i b l e , it is principally characterized by h a v i n g reversed flow in the inner portions of the blade and h a v i n g large angles of attack to the point of entering stall. M o r e o v e r , the nature of the stalled airfoil operation in z o n e 4 is such that the dynamic effects on the airfoil stall cannot be categorically neglected. T h e four zones thus define three distinct types of unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c load descriptions that unfortunately are m o s t practically a n a l y z a b l e individually with formulations that are a w k w a r d to apply and/or inaccurate in the other z o n e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the c o n c e p t of defining discrete z o n e s w h e r e i n the m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l i n g in each is generically uniform has practical justification. T h e specifics of using the ripple m e t h o d can best be appreciated by considering the four z o n e conceptualization defined by F i g . 9 . 1 1 . For each such zone let us a s s u m e that a linear formulation can be m a d e wherein the properties over each
282
zone are suitably averaged. T h u s , the matrix equation of motion for any one zone ( i . e . , the /cth, w h e r e k = 1, 2, 3 , 4) can be written as [[M ]
k
\}
k)
+ [C \
k
{ k )
+ \K \]
k
{X^}
= 0;
k=
1, 2 , 3 , 4
(9.78)
w h e r e the (k) system d y n a m i c matrices are defined as
\M \
k
f \ |()1 d
k)
(9.79)
TT JA\
[C ]
k
= -
TT
L
Jiur
)]
(9.80)
w h e r e the integration limits are given by the following: Inner integration limit: , O u t e r integration limit:
( ) 2 ( )
= (2k -
3) TT /4
(9.82a)
= (2k -
1) TT /4
(9.82b)
T h e principles presented in Section 9.3 can then be introduced to yield the following general solution of the preceding matrix differential equation: { *>( )} = I *] [ \ ( , ) \ ] {C }
( k)
(9.83)
w h e r e the [ ] matrix of eigenvectors is x 2n, where is the d i m e n s i o n of {X} and the n u m b e r of degrees of freedom in the aeromechanical/aeroelastic formulation. Both the c o l u m n s of [ ] and the eigenvalues [ \ \ generally occur either as c o m p l e x conjugate pairs or as real-valued pairs. T h e c o l u m n of und e t e r m i n e d coefficients, { C } , for each of the four zones is determined by directly equating the d i s p l a c e m e n t s and velocities b e t w e e n zones 1 and 2 , 2 and 3, and 3 and 4 . T h e solution is then c o m p l e t e d by requiring that the d i s p l a c e m e n t s and velocities across zones 4 and 1 (to c o m p l e t e the solution around the azimuth) be proportional with a coefficient of proportionality, . This coefficient of proportionality is, in fact, the basic eigenvalue for this type of p r o b l e m and is referred to as the characteristic multiplier. T h e s e ideas are illustrated by the following e q u a t i o n s , which define the b o u n d a r y conditions applicable to the solutions for each z o n e b o u n d a r y .
( k ) (A)
283
(9.84a)
(9.84b)
(9.84c)
(9.84d)
T h e solution s c h e m e is thus seen to c o m p r i s e t w o levels of eigenvalue solution. First there is the e i g e n v a l u e solutions within each zone to d e t e r m i n e the eigenvectors [ > J and the e i g e n v a l u e s [ X J , and s e c o n d , the eigensolution for the characteristic multipliers ,, resulting from c o m b i n i n g the respective undeterm i n e d for each z o n e t h r o u g h the aforementioned b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s .
a )
9.4.4
Characteristic
Multipliers
T h e characteristic multipliers ,, defined by the ripple m e t h o d eigenvalue solution a r e , in fact, an intrinsic characteristic of solutions of equations with periodic coefficients. T h e y can be related to the characteristic e x p o n e n t s discussed earlier. First, s o m e qualitative discussion is in order. T h e role of the characteristic multiplier in defining stability can be appreciated again by considering the ripple m e t h o d and noting that any perturbational disturbance to the response of the system will p r o p a g a t e around the disk from zone 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 and back to z o n e 1. If, w h e n the disturbance reaches zone 1 (from zone 4) it has g r o w n in m a g n i t u d e , then the system can be readily seen to be unstable. T h u s , the basic use of the characteristic multiplier can be stated as the following:
284
If any of the characteristic multipliers has an absolute value greater than unity, then the system is unstable. T h e converse is also true in that if all of the characteristic multipliers have a value less than unity, then the system is stable. T h e s e ideas are formalized in the following sections.
9.4.5
Transition Matrix Solution
T h e basic objective of using Floquet theory is to evaluate outright or otherwise obtain information of the quantitative properties of the characteristic e x p o n e n t s , % . Of three basic m e t h o d s for achieving this objective (Hill's method of infinite d e t e r m i n a n t s , various perturbational m e t h o d s , and use of the transition matrix), the last (transition matrix) method has been most widely implemented and utilized at present. T h e transition matrix method follows from the properties of the general solution given earlier and can be seen to be a generalization of the ripple m e t h o d . F r o m the general solution characteristics presented a b o v e , it can be s h o w n that for the h o m o g e n e o u s solution case (stability analysis calculation) the solution at any point in time is linearly related to the solution exactly o n e period (herein 2 TT ) later. This linearity is expressible by m e a n s of a constant matrix, [ ( 7 \ 0)1, denoted as the transition matrix, which typically relates the response state vector at the end of o n e period, {Y(T)}, to that at the start of the period, {(0)}: {Y(T)} = [ ( 7 \ 0)1 {Y(0)} A [ / {Y(0)} (9.85)
O n c e this matrix is found, the stability is ascertained by finding the eigenvalues of [ ( , 0 ) 1 , which are again denoted the characteristic multipliers A T h e s e eigenvalues are related to the characteristic e x p o n e n t s that w e seek by the following relationship:
r
Aj = ( , ) Thus, , = ,- iij = i(Aj)
(9.86)
= ^[i
|;| / [ t a n ^ A y A ^ )
2/]]
(9.87)
For rotary w i n g applications wherein the period is 2, this expression b e c o m e s : ,- = ^ tn |A,-| / ^ tan-'AyA^) in (9.88)
which s h o w s these quantities to have the same characteristic aliasing behavior as that discussed earlier. Methods for calculating the transition matrix. T w o basic m e t h o d s exist for calculating the transition matrix, both of which rely on numerical integration of the equations of motion: the -pass and single-pass methods. 1) -pass method. In this method (n) time history solutions are obtained for the given periodic coefficient differential equations of motion. F o r each of the
285
(n) solution p a s s e s , o n e of each of the (n) initial conditions (including both d i s p l a c e m e n t s and velocities) is systematically set to unity and all of the r e m a i n d e r set to z e r o . By definition, the resulting r e s p o n s e vectors obtained at the end of o n e rotor revolution (period) are the respective c o l u m n s of the transition matrix. T h u s , if there are d e g r e e s of freedom in the d y n a m i c s y s t e m , then 2N passes m u s t be p e r f o r m e d to obtain the transition matrix in this m a n n e r . 2) Single-pass method. In the former /z-pass case the initial conditions w e r e incorporated explicitly in a one-at-a-time sequential m a n n e r . In the single-pass m e t h o d the initial c o n d i t i o n s are incorporated all at o n c e in a m o r e implicit m a n n e r . A l t h o u g h there are alternate m e t h o d s for achieving a single-pass solution, o n e basic r e q u i r e m e n t is that it leave the initial conditions in a c o m pletely general form, i . e . , that the m e t h o d be independent of start-up c o n d i t i o n s . T y p i c a l l y , R u n g e - K u t t a m e t h o d s are ideally suited to this application, and o n e version that is well-suited to the single-pass m e t h o d is the fourth-order R u n g e Kutta m e t h o d with Gill coefficients briefly described in the following material. For this m e t h o d a canonical (first-order) form of the differential equations of motion is required. Define the state vector, {K}, as follows:
w h i c h results in the following form of the matrix differential equation: {} = [ ( ) ] {} = { / ( , Y)} (9.89b)
m = ix,\
(9.89a)
With the single-pass m e t h o d a numerical integration s c h e m e must be used that leaves the initial c o n d i t i o n s as explicitly stated quantities rather than using t h e m implicitly in s o m e form of " s t a r t - u p p r o c e s s . " T h e R u n g e - K u t t a m e t h o d s generally a c h i e v e this objective with the use of the usual integration interval, h = , and with one-half of this interval, h/2 as well. T h e actual algorithm is then given as follows:
(9.90) w h e r e the vectors {k },

2
{k },
3
and {k } are given by

4
= {) = /(*> )}
(9.91a) (9.91b)
(9.91c)
286
{k }
4
= 1 / ( , + A, Y
l~k
+ (l + V 2 ) t ] ) |
3
(9.91(1)
O n e distinction of R u n g e - K u t t a m e t h o d s is that they are self-starting; i.e., solutions can be a d v a n c e d in time | { } . > { } . , ] without the need for k n o w l e d g e of the response in the past, i.e., { }*.-,. It is for this reason that a convenient calculation for the solution vector at one point in t i m e , { ( , ) } , can be obtained in terms of the solution vector at the previous point in t i m e , { ( ,)}:
k k /+
{(
/+
) } = [*(,)1 ,-)}
(9.92)
w h e r e the matrix |/( /)] can be formed from the development given earlier. T h e m a n n e r in which this matrix is used is as follows: First, it is formed for each of the time steps (/ = 1, 2, . . . ) , to form a sequence of the following matrices: [ # ( ) ] , [/( ,)], [( )] T h e s e are then cascade multiplied to form the required transition matrix:
0 2
[ ( , 0)1 =
[-(i|i^_ .)l
f
(9.93)
/ =
The principal advantage of the single-pass method is that, for large order d y n a m i c s y s t e m s , it is computationally faster. Its principal disadvantage is that it locks the solution algorithm into using a specific, fixed integration step size, and m e t h o d s that adjust the step size to achieve specified accuracy cannot be easily used.
References
Section 9.2 Author(s) Bisplinghoff, A s h l e y , and H a l f m a n D o w e l l , Curtiss, Scanlan, and S i s t o Franklin* * Fung Hildebrand Savant' ^ Scanlan and R o s e n b a u m
7 iB) (/i) 7 (/i) () (/i)
9.3
Bielawa Hurty and R u b i n s t e i n M a c F a r l a n e and P o s t l e t h w a i t e Zajac

( / M / > > (/i) (/) ( / )
(/)
9.4
Horvay and Y u a n F r i e d m a n n , H a m m o n d , and W o o Peters and I z a d p a n a h Saaty and B r a m Ralston and W i l f

(/J) (/i) (/i)
( / )
287
Problems
9 . 1 A two-degree-of-freedom s y s t e m , which is defined in part by t w o p a r a m eters, and p , respectively, has the following d y n a m i c equations of motion:
2
, + x
+ p\ x
+ x
-
(Vi + p ) x
2
= 0
2
Jr,
('/2
p ) x\
2
Jr
0
2
Determine (and sketch) the map of the two parameters, p and p , for the dynamic system defined by the preceding equations is stable.
which
9.2 Using the Routh array method, determine the stability (including numbers of unstable roots, if present) of each of the dynamic systems whose characteristic equations are respectively given by a) b) c)
4
- h 198 + 20 + 3
4 3
+ -
10,201 = 0 2,000 3
10,000 2
+ 3
+ 9
+ 2 + 5 = 0
9 . 3 Recast the Ripple using the linear solution conditions. N o t e : let

()
method in a standard canonical matrix eigenvalue form statements for each zone together with the zone boundary
(A) k)
{ ( ) } = [ *] [ \ ( ) \ ] { C } = [ , ( ) 1 {C }
(9.94)
Similarly, let
{3 ) = [//*()1
{c }
tk)
(9.95)
9 . 4 A simplified (linear) equation of motion for the perturbational flapping motion of a rotor blade in forward flight with a natural frequency of 1 (per rev) is as follows: (9.96) Using a two-zone Ripple solution (zone boundaries at = 0 and ), determine the stability (characteristic multipliers) for this rotor for a Lock number y of 10 and an advance ratio of 0.8.
7
9.5 G i v e n t h e f o l l o w i n g t r a n s i t i o n m a t r i x for a d y n a m i c system with periodic coefficients, 0.5 [ (2, 0)1 = 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.25
two-degree-of-freedom 0 0 0.25 0.5
Determine
the characteristic
multipliers
and assess
the system
stability.
10 Mechanical and Aeromechanical Instabilities of Rotors

T h e general stability characteristics of rotors can be broadly classified acc o r d i n g to the d e g r e e of interaction occurring b e t w e e n the inertial, elastic, a e r o d y n a m i c , and rotational forces or effects. M o r e specifically, w e will deal with the r a n g e of rotor stability issues using the following outline of characteristics as a basis for classification: A . Degree of interaction of the aerodynamic forces 1. L o w - f r e q u e n c y quasisteady airloads are applicable. 2 . M o d e r a t e - to high-frequency unsteady airloads are needed. . Linearity of unsteady aerodynamics 1. S u b s o n i c , linear unstalled theory is applicable. 2 . S u b s o n i c or t r a n s o n i c , nonlinear stalled theory is needed. C . Degree of interaction of the elastic forces 1. N o elastic interactions. 2 . Elastic forces play a major role. D . Degree of interaction between the rotor blades 1. N o interaction; blades are u n c o u p l e d from each other. 2 . S o m e interblade c o u p l i n g through structural or a e r o d y n a m i c forces. E . Degree of interaction between the rotor and the nonrotating support structure 1. N o interaction; rotor h u b can be a s s u m e d rigid. 2 . Significant interaction. In the following sections this outline will be used as a matrix to explore rotor instabilities of ever-increasing complexity and interactions between the major forces. T o be sure, completely real-world rotorcraft aeroelastic phenomena will involve varying degrees of all of the aforementioned attributes. The topics selected for description in this and subsequent chapters represent idealizations wherein one or more of the characteristics identified earlier are strongly predominant. Detailed refinements for analyzing any given design with m a x i m u m possible accuracy are left to the reader/dynamicist as a ever-inexhaustible challenge!
10.1
Unsymmetrical Rotor Instability
T h e exposition of rotor instabilities begins in this chapter with a description of p e r h a p s the simplest form of rotor instability by virtue of its limited interaction of forces: T h i s instability involves n o a e r o d y n a m i c s and can be o b s e r v e d in rotor s y s t e m s , w h i c h , although they d o h a v e s o m e form of elastic shaft support, are nonetheless relatively quite rigid. T h e key feature of the rotor is that it has anisotropic inertias and/or stiffnesses either in the fixed coordinate system or in the rotating shaft. B e c a u s e the rotor description is relatively s i m p l e , the analysis is applicable to the stability of u n s y m m e t r i c a l shafting. 289
290
10.1.1
Dynamic
Description
As F i g . 10.1 s h o w s , the p h e n o m e n o n can be described using a rigid rotor that is g i m b a l - m o u n t e d about s o m e point on the input shaft. T h e rotor has inertial anisotropics defined by the and a x e s , which pass through the gimbal of the rotor and are in the directions of the principal axes of the rotor. T h e motion of the system is then described by the angular motions about the and a x e s , and , respectively. T h e rotor rotates about the input shaft with a constant rotor speed and is elastically supported by the angular springs, k and k . T h e s e springs are g r o u n d e d to a plane perpendicular to the drive shaft and attach to the points a and b, which are respectively rotated relative to the and axes by the angle . T h e and axes are attached to the rotating coordinate system so that they m a k e an a n g l e , ( = ) with the and y (nonrotating) coordinate system a x e s . Figure 10.1 reflects the following assumptions: 1) T h e stability variables and are " s m a l l " ; h e n c e , the stability equations are linear. 2) T h e , , and axes are in the directions of the principal axes of the rigid rotor about the g i m b a l point. 3) T h e gimbal point is characterized by constant rotor speed ( i . e . , it is free of H o o k e ' s joint effects). 4) T h e axes of m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m shaft support stiffness, a and b, respectively, are located by m e a n s of a rotation angle behind the and a x e s . W h e n the stiffness is inherent in the rotating shaft, it is denoted as internal, and the angle is a constant. W h e n the stiffness is in the nonrotating support structure, it is d e n o t e d as external, and the angle is equal to . 5) T h e input to the gimbal rotates at constant rotor speed .
a h
Fig. 10.1
Unsymmetric rotorschematic of dynamic description.
INSTABILITIES O F R O T O R S
291
10.1.2
General Equations of Motion
If the differential e q u a t i o n s for the rotor are written in the rotating c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m for t h e variables a n d , then E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n for a rigid b o d y are directly a p p l i c a b l e (see Section 4 . 1 ) . T h u s , the a n g u l a r velocities and applied m o m e n t s can then b e written as
\
2
= = L
(10.1a) (10.1b) (10.1c)
il
2
k cos + k (k
h
8 )
(k (k
k ) sin<\) c o s
cl
k)
sink c o s k ) cos2<|>
h
+ k
cos )
2
(k
+ k)
h
+ (k
(l
- (k (k
u
k)
h
sin2<() k ) cos2<)>)
b
~ 2 ,
- (k
k)
h
sin2<t>
+ k)
h
{k
(10.2)
U s i n g t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s , t o g e t h e r with the form o f E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n s given earlier, w e obtain the following b a s i c e q u a t i o n set:
0 +
/.
2
: ^
+
0 -1 0
1 0
0 (k
u
(/
h
/) k ) cos2<|>
h
+ k)
+ {k
(k (k
cl
(t
k ) s'm2<
b
- (K - k )
h
unify
+ k)
h
(k
k)
b
cos2 (10.3)
T h e n m a k e the following definitions: Inertia inequality: (10.4) Stiffness inequality: 0 < e

h
k + k
Axial inertia t e r m : A =
<
+1
(10.5)
kl
<
<
(10.6)
292

(arbitrarily defined for n o n d i m e n -
w h e r e t h e characteristic natural frequency sionalizing p u r p o s e s ) is given b y
= V(* +
+ / )
(10.7)
It can then be seen that the stability equations and the resulting stability characteristics d e p e n d on the values of only five n o n d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s : ( / ) , , e,-, e , and A. If t h e t i m e derivative is n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d , d / d f = d / d T , then the following n o n d i m e n s i o n a l form of the equations of motion results:
0 y
(1 + ,) 0
0 (1 - e,) 1 + e,-) 0
+ 2
(A
1)
(2A
(2A
1 - 82
v
(1 + e )52)
y
e . 82
A
2 0
(1 e . ^ ) .
A
(10.8)
w h e r e ( ) = d / d T , and = ( / )
10.1.3
u h
Stability Solution: Internal Stiffnesses
F o r the case of internal stiffnesses the g r o u n d i n g points for the support s p r i n g s , k and k , rotate with the rotor; a n d , h e n c e , = const. This case c o r r e s p o n d s to a flexible shaft without a universal j o i n t . F o r a constant value of the stability e q u a t i o n s h a v e constant coefficients a n d the stability solution is a straightforward exercise using the t e c h n i q u e s of the previous chapter. T h e characteristic equation then b e c o m e s where = A
0 2 4
4- 2
7 - 0 ;
(10.9)
1 2
(10.10)
2
ej + (1 e ) 2 2
A)
+ ( /) (1 0 2 0
e,-e . 2)
A v
(10.11)
y = ( /) (1 + (1 -
2( /) (1 -
2 + e,e ) 2 ) (10.12)
2) -
ej
Since there is n o energy dissipation ( d a m p i n g ) for this configuration, stability is defined in t e r m s of w h e t h e r or not the system is neutrally stable ( = m). T h e r e f o r e , must be a real, negative n u m b e r . For this to happen the following m u s t hold:
2
> 0,
> 0,
a y > 0,
y > 0
(10.13)
293
It c a n b e s h o w n that, for ranges of the p a r a m e t e r s involved, the first three conditions are automatically satisfied. T h e condition y > 0 is then t h e g o v e r n i n g stability criterion; this implies that t h e nature of the unstable motion is that of an aperiodic d i v e r g e n c e . T h e principal p a r a m e t e r subject to variation is the rotor s p e e d . W i t h variations in this p a r a m e t e r the rotor c a n h a v e three different m o d e s of b e h a v i o r , d e p e n d i n g in part on the value of the rotor speed relative to t w o critical speeds, ] a n d : I. Stable for all s p e e d s . II. Stable at low s p e e d s , but unstable for all speeds above the first of t h e critical s p e e d , ^ III. Stable at l o w a n d high s p e e d s , but unstable within a certain speed range , < < . T h e critical speeds 1 a n d are obtained from the condition y = 0:
2 2 2
(/ ) ,
2 0
= (1 -
?)/{[ 1 -
2A + e,e cos2(>]
y 2
[[(1 + e (l 2
2 A ) e , + e, cos2c>] e?) sin 2c)] }

2 l/2
(10.14)
T h u s , a condition that a critical speed exists at all is that the square of the rotor s p e e d , as d e t e r m i n e d from t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n , b e a positive n u m b e r . T h e s e results are s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 1 0 . 1 . Figures 1 0 . 2 - 1 0 . 5 s u m m a r i z e the results of u s i n g the stability criterion defined b y E q . ( 1 0 . 1 0 ) . Discussion of results. In each of the figures the rectangular prism encloses the possible r a n g e s for t h e three p a r a m e t e r s varied. In F i g s . 1 0 . 3 - 1 0 . 5 it should b e noted that t h e p a r a m e t e r A m u s t always b e greater than the absolute value of the inertia inequality, ,. F i g u r e 10.2: T h i s figure s h o w s the instability b o u n d a r y for the case of inertial s y m m e t r y , b u t with u n s y m m e t r i c a l (internal) stiffness. This case c o r r e s p o n d s to a disk driven by a long flat shaft. W h e n A < Vi, the rotor h a s a type III instability with an unstable speed r a n g e increasing with stiffness anisotropy. N o t e that this case confirms the findings of the K e l v i n - T a t e - C h e t a e v t h e o r e m which notes that an instability w h i c h d o e s not involve dissipative forces can b e stabilized by the addition of g y r o s c o p i c t e r m s ( i . e . , the instability region closes for o c and/ or A > Vi). F i g u r e 1 0 . 3 : T h i s figure s h o w s t h e stability characteristics for an anisotropic rotor, b u t with s y m m e t r i c a l stiffness. H e r e , in contrast to the previous c a s e , the " u n s t a b l e v a l l e y " d o e s not close as * oc. In this limit the rotor a p p r o a c h e s the c a s e of a free rigid b o d y rotating about a principal axis. It is k n o w n that such a configuration is unstable if the axis of rotation is an intermediate principal Table 10.1 Case I II III
2
Critical speed stability characteristics of unsymmetric rotor

ill
, Imaginary Real Real
Stability Conditions Always stable Unstable above , Unstable between , and i l
<0 >0 >0
<0 <0 >0
Imaginary Imaginary Real
294
4.0
/
0.5
= 0
1.0
co
A
Fig. 10.2 Stability diagram for rotors with stiffness inequality and gyroscope coupling but symmetrical inertia properties (after Crandall and Brosens).
Fig. 10.3 Stability diagram for rotors with inertia inequality and gyroscopic coupling but symmetrical elastic properties (after Crandall and Brosens).
295
0.5
1.0
Fig. 10.4 Stability diagram for rotors with equal elastic and inertia inequalities; maximum inertia axis aligned with minimum stiffness axis (after Crandall and Brosens).
Fig. 10.5 Stability diagram for rotors with equal elastic and inertia inequalities; maximum inertia axis aligned with maximum stiffness axis (after Crandall and Brosens).
296
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S < I^. In terms of the parameters considered herein, this is / (l 2
axis; i . e . , / < expressible as
e,) < A < l/ (l

2
+ e,)
0
(10.15)
which is exactly the unstable triangular region shown in the limit as ( / ) oc. Figures 10.4 and 10.5: T h e s e figures show the effect on stability of the angle . In g e n e r a l , it is seen that the case that has the greatest spread b e t w e e n the t w o natural frequencies is the least unstable.
10.1 .4
Stability Solution: External Stiffnesses

v
For the case of external stiffnesses, = , and the coefficients are generally periodic. H o w e v e r , for the special case of isotropic stiffness ( e = 0) the coefficients are again constant, and the resulting stability boundaries are given in Fig. 1 0 . 3 . S o m e investigators have treated the m u c h more complicated case wherein e 0. For this c a s e , the solution for the stability characteristics requires the use of Floquet theory. T h e basic findings are best stated qualitatively. Briefly, it has b e e n found, both analytically and experimentally, that t w o additional instability regions are encountered at rotor speeds b e l o w the basic unstable region that is characteristic of the system due to inertia anisotropy, e,. F u r t h e r m o r e , it is found that, for increasing degrees of stiffness anisotropy, e , the e, related instability range occurs at higher rotor speeds, whereas the additional e . instability ranges o c c u r at lower rotor s p e e d s .
v v A
10.1.5
Effects of Damping
T h e equations of motion can be modified to include internal d a m p i n g in a heuristic m a n n e r by noting that internal damping b e h a v e s in a m a n n e r similar to that for internal stiffness, except that (10.16) H o w e v e r , inclusion of external damping requires the use of coordinate transformations b e t w e e n the rotating and nonrotating coordinate systems: cosQt cos 8 / cos 8 / cos
te)
(10.17)
10.2
Quasisteady Aerodynamics
In order to investigate more involved forms of rotor instability w e must begin to introduce the effects of aerodynamic loadings. In keeping with the logic of beginning simple and building upon accumulated principles, the aerodynamic load descriptions we now seek are the simplest that can be used for stability analyses. Since we are dealing with beamlike structures and are interested in relatively low-frequency phenomena, w e seek an aerodynamic load description that can be conveniently used
297
within the framework of a modal or finite element solution. By way of introduction, w e m a k e the following initial basic assumptions: 1) T h e airloads are defined within t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l sections; i . e . , different rotor b l a d e sections are aerodynamically uncoupled from each other. 2) All angles are " s m a l l . " A s a p p r o p r i a t e , this a s s u m p t i o n can be relaxed to the extent that all perturbational angles of attack are small. 3) T h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l airloads are d e t e r m i n e d solely b y considering the instantaneous angle of attack a , w h i c h is c o m p r i s e d of the geometric inclination angle of the chord line and the inflow angle . A s appropriate, this a s s u m p t i o n can b e relaxed to include the g e o m e t r i c angle of attack rate .
10.2.1
Vector Diagram for Simple Quasisteady
Formulation
A s i m p l e formulation describing the quasisteady a e r o d y n a m i c theory starts with a vector d i a g r a m of the blade section (see F i g . 10.6), w h e r e the lift and drag distributions are respectively given by dL 1 = - pcU c ar 2
2
1 = - pcU (aa) 2
2 2
(10.18)
ar
dD
1 = -pcU c 2
(10.19)
and the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l angle of attack is c o m p r i s e d of the s u m of and . T h e inflow angle is given by = tan-*(Up/U )
T P
(10.20) and U,
T
and the p e r p e n d i c u l a r and tangential c o m p o n e n t s of the velocity, U are respectively given by Up = RK / ? cosiiz'
(10.21) (10.22)
U = R(x
+ simi) + y
w h e r e a n d a r e , respectively, the advance ratio ( n o n d i m e n s i o n a l forwardflight s p e e d ) a n d the inflow ratio. T h e in-plane and out-of-plane c o m p o n e n t s of
Fig. 10.6 Vector diagram showing component velocities at a typical blade section.
298
the airloads can then b e respectively related to the lift and drag distributions as follows: d/\. dr dFdL dr dL
( 1 0
dD dr
2 4 )
T h e inflow ratio in the previously given expression for U can b e expressed in its m o s t general form as a function of both span, x( = r/R), and a z i m u t h , . S o m e typical w a y s of expressing the inflow are given in the following.
P
Uniform inflow. T h e simplest assumption that can b e m a d e about the inflow is that it is both constant and uniform over the rotor disk: =
0
(10.25)
Simple analytic variable inflow. A m o r e realistic assumption w o u l d b e that the inflow is temporally constant, but h a s spatial variability around the rotor disk and c a n b e described with a fairly simple analytical representation. O n e m a n n e r of a c c o m p l i s h i n g this approximation is t o build on the previously given simple m o d e l b u t , additionally, a s s u m e that the variability is limited to linear s p a n w i s e variability and first h a r m o n i c azimuthal variability (note that the symbol is used to denote azimuthal variation in a spatial sense, in contrast to the angle , w h i c h m e a s u r e s both n o n d i m e n s i o n a l time and the azimuthal location of a rotor blade): + [ cos + , sin]
(10.26)
Air-mass dynamics. T h e principal assumption in the use of air-mass d y n a m i c s is that the p r e c e d i n g expression for simple variable inflow is n o w timevariable as well. W i t h used to d e n o t e n o n d i m e n s i o n a l t i m e , the resulting expression for inflow c a n then b e written as (, ) = ( ) + 4 ( ) cos + ( ) sinCl
0 ( 1
(10.27)
w h e r e the t i m e d e p e n d e n c y of the inflow c o m p o n e n t s is determined by differential equations based on the instantaneous thrust, pitching m o m e n t , a n d rolling m o m e n t of the rotor. M o r e will b e said about air-mass d y n a m i c s in a later chapter. Nonanalytical variable inflow. F o r cases wherein accurate aeroelastic responses of the rotor blade are required for steady flight conditions (constant thrust a n d h u b m o m e n t s ) , the variable inflow is typically expressible only in terms of numerically defined s p a n w i s e and azimuthal variability. Such descriptions are obtained by a variety of solution s c h e m e s , all of which must take into account t h e spatial d i s p l a c e m e n t field of the vortex structure of the w a k e . A g a i n , m o r e will b e said of this p r o b l e m in a later chapter.
299
As induced by the lifting blade airload. W h e r e a s the air-mass d y n a m i c s representation discussed earlier is primarily a low-frequency approximation (being b a s e d o n t h e time-variability of integrated rotor loads), other a p p r o x i m a t i o n s are required for higher-frequency p h e n o m e n a such as those that are associated with b l a d e v i b r a t i o n s . S u c h a p p r o x i m a t e formulations as c a n b e m a d e m u s t take into a c c o u n t t h e air velocities i n d u c e d b y t h e lifting sections of the blade, i . e . , b l a d e l o a d s . T h i s t y p e of formulation forms t h e basis of t h e subject of u n s t e a d y rotor a e r o d y n a m i c s t o b e c o v e r e d in C h a p t e r 12.
10.2.2
Aerodynamic
Pitching Rate and Moment
C o n s i d e r a t i o n of the quasisteady a e r o d y n a m i c pitching moment requires attention to t w o basic issues. First, a distinction must b e m a d e regarding w h e r e on the airfoil w e define t h e inflow a n g l e , since, for angular rates, t h e resulting velocities n o r m a l to t h e c h o r d (at a n y arbitrary c h o r d w i s e location) d e p e n d on the distance this point on t h e c h o r d is from t h e rotation center. S e c o n d , rotational pitching rates of t h e airfoil generate d y n a m i c pitching m o m e n t s effects that are not c o m p l e t e l y d e s c r i b a b l e using j u s t an effective inflow angle. T h u s , stated in basic t e r m s , the t w o issues so defined are 1) t h e effect of pitch angle rate effects on angle of attack a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y on lift and drag a n d 2) t h e effect of pitch angle rate effects o n pitching m o m e n t itself. T h e tools n e e d e d for these t w o issues c o m e principally from results originally obtained for basic fixed-wing unsteady aerodynamics. Pitch rate effects on angle of attack. D e p e n d i n g on the c h o r d w i s e location about w h i c h t h e airfoil p i t c h e s , additional local velocities are d e v e l o p e d n o r m a l to t h e airfoil c h o r d . F r o m t h e results of incompressible t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l unsteady airfoil theory (see Bisplinghoff et al.) it c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d that the pitching airfoil c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d to b e h a v e quasistatically; i . e . , the instantaneous (dyn a m i c ) angle of attack c a n b e used statically w h e n the U c o m p o n e n t of local inflow, including pitch rate effects, is defined at the three-quarter chordwise location. T h u s , as s h o w n in F i g . 1 0 . 7 , t w o important a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y relevant chordwise locations are defined: t h e quarter chordpoint ( i . e . , the a e r o d y n a m i c c e n t e r ) , w h e r e i n t h e airloads are c o n s i d e r e d t o a c t , a n d t h e three-quarter-chord point, w h e r e i n t h e angle of attack (including pitch rate effects) is defined. T h u s , t h e q u a s i s t e a d y angle of attack a is again defined in t e r m s of the g e o m e t r i c pitch a n d inflow angles:
P QS
QS
= +
\sav~ (UplU )
x T sc
(10.28)
w h e r e , for rotations about an arbitrary point, a distance y from t h e quarterchord point ( m e a s u r e d forward t o w a r d t h e leading e d g e ) , U is then defined as follows:
P
= RK
cosi); z' + ( c / 2 + y )
5 C
(10.29)
This definition of the a n g l e of attack then gives the appropriate impact of pitch rate o n lift a n d drag (as defined b y t h e lift and drag coefficients). F u r t h e r m o r e , this r e a s o n i n g c a n b e e x t e n d e d t o the case of the m o m e n t coefficient as well.
300
Pitching motion is about this point
attack
here
Fig. 10.7 Pitching motion relevant geometry of blade section operating quasistatically. T h u s , for pitching m o t i o n about the c h o r d w i s e point, y , the a e r o d y n a m i c coefficients for u n s t e a d y motion w o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e d as follows:
s c
(10.30)
Pitch rate effects on section moment. Apart from the effects of redefining the angle of attack quasistatically (for evaluating the steady m o m e n t coefficient), an additional direct effect of pitch rate on the airfoil section m o m e n t m u s t b e included. This effect takes the form of a direct pitch d a m p i n g , which exists even w h e n the m o m e n t coefficient at the quarterchord point, c, , is z e r o . A g a i n , reference to classical t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l unsteady airfoil theory gives the following a p p r o x i m a t i o n for the total section pitching m o m e n t distribution, as taken about the rotation point, y , defined in F i g . 10.7:
c/4 s c
i,/4
d r
( Qs) ~ ysc
a
c (0L )]
e QS
7ip -U(\
C
+ 2y /c)
sc
(10.31)
direct pitch d a m p i n g This s e c o n d term is not generally small a n d , except for higher-frequency unsteady effects, this t e r m accounts for the principal source of d a m p i n g available to the blade in pitching and elastic torsional r e s p o n s e s .
301
10.2.3
Table Look-Up
Techniques
In the p r e c e d i n g material a general m e t h o d o l o g y is presented wherein the static airfoil section properties can be used to a p p r o x i m a t e the unsteady load distributions (subject to the condition of low frequencies). F o r such p u r p o s e s simple a p p r o x i m a t i o n s are then used to a p p r o x i m a t e the lift, d r a g , and quarterchord m o m e n t coefficients: Q = ; c
d
c .
m
/ 4
= 0
(10.32)
F o r s o m e c a s e s , especially those for w h i c h a full-blown nonlinear analysis is n e e d e d , the airfoil section properties are expressable in terms of the tabulated values of the airfoil coefficients. S u c h tables typically express the three airfoil coefficients as discrete functions of angle of attack and M a c h n u m b e r M . For these cases the q u a s i s t e a d y a p p r o x i m a t i o n then takes the following form:
Q(OL,
M) \
static
Q ( a , M)
c
(10.33)
m. J
( /4
unsteady
vS-m ,JSX">
where = a
QS
and M = V[U + U*]/c

P x
(10.34)
T
N o t e that the t w o c o m p o n e n t velocities, U and U , with the inclusion of the pitch rate d e p e n d e n c y ) .
are as given earlier ( i . e . ,
10.2.4
Reversed Flow
E x a m i n a t i o n of the tangential c o m p o n e n t of the air velocity at the blade section s h o w s that it can g o to zero or negative values w h e r e v e r the following condition is met: < - sinij; - > ir < < 2 (10.35)
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of quasisteady airloads formulations, which both include reversed-flow effects and w h i c h are suitable for aeroelastic a n a l y s e s , poses special p r o b l e m s relating to the integrations typically required to form the appropriate differential e q u a t i o n s . R a t h e r than divide the rotor disk into forward- and reversed-flow regions ( w h i c h is d o n e by s o m e authors), the a p p r o a c h followed here is to e x p r e s s the airload distributions analytically only in that s p a n w i s e r e g i o n , as given earlier, w h e r e i n reversed effects occur. This can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d by defining a function that a c c o u n t s for the sign of U , i . e . , s g n ( / ) . F o r e x a m p l e , the lifting airload distribution can b e rewritten in t e r m s of sgn(U ) as follows:
T 7 T
^ dr
= Vipcc U
e
=
2
ViacaU +
= =
Vi pacU [sgn(U )Q
T
] 4- \U \
T
Vi pac [Usgn(U )Q
T
U]
P
Vi pac s g n ( C / ) ^
7
+ U
U]
P
(10.36)
302
Similarly, while at the s a m e time allowing for a m o r e general form of c , w e can rewrite the drag load distribution using the s g n ( / ) function:
d r
D
d r
= Vipcc j
(
sgn(U )U
T
(10.37)
T h u s , if the sgn(U ) function can be expressed as an analytical function, it can then be multiplied in as additional factors in these t w o load distributions, and the expressions for U and U defined earlier can be used, " a s i s . " T o this e n d w e define the following function, Y , such that
T T P
sgn(V) = 1 -
(10.38)
w h e r e the Y function is as s h o w n in F i g . 1 0 . 8 . This function can be explicitly stated m a t h e m a t i c a l l y as follows: 0; 2; < TT + sin
]
(/) (10.39) '(jc/ )
Y =
> 2 sin ~ '(jc/,) + sin (/)
^ < 2 sin
This function can then be m a d e m o r e tractable using Fourier analysis. Upon noting that the function is p e r i o d i c , w e can write an appropriate Fourier series representation for it:
oc
sgn(U )
T
= (1 + / )
0
[',,, sinmj +
cosmi]
(10.40)
where
27T
( - 2) r2iT-sin '(./)
Jrr + sin '(.v/)
_
dip-
2 , - 1 + - sin"
1
dO^l)
2.0 sin 1.0 -
>
TV
3 /2
TV
Fig. 10.8 Reversed flow signing function.
INSTABILITIES O F R O T O R S T h e general nth sine term in the series is then given by /
303
=
TT
2-
( 2) f ( Y) sinftij =
2
2Tr
sin
l(v/
^) nm\f (10.42)
Jo
J-rr + sin
1
'(/)
= ^
[l -
( - 1 ) " ] cos^w s i n " j
In a like m a n n e r the cosine /,, = I

TT JO
term c a n b e formulated: cosî; d

J -iT + sin '(.v/)
( - Y) cosfti; dib =
2
= ~ ^ [l
+ ( - 1 ) " ] sin^/i s i n
j j
(10.43)
N o t e that all / equal zero for e v e n values of and all / equal zero for o d d values of n. T h u s , 4 I and I.
2 {
TT
= 0;
etc.
(10.44)
'
= -
TT
2
x\
2
h.
'
= 0;
etc.
(10.45)
T h e resulting F o u r i e r series h a s the distinct a d v a n t a g e that, since the coefficients are only s p a n w i s e d e p e n d e n t , the inclusion of this form of reversed flow allows for the numerical evaluation of various (spanwise) integrals of the airloads. Such a situation w o u l d arise in a G a l e r k i n p r o c e d u r e , e . g . , wherein generalized excitations are required that involve integrals involving modal shape functions, w h i c h are typically discretely evaluated and are thus available only at a finite n u m b e r of s p a n w i s e locations.
10.2.5
Perturbational
Airloads
D e s p i t e t h e simplifications inherent in t h e small angle and quasisteady (strip theory) a s s u m p t i o n s , t h e e x p r e s s i o n s given earlier are for total airload distributions a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , are nonlinear as formulated. F o r use in linear aeroelastic a n a l y s e s s o m e form of linearization is required. A systemized m e t h o d for linearizing t h e airloads is presented in the following. T h e basic starting point is t h e definition of trim a n d perturbational variables. G e n e r a l l y , this c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d using the following relationships, wherein the subscript 0 refers to t r i m m e d v a l u e s , a n d refers t o perturbational values: U
T
= (u
0
To
+ W)
T
sgn(i/ );
r ( )
= U
PQ
+ W
(I0.46a) (I0.46b)
+ ;
H o w e v e r , before t h e perturbations are t a k e n , let us first introduce refinements to t h e d r a g coefficient a n d drag load distribution representations. B e y o n d the
304
simple representation given earlier, let the drag coefficient be additionally represented by an t h - d e g r e e exponential variation in angle of attack:
c
|"
(10.47)
T h e n , the e x p r e s s i o n s formulated above for lift, d r a g , and pitching m o m e n t load distributions can b e used to define the perturbational load distributions: Out-of-plane load distribution: d(8L) dr 1 - pac sgn(U )
T{)
X U
T{)
<U
Tq
hUp
+
VT0
d(F )
:
7
dr
(10.48)
In-plane load distribution: d(8F )

v
dr
1 - pac
sgn(U )
T{)
U
VT0
+
VT0
[2U Up
To
( Up
2 ) UpJ
bU
a U
+ To
To
% +
U Po
VT0
2U
P{
hU,
(10.49)
Pitching m o m e n t distribution: A s s u m e that c
0: + U ] (10.50)
d(bM )
x
dr
ysc
d(8L)
dr
J p c [ W
3 0
To
C o m p l e t i o n of the formulation requires that the perturbational quantities defined earlier, / , / , , and , be defined in terms of the system degrees of freedom appropriate to the analysis at hand (<?,, bq , bq , e t c . ) . T h u s , if a Galerkin ( m o d a l ) formulation is being u s e d , then the final degrees of freedom w o u l d b e the (perturbational) m o d a l response variables (q q , ^ , e t c . ) . S u c h an operation w o u l d a m o u n t to a linear (matrix) c o m b i n a t i o n of the perturbational variables:
2 3 V9 w
bUp

hq [D] <{ bq bq
(10.51)
T h e definition of the [D] matrix is thus entirely d e p e n d e n t on the formulated solution type and can only be stated symbolically here.
305
10.3
Rotor Weaving
Rotor weaving is an a e r o m e c h a n i c a l instability characteristic of semirigid or teetering rotors. S u c h rotors are relatively stiff in the c h o r d w i s e direction, but can h a v e a w i d e r a n g e of flexibility in b l a d e torsion and/or the blade pitch control s y s t e m . B e c a u s e of the inherent construction of these rotors, an effective inplane d i s p l a c e m e n t can result from the c o m b i n a t i o n of blade c o n i n g , , and cyclic feathering, . T h i s feathering consists of rotation of the entire rotor about the h u b universal joint h i n g e pin in the direction of the b l a d e s . T h e rotor w e a v i n g instability p h e n o m e n o n is then c a u s e d b y a coupling of this feathering motion with the I P d y n a m i c s of rigid b l a d e flapping.
0
10.3.1
Elastomechanical
Description
F i g u r e 10.9 presents a pictorial view of the teetering rotor with the degrees of freedom and e l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l characteristics depicted. T o d e s c r i b e the k i n e m a t i c s of the in-plane motion resulting from blade feathering m o t i o n a d e q u a t e l y , the t w o possible h u b gimbal configurations m u s t be identified. T h e s e t w o possible configurations result from the w a y in w h i c h the inner g i m b a l ring attaches to the shaft and the outer gimbal ring, w h i c h c o m p r i s e s the rotor h u b p r o p e r (see F i g . 1 0 . 1 0 ) . F o r a p r o p e r analysis of this rotor instability p h e n o m e n o n the previously described q u a s i s t e a d y a e r o d y n a m i c description must b e used. Figure 10.11 d e picts the details of k i n e m a t i c s and airload resolution at a typical blade section. In the formulation of the e q u a t i o n s of motion for the rotor w e a v i n g p h e n o m e n o n , the difference b e t w e e n the type 1 and type 2 arises only in the a e r o d y n a m i c loading description. T h e inertia flapping and feathering m o m e n t s for the t w o cases are surprisingly the s a m e .
hub type
Fig. 10.9
1
Schematics of teetering rotor system.
306
Fig. 10.10
Top views of two possible hub configurations.
307
(-V
dL
A
mass
aerodynamic center
center
<
rotation
- air velocity
1
ri o + ) ~ hub type
plane of feathering axis

Fig. 10.11
'
Inward radial view of a typical blade section.
70.3.2
General Equations of Motion
T h e general e q u a t i o n s of motion are derivable using the inertia load distributions for rigid b l a d e s , w h i c h are available from a n u m b e r of sources ( e . g . , H o u b o l t and B r o o k s ) . T h e r e f o r e , the following equation set for the perturbational flapping and feathering are presented as follows without derivation: Flapping: {p
2
+ Cpp + + E
2 2
1} + {E
0 0
cosGo
3 0
+
3
2( + E cos%
e
cos 9
2
sin e
+ 2
s i n e ) ] / ? + [E
+ C ]}6 = 0
(10.52)
Feathering: {E
3
cos0 p
o
+ [Dp + 2 ( + E cos%
cos 9
2
+ E
2
%
2 2
+ 2
0 3
s'm%)]p
2 0
+ [E + -
+ D ] } + {[, +
2
+
3
+ 2oE
0
sin6 ]p
DqP + [(E
2
E)
x
cos26 = 0
{
-2
0
sin6
4- D e + ]}
(10.53)
2 3
w h e r e = d( )/dif, and w h e r e E , E and as follows:
are inertia-related
integrals
given
(10.54a)
(10.54b)
Next Page
308 R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S
h L
= mr
dr
(10.54c)
dr
(10.54d)
which equals the m a s s m o m e n t of inertia about the teeter h i n g e , and w h e r e k a n d k, are m a s s radii of inertia of the blade section about the major and m i n o r principal a x e s , respectively. ( T h u s , for most " t h i n " sections, mkf > mk .)
mx 2 n 2
T h e aerodynamic
7
related
integrals
are then defined as follows: pacR /I ]

4 h
[ 7 = blade L o c k n u m b e r =
(10.55a)
CE =
(10.55b)
CE =
R \4
3c) -
2
1
(10.55c)
DA
ol
\%
S_
R 3c rotor type 1 rotor type 2
(10.55d)
'' 2
(10.55e)
0; D _
2
4
2
3c
y
h. c
(10.550
+ o D =
ft "
c cA /? 3c
4<2
(10.55g)
Q
and w h e r e the n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d (mechanical) stiffness K follows: K

B
is expressible as (10.56)
= K II
% h
ss ( , + ) ( / )
2 (
70.3.3
Stability
Solution
0
F o r initial investigations let us set the collective angle equal to zero. A s will be s h o w n later, this simplification does not c h a n g e the results qualitatively and introduces little quantitative error. Divergence. T h e conditions for d i v e r g e n c e stability are that the constant term in t h e characteristic equation be positive. T h u s , the d i v e r g e n c e stability
11 Mechanical and Aeromechanical Instabilities of Rotor-Pylon Systems

11.1 Multiblade Coordinates and Rotor Modes
T h e stability p h e n o m e n a described in this chapter are characterized by significant motion of the rotor hub with or without motion of the several rotor blades relative to the (rotating) h u b . A further characterization of these p h e n o m ena is that the system motion (the vector of total system degrees of freedom) consists of c o m p o n e n t s that couple with each other and are m e a s u r a b l e in both the rotating c o o r d i n a t e system (the rotor blades) and in the nonrotating coordinate system (the rotor p y l o n ) . If the system m o d e l i n g were to retain this c o m b i n a t i o n of both rotating and nonrotating degrees of freedom, three resulting difficulties would emerge: 1) T h e total n u m b e r of system degrees of freedom would equal the m a x i m u m possible n e e d e d to describe the d y n a m i c s of the p h e n o m e n o n . For e x a m p l e , for a four-bladed (elastic) rotor involving six m o d e s ( e . g . , three flatwise b e n d i n g , t w o e d g e w i s e b e n d i n g , and o n e torsion) along with five pylon degrees of freedom ( e . g . , three translations and the roll and pitch rotations), the total n u m b e r of system d e g r e e s of freedom w o u l d be 2 9 . T h u s , the attendant arrays ( m a s s , d a m p i n g , and stiffness matrices) n e e d e d to define the m a t h e m a t i c s w o u l d be relatively large and w o u l d thereby m a x i m i z e the required c o m p u t e r resources and the attendant costs for obtaining solutions. 2) T h e response solutions obtained (either by an eigenvalue solution or by a direct time-history solution) w o u l d inherently contain all responses w h e t h e r they represent r e s p o n s e s that are c o u p l e d or responses that are u n c o u p l e d . T h u s , effort w o u l d h a v e b e e n spent obtaining s o m e response information that is either not of direct interest or is obtainable from a simpler analysis that does not contain o n e or the other of the t w o s u b s y s t e m s . 3) T h e c o u p l i n g terms in the equations of motion (the forces in the rotating c o o r d i n a t e system accruing from motion in the nonrotating coordinate s y s t e m , and vice versa) w o u l d necessarily contain periodic t e r m s . Such a system w o u l d represent a " p s e u d o p e r i o d i c coefficient s y s t e m " and w o u l d not necessarily exhibit the characteristics distinctive of systems with true periodic coefficients: aliasing and the p r e s e n c e of parametric instabilities ( i . e . , those involving characteristic frequencies that are integral h a r m o n i c s and/or pure fractions of a harmonic).
11.1.1
Collective and Cyclic Rotor Modes
A n alternative to the c o n c u r r e n t use of both rotating and nonrotating coordinates is to use a description of the rotating blade motion which l) incorporates variables that can be defined in the nonrotating coordinate s y s t e m , 2) isolates
331
332
those blade m o t i o n s that actually couple with pylon m o t i o n , and 3) is relatively independent of the n u m b e r of rotor b l a d e s . Such a blade motion description can be achieved with the use of so-called rotor modes or, alternatively, multiblade coordinates. In its simplest form the idea is to represent each of the motions of any individual blade as the sum of t w o basic c o m p o n e n t s : O n e c o m p o n e n t defines the generally low frequency motion that all the blades share; this motion w e denote the collective r e s p o n s e s . T h e second c o m p o n e n t can be c o m p a r e d to an a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t e d " s i g n a l " w h o s e " c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y " is the rotor frequency and w h o s e Fourier c o m p o n e n t " a m p l i t u d e s " are the rotor m o d e s . This motion we d e n o t e as the cyclic r e s p o n s e s . As an e x a m p l e , consider the flapping motion of the kth rotor blade: * ( ) = ( ) + . ( i | 0 c o s [ i | j -f
0 If
2i(k/b)\ k = 1,2,...,/? (11.1)
+ , ( ) sin[i|i + 2i(k/b)}
If the rotor were to be viewed as rotating inside a thin elastic m e m b r a n o u s (flat) shell so that the shell did not rotate with the rotor but a s s u m e d the v o l u m e in space of the rotor, then the quantities, , , , and would respectively represent the umbrella-like m o t i o n , and the longitudinal and lateral tilt angles of the m e m b r a n e . T h i s concept can be generalized to any of the rotating degrees of freedom used to define the motion of the blade. T h u s , the mth elastic flatwise b e n d i n g m o d e generalized coordinate of the kth rotor b l a d e , g l ; ( ) , can be similarly e x p r e s s e d using <7 ( ), </ ( ) , and q ( ) , where these Fourier a m plitudes respectively represent circumferential " d i s t o r t i o n s " of the m e m b r a n e in the vertical, longitudinal and lateral directions. T h e spanwise variation of the distortion w o u l d be defined by the mth spanwise m o d e shape, y , (x).
0 L 0 0 x u
O n e further e x a m p l e that will prove useful in the d e v e l o p m e n t s to follow is the application of this concept to the case of in-plane (or, alternatively, e d g e w i s e ) blade elastic d e f o r m a t i o n s , e. A g a i n , we a s s u m e the existence of a nonrotating m e m b r a n e surrounding the rotor and o c c u p y i n g the same v o l u m e . For blade motion defined by the in-plane bending m o d e generalized coordinate the m e m brane will again distort, but this time in the plane of rotation. T h u s , let the inplane motion of the kth blade be defined by the following rotor m o d e description:
(,() ()
0
()
COS [
2u(k/b)} k = 1, 2 , . . . , b (11.2)
( ) sin[i|i + 2ir(k/b)}
T h e e (collective) motion represents a " w i n d i n g - u p " distortion of the m e m b r a n e about the axis of rotation. T h e e and e (cyclic) motions represent distortions that can be visualized by the depiction given in Fig. 1 1 . 1 .
v v
11.1.2
Rotor Center of Gravity
T h e use of rotor m o d e s greatly facilitates the definition of the position of the center of gravity of the rotating rotor in the nonrotating coordinate system. For flapping and flatwise b e n d i n g the collective rotor m o d e s represent a m e a s u r e m e n t of the out-of-plane displacement of the rotor center of gravity from the undeflected rotor p l a n e . L i k e w i s e the in-plane lead-lag and edgewise b e n d i n g cyclic rotor m o d e descriptions provide a c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e a s u r e m e n t of the in-plane
INSTABILITIES O F R O T O R - P Y L O N S Y S T E M S
333
position of the rotor center of gravity position. Similarly, the cyclic flatwise b e n d i n g rotor m o d e s define the pitching and rolling rotational motion of the rotor, and the collective e d g e w i s e b e n d i n g rotor m o d e s define the y a w i n g rotational m o t i o n of the rotor from which the effective torsional inertia effects can be defined. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of the collective and cyclic c o m p o n e n t s of the rotor m o d e description arises from the fact that it is only these m o d e s that elastomechanically c o u p l e with the p y l o n . A c o m p l e t e rotor m o d e description of the rotor could include a Fourier series e x p a n s i o n that w o u l d contain second (and higher) harm o n i c c o m p o n e n t s . H o w e v e r , these portions of the expansion involve neither translations nor rotations of the rotor center of gravity a n d , h e n c e , d o not p r o d u c e h u b loads (either forces or m o m e n t s ) ; these rotor m o d e s are essentially " r e a c t i o n l e s s . " F o r this reason further consideration of t h e m will be omitted herein.
11.2
Rotor-Nacelle Whirl Flutter
Rotor- (propeller) nacelle whirl flutter w a s first identified as a d y n a m i c instability p h e n o m e n o n of propellers at a time (ca. 1938) w h e n aircraft were configured with reciprocating e n g i n e s that w e r e relatively massive c o m p a r e d to the propellers they p o w e r e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , typical engine-propeller installations then defined ranges of p a r a m e t e r s pertinent to this p h e n o m e n o n that could not p r o d u c e the instability. T h e p h e n o m e n o n w a s duly forgotten until its " r e d i s c o v e r y " in 1960, w h e n t w o t u r b o p r o p aircraft were fatally lost. S u b s e q u e n t investigations s h o w e d that the propeller-nacelle whirl flutter p h e n o m e n o n w a s the m o s t p r o b a b l e c a u s e of the loss of the aircraft. Retrofit stiffenings w e r e m a d e
334
to the r e m a i n i n g aircraft of this t y p e , based on k n o w l e d g e of the stabilizing trends for this p h e n o m e n o n , and thereafter no more aircraft were lost. T h e study of this p h e n o m e n o n forms a convenient transition from the material of the previous chapter to that of the present o n e . T h e basic characteristics of the m o r e generally defined rotor-nacelle whirl flutter are easily defined using a relatively simple d y n a m i c representation; at the heart of the formulation is the d y n a m i c s of a relatively simple gyroscopic element. As such, the theory builds not only on the gyroscopic theory tools covered in an earlier chapter but also on the material relating to the u n s y m m e t r i c a l rotor of the previous chapter.
11.2.1
Elastomechanical
Description
As s h o w n in Fig. 11.2, the basic d y n a m i c system consists of the rotor (propeller), forming the gyroscopic and a e r o d y n a m i c e l e m e n t , supported horizontally by a pylon that is pivoted at s o m e wing attachment point. T h e spin axis of the propeller is oriented m o r e or less into the direction of the freestream flight velocity V with angular perturbations from this vector in pitch and yaw . Let us denote the angular m o m e n t of inertia of the pylon (including the diametral m o m e n t of inertia of the rotor and nacelle inertia) about the pivot point as / and the polar m o m e n t of inertia of the rotor as 7 ; thus, the following basic equations of motion can be written for this d y n a m i c system:
V
1,,' + C + e
7 =
(11.3) (11.4)
/ + / + ,
+ *
Fig. 11.2 Schematic of basic elastomechanical features of the rotor-nacelle dynamic system.
335
w h e r e and a r e , respectively, the applied m o m e n t s in pitch and y a w , taken about the pivot point, arising from the a e r o d y n a m i c loads.

11.2.2
Aerodynamic
Description
Using Quasisteady Theory
U s i n g the t e c h n i q u e s of the previous chapter, the perturbational a e r o d y n a m i c loads can be formulated using strip theory, wherein only the vector d i a g r a m of the air velocities at a typical section need be considered. T h e principal quantities that m u s t be m a t h e m a t i c a l l y m o d e l e d are: the total air velocity at the section and its c o m p o n e n t s in and out of the plane of the rotor disk; the geometric angle of attack c h a n g e d u e to pitch and y a w , a , ; and the c h a n g e in the inflow angle d u e to the perturbational velocities caused by pitch and y a w rates. A s v i e w e d from the front of the rotor, in F i g . 1 1 . 3 , a typical section is located at an arbitrary s p a n w i s e location, r , of a blade positioned at s o m e azimuth a n g l e , 12/, and with the h u b displaced at an arbitrary position in pitch and y a w . T h e pertinent g e o m e t r i c a l features of the typical airfoil section are then s h o w n in F i g . 11.4. T h e tangent and p e r p e n d i c u l a r c o m p o n e n t s of velocity at the blade section are given by U
T
= ilr
+ s + V sine*!
(11.5) (11.6)
Up = w + V c o s a , where
= sinlr -
cosili - sinfr)
(11.7) (11.8) (11.9)
s = aR(dcost
w = - r ( i j i c o s i l i + sinflr)
Fig. 11.3 Front view geometry of deflected hub and radially located typical section.
336
T h e square of the effective is then a p p r o x i m a t e d by Ul = ( i l r

2 2
resulting velocity (that producing d y n a m i c pressure) + 2Vw + 2irVa + (higher order terms) (11.10)
+ V)
2
+ lrs
/2
T h e lift at the airfoil section, can then be expressed in terms of the effective d y n a m i c pressure and the angle of attack of the section: d ( r , t) dr
pul
dynamic pressure
[c a]
la
c chord
Cj
= - pc c[(U
la
4- 2Vw
+ 2rs
+ 2irVa )
{
( -
y)]
(11.11)
where
- = = -
tan- (UplU )
x T
Sir t a n - ' ( W l r ) ~ ^ * + j 's +

2
(11.12)
After the various formulations are c o m b i n e d , the resulting expression can be e x p a n d e d wherein only the linear terms are retained. T h e following expression for the lifting load distribution is then obtained: dL(r, t) 1 I = -z dr 2
+
ilr ?c cU^
la
U 2r
+
ilr a
s
2V
w
2ilr
2
1
"
' o / +
77^ I
7
ok)
(11.13)
INSTABILITIES O F R O T O R - P Y L O N S Y S T E M S o r , after i n c l u d i n g the e x p r e s s i o n s for w, i , and a , : d L ( r , i) dr 1 2 V + V +

2
337
__
ilr
2V ilr
COS
4- s i n )
2r I 1 + jj- a ( 2 I 1 -f a
) aR(Q cosili
s'mt)
) ( s i n l i -
cosili)
(11.14)
T h i s lift distribution can then b e used to calculate the total perturbational inp l a n e forces and pitching and rolling m o m e n t s at the h u b accruing from all of the b l a d e s . W i t h i n the c o n t e x t of the simplicity of the quasisteady a s s u m p t i o n , the t e r m s i n v o l v i n g a can be n e g l e c t e d to p r o d u c e the following e x p r e s s i o n s for the perturbational forces a n d m o m e n t s at the h u b :
0
aA\
(11.15)
* 4
(11.16)
3
b , = -K R[A' *-aA a 2 2
A-
(11.17)
b = -K R\A Q
a 2
(11.18)
w h e r e b is the n u m b e r of b l a d e s , a n d (11.19) T h e v a r i o u s integrals given in the p r e c e d i n g e x p r e s s i o n s are defined as follows:

(//IT) \/(JIT)2
2
+
2
(i/7T)A
(11.20)
A,
=
Jo
(7) VU/) c VU/)

0 2 4 2
;
2
(J/T)A
(11.21)
A,
d;
2
3 =
(7/)
(11.22)
w h e r e J = \///? = the propeller advance ratio. T h e m o m e n t s about the pivot are then given by -M M
1(I v
aRLaRU
(11.23) (11.24)
M- +
338
which result in the following final useful forms: (11.25)
(11.26)
11.2.3
Basic Stability
Characteristics
With the finalized expressions for the a e r o d y n a m i c m o m e n t s about the (wing) pivot point the d y n a m i c equations can be used to assess the stability characteristics of the s y s t e m . Since the basic equations of motion are linear and of constant coefficient t y p e , use of the R o u t h - H u r w i t z stability criterion will yield stability b o u n d a r i e s for flutter and d i v e r g e n c e . Within the scope of this simple a description of the p h e n o m e n o n , the stability characteristics are found to be functions of the following p a r a m e t e r s : 1) rotor speed ; 2) polar m o m e n t of inertia / ; 3) pylon (nacelle) inertia / ; 4) stiffnesses in the t w o directions K and K ; 5) d a m p i n g in the t w o directions C , and C ; and 6) pivot to h u b distance to radius ratio a. T h e flutter instability characteristics are directly related to the gyroscopic precessional b e h a v i o r of the rotor. For the rigid-blade rotors considered herein, w h e r e all of the system flexibility resides in the t w o wing attachment pivot springs, it is found that the rotor can experience flutter instability only in the " b a c k w a r d " whirl m o d e . This type of whirl motion consists of the rotor hub tracing a circular motion in the rotor plane in a direction opposite to that of the rotor rotation, . As d e m o n s t r a t e d in a later section, the backward-whirl m o d e aspect of the instability can be s h o w n to produce a condition of negative d a m p i n g by virtue of the a e r o d y n a m i c hub loads. C o n s e q u e n t l y , since the pertinent aerod y n a m i c terms are directly proportional to rotor speed squared, the instability characteristics monotonically increase with rotor speed, . A l s o , since the backward whirl m o d e is d e t e r m i n e d in large m e a s u r e by the precessional characteristics of the rotor (as determined by the gyroscopic terms), this instability condition w o u l d again be aggravated by the rotor speed, as well as the polar m o m e n t of inertia, I . Note that, because the driver for the unstable motion is of a e r o d y n a m i c origin and a positive-definite d a m p i n g matrix exists, the system cannot be stabilized by the g y r o s c o p i c t e r m s .
v x]} t v e x
Apart from these preliminary considerations, the stability characteristics (both in flutter and divergence) d e p e n d on the remaining p a r a m e t e r s . A qualitative indication of h o w the stability characteristics depend on these basic parameters is given in Fig. 1 1 . 5 , as extracted from ( R e e d ) . T h e s e basic trends can be interpreted from the expressions for the a e r o d y n a m i c m o m e n t s about the pivot point given in the preceding section. T h e conditions of d i v e r g e n c e instability are indicated in Fig. 11.5 by the lower limiting values on the y a w and pitch spring rates. T h e s e divergence conditions originate from the ( + )(\) and ( + )(aA\\\*) terms in the previously given expressions for
1 stable
/17777777
unsfable
112
Yaw stiffness, K,
a)
Pitch damping,
b)
C,
Fig. 11.5 Summary of key results of rotor whirl trend studies of propellers wi
340
the a e r o d y n a m i c m o m e n t s . T h e s e terms effectively define negative springs [ i . e . , ( + ) m o m e n t / ( + )angle conditions] and are the sources of the aperiodic divergence instabilities. For c o n d i t i o n s of b a c k w a r d w h i r l , and are in phase with each other, and and are out of p h a s e . For these conditions the previously given expressions for a e r o d y n a m i c m o m e n t s h o w that the second t e r m s , ( )A' \\f and ( + )A Q, in each of these e x p r e s s i o n s are out of phase with their respective rate-dependent terms and therefore act as negative dampers. T h e s e terms are then the source of the ntter instability. T h e following detailed interpretations can be d r a w n from the trends depicted in F i g . 11.5: 1) T h e extent of the susceptibility of the rotor to the instability is directly related to the isotropy of the pylon structure. T h e m o r e nearly isotropic the structure, the m o r e likely the characteristic response of the hub will be a " c i r c u l a r " whirl. Increasing a m o u n t s of anisotropy serve to distort this response into an " e l l i p t i c " form with c o m m e n s u r a t e l y less ability of the motion to generate the previously identified destabilizing driver forces. 2) F o r small a m o u n t s of d a m p i n g the effect of incremental d a m p i n g is significantly greater than that for m o d e r a t e a m o u n t s . T h u s , it is quite important to p r o v i d e the p y l o n structure with at least a m o d i c u m of d a m p i n g . H o w e v e r , b e y o n d a certain point, incremental d a m p i n g does not offer a viable m e a n s for stabilizing the rotor. 3) T h e stabilizing effect of the pivot to h u b d i s t a n c e , aR, is attributed to the additional a e r o d y n a m i c d a m p i n g afforded by the motion of the rotor in its plane (L and L d u e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , to y and m o t i o n ) .
2 2 Y z
11.2A
Effects of Wing Flexibility
T h e basic formulation of the rotor-nacelle whirl flutter instability given earlier a s s u m e s that the pivot point is located on a rigid w i n g . T h e resulting analysis is relatively simple and adequately serves to identify the principal m e c h a n i s m s involved in the p h e n o m e n o n . H o w e v e r , real world applications of the theory must include the effects of w i n g flexibility. For cases wherein the w i n g has a high d e g r e e of stiffness, so that the w i n g natural frequencies are all m u c h higher than the u n c o u p l e d pylon m o d e s (as defined by the nacelle inertia / and the stiffnesses K and K ), the rigid pivot attachment point assumption is reasonably valid and the resulting trends are correct. For cases wherein the lowest w i n g natural frequency (typically that associated with b e n d i n g , ) is close to the whirl flutter frequency, the effects of the w i n g aeroelasticity are generally stabilizing d u e to the additional source of d a m p i n g afforded by the w i n g in b e n d i n g . This and other trends are important to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p h e n o m e n o n and are s u m m a r i z e d in F i g . 11.6 (again, as extracted from R e e d ) .
x[t Q
Figure 11.6 s h o w s three different types of stability b o u n d a r i e s , d e p e n d i n g on the d e g r e e and type of wing flexibility. T h e basic rigid-wing result is typified by the point of m a x i m u m instability, point A , which c o r r e s p o n d s to the case of isotropic stiffness. With the introduction of only wing b e n d i n g flexibility, the region of instability shrinks in a c c o r d a n c e with the fact that the total d y n a m i c system has an additional source of d a m p i n g . T h e points of m a x i m u m instability r e d u c t i o n , relative to the rigid-wing results, are denoted by the points indicated
341
Yaw Fig. 11.6
stiffness,
Influence of wing flexibility on whirl flutter (after Reed).
by B . At these points the whirl frequency is equal to the wing b e n d i n g frequency. In effect, the w i n g is acting as a type of tuned d a m p e r that operates to m a x i m u m a d v a n t a g e w h e n the system frequency is close to the frequency of the d a m p e r . T h e third result given in F i g . 11.6 relates to the case wherein the first c o u p l e d w i n g m o d e frequency, , which n o w involves both flatwise bending and torsion motion (h and a , respectively), is approximately the s a m e as the u n c o u p l e d b e n d i n g frequency c o n s i d e r e d previously. T h e trend s h o w n by this result represents an exception to the general stabilizing trend of wing flexibility discussed earlier and is d e n o t e d point C. This point c o r r e s p o n d s to the case w h e r e i n the c o u p l e d frequency coj is approximately equal to the frequency in y a w , . F o r this case the effective nacelle i m p e d a n c e in pitch, as seen by the rotor, is a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal to that in y a w , and the rotor responds as if it w e r e at point A . In either c a s e , points A or C , the region of instability is at its m a x i m u m extent, in a c c o r d a n c e with the conditions favorable to " c i r c u l a r " whirling m o t i o n .
{
7.2.5
Stability Characteristics
with Blade Flapwise Flexibility
In the p r e c e d i n g sections the formulations for rotor-nacelle whirl instability h a v e concentrated on the essentially rigid rotor c a s e . This case c o r r e s p o n d s to the original w o r k that w a s d o n e in response to the catastrophic p r o b l e m s enc o u n t e r e d with " r i g i d " propellers. For this relatively simple system the instability, as shown earlier, always involves a regressive or backward whirl. However, in the c o u r s e of investigating the effects of various parametric variations about the rigid-blade rotor c a s e , it w a s (experimentally) found that, for rotors with flapwise flexibility or, alternatively, with flapping h i n g e s , the instability could take the form of a limit cycle whirl in the advancing or forward- whirl direction. F u r t h e r m o r e , it w a s found that the forward whirl could occur only for flapping frequency to rotor speed ratios ( / ) that d o not greatly e x c e e d unity ( ~ 1.06)
342
and only in conditions of low disk loading. For frequency ratios above this value the instability was found to revert to the more usual backward-whirl form. T h e early investigators of the basic instability p r o b l e m had concentrated on the (rigid) propeller c a s e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the impetus to explore the forwardwhirl p r o b l e m in depth c a m e , in part, from the requirements of the vertically lifting tilt rotor configurations evolving from within the helicopter technology community. Such configurations typically consist of rotor-bearing nacelles mounted on the e n d s of w i n g s ; the nacelles are then provided with a swiveling capability so that the rotors can act both as helicopter-like lifting rotors (with the rotor axis in the vertical position) and as thrusting propellers (with the axis in the horizontal direction). For such designs the o c c u r r e n c e of the forward-whirl instability (or, indeed, other m o r e exotic variants of the basic instability) was a very real possibility and hence had to be addressed and understood. T h e experimentally o b s e r v e d features of the soft flapwise stiffness rotor case were successfully predicted in theory by Y o u n g and L y t w y n . Their formulation uses a straightforward Lagrangian procedure and includes a fairly standard application of (incompressible) quasisteady lift and drag airloads. T h e reader is referred to the literature for a detailed description of the equations of motion used to model the instability. Alternatively, the generalized equations of motion for ground and air r e s o n a n c e given in A p p e n d i x D can be used as a basis for defining an a p p r o x i m a t e formulation to the p r o b l e m . T h e key findings of the work of Y o u n g and L y t w y n are s u m m a r i z e d in the following Figs. 11.7 and 11.8, which were extracted from their w o r k . Figure 11.7 s h o w s that for blade flapping frequency ratios above 1.1 the effect of flapping flexibility is to increase the a m o u n t of nacelle stiffness required to stabilize the usual ( b a c k w a r d - ) whirl m o d e of instability. Figure 11.8 shows the
(ND)
blade
flapping
frequency,
Fig. 11.7 Influence of blade flapping frequency ratios greater than 1.1 on the (backward whirl) stability of propeller-rotors (after Young and Lytwyn).
INSTABILITIES O F R O T O R - P Y L O N S Y S T E M S G
343
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
(ND)
blade
flapping
frequency,
Fig. 11.8 Influence of blade frequency ratios from 0.90 to 1.12 on the (forward whirl) stability of propeller-rotors (after Young and Lytwyn). p r e s e n c e of the forward-whirl instability for a range of flapping frequency ratios less than or equal to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.07. T h e figure also indicates that for frequency ratios in this range the prop-rotor can experience instability in both the forward- and b a c k w a r d - w h i r l m o d e s . T h e analysis of actual real-world prop-rotors of the tilt-rotor variety must necessarily require a m o r e sophisticated analysis than that provided by either the w o r k of Y o u n g and L y t w y n or a modification of A p p e n d i x D . Not only are the (omitted) effects of unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c s significant to the stability b o u n d a r i e s , but the details of specific c o u p l i n g s (peculiar to any given prop-rotor configuration) can greatly influence or even stabilize an existing instability (see W e r n i c k e and Gaffey).
11.2.6 Approximate Corrections to Aerodynamics Compressibility and Finite Blade Span Effects
for
H o u b o l t and Reed give a p p r o x i m a t e corrections to the (incompressible) quasisteady airloads formulations given earlier. T h e s e corrections consist of applying a c o m b i n a t i o n of t w o factors to the incompressible lift-curve slope, c (F and F , respectively) to define a " c o r r e c t e d " lift-curve s l o p e , c\ ( c F F ), where
Ux x 2 a kx x 2
F and w h e r e M(r) =
l/Vl
M (r);
2
(11.27a)
M a c h n u m b e r at station r
344 (AR)' (AR)
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S M a c h n u m b e r corrected aspect ratio of the blade section, = (AR)V\l - M (r)] aspect ratio of the entire blade
2
(11.27b)
Accordingly, (AR) 2 + (A/?)Vl - Ml[1 + ( / ) ]

2 2 2
(11.28)
where M^ is the forward-flight M a c h n u m b e r , and = rlR. This c o m b i n e d factor is then inserted u n d e r the integral in the expressions given earlier for the coefficients A . . . A , so that it forms part of each of the integrands. Note that w h e n available, wind-tunnel measured propeller derivatives should be used to check the preceding results. F u r t h e r m o r e , in addition to the previously given a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to the compressibility and finite-span effects, additional modifications can be added to the analysis to approximate " u n s t e a d y " aerod y n a m i c effects. M e t h o d s for the inclusion of these effects are covered in a subsequent chapter and therefore will not be treated in any further detail at this point.
x 3
11.3
Ground Resonance Instability
Of the several dynamics-related potential problem areas in rotorcraft the p h e n o m e n o n of ground resonance represents the first instance where the coupling b e t w e e n the rotor and pylon (fuselage) w a s considered and successfully analyzed. T h e high degree of success attained was most likely due in part to the pioneering analytic investigation by C o l e m a n and Feingold in the 1940s and to the fact that this instability is relatively free of a e r o d y n a m i c effects and is a true elastomechanical instability. T h e basic equations of motion are s o m e w h a t different d e p e n d i n g on w h e t h e r the rotor has isotropy (three-or-more-bladed case) or not, i . e . , anisotropy (one- or two-bladed case). In the material to follow these t w o cases are d e v e l o p e d separately.
11.3-1
Dynamic Description
for the Isotropic Rotor Case
As described in an earlier section, a major analysis problem to be addressed in m o d e l i n g rotor-fuselage coupled systems is that a c o m m o n coordinate system must be defined. G e n e r a l l y , the most convenient coordinate frame is the one that has the anisotropy. This avoids the problem of dealing with equations with periodic coefficients. For the three-or-more-bladed c a s e , with all blades elastomechanically the s a m e , the rotor is isotropic and it is appropriate to write the equations of motion in the fixed or nonrotating coordinate system. T h e most simple ground r e s o n a n c e analysis also h a p p e n s to be remarkably effective. This simple approach considers the fuselage to be represented by equivalent m a s s e s and springs in the longitudinal and lateral directions, respectively. As such the elastomechanical description of the fuselage consists of equivalent masses and d a m p e r s together with characteristic natural frequencies in each of the t w o inplane directions, as s h o w n in Fig. 11.9. N o t e that the longitudinal and lateral motions of the h u b , and y, respectively, arise from pitching and rolling motions of the fuselage about s o m e effective
(Note: m . ,
and
mF.
exclude the mass of the rotor. mR.)
cn
0 n
9 0
cn -< cn
P -0 ; I 0 z
cn
a
-I
T & ? c effective rotation center fs/
side view
aft view
Fig. 11.9 Simplified dynamic description of fuselage for ground resonance analysis.
0 P
Ul
346
rotation centers that are generally not located in the ground plane b u t typically b e l o w it for the lowest frequency m o d e s of the fuselage. Using the distances of the effective rotation centers from the rotor h u b , h and / , effective m a s s e s in the a n d y d i r e c t i o n s , m and m , respectively can b e defined. T h e x- and y direction " e f f e c t i v e " springs and d a m p e r s , k , k and c , c , respectively, are obtained from the effective m a s s e s together with the frequency a n d d a m p i n g ratios appropriate to the pitch and roll m o d e s of fuselage motion on the landing gear ( , , , a n d ) . T h e d y n a m i c description of the flexible rotor blades is achieved using cyclic rotor m o d e s as described in an earlier section (see F i g . 11.1).
Q F F F F F F
Equations of motion. A presentation of a basic unified set of equations for both g r o u n d r e s o n a n c e and air r e s o n a n c e is given in A p p e n d i x D . This appendix is m e a n t to provide a s o m e w h a t m o r e detailed version of the simpler material presented h e r e i n , which w e need for investigating the major features of the instability. F r o m the basic equations in A p p e n d i x D w e can extract a simplified set of equations of motion for the three- or m o r e - b l a d e d case; these are given in the following without derivation. N o t e that the first t w o equations define the force equilibrium of the nonrotating h u b , and the second t w o define the force equilibrium of the cyclic in-plane rotor m o d e s . H u b longitudinal force Mx
x
(F ):
x
+ ck
F v
+ kx
F
+ (>/2)S e
48
= 0
(11.29)
H u b lateral force ( F ) : My
x
+ cy
F
+ ky
F
+ (/2)S
4 8 6
(11.30)
Rotor longitudinal e d g e w i s e excitation ( ): S x

4H
+ 5 [
4 9
+ c e
e
+ ( , - l ) e l + 5 ( 2
2 2 v 4 9
+ ce)
e v
= 0
(11.31)
R o t o r lateral e d g e w i s e excitation ( ) : 5 y + 5 [
4 4 9 v
+ c
e
+ (
- il )e - 5 (2
2 v 4 9 x
+ c e ) = 0
v v
(11.32)
w h e r e the effective m a s s e s in the and y directions, M and M , are respectively given b y M

x
= m
+ m\
R
= m
4- m
(11.33)
T h e blade in-plane d a m p i n g c\ can be alternatively expressed in terms of a critical d a m p i n g ratio a n d natural frequency at zero rotor s p e e d , , :
()
2 , ,
n
(11.34)
and the various inertia related integrals S are defined in A p p e n d i x D . Stability solution. T h e solution for the stability descriptors is standard and m a k e s use of the solution of either an e x p a n d e d characteristic p o l y n o m i a l (in
347
this case an e i g h t h - d e g r e e p o l y n o m i a l ) or a matrix eigenvalue solution. T h e r o o t s , \j, will h a v e the usual form: \ = , + ,and stability is assured if all < 0 .
7
(11.35)
Frequency characteristics: Coleman diagram. T h e coupled frequencies of the system are j u s t the i m a g i n a r y parts of the e i g e n v a l u e s , ,. If all d a m p i n g is r e m o v e d from the system (c = c = = 0) then the roots will o c c u r either as i m a g i n a r y pairs (pure u n d a m p e d frequencies) o r as quartets of roots:
F F
, -
(11.36)
For this latter case the eigensolution clearly indicates an instability. T h e s e results are c o n v e n i e n t l y s h o w n on a Coleman diagram s h o w n in F i g . 11.10; this diagram s h o w s t h e variation with rotor rotational speed of the resulting c o u p l e d frequencies (both blade a n d fuselage m o d e s ) as seen in die nonrotating coordinate system. N o t e that the regions of instability a l w a y s occur at the intersections of the d e g e n e r a t e " r e g r e s s i v e " lead-lag m o d e with o n e or more of the fuselage m o d e s . For these c o n d i t i o n s the regressive lead-lag m o d e is denoted as " d e g e n e r a t e " b e c a u s e t h e rotor h a s b e c o m e supercritical, the blade frequency has b e c o m e less than the rotor rotational frequency. At these conditions the normally regressive m o d e h a s c h a n g e d direction and b e c o m e a slower m o v i n g progressive m o d e . M o r e specifically, the following characteristics can be noted from this figure: 1) T h e basic structure of this d i a g r a m is similar to what the various m o d e s w o u l d look like with zero coupling ( i . e . , if the ratios of S to each of the h u b m a s s e s , M a n d M > 0 ) . F o r zero coupling the intersections b e t w e e n the blade m o d e s and the pylon m o d e s w o u l d show no deviations. H o w e v e r , with finite
4 8 x y
Rotor
speed,
Fig. 11.10 Typical Coleman diagram for ground resonance characteristics of an isotropic rotor and anistropic fuselage.
Next Page
coupling the various intersections b e c o m e c o a l e s c e n c e s . For coalescences that occur above the l/rev (\P) line ( = 2 ) , the coupling is s m o o t h , and only pure frequencies result. O n l y for coalescences that occur below the l/rev line can the coupling result in instabilities. 2) T h e degree of inertia coupling as defined in terms of the previously identified terms is a major m e a s u r e of the susceptibility of the system to the instability. 3) T h e shaft critical speeds are indicated as the points where the l/rev line intersects the pylon frequencies. 4) A t the point where the coupled blade m o d e crosses the horizontal axis that frequency has a value of zero and represents a condition wherein a steady force can excite the s y s t e m . Note that this condition is also the point where the rotating blade m o d e frequency is exactly equal to the rotor rotational frequency. 5) T h e figure implies o n e effective m e a n s of avoiding the instability: D o not operate the rotor near the instability regions that are closely approximated by conditions wherein [the blade lead-lag (rotating) frequency] + [one of the pylon m o d e frequencies] = [the rotor rotational frequency]. Mass coupling parameter. In the original work by C o l e m a n and Feingold the use of graphical m e t h o d s is stressed for analyzing ground resonance p r o b l e m s ; more specifically, selected n o n d i m e n s i o n a l parameters are used to define the stability characteristics. T h e principal parameters defined and used in this classic work are the , , , , and A p a r a m e t e r s . It turns out that the first t w o p a r a m e t e r s , A ! and A , define the lead-lag frequency characteristics of an articulated blade. T h e r e m a i n i n g t w o p a r a m e t e r s , and A , a r e , respectively, the mass ratio ( " e f f e c t i v e " rotor m a s s to the total mass at the h u b ) and the mass coupling parameter. T h e mass coupling p a r a m e t e r A is defined in C o l e m a n and Feingold in terms of . Herein, h o w e v e r , this parameter is defined m o r e broadly in terms of the generalized first e d g e w i s e m a s s m o m e n t , S , the generalized second e d g e w i s e mass m o m e n t or generalized (modal) m a s s , S , and the effective in-plane m a s s at the h u b , M ( = M or M ) , as follows:
2 3 2 3 3 4 8 49 e t l x v
2M
e f f
4 9
This m a s s coupling p a r a m e t e r is a convenient factor for defining the degree of interaction b e t w e e n the rotor and the fuselage. T h e degree of instability varies monotonically with this p a r a m e t e r . Effects of damping. Instead of solving for the roots of the characteristic e q u a t i o n , stability information can be obtained by e x a m i n i n g the coefficients of the characteristic equation using the Routh stability criterion. It should b e noted that, without using the special techniques discussed in Chapter 9 , the Routh stability criterion should b e used only with s o m e m i n i m u m d a m p i n g in the s y s t e m . T h e results of using the Routh criterion is to produce stability b o u n d a r i e s , which are depicted in F i g . 1 1 . 1 1 .
Stability results
using rotor impedance
and fuselage
mobility.
the previously given simplified equations of m o t i o n , o n e can m a k e an analytic calculation of rotor i m p e d a n c e , w h i c h , together with the similarly extracted pylon
Using
12 Unsteady Aerodynamics and Flutter of Rotors

12.1 Introduction and Classification
A s o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the d y n a m i c s and aeroelasticity of rotors increases, the single m o s t important item still n e e d e d for successful analysis continues to be an a c c u r a t e , universal m o d e l i n g of the blade unsteady airloads. T h e p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e of the airloads b e c o m e s quite apparent w h e n one considers that a helicopter rotor b l a d e , unlike a conventional airplane w i n g , is quite flexible and obtains its rigidity, for the most part, from centrifugal forces. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the major forces acting on an e l e m e n t of a rotor blade are the inertia loads and the airloads. F u r t h e r m o r e , as will b e c o m e m o r e apparent, the airloads even in steady trimmed flight are characteristically quite unsteady and cause the rotor blade to r e s p o n d , to a m a r k e d d e g r e e , in such a w a y as to p r o d u c e other significant u n s t e a d y airloads.
12.1.1 Characteristics Environment
of the Rotary-Wing
Aerodynamic
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of predicting these unsteady airloads to the helicopter rotor blade d y n a m i c s is e q u a l l e d if not e x c e e d e d by the complexity in trying to m a k e a correct prediction of t h e m . S o m e of the key features of the rotary-wing aerod y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t contributing to the c o m p l e x i t y of the unsteady airloads are as follows: 1) In forward-flight conditions the tangential velocity c o m p o n e n t at any arbitrary b l a d e section, U , has a relatively large first-harmonic content in rotor a z i m u t h a n g l e , ( = fit), thereby p r o d u c i n g zeroth-, first-, and s e c o n d - h a r m o n i c (Fourier) c o m p o n e n t s of d y n a m i c pressure. 2) T h e local section angle of attack, a , is c o m p r i s e d of t w o parts: the geometric part, , and the inflow part, . Both of these portions of the angle of attack generally h a v e significant h a r m o n i c content d u e to the r e q u i r e m e n t s for rotor control and the p h y s i c s of the induced airflow through the rotor disk. 3) At high forward-flight speeds the outer portions of the blade of the adv a n c i n g side of the disk e n c o u n t e r compressibility effects ( i . e . , elevated M a c h n u m b e r s arising from the s u m m i n g of the rotational and forward-flight c o m p o n e n t s of air v e l o c i t y ) . H o w e v e r , on the retreating side these s a m e blade sections e n c o u n t e r very low subsonic flow conditions (arising from the differencing of these s a m e air velocity c o m p o n e n t s ) together with high angles of attack. Such a c o m b i n a t i o n generally leads to stalled airfoil conditions. A l t h o u g h each of these characteristics is g o v e r n e d b y nonlinear p r o c e s s e s , their respective mathematical descriptions are c o m p l e t e l y dissimilar. T h e s e t w o a e r o d y n a m i c p h e n o m e n a are the major sources of nonlinear a e r o d y n a m i c excitation to the b l a d e . 4) T h e lifting b l a d e leaves the disturbances (such as those arising from blade m o t i o n , as well as from the strong trailing tip vortices) in its w a k e . B e c a u s e the
T
379
380
m e a n velocity of the air flow normal through the rotor disk is generally small c o m p a r e d to the tangential velocity, the rotor blade creating the disturbances, as well as all of the other b l a d e s , can " s e n s e " these disturbances at subsequent points in time during several rotor revolutions later. 5) In response to the primary h a r m o n i c loads resulting from the generally h a r m o n i c nature of the d y n a m i c pressure in forward flight and the trim control a n g l e s , the rotor blade will deflect elastically in bending and torsion in such a m a n n e r that it generates significant secondary airloads that are also of a h a r m o n i c nature. 6) In forward flight the rotor w a k e containing the previously m e n t i o n e d disturbances b e c o m e s distorted principally in the out-of-plane direction as it is being swept r e a r w a r d . It is this distortion, more than any other effect, that gives the blade airloads their large higher h a r m o n i c content.
12.1.2
Basic Assumptions Defining the Analytical
Development
Historically, the d e v e l o p m e n t of rotary-wing unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c theory has been o n e of improvisation using elements gleaned from theories developed principally for fixed-wing applications. T h e " f i t " of such theories to the rotaryw i n g case has been generally spotty. T h e r e does not yet exist a single, universal c o m p r e h e n s i v e theory that can be accurately applied, with ranges of parameters suitable to most rotor aeroelastic p r o b l e m s . T h e use of a e r o d y n a m i c theories of fixed-wing origin is based on the c o n c u r r e n c e of a s s u m e d conditions for the fixed-wing and rotary-wing c a s e s . T h e following list of basic assumptions helps to define the limits to which fixed-wing formulations have proven useful in obtaining the albeit limited present analytical tools for aeroelastic formulations: 1) T w o dimensionality: A n enduring assumption that has facilitated develo p m e n t is that: The unsteady airloads are, except for local effects near the blade tips, spanwise independent and can be treated on a two-dimensional basis. This a s s u m p t i o n follows from the fact that helicopters and other related rotary-wing aircraft use rotor blades with relatively high aspect ratios, (AR) = Rie ~ 10. T h e use of t w o dimensionality is further justified by the trend observed in fixedwing formulations which show that with increased unsteadiness the relative effects of s p a n w i s e p r o p a g a t i o n s of disturbances (three dimensionality) are c o m mensurately d i m i n i s h e d . 2) R e d u c e d frequency: In a c c o r d a n c e with the applicability of t w o - d i m e n sional formulations: The extent of aerodynamic unsteadiness can be assessed using the basic parameter formulated for fixed-wing theory, the reduced frequency, k, as given in the following: k = (c<l2U) (12.1)
w h e r e , for rotary-wing applications, typical values can be established using the tangential velocity d u e to rotation (as m e a s u r e d at the 7 5 % span location): 2 (0.751K) 2 c 3 R (12.2)
By virtue of the typical values for rotor blade aspect ratio, the reduced frequency is seen to be a p p r o x i m a t e d by 0 . 0 6 6 7 ( / ) . T h e value of the resulting reduced frequency is then d e t e r m i n e d by the n o n d i m e n s i o n a l frequency of the aeroelastic
U N S T E A D Y A E R O D Y N A M I C S A N D FLUTTER Table 12.1 Comparison of aeroelastic phenomena by reduced frequency Rotor type Artie. Artie. Nonartic. All Nonartic. All All All All Nondimensional frequency, / 0.3 0.3 0.8 1.0 1.2 2.0 4.0 5.0 4.0-6.0
381
Phenomenon Pitch-lag instability Ground resonance Air resonance \P flapping Flap-lag instability 2P flapping 4P vibratory resps. 5P vibratory resps. Torsional flutter
Reduced frequency, k 0.020 0.020 0.053 0.067 0.080 0.133 0.267 0.334 0.267-0.400
p h e n o m e n o n . T a b l e 12.1 s u m m a r i z e s the resulting range of frequency ratios and r e d u c e d frequencies (as seen in the rotating coordinate system) that exist for various types of r o t a r y - w i n g a e r o m e c h a n i c a l and aeroelastic p h e n o m e n a . A s s u b s e q u e n t material will s h o w , a measure of the significance of unsteadiness is whether the reduced frequency is greater than approximately 0.06. For r e d u c e d frequencies greater than this value the unsteady airloads are reduced in m a g n i t u d e by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 % . In addition to attenuations of the airloads in m a g n i t u d e , and p r o b a b l y m o r e important, are the phase lags that unsteady effects i n t r o d u c e . A g a i n , as s u b s e q u e n t material will s h o w , the m a x i m u m p h a s e lag effects o c c u r at r e d u c e d frequencies of approximately 0 . 2 5 . T h e results of T a b l e 12.1 indicate the following: Unsteady airloads become most important with regard to forced (vibratory) response rotary wing aeroelasticity problems and to "higher-mode" flutter problems. 3) Variable flow and airfoil motion: In contrast to the typical p r o b l e m s in fixed-wing aeroelasticity, the aeroelastic problems of rotary wing (in forward flight) are characterized by relatively large fluctuations in both the flow components and airfoil section motion, simultaneously in both the longitudinal and vertical directions. T h e full ramifications of this a s s u m p t i o n h a v e not yet b e e n integrated into present r o t a r y - w i n g u n s t e a d y airloads theory. At best, pieces of the p r o b l e m solution that relate to the variability of flow in the t w o directions h a v e been assimilated from the fixed-wing c a s e . H o w e v e r , the effects of large r e s p o n s e a m p l i t u d e s of the airfoil section in the rotary-wing case h a v e not as yet been fully a d d r e s s e d , and the fixed-wing solutions, w h i c h h a v e almost universally a s s u m e d infinitesimal motion, are suspect and of limited usefulness. 4) N e a r - and far-field effects: B e c a u s e of the rotor b l a d e ' s ability to be influenced by past d i s t u r b a n c e s from both itself and other b l a d e s , the rotor blade wake is comprised of a near-field wake that consists of the trailing and shed vortex system extending a few chord lengths behind the trailing edge of the blade and a far-field wake that is incorporated with those from the other blades into a total rotor wake. T h e m o d e l i n g of this rotor w a k e has been a p p r o a c h e d from t w o directions: 1) the c o n c e p t of air mass dynamics, as treated in an earlier section, and 2) a detailed flow calculation built up using vortex e l e m e n t s .
382
12.1.3
Classification of Rotor Unsteady Airloads Theories
Rotor u n s t e a d y airloads theories can generally be classified according to five categories: p u r p o s e , c o m p l e x i t y , elemental mathematical building b l o c k , treatment of rotor w a k e , and m e t h o d of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . Within this framework the optional paths for each of these categories are as follows: A. Purpose 1 . Steady-state h a r m o n i c loads computation (both hover and forward flight) 2. N o n h a r m o n i c airloads for (higher m o d e ) aeroelastic response and flutter calculations (in hover) 3 . Unsteady h a r m o n i c airloads for flutter and aeromechanical stability calculations in forward flight Complexity 1 . Lifting-line theory (strictly t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l ) 2. Lifting-surface theory (for low-aspect ratio rotor blades and for conditions at the tip)
B.
C. Elemental mathematical principle (building block) 1 . T w o - d i m e n s i o n a l airfoil 2. Elemental actuator disk ( m o m e n t u m equation) 3. Vortical e l e m e n t s 4 . Pressure doublets D . Treatment of the blade and rotor wakes 1 . N o blade w a k e and constant inflow only 2. Addition of o n e trailing sheet 3 . Addition of m a n y returning shed and trailing blade w a k e s 4 . N o n u n i f o r m , time-varying rotor w a k e , creating a variable-inflow condition at every instant of time at the airfoil E. Method of (mathematical) implementation 1 . O p e r a t i o n s in the frequency d o m a i n (harmonic motions only) 2 . Use of c o m p l e x frequency d o m a i n (Laplace operators) 3 . T i m e d o m a i n using step-by-step time-history integration It is within the context of this classification that the descriptions of rotarywing unsteady airloads to follow are presented. T h e s e descriptions constitute the first portion of this chapter; later portions of the chapter deal with t w o aeroelastic instabilities, each of w h i c h require an appropriate form of unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c s for an accurate analysis: bending-torsion flutter and stall flutter.
12.2
Two-Dimensional Frequency-Domain Theories
This section presents four related a e r o d y n a m i c theories that were originally formulated either for fixed-wing applications and subsequently m a d e applicable to the r o t a r y - w i n g c a s e , or derived for the rotary-wing case directly using established fixed-wing theoretical m e t h o d s . T h e four theories all m a k e the smallperturbation assumption (including the assumption of a " t h i n " airfoil). In addition, the following specific a s s u m p t i o n s are m a d e consistent with linearized theory:
U N S T E A D Y A E R O D Y N A M I C S A N D FLUTTER
383
1) T h e airfoil section consists of a flat plate with " s m a l l " initial angle of attack, with a w a k e shed from the trailing e d g e of the airfoil r e a r w a r d to infinity w i t h o u t any d o w n w a r d velocity or vertical distortion. 2) T h e flow is in viscid and i n c o m p r e s s i b l e ( M = 0 ) . 3) T h e flow is g o v e r n e d by linear potential flow; the nonlinearities arising from stall are o m i t t e d . 4) T h e d i s t u r b a n c e s , w h e t h e r in the m o t i o n of the airfoil or in the flow are simple harmonic. T h e four theories d e a l , r e s p e c t i v e l y , with motion of the airfoil in pitch and p l u n g e (the T h e o d o r s e n p r o b l e m ) , vertical sinusoidal gustiness i m b e d d e d in the flow into w h i c h the airfoil is m o v i n g with constant speed (the Sears p r o b l e m ) , sinusoidal variations of the flow in the longitudinal (streamwise) direction (the Isaacs p r o b l e m ) , and an e x p a n s i o n of the T h e o d o r s e n p r o b l e m with an a c c o u n t i n g of the returning w a k e s from the s a m e and other rotor blades (the L o e w y p r o b l e m ) .
12.2.1
Theodorsen Function
T h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l t h e o r y formulated by T h e o d o r s e n is o n e of the m o s t e n d u r i n g (and p r o b a b l y o v e r u s e d ) theories transcribed from fixed-wing aerod y n a m i c s . T h i s theory relates to the perturbational p l u n g i n g (h) and pitching (alternatively, or a ) m o t i o n s of an airfoil in an air m a s s that is initially at rest (see F i g . 12.1). A s d e r i v e d in n u m e r o u s texts the result of the formulation is the following e x p r e s s i o n for the lift and pitching m o m e n t on an airfoil (having a unit span): L
7Tpb [h + / 2
bad]
+ / + a) b(Vi +
am
+ 27rpUbC(k)[h
(12.3)
2
7rpb [ah
3 2
U(Vi
a )'] a)Q] (12.4)
+ 2irpUb (V2
+ a)C{k)[h
+ / + b(Vi
w h e r e C(k) is the Theodorsen function, or, alternatively, the "lift d e f i c i e n c y " function. T h i s function is c o m p l e x - v a l u e d and is defined by the following e x p r e s sions: C{k) = F(k) + iG(k) = H\ (k)
2)
(12.5)
"thin' airfoil
sinusoidaily varying vorticity in wake
airs tream
,
-> (h)
Fig. 12.1
K _ X .
- ba
axis of
rotation
Schematic of the Theodorsen problem.
384
{2)
where H are Hankel functions of the second kind, which a r e , in turn, c o m p r i s e d of Bessel functions of the first a n d second k i n d s . A n extensive tabulation of the T h e o d o r s e n function is given in the work of L u k e and Bengler. Approximate expression for C(k). F o r most applications, any possible additional accuracy afforded by the rigorous use of the previously given e x p r e s sion for the T h e o d o r s e n function is unwarranted in light of the inherent restrictive a s s u m p t i o n s in its formulation relative to the rotary-wing case ( e . g . , lack of small m o t i o n s , compressibility effects, nonstationary air m a s s , e t c . ) . Furtherm o r e , although the function is c o m p r i s e d of analytical functions, it is still relatively c u m b e r s o m e to w o r k with d u e to the fact that the Hankel functions are transcendental functions a n d therefore d o not have convenient Laplace or (inverse) Fourier transforms. F o r these reasons the unsteady airloads descriptions given earlier are often used with an a p p r o x i m a t e T h e o d o r s e n function as given by 0.165
C ( k )
0.335 1 (0.3/*)/
( 1 2
1 -
(0.0455/*)/ "
'
6 )
N o t e that this a p p r o x i m a t i o n n o w has well-defined transforms and has proven quite useful, as w e will see later, in providing aeroelastic operators that can operate in the c o m p l e x - f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n . Basic characteristics of Theodorsen function. Figure 12.2 s h o w s the variations of the real a n d imaginary parts of both the actual and a p p r o x i m a t e T h e o d o r s e n functions with reduced frequency. Note that the vertical scales in the t w o parts of the figure are different. T h e real and imaginary parts are a s y m p totic to 0 . 5 and 0 , respectively.
Noncirculatory
and circulatory
components
of airloads.
of the p r e c e d i n g expressions for the unsteady lift and pitching m o m e n t shows that each is c o m p r i s e d of t w o distinct types of t e r m s . O n e part contains virtual mass terms and acts as an inertia (involving substantial second derivatives in t i m e ) . T h e second part contains circulatory terms and looks like a static airfoil coefficient except with a multiplication by the T h e o d o r s e n function, C(k). This term in these expressions has the form of an attenuation factor on what w o u l d o t h e r w i s e be static (circulation-dependent) airfoil coefficients. H e n c e , the T h e o dorsen function is generalized to represent a "lift deficiency f u n c t i o n , " with the understanding that alternate lift deficiency functions from other sources might be used in the s a m e m a n n e r as that stated in these equations. Virtual mass terms. T h e inertia-like parts of the previously given expressions for lift a n d pitching m o m e n t are usually referred to as the noncirculatory or virtual m a s s terms and represent the reactive forces exerted by the " e q u i v a l e n t " m a s s and inertia of the air mass surrounding the airfoil. F o r rotary-wing applications the doubly-differentiated acceleration-like terms (*') are typically small relative to the b l a d e ' s m a s s properties and are thereby neglected. T h e single-differentiated velocity-like terms (*) are relatively small in the expression
Examination
385
b) Imaginary part
0.25
0.00 0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Reduced
frequency,
Fig. 12.2 The real and imaginary parts of the Theodorsen function, F(k) and G(k), respectively.
386
for lift, but are large in the expression for the pitching m o m e n t . In fact, the principal source of d a m p i n g in pitch c o m e s from this virtual m a s s term: = UbV/i a)% (12.7)
Circulatory terms and quarterchord points. T h e respective (bracketed) terms in the expressions for the unsteady lift and pitching m o m e n t of the airfoil are each in the form of the lift deficiency function, C(k), multiplying other a e r o d y n a m i c descriptors. T h e s e descriptors include the freestream velocity U and the quantity in b r a c k e t s , [/? + ] . This bracketed quantity is merely the quasisteady angle of attack a multiplied by the freestream velocity, again U. This bracketed quantity represents the air velocity normal to the airfoil as measured at the three-quarter-chord point. T h u s , the unsteady formulation can be r e d u c e d to a quasisteady formulation if 1) the angle of attack is defined using the n o r m a l air velocity as m e a s u r e d at the quarterchord point and 2) if the resulting modified angle of attack is then multiplied by the lift deficiency function, C(k). T h u s , the unsteady lift coefficient is denoted by
QS
(O)unst
l (
equiv) static
(12.8)
w h e r e the " e q u i v a l e n t " angle of attack is given by

<*equiv =
C(k)[h
+ Ud + b(Vi -
a)o\lU
(12.9)
T h e second c h o r d w i s e point of importance is the one-quarter-chord point which defines w h e r e the lift acts to p r o d u c e the pitching m o m e n t d u e to the lift. T h u s , it c a n b e seen that these t w o c h o r d w i s e points, the o n e - and three-quarter-chord points, define the role of the pitching motion and pitching m o m e n t in the unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c formulation: The unsteady airfoil behaves in a quasisteady manner with regard to the circulatory effects if the angle of attack is defined at the threequarter-chord point and the lift is taken at the one-quarter-chord point. This principle is illustrated in the following sketch:
f ( x . t )
Modification
case.
of the basic
Theodorsen
formulation
to the
rotary-wing
With the aforementioned interpretations in m i n d , the T h e o d o r s e n for-
387
m u l a t i o n can b e put in a form m o r e appropriate to rotary-wing applications by m e a n s of the following substitutions: 2 (lift-curve slope) = q ; b (semichord) = c/2; ba = x U =
a
c/4 (12.10)
ilr
h ( p l u n g e m o t i o n ) = ( - )z (flapping motion) k
a
2 c ( 3 R \
w h e r e x is the distance (forward) from the pivot point to the a e r o d y n a m i c center. W i t h these substitutions the following general expressions for the lift and pitching motion distributions ( s a m e as lift and pitching m o m e n t per unit span given above) are obtained: dL " = r 4 -rpc
2 2
z/u
-1
^pc cr C(k)
2 la
-/ +
+ I ^ - )
(12.11)
dM, - = dr
~pc l
z
- I 7
r i - - jc /
#f
^pc
/ e
c^rn C(*)
2
- / + +
- - . /
(12.12)
Generalization
of the modified
Theodorsen
formulation.
use of the p r e v i o u s l y given formulation w o u l d appear quite limited in that it is b a s e d on the relatively restrictive T h e o d o r s e n p r o b l e m , it can b e easily generalized b y noting that the unsteadiness is essentially m o d e l e d by the lift deficiency function (in this c a s e , the T h e o d o r s e n function). By substituting different lift deficiency functions in place of the T h e o d o r s e n function, as a p p r o p r i a t e , the u n s t e a d y airloads for other a s s u m e d variable flow/airfoil motion conditions can be easily e x p r e s s e d . In the following sections three different types of lift deficiency functions are c o n s i d e r e d . All of these functions can be used with the p r e c e d i n g e q u a t i o n s to m o d e l alternate identified characteristics of the rotarywing aerodynamic environment.
Although the
72.2.2
Sears Function
T h e formulation of Sears is similar to that of T h e o d o r s e n : T h e airfoil is at z e r o incidence and m o v i n g t h r o u g h the air m a s s with a uniform velocity U. T h e Sears formulation differs from that of T h e o d o r s e n in that the airfoil is n o w a s s u m e d to b e m o t i o n l e s s in both pitch and p l u n g e . T h e unsteadiness of the p r o b l e m is instead afforded b y the sinusoidal vertical gust pattern i m b e d d e d in the air m a s s into w h i c h the airfoil is m o v i n g , as s h o w n in F i g . 1 2 . 3 .
388
sinusoidal gust wave imbedded in flow 2b -
-,
Fig. 12 .3 Schematic of the Sears problem. T h u s , if the coordinate axes are fixed to the airfoil, the vertical gust m a y b e represented b y a (vertical) velocity distribution flight U of the following form: w(x
f
t) = We ~
iu>u
x,U)
(12.13)
T h e w a v i n e s s of the sinusoidal gust c a n alternatively b e expressed using the w a v e l e n g t h of the i m b e d d e d gust pattern, , or the frequency , with w h i c h the w a v e passes any point of the airfoil: 2-nU/e (12.14)
T h e results of S e a r s ' formulation give expressions again for unsteady lift a n d pitching m o m e n t about the m i d c h o r d . S e a r s ' formulation is unlike the T h e o d o r s e n formulation, h o w e v e r , in that it is devoid of virtual m a s s terms (which is reasonable since the airfoil is not m o v i n g ) , and similar to it in the appearance of a lift deficiency functionality to describe the unsteady features of the p r o b l e m : L = 7tpcUWe <\>(k)\
i0ii
cl2
= L-(c/4)
(12.15)
w h e r e the Sears function is again defined in terms of Bessel functions, o r , alternatively, b y using the T h e o d o r s e n function in combination with Bessel functions: ( * ) = U (k)
0
U (k)]C(k)
x
+ U (k)
x
(12.16)
Figure 12.4 s h o w s t h e variation of t h e Sears function in the c o m p l e x plane together with the T h e o d o r s e n function for c o m p a r i s o n . N o t e that the asymptotic values for the Sears and T h e o d o r s e n functions a r e , respectively, (0 + 0/) and ( 0 . 5 + 0/) as k approaches oc. A s c a n b e seen by this c o m p a r i s o n , for frequencies typical of helicopter aeroelastic p r o b l e m s there is little difference b e t w e e n these two lift deficiency functions. However, the figure does serve to highlight the difference b e t w e e n the effects of unsteady angles of attack d u e to airfoil motion ( , , a n d h/U, i . e . , t h e T h e o d o r s e n p r o b l e m ) , c o m p a r e d with those of an angle of attack due to air m a s s motion (inflow angle, , i . e . , the Sears p r o b l e m ) , w h e r e the total angle of attack is generally a c o m b i n a t i o n of both basic types of effects.
2.2.3
Physical Interpretation
of Lift Deficiency
Function
In the previous sections the sinusoidally varying unsteady airloads are presented in the quite useful form of a quasisteady description modified by a c o m plex-valued (lift deficiency) function. G e n e r a l l y , the effect of the lift deficiency function is to attenuate the airloads and to introduce a phase (lag) angle. H e r e i n , w e will denote C(k) " g e n e r i c a l l y " so that it will refer not only to the T h e o d o r s e n
389
dkl
0.50
Sears' (k)
function
Theodorsen's function
0.25 -
0.00
-0.25 -0.25
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
Fig. 12.4 Vector diagram showing the real and imaginary parts of Sears' (A:) and Theodorsen's C(k) functions as functions of the reduced frequency k. function, but also to any function that m a t h e m a t i c a l l y modifies the " q u a s i s t e a d y " circulatory lift and pitching m o m e n t in the m a n n e r described earlier and as given in the following abbreviated form:
^circ ~~
LQ 'C(k)
S
(12.17a) (12.17b)
M w h e r e k = /, and C(k) C(k) (*)
c i r c
M -C(k)
QS
F(k) \/F (k)

2 l
+ iG(k) +
= G (k)
2
C(k)-e '()
(12.18) (12.19a) (12.19b)
ten- [G(k)/F(k)]
N o t e that, for the T h e o d o r s e n function, j](k) is a l w a y s < 0, since G < 0 and F > 0 . F o r this basic case the negative sign on implies an aerodynamic phase lag.
Example
C o n s i d e r a simple t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l airfoil taken as a s p r i n g - m a s s - d a m p e r c o n s t r a i n e d to pivot about a (variable) point located at a distance x b e h i n d the a e r o d y n a m i c center ( q u a r t e r c h o r d ) . T h u s , the airfoil is constrained to h a v e zero p l u n g e (h = h = 0 ) , as s h o w n in the following sketch:
a
390
W h e n the d o u b l y time differentiated virtual m a s s terms are omitted, the equation of motion for this system can be stated very simply as / + c 4- =
e
(12.20)
w h e r e the (sinusoidal) a e r o d y n a m i c m o m e n t a m p l i t u d e ) is given by
resulting from the motion (of
1 - ikl 1
c
(=
C(k)e
F
ll](k)
iG)
(12.21)
and w h e r e A = 2upU b . It is instructive to investigate the a e r o d y n a m i c pitch d a m p i n g for rough-cut variations in the pivot to quarterchord distance, x . D e n o t e the quantity (2x /c) as X and rewrite the preceding equation in the following more c o m p a c t form:
2 2 a a
MQ = A \
X[F
Gk(\
2X
X)]
ik 2 or
\ -
X -
F{\
X)
(12.22)
where R =
F
A\XR
(12.23)
Gk(\ X)(l
X) 2XF) + X(-2G/k)
(12.24a) (12.24b)
(1 -
T h e XR quantity is then the effective aerodynamic spring, and the S factor is a m e a s u r e of the pitch damping effectivity. N o t e that since the possible r a n g e of X is from 0.5 (leading-edge pivot) to + 1.5 (trailing-edge pivot) the R factor is always positive. Therefore, as e x p e c t e d , the a e r o d y n a m i c " s p r i n g " stiffness is proportional to the negative of X ( i . e . , a pivot point ahead of the quarterchord yields a stable " r e s t o r i n g " spring). Let us then e x a m i n e the b e h a v i o r of the S factor for four principal pivot axis locations: X = Vi (corresponds to pivoting about the leading edge): F o r this value of X the S factor is given by y (l
2
+ F) -
Vi(-2G/k)
/2[6 -
(~2G/k)]
(12.25)
F u n g presents a h a n d y tabulation of the T h e o d o r s e n function as well as the function ( 2G/k); from this tabulation it can be s h o w n that for reduced freq u e n c i e s less than approximately 0 . 0 3 , the quantity ( 2G/k) is greater than 3(1 + F) ( i . e . , ~ 6 ) . T h e r e f o r e , for configurations with negligible m e c h a n i c a l
U N S T E A D Y A E R O D Y N A M I C S A N D FLUTTER d a m p i n g , the airfoil h a s negative pitch d a m p i n g and is therefore unstable these l o w values of r e d u c e d frequency.
391 for
X = 0 (pivot location at the q u a r t e r c h o r d ) : F o r this value of X the a e r o d y n a m i c spring rate g o e s to zero and the pitch d a m p i n g effectivity S is equal to 1. T h u s , the s y s t e m is unconditionally stable. X = +V2 (pivoting about the m i d c h o r d ) : F o r this case the a e r o d y n a m i c spring is unstable, but the pitch d a m p i n g effectivity is given by S = Vi[\ F + (-2G/k)] (12.26)
w h i c h is positive for all values of k. T h u s , for an airfoil that has sufficient m e c h a n i c a l stiffness, the airfoil w o u l d b e stable. X = + 1 (pivoting about the three-quarter-chord point): This case c o r r e s p o n d s to the case w h e r e i n the principal part of the pitch d a m p i n g (accruing from the virtual m a s s t e r m s only) w o u l d be z e r o . In this c a s e , h o w e v e r , the pitch d a m p i n g effectivity is equal to ( 2G/k), w h i c h is always positive, and the airfoil is still stable. T h e previously given variations serve to d e m o n s t r a t e h o w the p h a s e lag of the u n s t e a d y a e r o d y n a m i c s can destabilize an otherwise stable configuration and stabilize an o t h e r w i s e neutrally stable o n e .
12.2.4
Variable-Stream
Velocity
Formulations
T h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l theory with a variable-stream velocity, as first formulated by Isaacs et a l . , a p p r o a c h e s m o r e nearly the helicopter rotor blade in forward flight b y a l l o w i n g for a sinusoidal variation in the stream wise air velocity. Isaacs et al. h a v e treated this p r o b l e m in the context of a m u l t i h a r m o n i c r e s p o n s e p r o b l e m w h e r e i n the d i s t u r b a n c e s , as well as the stream wise variation, are sinusoidal at the s a m e frequency (or w h o l e n u m b e r multiples of it). A s depicted in F i g . 1 2 . 5 , the formulation coincides with the T h e o d o r s e n p r o b l e m with the exception of the inclusions of this s t r e a m w i s e air velocity variation and a constant (zeroth h a r m o n i c ) v a l u e of the pitch a n g l e . In this formulation the sinusoidal variation of the s t r e a m w i s e velocity, as well as the motion of the airfoil section,
sinusoidally varying airstream
sinusoidally varying vorticity in wake
0 > <iDs> <?D~^ Ôs> "

axis of
Fig. 12.5
rotation
Schematic of the Isaacs problem.
Next Page
is at a specific frequency (rotor circular frequency ) . T h e velocity at the threeq u a r t e r - c h o r d point is then given by w , / ( r , t) = [h + U(r,
3 4
) + b(Vi

a)]
(12.27)
(12
e AJ
[
0
|
0
1 +
' ^' '

-f ^

'
28)
/ ( r , ) -
/ (r)(l
(12.29)
F o r the c a s e of steady h a r m o n i c m o t i o n , with the fundamental frequency being the rotor circular frequency , the t e r m s in these t w o expressions are describable in t e r m s of m o r e familiar performance-related control angles:
0
= . ;
0 7 5
= * ;
7
U (r)
Q
(12.30)
w h e r e for typical rotorcraft operation the oscillatory amplitude of the pitch angle can b e represented by the usual cyclic control angles and the sinusoidal pulsation of the free stream can b e taken to be the effect of a d v a n c e ratio on the local tangential velocity c o m p o n e n t : Q
R
= , ;
/ -
A, ;
v
- //r
(12.31)
In g e n e r a l , the formulations that result are not of the form given earlier for the T h e o d o r s e n and Sears solutions w h i c h e x p r e s s the unsteady lift and pitching m o m e n t as the quasisteady values multiplied by appropriate lift deficiency functions. T h e formulation of Isaacs entails no simplifications b a s e d on the elimination of h i g h e r orders of " s m a l l n u m b e r s . " T h e formulation offers a c o m p l e t e Fourier series representation for the u n s t e a d y to steady lift and m o m e n t ratios; h o w e v e r , it is sufficiently c o m p l i c a t e d to preclude its detailed description in this text. A n alternate and potentially m o r e useful a p p r o a c h is that offered by Kottapalli, w h e r e i n a simplification is m a d e based on the negligibility of higher p o w e r s of . T h i s formulation has the a d v a n t a g e that it admits closed-form solutions for the resulting u n s t e a d y lift and pitching m o m e n t coefficients. T h e Kottapalli m o d e l a s s u m e s that the airfoil surface m o t i o n Z and the freestream air velocity U are both d e s c r i b e d to b e simple h a r m o n i c (at the same frequency, but of different phase):
a
Z (x,
a
t) = Z (x)e
a
itit
(12.32) + ')
U(t)
= U (l
0
(12.33)
w h e r e is the a m p l i t u d e of freestream oscillations, and the other quantities h a v e their usual m e a n i n g s ^ N o t e that Z is c o m p l e x - v a l u e d , thereby allowing for p h a s e differences b e t w e e n Z and U. K o t t a p a l l i ' s results are presented as explicit closedform e x p r e s s i o n s for the lift and pitching m o m e n t coefficients:
H a
L Ci =
M = ~~7~
(12.34)
m
w h e r e L is the lift and M is the pitching m o m e n t about an axis (= bx ), positive leading e d g e u p . A s with the Isaacs formulation, the angle of attack is
13 Analysis of Nonlinear Systems

13.1 Introduction
T h e aeroelasticity of rotating w i n g s is an especially abundant source of nonlinear d y n a m i c s p r o b l e m s . In this branch of aeroelasticity significant nonlinearities can be found in each of the three basic types of forces traditionally defining the subject matter ( i . e . , inertia, elastic, and a e r o d y n a m i c ) . Nonlinearities arise in the inertia loadings of rotor blades d u e to their freedom to flex with significant a m p l i t u d e s in a rotating c o o r d i n a t e frame in at least four m o d e s of elastic d e formation: transverse ( b e a m ) b e n d i n g in t w o directions, axial torsion, and axial e x t e n s i o n . T h e internal elastic forces in rotor blades are also rich in nonlinearities. T h e relatively high aspect ratios of rotor blades taken together with the inherent twist (both built-in and elastic) and the aforementioned flexing amplitudes define a variety of elastic nonlinearities. H o w e v e r , p e r h a p s of all the nonlinearities present in rotor aeroelastic p h e n o m e n a , those arising from a e r o d y n a m i c sources are the least tractable. Principal sources of aerodynamic nonlinearities are the d y n a m i c stall effects treated in the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r and those of transonic flow occurring on the a d v a n c i n g blades in high-forward-flight c o n d i t i o n s . I n d e e d , even the unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c p h e n o m e n a not associated with d y n a m i c stall and advancing blade c o m p r e s s i bility effects are subject to nonlinearities d u e to the fact that blade m o t i o n in the air m a s s is not infinitesimal. B e y o n d these basic sources of nonlinearities other sources exist as well. A n important o n e is that afforded by the (articulated) blade lead-lag d a m p e r s . Alt h o u g h these d a m p e r s d o p r o v i d e a m e a s u r e of " l i n e a r " d a m p i n g , they are still essentially hydraulic devices and are characterized by velocity squared and saturation-type nonlinearities. T h e control systems of rotors are additional sources of nonlinearities d u e to the k i n e m a t i c s of the swash plate and pitch control push r o d s , as well as inherent nonlinearities (both intentional and necessary) in the p o w e r boost and stability a u g m e n t a t i o n s y s t e m s . T h e study of n o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c s , generally, and nonlinear vibrations, specifically, has e v o l v e d into an extensive field of t e c h n o l o g y . M u c h is n o w k n o w n of nonlinear d y n a m i c s and a variety of analysis techniques have been formulated. N o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c s generally exhibit characteristics that are quite unique to the point that they can be c o n s i d e r e d to be " h a l l m a r k s , " i . e . , they h a v e b e c o m e virtually s y n o n y m o u s with nonlinear p h e n o m e n a . T h e nonlinear d y n a m i c characteristics of rotors are quite consistent with these m o r e general hallmark characteristics. I n d e e d , the r o t a r y - w i n g nonlinear p h e n o m e n a that presently h a v e been either identified to be potentially real or actually o b s e r v e d to be real typically exhibit the m o s t well defined of these general characteristics: limit c y c l e s , subh a r m o n i c s , higher h a r m o n i c distortion, and response " j u m p " p h e n o m e n a . F o r the m o s t part the nonlinear differential equations of motion appropriate to rotor blades h a v e the following general characteristics: 455
456
1) T h e y are multivariable and are conveniently expressed in matrix form. 2) T h e y are n o n h o m o g e n e o u s , with the nonlinear portion of the excitation being m u l t i h a r m o n i c in the rotor rotation frequency . 3) T h e y contain a principally linear form that is replete with periodic coefficients ( i . e . , a strongly i m b e d d e d Floquet p r o b l e m ) . M a t h e m a t i c a l l y , the rotor aeroelastic p r o b l e m can be expressed by the following general matrix form: [M]{X} + [ C ( i | i ) ] { } + im)]{X} = + {F W,X,X)}
NL
(13.1)
w h e r e the [C] and [K] matrices and the {F} vector are periodic with period 2: [C(i, + 2)] = [ C ( i | 0 ] [ + 2 ) ] = [ )] { ( + 2)] = {FW}
NL
(13.2a) (13.2b) (13.2c)
T h e vector {F (\\i, , X)} represents the system nonlinearities that might or might not b e e x p r e s s e d in simple analytic form. B e c a u s e the nonlinearities existing in rotors are not all explicit or analytically defined, a variety of m e t h o d s must be used for their analysis. T h u s , in the following material, the distinction between explicit and implicit nonlinearities will be stressed. T h r e e major m e t h o d s for analyzing the nonlinear d y n a m i c s typical of rotary-wing systems are presented in this chapter: 1) simple linearizations, 2) direct numerical solutions, and 3) quasilinearization. F u r t h e r m o r e , in support of the direct numerical solution m e t h o d o l o g y , a section is devoted to the numerical extraction of stability descriptors from the resulting response time histories.
13.2 13.2.1
Simple Linearization Equivalent Damping and Stiffness
Perhaps the simplest form of linearization possible is the approximation of the n o n l i n e a r i t y , / / v , in the form of an equivalent d a m p i n g and/or stiffness. T h e basis for the equivalent damping approximation C is the equivalencing of the energy dissipated per cycle of oscillation by the simple equivalent (linear) viscous d a m p e r W to that dissipated by the nonlinear e l e m e n t , W :
F D NL
=
2
= J
( - ) f (X,
NL
X) X at = W
NL
(13.3)
w h e r e the m o t i o n , X(t), is taken to be simple h a r m o n i c with a frequency of and an a m p l i t u d e of X. T h e required expression for the equivalent d a m p i n g can then be easily written as C
E
= /
2
(13.4)
It should be noted that the simplified analysis of stall flutter offered in the previous chapter constitutes a solution of this t y p e .
ANALYSIS O F NONLINEAR S Y S T E M S
457
In contrast to the equivalent d a m p i n g representation given earlier the equivalent stiffness a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the nonlinearity cannot be predicated on the basis of e q u i v a l e n c e of e n e r g y dissipation. T h u s , nonlinearities of this type should not h a v e d e p e n d e n c i e s on velocity. T h e techniques used to obtain an equivalent stiffness a p p r o x i m a t i o n can best b e formulated by m o v i n g on to the next topic.
73.2.2
Describing
Functions
T h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s of an equivalent d a m p i n g and/or stiffness can be generalized by the c o n c e p t of a describing function, w h e n used in the frequency d o m a i n . If the motion of the system is principally sinusoidal, then the e l e m e n t c o m p r i s i n g the nonlinearity will generally p r o d u c e a sinusoidal output (force) in r e s p o n s e to a sinusoidal input ( m o t i o n ) . T h e higher h a r m o n i c s of the output of the e l e m e n t can be neglected for either of the following reasons: 1 ) T h e transmission of the higher h a r m o n i c s by the linear portion of the system is significantly less than the transmission of the fundamental. This type of system b e h a v i o r r e s e m b l e s that of a low-pass filter. 2) T h e force generated by the nonlinearity is s m a l l , and the higher h a r m o n i c s present are negligible. If either or both of these characteristics are present, then a describing function a p p r o a c h can be taken. T h i s t e c h n i q u e consists of casting the nonlinearity in the alternate form of an equivalent linearized (but a m p l i t u d e - d e p e n d e n t ) transfer function, G :
N
c o m p l e x a m p l i t u d e of output
(force) 03-5)
c o m p l e x a m p l i t u d e of input sinusoidal (motion)
w h i c h w e d e n o t e the describing function. This quantity, which m a y b e real or c o m p l e x , is generally evaluated by e x p a n d i n g the output force d u e to a simple h a r m o n i c input motion in the form of a Fourier series based on the period of the a s s u m e d frequency of m o t i o n , : f (X,
NL
X)
Re
(13.6)
for X = X where
2 -/
0
+ Xe
(13.7)
TT
Jo
f (X
NL
+ X e
i m
, e )e
iU)t
inm
dt
(13.8)
T h e d e s c r i b i n g function is then formed by retaining only the first-harmonic coefficient: G

N
= A IX
X
(13.9)
T h e p r e c e d i n g formulations then allow o n e to extract from the analytic (or even tabulated) representation of the nonlinearity an a m p l i t u d e d e p e n d e n t value for
458
an equivalent stiffness. For an equivalent stiffness, K the appropriate source of stiffening w o u l d c o m e from the real part of the describing function:
Ey
KE= where
(A,)*/X
(13.10)
A | = {A )
X R
+ i(A )
x
(13.11)
It can be verified that the imaginary part of the describing function is equivalent to the calculation of energy dissipated per cycle; h e n c e , this c o m p o n e n t of the describing function also yields the value of the equivalent d a m p i n g : C
E
= -
(,,/
(13.12)
T h e great a d v a n t a g e of the describing function approach is that describing functions can be found for nonlinearities which cannot be stated analytically (as is the case with various nonlinear a e r o d y n a m i c p h e n o m e n a such as d y n a m i c stall). T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of the technique is that it is only valid in the frequency d o m a i n and it discounts the effects of the higher h a r m o n i c s on the fundamental.
13.2.3
Example: Stall Flutter
T h e nonlinear p h e n o m e n o n of stall flutter can be addressed in t w o w a y s : 1) a direct numerical assault on the nonlinear equations of motion using a t i m e - d o m a i n formulation of the unsteady stalled airloads ( e . g . , the synthesized unsteady stalled airfoil data presented in the previous chapter) and 2) the use of suitable linearizations. Using m e a s u r e d data presented by Carta and H a m , for a N A C A 0 0 1 2 airfoil in oscillatory pitching m o t i o n , for a range of angles of attack from zero to d e e p stall, values of equivalent d a m p i n g and stiffness can be calculated. T h e results of these calculations are presented in part in Figure 12.35 of the previous chapter. N o t e that F i g . 12.35 w a s constructed by taking the tabulated values of faired t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l a e r o d y n a m i c d a m p i n g data presented in the work of Carta and H a m as a basis. For each reduced frequency the tabulated values are first divided by the respective values for zero angle of attack. T h e equivalent d a m p i n g (that is actually used in the linearized p r o b l e m statement) is then formed from the values of d a m p i n g at zero angle of attack (as defined by virtual mass considerations) multiplied by the values given in this figure. Since the experimental setup did not allow for extensive variations in oscillatory amplitude (only one a m p l i t u d e , 6 d e g , w a s used) these results are prima facie independent of a m plitude. T h u s , the results inherently a s s u m e that the effective d a m p i n g m o m e n t varies linearly with pitch a m p l i t u d e , as does the linear (virtual mass) d a m p i n g m o m e n t . T h e validity of this approximation is m o o t , but in the absence of m o r e substantial unsteady airfoil data, it does not appear u n r e a s o n a b l e , especially since helicopter stall flutter limit cycle instabilities have been observed to be of this order of m a g n i t u d e . T h e variation of the m e a s u r e d zero-angle-of-attack d a m p i n g values with reduced frequency (for this airfoil and for a pitch amplitude of 6 deg), as nor-
ANALYSIS OF NONLINEAR S Y S T E M S
459
m a l i z e d by the theoretical T h e o r d o r s e n value of T T / C / 2 , is also presented in F i g . 1 2 . 3 5 . T h i s variation is presented as a reference and is indicated by the d a s h e d line in the figure. N o t e that the m e a s u r e d variation is significantly less than the theoretical v a l u e s , but i m p r o v e s with r e d u c e d frequency. Since the test article that g e n e r a t e d these data w a s an airfoil section h a v i n g an aspect ratio of only 1.35, it is r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t that inherent three-dimensional e n d effects could r e d u c e the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l pitch d a m p i n g that might otherwise be available. It should also b e noted that the r e c o v e r y trend of the experimental t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d a m p i n g values to the theoretical o n e s with reduced frequency is consistent with findings of various researchers to the effect that increasing unsteadiness (k oc) tends to r e d u c e the relative i m p o r t a n c e of spanwise cross talk and thereby m a k e s the airfoil sections b e h a v e m o r e t w o d i m e n s i o n a l l y . Since the full Fourier d e c o m p o s i t i o n of the unsteady m o m e n t coefficient is not a v a i l a b l e , F i g . 13.2 is constructed by using the preceding expression for K , but as applied to the static m o m e n t coefficient characteristics (Fig. 13.1). This task represents an a p p r o x i m a t i o n of u n k n o w n a c c u r a c y , as taking the imaginary c o m p o n e n t of the first h a r m o n i c of the Fourier d e c o m p o s i t i o n w o u l d truly represent that c o m p o n e n t of the unsteady m o m e n t in phase with d i s p l a c e m e n t . In the a b s e n c e of such data and the fact that the equivalent stiffness calculation is i n d e p e n d e n t of h y s t e r e s i s , the use of the static characteristics for the calculation of the equivalent stiffness offers a reasonable a p p r o x i m a t i o n . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the stall flutter characteristics using F i g s . 13.2 and 1 2 . 3 5 , t h e n , is as follows: 1) D e t e r m i n e the linear e l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l d y n a m i c characteristics in t e r m s of generalized inertia / and b l a d e torsion natural frequency .
E
460
2.2
Mean
angle
of
attack,
a ,
0
deg
Fig. 13.2 Equivalent stiffness characteristics for a NACA 0012 airfoil, M = 0.2, a = 13.5 deg.
s t a U
2) D e t e r m i n e the linear pitch d a m p i n g (as given by the virtual m a s s effects) for a selected rotor a z i m u t h a n g l e , (typically taken to be 3 n 7 2 ) : SIR
= ^-
(^j
()
[ + simj/] d x
0
(13.13)
3) Select a r a n g e of m e a n angles of attack, a , as d e t e r m i n e d for conditions at a representative ( n o n d i m e n s i o n a l ) s p a n w i s e location and c o r r e s p o n d i n g values of a z i m u t h (bracketing ). E a c h m e a n angle of attack is a p p r o x i m a t e d by the s u m of c o m p o n e n t s deriving from the blade built-in and elastic twist a n g l e s , and , r e s p e c t i v e l y , the rotor collective and lateral cyclic control a n g l e s , % and , and the (quasisteady) inflow angle , all as m e a s u r e d at the representative b l a d e s p a n w i s e location, {= fIR):
J 5 R 0
= ( ) 4- ( ) + %j

5R
)] '
sin(ii)
+ tan- [U (,
] P
^)/U (x,
T
. =
(13.14)
and w h e r e represents a " m e a n a e r o d y n a m i c r a d i u s , " w h i c h can be approxim a t e d as
461
4) F o r each m e a n angle of attack within the selected r a n g e , iterate on a m p l i t u d e of m o t i o n and r e d u c e d frequency k to d e t e r m i n e a c o m b i n a t i o n that will give a value of equivalent damping ( = Y C , w h e r e Y is obtained from F i g . 12.35) w h i c h is either zero or negative for each of the selected m e a n angles of attack, a . Specifically, for each iteration value of a m p l i t u d e a, calculate the effective frequency of m o t i o n :
e 0
v
where Waero = p/?
3
= Vo^ + ( , ) //
0 aero
(13.16)
(R)
0
> , , ) K ,(a a) |
Cm 0 0
"
c - ( + sinij)
(13.17) reduced
and w h e r e K ( a , a ) is o b t a i n e d from F i g . 13.2. T h e effective frequency is then given b y the following expression:
c e f f
fc
efr
= - / [ i l # ( i + sin )] R
0
(13.18)
w h i c h , t o g e t h e r with e a c h of the selected values of a , define the values of the p a r a m e t e r Y , as per F i g . 1 2 . 3 5 . Stall flutter instability is indicated by a zero or negative value for Y . N o t e that the limits of integration for the various integrals given earlier are from to 1. Since the stall flutter instability is confined to the reversed-flow q u a d r a n t s of the rotor d i s k , these limits define the b l a d e spanwise extent that is still operating in forward-flow c o n d i t i o n s . T h e previously given d e v e l o p m e n t constitutes, at best, a r o u g h cut at a rotor blade stall flutter calculation. F o r a m o r e rigorous calculation of stall flutter, as well as providing solutions to a variety of c o m p l i c a t e d n o n l i n e a r instability p h e n o m e n a , recourse must be m a d e to n u m e r i c a l transient time-history solutions of the full nonlinear equations of m o t i o n . T e c h n i q u e s for the n u m e r i c a l integration of these e q u a t i o n s , which h a v e been found to be well suited to r o t a r y - w i n g aeroelastic applications, are presented in the next section.
13.3
Transient Solutions Using Numerical Integration
T h e m o s t general d y n a m i c description of rotor blade aeroelasticity, as indicated earlier, involves a variety of sources of nonlinearities. S o m e of t h e s e , although yielding to r e a s o n a b l y accurate m o d e l i n g empirically, can nevertheless still not be easily e x p r e s s e d in simple analytic form. F o r this reason recourse m u s t b e m a d e to accurate solution t e c h n i q u e s using numerical integration of the c o m p l e t e n o n l i n e a r differential e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n . Additionally, it s o m e t i m e s h a p p e n s that s o m e n e w rotor aeroelastic p h e n o m e n o n ( i . e . , instability) might be e x p e rienced in the field. In o r d e r to gain insight to the physics of the p h e n o m e n o n q u i c k l y , a full simulation of the c o m p l e t e nonlinear d y n a m i c s is w a r r a n t e d , especially if such a simulation capability is operational and readily available. O n c e the p h y s i c s is u n d e r s t o o d using the c o m p l e t e simulation, suitable simplifications and/or linearizations can then b e formulated to give an analytical capability for m a k i n g rapid stability b o u n d a r y e s t i m a t i o n s . In a sense this scenario defines t w o p h a s e s : " p h y s i c a l m o d e l i n g " and " m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l i n g . " Both
462
of these phases are important for a thorough understanding of the p h e n o m e n o n at h a n d . T h e thrust of the present section is in describing s o m e of the basic techniques found useful in obtaining transient solutions of the complete nonlinear equations of m o t i o n , given earlier as
[M]{X]
[Cmi*]
+ [*()*} =
TO)}
+ [F W,X,X)}
NL
(13.19)
M o s t practical solution m e t h o d s currently operational use some form of numerical integration in time (or alternatively, nondimensional t i m e , = lt) with a uniform step size, dt (or di;). In the following material time will be a s s u m e d to be n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d as per this definition.
13.3.1
Basic Schemes for Numerical Integration of Equations
T h e basic issues or attributes on which the subject matter has developed are those of accuracy, practicality (or, alternatively, cost), and stability. It is on the basis of o n e or m o r e of these attributes that the methods described herein have been advocated and m a d e operational. T h e s e attributes therefore c o n v e niently serve as " y a r d s t i c k s " for c o m p a r i n g the various m e t h o d s . All numerical integration s c h e m e s consist of four basic operations, which are either explicitly or implicitly stated: 1) Evaluation of highest differentiated terms: All numerical integration methods are of t w o basic types: a) T h e equations of motion are used to evaluate the highest differentiated terms and numerical quadrature techniques are then used to integrate responses to calculate the lower-order differentiated t e r m s , or b) T h e equations are used as part of the selected quadrature technique itself to evaluate the lowest-order differentiated t e r m s , and then appropriate numerical (differencing) techniques are used to differentiate the responses to obtain all higher-order differentiated t e r m s . Either of these t w o m e t h o d types can be m a d e to yield accurate solutions and, c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , each has advantages and disadvantages. Both basic types must start with the s a m e differential equation, which is used for numerical evaluation at each discrete point in t i m e , \\f . For those m e t h o d s of the first type the actual nonlinear differential equations are used to evaluate the highest differentiated quantities, {X} , in terms of the quantities of lesser order. For the class of differential equations considered herein (second o r d e r ) , this can be expressed in terms of the acceleration vector, which is generally coupled by an inertia matrix. T h u s , our original differential equation can be rewritten to the following form:
k k
[M]{X }
k
= -
[C(^ )]{X }
k k
NL k
[KW )]{X ]
k k
+ {F(i|i*)} + {F (^ ,
X , X )}
k k
= { ( , X, X) }
k
(13.20)
For m e t h o d s of the second type the equations of motion are used as part of the actual numerical integration s c h e m e , and the resulting matrix equation set is highly m e t h o d d e p e n d e n t . A n e x a m p l e of this equation transformation is presented in the following material.
463
2) N u m e r i c a l integration s c h e m e : T h e state conditions (the vectors of state variables and/or their t i m e derivatives) at t h e next point in t i m e , { } , are related t o higher differentiated c o n d i t i o n s at t h e present t i m e , { } , a n d at o n e (or optionally m o r e ) t i m e step(s) in t h e p a s t , { } - . T h i s is typically achieved u s i n g a n y of a w i d e variety of differencing s c h e m e s , with o r without specific a s s u m p t i o n s o n specialized characteristics of the r e s p o n s e s . F o u r diverse practical s c h e m e s that h a v e b e e n successfully i m p l e m e n t e d are given in t h e following as examples: T h e first e x a m p l e is t h e Adams method class of m e t h o d s w h i c h u s e variations of t h e N e w t o n " b a c k w a r d - d i f f e r e n c e " formulas:
k + { k k m
*k+\
~ Xk + (1 +
~ *k
1 / 2v
5 / , 2 V 2
+
2
+ ' * )**
3
(13.21a) (13.21b)
+ 0
/ V 2
/i2V -
V24V
Oijk+i
T h e s e general formulas give rise t o a " f a m i l y " of m e t h o d s all identifiable as Adams methods: a) First-order b a c k w a r d - d i f f e r e n c i n g : x
k + l
= x
+ (
3 !
+ 1
V2X -0
K
(13.22a) (13.22b)
x\
k+
= Xk +
/2(
+ , )
b) S e c o n d - o r d e r b a c k w a r d - d i f f e r e n c i n g : x x
k + l
= x
+ +
2 3
/2^
/3X ._,
A
/i2_ )
2
(13.23a) (13.23b)
k + ]
= x
( /2,
5
V3X
'/12V1)
c) T h i r d - o r d e r b a c k w a r d - d i f f e r e n c i n g :
= Xk
+
3
( /24 .
55
5 9
/24^_, (13.24a)
%4i*_
9
/^_ )
3
1
( /24,
+ '%4,
/ 2 4 ^ _ !
/24^_ )
2
(13.24b)
T h e A d a m s m e t h o d is a t e c h n i q u e of t h e first basic type w h e r e i n t h e highesto r d e r differentiated t e r m s a r e calculated from t h e equations of m o t i o n a n d lowero r d e r t e r m s a r e s u b s e q u e n t l y integrated using o n e of t h e previously given integration s c h e m e s . N o t e that t h e u s e of increasing orders of b a c k w a r d differencing d o e s n o t necessarily e n s u r e m o r e a c c u r a c y o r stability. F o r m a n y applications first-order differencing is preferable b y virtue of its relative simplicity. A s e c o n d e x a m p l e is t h e n u m e r i c a l integration s c h e m e used in t h e Newmark method. T h i s s c h e m e c a n b e seen t o b e b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n of linear acceleration o v e r e a c h t i m e interval: x x
k + i
= x = x
+ [(1 + *
b)x
+ hx ]
k+x
(13.25a) a)x
k
k + l
+ () [(>/2 2
+ ax ]
k+
(13.25b)
464
w h e r e and are p a r a m e t e r s that can be d e t e r m i n e d in order to guarantee integration accuracy and stability. O n e set of values producing an unconditionally stable integration, which has found wide application, is Vi and = Va. It should be noted that the N e w m a r k m e t h o d is a technique of the second basic t y p e , wherein the equations of motion are used in the integration algorithm itself and the accelerations must be calculated using differencing t e c h n i q u e s . Typical u s a g e of the N e w m a r k m e t h o d requires the use of appropriate differencing equations to form the { ' } and { " } quantities. A third e x a m p l e is the harmonic acceleration method, wherein the acceleration is a s s u m e d to be simple h a r m o n i c over each time interval, with a specified characteristic frequency . This frequency can be thought of as an " i n t e g r a t i o n " frequency. F o r m o d a l formulations the integration frequencies will take on different values for each (modal) degree of freedom and are typically taken to be the natural frequencies of each of the respective m o d e s . T h e resulting integration algorithms are as follows:
k + i k + l
cosot)Ai/ cos2coAi;
x
k+\
k
x
sinoAij
1
COS)Ai|j
x
sincoAi;
k-
(13.26a)
1 coscoAij
x
k+\
k
x
sin JAi;
(k
x
(13.26b)
This s c h e m e can b e seen to be a modified form of the first of the optional forms of the A d a m s m e t h o d (involving only the first b a c k w a r d difference) given earlier. F o r the h a r m o n i c acceleration m e t h o d the acceleration is a s s u m e d to follow a sine w a v e , w h e r e a s for the first backward-difference A d a m s m e t h o d , the acceleration inherently follows a parabola. Indeed, for 0 the algorithms are equivalent. T h e h a r m o n i c acceleration m e t h o d has the ability to duplicate exactly the free responses of the degrees of freedom oscillating at their respective intrinsic natural frequencies. T h u s , although calculated responses at other freq u e n c i e s w o u l d be less a c c u r a t e , such responses w o u l d inherently be attenuated by the s e c o n d - o r d e r r e s p o n s e characteristics of the modal degrees of freedom. T h e fourth e x a m p l e is a variant of one of the versions of the Runge-Kutta method. T h e version described herein is based on a fourth-order R u n g e - K u t t a s c h e m e with Gill coefficients and relates to a first-order form of the differential equations of m o t i o n . This m e t h o d w a s described in Chapter 9 (Section 9 . 4 . 5 ) , and the basic e q u a t i o n s are duplicated here for c o m p l e t e n e s s :
m
[,
(13.27)
w h i c h results in a first-order form of the differential equations. T h e actual solution algorithm involves the use of the usual integration interval, h = , as well as o n e half of this interval, h/2:
465
{*i} + 2 ( l - ^ 5 ) ^ }
+ 2^1 + w h e r e the vectors {k^, {/c }, { 3 }

2
(13.28) {k }
3
{k }
4
A N D
{ ^ 4 } are given by (13.29a) (13.29b)
1-
V2,
*,-(!-V2)jfc
(13.29c)
{ U = / * + h>Yk +
V2
- t
+ (1 +
V2)k
(13.29d)
O n e distinction of R u n g e - K u t t a m e t h o d s is that they are self-starting, i . e . , solutions c a n b e a d v a n c e d in t i m e ({ } { } ) without the need for k n o w l e d g e of the r e s p o n s e in the past, { } - . 3) U n c o u p l i n g of the r e s p o n s e s : T h e basic (matrix) differential equation of m o t i o n set typically contains a m a s s m a t r i x , [], and a stiffness matrix, [K], both of w h i c h are generally well p o p u l a t e d and often u n s y m m e t r i c a l . In all of the m e t h o d s discussed earlier, at s o m e point in the solution flow, c o m p r i s i n g any single t i m e integration step, a decoupling must b e performed. T h e m e t h o d s that w o r k explicitly with accelerations, such as the A d a m s , h a r m o n i c acceleration and R u n g e - K u t t a m e t h o d s , m u s t first h a v e the accelerations decoupled so that the " p r e s e n t - t i m e " accelerations, {X }, can be m a d e available for use in the n u m e r i c a l integration s c h e m e s . T h u s , simultaneous equation solutions m u s t be p e r f o r m e d at each t i m e step to u n c o u p l e the accelerations; this is indicated by the following expression (note that, although a premultiplication by [M] ~ is indicated, the p r o p e r operation should nonetheless b e a simultaneous equation solution):
k k + k m k 1
{X }
k
= [,,*)*}
(13.30)
O t h e r m e t h o d s , of w h i c h the N e w m a r k m e t h o d is a p r i m e e x a m p l e , c o m b i n e the statement of the differential equations directly with the numerical integration s c h e m e to solve for the " t i m e - a d v a n c e d " d i s p l a c e m e n t s , {X }. Such m e t h o d s typically require a d e c o u p l i n g calculation on s o m e linear c o m b i n a t i o n of the three basic linear descriptor m a t r i c e s , [ M ] , [ C ] , and [K]. A s in the case with the N e w m a r k m e t h o d , this typically leads to displacement decoupling. Let = Vi, so that, after s o m e m a n i p u l a t i o n s , the N e w m a r k m e t h o d equations reduce
k+]
466
to the following c o u p l e d equation set (following a simultaneous equations solution): {X }

k+i
= [D]" {[B]{X \
i k
[F]{X _ }
k x
+ ah {{f ]
2 k+l
+ (1/a -
2){f }
k
+ {f - }}}
k {
(13.31)
where [D] = [M] + ^ [ C ] + ah \K ]

2 0 0
(13.32) (13.33) (13.34)
[B] = 2 [ M ] [F] -
(1 -
2a)/z [A: ]
2 0
[ M ] - c ]
0
+ a/z [K ]
2 0
Since the N e w m a r k m e t h o d is defined for constant linear d y n a m i c m a t r i c e s , the M , C o , and K matrices in the p r e c e d i n g expressions must be the c o m p o n e n t s of the respective total system matrices that are constant. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the excitation vector {f } m u s t be defined as follows:
0 k
{/*} = - [ [ C O W ] - [ C ] ] {x }
0 k
[[*( *)] - [K ]]
0
{X }
k
+ {F(i|i*)} + {F (ty ,
NL k 0 0
X,
X )}
k
(13.35)
w h e r e C and K represent the constant c o m p o n e n t s of the total d a m p i n g and stiffness m a t r i c e s , respectively. F r o m this d e v e l o p m e n t t w o difficulties arise w h e n the a l g o r i t h m is applied to the general nonlinear p r o b l e m . First, the constant parts of the d a m p i n g and stiffness matrices must be formed and extracted from the total matrices (at each discrete time point). S e c o n d , the solution for {X \} requires k n o w l e d g e of w h i c h is not generally available within the t i m e step solution flow. O n e w a y to solve this p r o b l e m is to extrapolate from {f } to {fk+\} using b a c k w a r d - d i f f e r e n c i n g t e c h n i q u e s . 4) Initial conditions and startups: T h e previously described operations relate to repetitive calculations m a d e within the solution flow defined by an arbitrary kth point in t i m e . Inherent in these operations is the a s s u m p t i o n that s o m e h o w the solution has been g o i n g on for a sufficient period of time so that all required past q u a n t i t i e s , { }*_,, are available. H o w e v e r , for startup calculations of the solution such quantities w o u l d not generally be available. T h e r e f o r e , the fourth basic operation n e e d i n g exposition is the definition of adequate startup techniques. It should be stressed that the need for defining startup techniques is limited to only the s c h e m e s that require quantities in the past, { }*_,. T h u s , since the R u n g e - K u t t a m e t h o d d o e s not require such quantities, startup calculations are not a consideration for this m e t h o d . H o w e v e r , the other m e t h o d s clearly require s o m e sort of startup p r o c e d u r e . T h r e e m e t h o d s can be defined for starting the solution. First, an integration m e t h o d that d o e s not require previous time quantities, such as the R u n g e - K u t t a or s o m e l o w e r - o r d e r m e t h o d , can be used to establish sufficient points in t i m e as m a y be required by the n o m i n a l t e c h n i q u e . An e x a m p l e of such a l o w e r - o r d e r
k+ k
467
m e t h o d is E u l e r ' s m e t h o d , w h i c h essentially uses a zeroth-order differencing on the integration of t h e acceleration: x

x
= x
+ ;
0
= x
+ ^ *! + )
0
(13.36)
T h e s e c o n d m e t h o d is to u s e appropriate backward-differencing techniques to a p p r o x i m a t e t h e m i s s i n g required " p r e v i o u s t i m e " quantities: xî = x - ;

0
x_
= x
/2(_
+ x)
0
(13.37)
A third m e t h o d is t o rewrite t h e algorithm in such a w a y as to utilize the initial c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s m e t h o d is especially useful for application to the N e w m a r k m e t h o d . Since t h e difference e q u a t i o n contains d i s p l a c e m e n t terms for three c o n s e c u t i v e t i m e intervals a n d n o n e for velocity, it is possible to formulate an alternate a l g o r i t h m that utilizes t h e velocity information. F o r this p u r p o s e the following formulas are offered: {X}
x
= [D]^{[P]{X} + oth {f}

2 x
[Q]{X}
0
+ IQ]{F} }
(13.38)
where [P] = [M] + (A/2) [ C ] (Va 3 ]
(Vi -
a)h [K]
2
a)h [C][M]- [K] (Va a)h [I]

2
(13.39)
l
[ ] = h[[M] [R] = h [(Vi

2
a)h [C][M]- [C]]

2
(13.40) [M]~ ]
l
+ (Va -
a)h[C]
(13.41)
w h e r e [/] d e n o t e s a unit m a t r i x .
3.3.2
Comparison of Methods
T h e basic o p e r a t i o n s , as well as the details of specific numerical integration s c h e m e s p r e s e n t e d earlier, serve to give a rough o v e r v i e w of the m a t h e m a t i c a l details involved in obtaining time histories of the solutions to the nonlinear e q u a t i o n s of m o t i o n . T h e transient r e s p o n s e s p r o d u c e d by each of the various s c h e m e s h a v e different characteristics with respect to the basic attributes identified earlier: a c c u r a c y , practicality, a n d stability. A n exhaustive c o m p a r i s o n of the four m e t h o d s described in the previous section is b e y o n d the intent of the present text. F u r t h e r m o r e , it should b e stressed that other m e t h o d s exist that are not d e s c r i b e d herein w h i c h h a v e been a n d currently are i m p l e m e n t e d to good a d v a n t a g e , but again are not discussed for the s a m e reason. Accuracy vs cost vs stability. In a sense the three attributes are not ind e p e n d e n t of each other in that all of the attributes are directly related to the integration step size h. G e n e r a l l y , the solution c a n b e m a d e as accurate as desired and/or t h e algorithm m a y (or m a y not) b e m a d e stable (if unstable) by the selection of a suitably small step size. C o n v e r s e l y , the cost of obtaining a numerical solution is inversely related to the step size; smaller step sizes require m o r e
468
points in time for the calculations a n d c o m m e n s u r a t e l y more c o m p u t e r C P U time ( = $ ) . A n o t h e r factor impacting on c o m p u t e r costs is the degree of complexity of the algorithm. T h e need to m a k e m a n y time-history solution calculations would m a k e simplicity an obviously desirable characteristic. T h u s , the proper selection of an integration method ( a n d , correspondingly, step size) w o u l d entail m a k i n g s o m e sort of a trade-off study. T h e fact that a multiplicity of m e t h o d s is presently in use would indicate that several factors are at work in m a k i n g this trade-off study: those relating to technical issues (form of equations used, type of excitation, e t c . ) , as well as those of a m o r e subjective nature ( e . g . , familiarity with any given method and desirability for compatibility with other existing m e t h o d s ) .
13.3.3 Examples of Time-History Solutions of Nonlinear Aeroelastic Phenomena

Example 1: helicopter stall flutter. Results obtained using various nonlinear representations of the d y n a m i c stall p h e n o m e n o n exist in the literature. Several theoretical/analytical m o d e l s have been proposed and formulated for the p h e n o m e n o n , all of which need some form of numerical integration of the equations of motion for a solution. Figure 1 3 . 3 , as obtained from the w o r k of Carlson et a l . , s h o w s the results obtained by considering t w o conceptually different m o d e l s . T h e first such model represents a " b r u t e - f o r c e " approach wherein the d y n a m i c stall airloads are considered to be describable by a tabulated function of (section angle of attack), A and B, where A and a r e , respectively, the n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d (but implicitly sinusoidal) angle-of-attack rate and acceleration: A = ab/U; = ab /U
2 2
(13.42)
T h e second m e t h o d considered (for which results are shown in the figure) is based o n the so-called time delay method for modeling the unsteady effects of d y n a m i c stall. This method is based on the basic hypothesis that a m a x i m u m quasisteady angle of attack exists at which the pressure distribution and the b o u n d a r y layer are in equilibrium. During further increases in angle of attack b e y o n d this static stall a n g l e , there are finite time delays before a redistribution of pressure c a u s e s , first, a m o m e n t break, and then, a loss of lift corresponding to flow separation. This method is characterized by an heuristically derived nonanalytical c o m p u t a t i o n a l s c h e m e that can only be m o d e l e d using a nonlinear time-history solution a p p r o a c h . T h e stall flutter signature shows that over o n e rotor revolution the response g r o w s exponentially, but is then q u e n c h e d in the first quadrant to g r o w once again in the retreating blade q u a d r a n t s , e t c . This response pattern is highly periodic a n d , as such, would have to be strictly classified as a h a r m o n i c response. H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e locally the response is in an energy absorption m o d e of operation, it should be considered to be an instability. Although F i g . 13.3 s h o w s the calculated responses using t w o different analytical time-domain simulations of the unsteady stalled airfoil data, other m o r e rigorous m e t h o d s of simulating these data h a v e been developed and have been applied to both helicopter and propeller stall flutter. T h e calculation for the response could use any relatively
469
a)
8000
4000
: test : , A, : time delay
-4000
-8000 4000
-4000
-8000 2000
1000 -
-1000
-2000 Blade azimuth a n g l e , , deg
Fig. 13.3 Correlation of CH-53A helicopter blade stresses and push rod loads using alternate nonlinear calculation schemes for dynamic stall (after Carlson et al.)-
470
straightforward numerical integration s c h e m e for the e l a s t o m e c h a n i c s . O n e challenge in predicting stall flutter is in calculating the highly azimuthally variable and inflow-dependent impressed angle of attack. A significant portion of this angle of attack is d u e to the inflow a n g l e , which is, in turn, a function of the variable inflow e n v i r o n m e n t of the rotor. This impressed angle of attack w o u l d be expected to function as a highly sensitive triggering m e c h a n i s m for the instability. Example 2: propeller stall flutter. Figure 13.4 presents results obtained, again using a numerical solution of the nonlinear equations of m o t i o n , with the incorporation of the synthesized unsteady stalled airfoil data (described in Section 1 2 . 6 . 5 ) , for the case of a statically thrusting propeller. T h e experimental results are presented in the form of isostress curves for the one-half peak-to-peak ( ' ) torsion stresses m e a s u r e d at a spanwise location on the blade. T h e analytical results again obtained using a numerical time-history solution are represented by the five open o r closed square s y m b o l s on the figure. T h e s e five cases w e r e selected with blade pitch angle-rotor speed c o m b i n a t i o n s that would appear to result in both stable and unstable calculated responses. T w o e x t r e m e cases w e r e selected to overlap partially (either in blade pitch angle or rotor speed) with o n e case that w a s d e e m e d to be a representative condition strongly associated with significantly higher pitch angles. T h e s e t w o e x t r e m e cases were d e e m e d to b e probably stable c o n d i t i o n s . Additional cases were introduced to e n h a n c e the definition of the apparent stall flutter b o u n d a r y . T h e calculated results for the five conditions are s h o w n either with an open or closed symbol denoting stability or instability, respectively. W h e r e appropriate, the calculated '/ torsion limit cycle torsion stresses are s h o w n parenthetically. T h e s e results, while s h o w i n g the practical usefulness of such an approach to analyzing nonlinear p h e n o m e n a , can identify special considerations that must b e m a d e in order to obtain reasonable solutions. In the course of performing the calculations, it w a s noted that the degree of stall flutter response obtainable w a s a strong function of the value selected for structural d a m p i n g . W i t h a sufficiently high value of d a m p i n g ( 0 . 0 2 ) the blade w a s unconditionally stable and the stall flutter condition could not b e induced. T h e final value of d a m p i n g used ( 0 . 0 0 8 ) was selected on the basis that it p r o d u c e d " s t a b l e " limit cycle oscillations that neither grew n o r d i m i n i s h e d o n c e the instability " l o c k e d i n . " T h e m o r e detailed a description of the p h e n o m e n o n that is used, the more detailed all of the aeroelastic description needs to b e . In the figure a pitch angle disparity of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 d e g is noted in the apparent stall flutter b o u n d a r y pitch angle b e t w e e n the experimental and analytical results. Such a disparity can c o m e from several sources and represents a general lack of refinement in predicting either the stall characteristics of the airfoil or the detailed inflow description and the resulting m e a n angles of attack of the various blade sections. Example 3: subharmonic (helicopter) rotor instability. A n o t h e r rotor instability s o m e w h a t related to stall flutter but d e p e n d e n t on advancing blade compressibility phenomena is the s u b h a r m o n i c advancing blade instability reported by P a u l . This instability w a s observed on a high-speed research helicopter u n d e r conditions of high a d v a n c e ratio, = 0 . 5 , and high advancing blade tip
471
Exprimenta! torsion stress,

1000
1/2
PTP
Time - his tory

^ 3 0 0 0
calcula
tions
, PSi
2000 4000
stable cycle (stall instability flutter) TP
m : limit
(4345)
2 0 0 0 Rotor
4 0 0 0 speed,
6000 , R P M
8000
1 0 0 0 0
Figure 13.4 Stall flutter correlational results for a statically thrusting propellerexperiment data vs time-history solutions using synthesized unsteady stalled airfoil data (after Bielawa et al.).
Mach number, M ~ 0 . 9 4 . This M a c h n u m b e r condition is well above the critical M a c h n u m b e r for the airfoil used. T h e instability was o b s e r v e d on a high speed test aircraft as a ViP (half per rev) blade response that appeared to the test pilot as a " s p l i t " rotor disk (see F i g . 13.5). T h e rotor b l a d e w a s a 1960s vintage design with a N A C A 0 0 1 2 blade section, and n o compressibility relief (in any form of s w e e p or thin sections) w a s built into the tip sections. T h e instability w a s successfully analyzed using a c o m p r e hensive aeroelastic analysis of the blade with as c o m p l e t e a quasisteady airloads description as w a s possible at that t i m e . This airloads description used look-up tables for the static airfoil characteristics and included the h i g h - M a c h - n u m b e r pitching m o m e n t coefficient properties s h o w n in F i g . 13.6. T h e findings from this study w e r e interesting from a n u m b e r of standpoints: B a s e d on the c o n d i t i o n s of the airfoil sections on the a d v a n c i n g side, it w a s not surprising that the statically unstable pitching m o m e n t characteristics at lowa n g l e , h i g h - s u b s o n i c - M a c h - n u m b e r conditions c o u p l e d with blade torsional flexibility w e r e found to be the principal sources of the ViP blade tip oscillations. O t h e r findings w e r e s o m e w h a t surprising, h o w e v e r . First, the statically unstable pitching m o m e n t characteristic itself w a s found to be the important contributor
p
472
a) Oscillation
1
damped before
2
V> = 9 0
[ no /
mot/on
] odd revolutions
even b) Oscillation [ /
2
revolutions
persists
a t * = 9 0
motion occurs ]
Fig. 13.5
Pictorial description of "split" tip-path plane oscillation (after Paul).
A n g l e o f a t t a c k , a, d e g Fig. 13.6 Influence of Mach number on NACA 0012 airfoil pitching moment characteristics.
473
to the instability and not the unstable slope of the pitching m o m e n t characteristic. S e c o n d , b l a d e m o d e c o i n c i d e n c e with even or o d d multiples of ViP were not necessary conditions for instability. Blade m o d e detuning for o d d multiples of ViP w o u l d in s o m e instances raise the threshold of the blade oscillation to a higher M a c h n u m b e r .
13.4 13.4.1
Quasilinearization for Explicit Nonlinearities Basic Ideas
F o r s y s t e m s w h e r e i n the nonlinearity can be stated as an analytic amplituded e p e n d e n t describing function the equations of motion can then b e cast in a quasilinearized form. Let us a s s u m e a sinusoidal characteristic motion for the system d e g r e e s of freedom: {X(t)} = {X} e
ioit
(13.43)
w h i c h then allows us to formulate a quasilinearized form of an eigenvalue p r o b lem to b e p o s e d , as indicated in the following c o m p a c t form: [(X, )]{} = 0 (13.44)
T h e stability solution is achieved by then e x p a n d i n g the characteristic determinant, |(X, ) | , and setting it to z e r o , thereby obtaining a characteristic equation. This characteristic equation is generally c o m p l e x valued and a function of both and X. Since the real and imaginary parts of the characteristic e q u a t i o n , f a n d / / , m u s t both equal z e r o , a (nonlinear) system of t w o algebraic simultaneous equations in as m a n y variables is defined. Such a system of equations can be solved using a N e w t o n - R a p h s o n m e t h o d . This procedure requires o n e to form a Jacobian m a t r i x , [Jif^,//)], w h i c h is herein defined as df /dX
R
df /do>
R
[J] = T h e equation
ffldX
dfj/
(13.45)
and the expressions
<} - G l
<o
new
Wnew = W o + { };
+
0
(13.47)
0
are then used to iterate from initial guesses of {X} and , ( i . e . , {X } and , respectively) to the correct values of {X} and . T h e resulting solution for these variables generally defines a limit cycle condition that may or may not be " s t a b l e . " This is illustrated in the following e x a m p l e , wherein for a certain type of nonlinearity the locus of limit cycle amplitudes has been plotted vs a system p a r a m eter, i l . A n instability is k n o w n to exist for values of this p a r a m e t e r b e t w e e n the values of i l l and i l for a zero value of the amplitude {X}. F o r the p a r a m e t e r s selected in this e x a m p l e , it is found that in the region near i l the solution for {X} is triple valued. H e r e the r a n g e of limit cycle oscillations increases b e y o n d
2 2
474
Fig. 13.7 Locus of limit cycle amplitudes for a nonlinear system with a hysteretic response behavior.
to the point A b e y o n d which the system abruptly stabilizes to point B . F o r s u b s e q u e n t reductions i n j h e p a r a m e t e r , to values b e l o w i l , the system again b e c o m e s u n s t a b l e , and {X} g r o w s until point C is reached, wherein the response abruptly j u m p s to the limit cycle locus at point D . Such b e h a v i o r is a classic e x a m p l e of a hysteretic nonlinear response characteristic (see Fig. 13.7).
2 2
3.4.2
Generalized
Quasilinearization
for Systems with Periodicity
T h e basic idea behind quasilinearization is 1) to obtain s o m e solution to the full-blown nonlinear equation system (as given earlier); 2) to linearize the system of equations about that equilibrium solution; and 3) to solve the resulting linear equation set for stability. T h e stability results then indicate h o w " s t a b l e " the equilibrium solution obtained is. For rotary-wing p r o b l e m s the c o m p l e t e system of e q u a t i o n s typically contains a n o n h o m o g e n e o u s part and linear and nonlinear terms that are p e r i o d i c . This conceptualization can be mathematically stated using the following d e v e l o p m e n t . Let the total solution vector, {X}, be expressible as follows: {( )} = {( )} + { ( ) } (13.48)
w h e r e { ( ) } represents the perturbation of the solution from the equilibrium solution, {( )}. W h e n the equilibrium solution is substituted into the original equations of motion and second- and higher-order terms in {( )} are neglected [valid b e c a u s e of the infinitesimal size of {( )}1, the resulting equation set will b e a linear system of equations generally with periodic coefficients. This resulting equation set is easily recognized to constitute a standard p r o b l e m of Floquet t h e o r y . T h e periodicity of the coefficients will arise principally from the periodic nature of the equilibrium solution (even with an originally formulated equation set that might h a v e only constant coefficients!). O n c e such a linearized equation set is f o r m e d , the various tools available for Floquet theory can then be b r o u g h t to bear.
475
A s straightforward a description of the p r o b l e m as this might b e , it is still fraught with difficulties. In the first p l a c e , the ability to calculate the equilibrium solution is seriously c o m p r o m i s e d by the fact that standard m e t h o d s for solving n o n l i n e a r differential e q u a t i o n s are u n a b l e to distinguish b e t w e e n equilibrium and perturbational solutions. C o n s e q u e n t l y , if the nonlinear system has an unstable perturbational solution, a straightforward numerical solution of the nonlinear differential e q u a t i o n s m a y not be possible b e c a u s e the calculated responses will necessarily b e d i v e r g e n t a n y w a y . A l t h o u g h this result d o e s accurately indicate an unstable s y s t e m , it is generally not a practical, cost-effective w a y to assess stability d u e to the relatively high c o m p u t e r times required to obtain n u m e r i c a l solutions to the nonlinear equation set. Indeed, eigensolutions are generally preferred b e c a u s e they are not subject to the c o n v e r g e n c e characteristics typical of direct assaults on the nonlinear equations using any of a w i d e variety of n u m e r i c a l solution s c h e m e s .
13.5
Numerical Methods for Stability Estimation
T h e solution of differential e q u a t i o n s of motion by numerical integration, as d e v e l o p e d earlier, offers a powerful generic m e t h o d for obtaining accurate " s i m u l a t i o n s " of the d y n a m i c b e h a v i o r of structures and of rotor s y s t e m s , in particular. C l e a r l y , the result of using such simulations is a series of numerical values at discrete points in t i m e that represent time histories of the r e s p o n s e s . O n e p r o b l e m with such simulations is similar to the p r o b l e m identified earlier: T i m e histories (actual or accurate simulations) often contain responses that are a m b i g u o u s as to w h e t h e r they are resonant responses or true exponentially g r o w i n g instabilities. F u r t h e r m o r e , they often contain m o r e response information than w e desire (all m o d e s are typically in e v i d e n c e ) , and it is c o m m e n s u r a t e l y difficult to extract by inspection specific stability information about a particular m o d e from t h e m . T h e n e e d then exists to process the time histories in a quantitative w a y in o r d e r to extract specific stability information from t h e m selectively. F o u r basic m e t h o d s are presently in use for achieving this objective: 1) the log d e c r e m e n t , 2) the m o v i n g - b l o c k t e c h n i q u e , 3) P r o n y ' s m e t h o d , and 4) the Ibrahim t i m e d o m a i n ( I T D ) m e t h o d . Within this section, w e will e x a m i n e the first three a n d briefly touch on the last of the m e t h o d s .
3.5.
Log
Decrement
T h i s m e t h o d is a well-established, b a s i c , simple m e t h o d for cases wherein the time-history r e s p o n s e s are d o m i n a t e d b y one response m o d e , which is lightly d a m p e d or outright u n s t a b l e . S u c h r e s p o n s e s typically s h o w a readily-discernible e x p o n e n t i a l g r o w t h (or d e c a y ) so that simple m e t h o d s can b e used. A l t h o u g h a discussion of the log d e c r e m e n t is p r o v i d e d in an earlier chapter, a review is p r e s e n t e d h e r e for ready c o m p a r i s o n with other m e t h o d s . A s s u m i n g that a visual trace of the c o m p u t e d t i m e history can be obtained from the numerical solution ( e . g . , using a c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n plotter), an estimate of the d a m p i n g requires the following steps: 1) O b t a i n the d a m p e d frequency o> by counting cycles and dividing by the elapsed t i m e .
D
476
2) Pick a point in the time history, i , , w h e r e the amplitude is a m a x i m u m (x = m a x i m u m = A ) . T h u s , the response is to b e approximated by
0
x(t) Therefore,
= e x p ( - < o f ) [ A sin<o f]
D D
(13.49)
A A;
n
exp-
(13.50)
3) R e c o r d the m a x i m u m amplitude after the nth swing past the median v a l u e , this value is given by A = [ - ( + / )]
0 0 0 n
(13.51)
4) F o r m the ratio A /A ( = X ) , and then take its natural logarithm. It can then be seen that the critical d a m p i n g ratio is related to this logarithm as follows: /Vl
2
= n(X )ln*n
n
(13.52)
It can further b e seen that for cases wherein o n e m o d e is contributing practically all of the r e s p o n s e ( i . e . , all other m o d e s have been d a m p e d out by then) and the d a m p i n g is small (positive or negative), then
&() (13.53)
f 3.5.2
Moving-Block
Technique
T h e moving-block technique is in a sense an extension of the log d e c r e m e n t m e t h o d but with selective filtering. As with the log decrement m e t h o d , it too w o r k s best w h e n o n e m o d e is lightly d a m p e d (positive or negative). This techn i q u e , furthermore, represents an " e n g i n e e r i n g a p p r o a c h " to the p r o b l e m and lacks s o m e of the mathematical elegance of other m e t h o d s . As the n a m e suggests, a key c o m p o n e n t of this m e t h o d is the definition and manipulation of a data block of a certain size that is used to " m o v e " through the data to identify certain c h a n g e s in p a r a m e t e r s with time. It can best be described by stating the steps taken: 1) T h e a s s e m b l a g e of points constituting the time history is input to a standard fast Fourier transform ( F F T ) . [Note that, to optimize the F F T calculations, the n u m b e r of points to be used should be 2 to s o m e p o w e r ( e . g . , 512 = 2 ) . ] T h e F F T calculation is performed for the purpose of " i d e n t i f y i n g ' ' critical frequencies in the r e s p o n s e . T h e s e frequencies are d e e m e d " i n i t i a l " critical frequencies and are used as starting points for " f i n e t u n i n g " for the m o r e correct o n e s . 2) For each of the initial ( F F T d e t e r m i n e d ) frequencies the results are optim i z e d by repetitively performing a discrete Fourier analysis ( D F A ) of the time history wherein the n u m b e r of time-history points constituting a multiple of the period of the frequency is varied. T h u s , if from the F F T calculation, o n e of the initial frequencies had a period corresponding to 23 times the sampling time interval, , then the n u m b e r of points might be varied from 20 to 2 6 x N, where T V is a user selected n u m b e r of periods to be used. T h e variation is performed until a m a x i m u m amplitude is obtained with the D F A . T h e n u m b e r
9
477
of points so selected defines the " o p t i m i z e d " value of that frequency. This frequency is then used as the basis for sizing the m o v i n g block. 3) A g a i n , for e a c h of the identified frequencies the n u m b e r of points determ i n e d from the D F A to g i v e an o p t i m i z e d a m p l i t u d e at that frequency ( i . e . , in o u r e x a m p l e , say the n u m b e r c a m e out to b e 25) is held fixed as a " b l o c k s i z e " and the D F A is then repeatedly m a d e but with different sequential points as the " b l o c k " m o v e s o v e r the t i m e trace ( i . e . , shifts in time) starting at o n e e n d of the trace (usually the start). A s the D F A calculations for ( c o m p l e x - v a l u e d ) a m p l i t u d e are m a d e at each shifted t i m e , they are recorded as an additional a s s e m b l a g e of n u m b e r s , A (n 1 , 2 , . . . ) . 4) T h e variation of the natural logarithms of the absolute values of the D F A obtained n u m b e r s , n|A|, is then plotted vs the shifted time v l a u e s . It can be seen that, if a straight line is plotted through these data, the slope of the line is equal to an " e q u i v a l e n t " characteristic e x p o n e n t , , w h e r e the equivalent root, , is given b y / . All of the p r e c e d i n g four steps c o m p r i s i n g the m o v i n g block t e c h n i q u e are schematically illustrated in F i g . 1 3 . 8 . A d v a n t a g e s of the m e t h o d : T h e r e are three basic advantages to this m e t h o d : First, stability information is inherently available from the transient time history. T h e r e is n o need to obtain equilibrium solutions or trim states; the m e t h o d d o e s not " k n o w " w h e t h e r the time-history a s s e m b l a g e of points is actual experimental data or calculations. S e c o n d , the time histories can contain forced excitations that the m e t h o d will treat as r e s p o n s e s at a critical frequency equal to the excitation frequency. A priori knowledge of these frequencies can enable the method to ignore such frequencies selectively b e y o n d the F F T p h a s e . T h i r d , the m e t h o d is relatively s i m p l e to i m p l e m e n t ; F F T and D F A algorithms are readily available. D i s a d v a n t a g e s of the m e t h o d : O n e basic d i s a d v a n t a g e of the m e t h o d is that it is relatively e x p e n s i v e . T y p i c a l l y , the m e t h o d w o u l d find use in low-frequency stability investigations, and several rotor revs w o u l d b e needed to obtain e n o u g h points to e n a b l e the F F T and D F A calculations to be reasonably accurate. A s e c o n d d i s a d v a n t a g e is that it is not a m a t h e m a t i c a l l y rigorous m e t h o d , and s o m e " a r t " is s o m e t i m e s n e e d e d to obtain credible stability predictions. Often the plot of n|A, | vs t i m e is not a straight line, and the calculation is thereby s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s . T h i s deficiency can s o m e t i m e s b e o v e r c o m e by " w e i g h t i n g " o n e e n d of the trace or a n o t h e r (or even the m i d d l e portion). T h i r d , as with the log decrement method, the moving-block method will only identify the lightly damped m o d e s a n d is blind to the highly stable m o d e s . O t h e r C o m m e n t s : O n e t e c h n i q u e that facilitates obtaining a g o o d s m o o t h i n g of the A values is to use a filtering w i n d o w such as a Hamming window or a Hnning window. T h e m e t h o d has p r o v e n capable of identifying aliased freq u e n c i e s for t i m e histories that w e r e generated by d y n a m i c simulations with a high Floquet-like behavior; this fact should b e used for filtering out aliased frequencies in the critical frequency selection part of the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
n 7
73.5.3
Prony's
Method
T h i s m e t h o d is a form of curve-fitting p r o c e d u r e wherein the a s s e m b l a g e of n u m b e r s constituting the t i m e history is fitted to exponential functions. The m e t h o d consists of t w o m a i n p r o c e d u r e s : 1) determining the exponential con-
478
ROTARY W I N G STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS 1st transient response block
Determine transform for each
Fourier magnitude block
Time Fig. 13.8 Schematic illustration of the moving-block technique. stants for the exponential functions and 2) implementing a standard least-squares curve-fitting p r o c e d u r e . F o r stability purposes the first step actually suffices. T h e starting point for this m e t h o d is a statement of the curve-fitting approximation: fit) - C,<? '|' + C e '2
( 2 f
+ + C e '
a n
(13.54)
or, in a m o r e useful equivalent form, fit) - C \L\

X
+ C^
2
+ - - - + C,X
(13.55)
ANALYSIS O F NONLINEAR S Y S T E M S where * e*

a
479
(13.56)
F r o m t h e s e c o n d form of t h e p r e c e d i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n it c a n b e s h o w n that e a c h of the c o n s t a n t s ,, . . . , is a solution of the following algebraic equation: " ,'
7 - 1
~
2 2
_, -
= 0
(13.57)
w h e r e t h e coefficients, , , , . . . , are d e t e r m i n e d from the linear simult a n e o u s e q u a t i o n s c o n s t r u c t e d from the values of the function for w h i c h the a p p r o x i m a t i o n is b e i n g sought: / - i < * i +/,i -2<*2 + ' ' ' +/o<*,, = fn /,!<*! + / / , - i < * 2
+ + f \
a
(13.58a) (13.58b)
n = f
+ \
/tf-2<*i
k
+ fN-3<*2
+ +- - =
N-\
(13.58c)
E a c h of thef o r d i n a t e s is k n o w n (they are t h e numerical values that are b e i n g c u r v e fitted), a n d t h e equation set c a n b e solved for the na values p r o v i d i n g that > 2n. If = 2n, a direct solution arises; if > 2w, then the solution w o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e in a least-squares s e n s e . U p to this point the solution is c o n c e r n e d with o b t a i n i n g the e x p o n e n t i a l functions, [. ( = e"**). T o c o m p l e t e the c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e C coefficients m u s t b e calculated; this c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d using a standard least-squares calculation. O n e idiosyncrasy of the m e t h o d is that it d o e s not h a n d l e n o n v i s c o u s d a m p i n g well (most likely b e c a u s e n o n v i s c o u s d a m p i n g d o e s not p r o d u c e r e s p o n s e s of a simple exponential f o r m ) . H o w e v e r , o n e substantial a d v a n t a g e of this m e t h o d is that it will detect m o r e highly d a m p e d m o d e s than will the m o v i n g - b l o c k m e t h o d .
13.5.4
Ibrahim Time Domain (ITD) Method
T h i s m e t h o d , like P r o n y ' s m e t h o d , is an exponential curve-fitting m e t h o d , with t h e difference that this m e t h o d p r o c e s s e s all of the c h a n n e l s of calculated r e s p o n s e o n t h e structure at t h e s a m e t i m e . N o t e that the three previous m e t h o d s are directed to a n a l y z i n g only o n e c h a n n e l of r e s p o n s e time history at a t i m e . T h e a d v a n t a g e s of the I T D m e t h o d a r e , first, that rigorous m e t h o d s of testing the a c c u r a c y h a v e b e e n d e v i s e d to increase the confidence of the predictions a n d , s e c o n d , that it will p r o c e s s all m o d e s with little regard for d a m p i n g level. It will, f u r t h e r m o r e , obtain not only the c o m p l e x frequencies, but also the spatial (again c o m p l e x - v a l u e d ) m o d e s h a p e s . T h e details of this m e t h o d are b e y o n d the s c o p e of this text a n d the r e a d e r is referred to the bibliography for i m p l e m e n t a t i o n information. O n e c o n s i d e r a t i o n to b e m a d e using the I T D m e t h o d is that it a s s u m e s that t h e r e s p o n s e s are free vibrational with d a m p i n g present. T h u s , t i m e histories c o n t a i n i n g forced r e s p o n s e s could b e e x p e c t e d to c a u s e p r o b l e m s .
13.6
Future Directions
T h e subject of n o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c s , especially as applied t o rotorcraft a e r o elasticity, is yet an e x p a n d i n g t e c h n o l o g y . N e w c o m p u t a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s are a n d will b e d e v e l o p e d t o capitalize o n t h e e v e r e x p a n d i n g c o m p u t e r r e s o u r c e s b e i n g
480
m a d e available to the d y n a m i c i s t . A l t h o u g h s o m e techniques h a v e not yet even been c o n c e i v e d , t w o n e w technology areas that are evolving because of essential nonlinearities bear s o m e description: finite element in time and chaos theory.
13.6.1
Finite Elements in Time
This m e t h o d o l o g y for addressing nonlinear d y n a m i c s to a large m e a s u r e takes the form of a state transition matrix formulation (see Section 9 . 4 . 5 ) . T h e basic idea is to treat time as o n e of the independent variables in what w o u l d be an o t h e r w i s e partial differential equation. T h e difference is that the powerful energy m e t h o d o l o g i e s are brought together with a like treatment of time to give a b o u n d a r y - v a l u e p r o b l e m on the variable displacements and velocities. Basically, the time variability can be treated like a Galerkin p r o b l e m wherein a series of assumed functions of time are used for the basic solution.
13.6.2
Chaos Theory
T h e study a n d , m o r e importantly, the engineering application of chaos theory are even m o r e in their infancy than is the m e t h o d of finite elements in t i m e . Chaotic motion h a s the p r i m a facie appearance of r a n d o m m o t i o n , but, in fact, has order (of a higher d e g r e e , to be sure). Rigorously defined, chaotic motion is motion w h e r e i n the details of the responses are highly dependent on the initial c o n d i t i o n s . F o r most applications the existence of chaotic motion in a system w o u l d b e , like vibrations and aeroelastic instability, a response condition to b e avoided and/or designed out of the system. H o w e v e r , the quantification of the appropriate p a r a m e t e r s for and the subsequent prediction of chaos will require a n e w d y n a m i c s v o c a b u l a r y and a new technology b a s e . For n o w it is a n e w direction for study and a n e w m e t h o d o l o g y awaiting significant application.
References
Section 13.1 13.2 Urabe
( i )
Author(s)
Bisplinghoff, A s h l e y , and Halfman Bathe Ralston and W i l f Hildebrand

(Zi) ( ) ()
13.3 13.4 13.5
Paul
( y )
Hildebrand ) H a m m o n d and D o g g e t t
(
(/?)
H a m m o n d and D o g g e t t Hildebrand Ibrahim and M i k u l c i k

() (,/)
( P )
481
Problems
1 3 . 1 A l t h o u g h the action of a viscous d a m p e r can b e simply a p p r o x i m a t e d as a resisting force proportional to velocity (by a constant of proportionality A ) , a m o r e realistic m o d e l i n g of this action should include " s a t u r a t i o n " effects at high velocities. C o n s i d e r a rotor lead-lag d a m p e r w h o s e (nonlinear) d a m p e r force is modeled by F
NL
^ t a n " (kk)
x
(13.59)
w h e r e the saturation value is given by

ATT
F n l
'
Derive an expression for the (amplitude-dependent) for sinusoidal motion of the damper (i.e., e =
effective ee ).
l<ot
linear damping
rate
1 3 . 2 A n often specified operational " f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n " for helicopters is the ability to land and take on p a s s e n g e r s while perched on a sloping terrain with the rotor rotating (at design rotor speed, though not actually lifting). In such a condition the r o t o r ' s tip-path plane must be maintained horizontal. C o n s e q u e n t l y , in this condition the rotor blades are flapping with amplitude ( = slope angle of the terrain) relative to the shaft. B e c a u s e there are no Coriolis accelerations in the tip-path p l a n e , the n o m i n a l lead-lag motion in this plane is zero. H o w e v e r , relative to the shaft axis ( w h e r e the lead-lag d a m p e r s are located and must function), there is n o m i n a l blade lead-lag motion (Coriolis accelerations) d u e to the flapping. This n o m i n a l lead-lag motion can be thought of as a H o o k ' s joint effect, w h i c h manifests itself as a periodic variation in the rotor speed of any o n e of the rotor b l a d e s . T h e definition of the effective (linear) blade lead-lag d a m p e r characteristics is required for the g r o u n d r e s o n a n c e calculations for this operating condition. T h e effective variability of the rotor speed, as seen by the d a m p e r and the specific a s s u m e d lead-lag d a m p e r saturation characteristics defined earlier in P r o b l e m 1 3 . 1 , are to b e included in this calculation. a) Show that the lead-lag motion as seen by the shaft axis lead-lag dampers is given by
4
[1 [1 -
(1 (1 -
c o s ) sin i|i] _ (
2
e 1
_f m
{i
(13.61)
c o s ) cos i|j]
2
where = cosi;
4
(13.62)
and ] and are the lead-lag motions measured in the tip-path plane and shaft axis plane, respectively. [Hint: C o n s i d e r the blade motion with three c o n s e c u t i v e c o o r d i n a t e transformations g o i n g from the 1 (rotating tip-path p l a n e ) , 2 (nonrotating tip-path p l a n e ) , 3 (nonrotating shaft axis p l a n e ) , and 4 (rotating shaft axis plane) c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m s . ] _ b) Derive an expression (valid to fourth order in ) for the effective (rotor period, time-averaged) linear lead-lag damping coefficient (small values ofe ) subject to the inclusions of the two aforementioned effects.
{
482
1 3 . 3 A s d e v e l o p e d in detail in the work of B a t h e , the " s t a b i l i t y " of any numerical integration algorithm can be determined from the eigenvalues of the integration approximation operator matrix A defined for that algorithm. With this matrix any vector of a suitable c o m b i n a t i o n of d y n a m i c quantities (displacem e n t s , velocities, accelerations, etc.) at one time step, {X} can be defined in terms of the s a m e vector at the next time step, {X} . For an unforced system this matrix is defined by the following relationship:
n t + h t
{}, , = [A]{X}
+
(13.63) numerical system.
Determine integration
an A matrix for the harmonic acceleration method for the of the equation of motion for a standard spring-mass-damper
1 3 . 4 A conventional rigid rotor blade (articulated only in flapping about a flapping hinge) is operating at high thrust in hover. Its lifting airloads are a s s u m e d to b e quasisteady and g o v e r n e d by a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l lift coefficient approxim a t e d by () 5.73a + 22.48a
3
611.57a
(13.64)
w h e r e the local angle of attack (in radians) is a s s u m e d to be spanwise invariant and expressible as = - ^ = 1^*

'
03.65)
Solve for a) the conditions for limit-cycle oscillations in terms of steady angle of attack a and flapping amplitude and h) the resulting frequency of motion.
0
14 Model Rotor Testing for Aeroelastic Stability

14.1 Introduction
T e s t i n g for rotorcraft aeroelastic and a e r o m e c h a n i c a l stability continues to b e a n e c e s s a r y tool for the successful d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w d e s i g n s . A l t h o u g h aeroelastic analyses h a v e c o n t i n u e d to d e v e l o p with increased breadth and sophistication, they are still not accurate e n o u g h to be used routinely as design tools for the analyses of m a n - r a t e d aircraft. N o t only must these analyses be validated e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , but instability issues inherent in n e w rotorcraft c o n c e p t s must b e identified as a g u i d e to n e w or continued aeroelastic m e t h o d o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , although testing of a prototype at full scale for aeroelastic stability is still p e r f o r m e d , it is with the intention of providing proof-of-design validations rather than e x p l o r i n g n e w stability issues or sizing the design p a r a m eters to p r e c l u d e the o c c u r r e n c e of any possible instability. Such testing at full scale is typically very cost prohibitive and is best d o n e only w h e r e absolutely n e c e s s a r y . T h u s , multiple reasons exist for testing rotorcraft for aeroelastic instability at model scale. In o r d e r for such testing to h a v e r e l e v a n c e to full-scale b e h a v i o r , it m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d with the correct attention to the scaling of the appropriate p a r a m e t e r s , both with the rotor and the airframe. S u c h scaling is generally an exercise in k n o w i n g w h i c h issues can b e c o m p r o m i s e d and w h i c h c a n n o t , for it is impossible to scale everything at scale factors of a n y t h i n g less than unity. Construction of aeroelastic m o d e l s requires attention to issues of practical construction t e c h n i q u e . Often a properly scaled m o d e l can e n d u p b e i n g literally impossible to fabricate for certain important r a n g e s of p a r a m e t e r s . A l t h o u g h certain test p r a c tices c o n t i n u e to b e standard, the state of the art in test p r o c e d u r e s is constantly g r o w i n g , a n d n e w resources m u s t b e integrated into the test e n g i n e e r ' s tool kit. A s with any other t y p e of testing, there are certain test p r e p a r a t i o n s , test proc e d u r e s , and d a t a reduction t e c h n i q u e s appropriate to rotorcraft aeroelastic stability testing that m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d . All of these issues are covered in this c h a p t e r , a l o n g with material on aeroelastic considerations to b e given to n o m i nally nonaeroelastic testing.
14.2 14.2.1
Scaling Laws Scaling of the Rotor
F o r a c o m p l e t e aeroelastic m o d e l i n g of the rotor five basic scaling considerations exist relating to the p r o p e r interactions of the a e r o d y n a m i c , elastic, inertial, and gravity forces ( H u n t ) . A s s u m i n g complete geometric m o d e l i n g , these interactions can b e stated m a t h e m a t i c a l l y in t e r m s of the following n o n d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s , w h i c h should be m a i n t a i n e d invariant: 483
484
F r e q u e n c y scaling:
'
^ w
( 1 4
, a )
Lock number: pacR = ^-7 A d v a n c e ratio = Froude number: R

2 4
(14.1b)
II
V
(14.1c)
F = Mach number: IR M =
(14.ld)
(14.1e)
T h e frequency scaling parameter ensures that the blade has the correct natural frequencies in b e n d i n g in relationship to rotor frequency. T h e Lock number ensures that the rotor has the correct a e r o d y n a m i c d a m p i n g and a e r o d y n a m i c c o u p l i n g characteristics, and the advance ratio ensures that the scaling of forward flight speed is correct in relationship to rotor rotational speed. T h e Froude number ensures that the gravity effects, in terms of gravity springs and the rotor thrust, are properly scaled in relation to the other three basic forces, and the Mach number ensures that the correct compressibility effects are encountered on the a d v a n c i n g blade portions of the rotor disk. T h e F r o u d e n u m b e r is typically in the order of 5 0 0 - 7 0 0 and b e c o m e s increasingly important with rotor size. B e cause the F r o u d e n u m b e r is relatively large c o m p a r e d with the other n o n d i m e n sional p a r a m e t e r s , strict scaling of the gravitational terms can s o m e t i m e s be relaxed if their effects (as they relate to the p h e n o m e n o n at hand) can be approximated.
74.2.2
Scaling of the Pylon
T h e model pylon itself must be properly scaled relative to the attached rotor in that it should present to the rotor a properly scaled i m p e d a n c e . As discussed in C h a p t e r 1 1 , p r o p e r scaling of the i m p e d a n c e of the p y l o n , for instabilities involving rigid-body motion of the p y l o n , can be achieved by addressing three basic characteristics: 1) the various mass ratios b e t w e e n the rotor and pylon m a s s e s must be maintained; 2) any geometrical couplings existing b e t w e e n the h u b degrees of freedom must also be maintained; and 3) the pylon natural freq u e n c i e s must be scaled in order to give the s a m e frequencies (as n o n d i m e n sionalized by the rotor frequency).
T E S T I N G F O R R O T O R A E R O E L A S T I C STABILITY
485
Mass ratios. Inspection of the air r e s o n a n c e equations (as given in A p p e n d i x D) s h o w s that t w o m a s s ratios of i m p o r t a n c e to the proper scaling of rigid-body m o t i o n p h e n o m e n a are: 1) the (translational motion) m a s s coupling p a r a m e t e r (involving rotor in-plane b l a d e m o d e generalized m a s s and in-plane pylon effective m a s s ) A , and 2) the (rotational m o t i o n ) inertia coupling p a r a m e t e r A . T h i s latter p a r a m e t e r involves the rotor flapping blade m o d e generalized m a s s and p y l o n inertia (rotational about s o m e focal point, z , located a distance h b e l o w the rotor h u b ) :
3 4 f o c
eil
_
3
bSj 2M
e f f
(generalized g r o u n d r e s o n a n c e S
4 9
'
coupling parameter) (14.3)
=
2
7T~
where / = M / ? , and w h e r e the integrals S , S , S , and S are integrals of appropriately m o d e s h a p e w e i g h t e d b l a d e m a s s distribution and are given in Appendix D.
e f f e f f f f 1 0 i2 4 8 4 9
Couplings. C o u p l i n g s of the pylon degrees of freedom can occur b e c a u s e of longitudinal center-of-gravity locations off the rotor rotation axis and b e c a u s e of the focusing of the roll and pitch rotations about s o m e position below the rotor p l a n e . A r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the free-flight condition is to take the focal point to b e the point on the rotor rotation axis that intersects the horizontal plane containing the total aircraft gravity center. Indeed, it can b e seen that only for a scaling of the focal point at the aircraft center of gravity d o the p r e v i o u s l y described m a s s ratios, A and A , scale c o m m e n s u r a t e l y . T h e c h o i c e of the aircraft e . g . as a focal point is s o m e w h a t arbitrary but is nonetheless c o n v e n i e n t b e c a u s e it eliminates the gravity forces as contributors to the roll and pitch spring rates and thereby m i n i m i z e s the effects of any n o n - F r o u d e scaling.
3 4
Pylon natural frequencies. A s d e v e l o p e d in Section 11.4, the requirement to m a t c h the p y l o n i m p e d a n c e also requires that the natural frequencies (with respect to rotor rotational frequency) of the pylon (with the constraint of it being focused at a point h b e l o w the hub) be m a i n t a i n e d . In the present context this scaling principle b e c o m e s important w h e n w e might wish to alter the properties of an u n s e a l e d rotor also h a v i n g an unsealed focal point. T h u s , for t w o configurations ( )j and ( ) w h i c h h a v e the s a m e rotor properties and the s a m e effective m a s s , M , but are operating at different rotor s p e e d s , fi and , the frequency criterion then b e c o m e s that of m a i n t a i n i n g the s a m e effective rotational stiffness. T h e p y l o n stiffnesses in pitch and roll can each b e a p p r o x i m a t e d as a s u m of an explicit spring rate (around the focal p o i n t ) , K , and an implicit one d u e to rotor flapping flexibility, K . F u r t h e r m o r e , this rotor flapping spring rate K can be c o n v e n i e n t l y e x p r e s s e d as a factor K multiplying the rotor speed squared. T h i s factor is frequency d e p e n d e n t and is proportional to the n u m b e r of blades and the previously defined b l a d e integration constant, S . T h e K factor d e p e n d s principally on the L o c k n u m b e r y , the n o n d i m e n s i o n a l frequency of vibration
e{{ 2 e f f { 2 p r r r 1 2 r
486
, and the blade flapping natural frequency , again nondimensionalized by rotor speed :

K,
12
> >

(14.4)
T h e n the invariancy of pylon frequency criterion can be written as K

p
invariant
(14.5)
But / equals / and M itself must also be invariant. Therefore, for t w o different configurations that must both present the same i m p e d a n c e to the rotor,
2 e f f 6 e f f
K l
p
+ K,
K /il
p
hi
r
hin-
(14.6)
Noting that K must be the s a m e for both configurations, w e can then rewrite the expression to separate out the explicit stiffness rate for the second configuration: (14.7) T h u s , with this equivalency relationship it is possible to achieve a proper scaling of pylon natural frequencies even for conditions where m i s m a t c h e s in rotor speed and/or focal point h are present. For the m o d e l pylon to be properly scaled relative to the rotor, it must present to the rotor a properly scaled i m p e d a n c e . This can be achieved by m a t c h i n g 1) the m a s s ratios b e t w e e n the rotor mass and that of the pylon, 2) any couplings existing b e t w e e n the h u b degrees of freedom, and 3) the pylon natural frequencies (as n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d by the rotor frequency).
ei{
14.2.3
Scale Factors
Of the five pertinent rotor scaling considerations, only (at most) four can be simultaneously satisfied for rotors at model scale. Generally, for testing in air, rotors cannot satisfy both F r o u d e and M a c h scaling. Typically, the rotors are scaled for o n e or the other, or they are scaled s o m e w h e r e in b e t w e e n using a c o m b i n a t i o n of geometric scaling, as quantified by k , and velocity scaling, as quantified b y X :
t v
\^t lt MS FS
\ ^V /V
V MS
FS
(14.8)
F r o m these t w o scale factors all other aeroelastic-, aeromechanical-, and gravityrelated properties c a n b e scaled using Table 1 4 . 1 , w h i c h w a s extracted from the w o r k of H u n t . N o t e that, for Froude-scaled rotors, the velocity scale factor is uniquely d e t e r m i n e d to b e V(X^). A l s o , the scale factors that relate to atm o s p h e r i c sonic speed, gravity, kinematic viscosity, and air density (k X,
in g
Table 14.1
Scaling formulas for aeroelastic quantities Value of scale factor for unit values of X , X , , and X
a g p
Quantity to be scaled Dimensionless parameters: Reynolds number Mach number Froude number Velocities Linear Angular Structural characteristics Density Elastic modulus Forces Aerodynamic Elastic Inertial (radial & oscillatory) Gravitational Model responses Displ. amplitude Frequency Acceleration Dynamic stress Dynamic strain V E A C W a Re M F
Exact expression for scale factor
General
Model designed for full-scale Froude numbers
Model designed for full-scale Mach numbers
/ / Xy/X X(
(
XyX( Xv Xy/Xl Xy Xy/Xl

1
2
Xt Vx
1
Xy X /Xd=
v
i/Vx7
X(
XpXl'Xj
x
<
f
x xj X /X X{ / x V (V
a A F
\/Vx
/Xi \/x
(
XZ)Xt
488
, and , respectively) are normally equal to unity. Only in special pressurized wind tunnels (which also typically use a h e a v y gas such as F r e o n instead of air) can these scaling factors be varied substantially from unit values.

14.3 74.3.7
Model Construction Considerations Pylon Constraint
T h e r e q u i r e m e n t for both inertia and F r o u d e scaling, the available techniques for lightweight, l o w - d a m p i n g model construction, and the need to a p p r o x i m a t e free flight with a constrained nonflying pylon in a wind-tunnel e n v i r o n m e n t all invariably drive the m o d e l design to the s a m e simplified pylon configuration: T h e pylon system is typically designed for articulation only in pitch and roll about s o m e effective total aircraft center-of-gravity point using a gimbal arr a n g e m e n t , as s h o w n in F i g . 1 4 . 1 . T h e design and construction of such a configuration, with a scaling of its d y n a m i c s as close to that of the full-scale vehicle as p o s s i b l e , represents a substantial a c c o m p l i s h m e n t both in engineering and craftsmanship. H o w e v e r , the intrinsic deficiencies and/or difficulties in this app r o a c h consist of the following: 1) T h e m o d e l i n g of the pylon m a s s as a gimbaled rigid-body m a s s articulated in pitch and roll about s o m e effective center-of-gravity point is an approximation subject to inaccuracies.
Fig. 14.1
Schematic of a 1/5.86 Scale BMR/BO-105 air resonance model.
489
2 ) S o m e r a n g e s in p y l o n p a r a m e t e r s m a y be simply impractical to construct at m o d e l scale. T h i s difficulty is c o m p o u n d e d by the fact that relative internal d a m p i n g tends to vary in an inverse m a n n e r with m o d e l scale. 3 ) T h e n e e d to a p p r o x i m a t e the gravity springs in pitch and roll, together with the c o n c u r r e n t need to a p p r o x i m a t e free-flight trim c o n d i t i o n s , places constraints on both the elastic restraints and preloads about the g i m b a l . F o r s o m e c o m b i n a t i o n s of required spring rates and preloads special gadgetry m a y b e either impractical o r too e x p e n s i v e . A n additional constraint on the design of the gimbal a r r a n g e m e n t is the need for p r o v i d i n g s o m e form of ' s n u b b i n g " of the m o d e l pitch and roll amplitudes so that unstable m o t i o n , w h e n it o c c u r s , is delimited and thereby kept to noncatastrophic v a l u e s .
4
14.3.2
Blade
Construction
R e f e r e n c e to T a b l e 14.1 s h o w s that for Froude-scaled vs M a c h - s c a l e d blades the b l a d e density scaling is the s a m e , but that the elastic force (stiffness) scaling (EI /EI ) is different by a factor of the length scale factor. F u r t h e r m o r e , the M a c h - s c a l e d blades are seen to exhibit full-scale stresses, w h e r e a s the F r o u d e scaled b l a d e s exhibit stresses that are scaled by the length scale factor. Practically s p e a k i n g , this m e a n s that M a c h - s c a l e d blades are considerably m o r e stiff than those that are F r o u d e scaled. F u r t h e r m o r e , since the m o d u l u s of elasticity scales as the g e o m e t r i c scale factor for F r o u d e - s c a l e d blades and blades m u s t b e fashioned from similar materials as full-scaled b l a d e s , care must b e exercised in o r d e r to a c h i e v e a p r o p e r scaling of EI.
MS FS
14.3.3
Aerodynamic
Performance
Lift ~ pccîR) (14.9)
{
F o r scaling p u r p o s e s the total rotor lift varies as

2
w h e r e the (representative b l a d e section) lift coefficient c is n o n d i m e n s i o n a l and d e p e n d e n t on g e o m e t r i c angles that should b e independent of t y p e of scaling. T h u s , using the results of T a b l e 1 4 . 1 , o n e can write the ratio of m o d e l scale lift to full-scale lift as follows:
(L IL )
MS FS
2,
for F r o u d e scaling
6
[Kj,
tor M a c h scaling
(14.10)
But a c c o r d i n g to T a b l e 14.1 the ratio of rotor lift coefficients must a l w a y s be unity for either type of scaling: VLJCLJ = 1 (14.11)
T h i s scaling of total rotor lift and rotor lift coefficients b e c o m e s difficult d u e to the n o n l i n e a r relationships defining the inflow and consequently the local inflow angle distributions. In this regard three points should be noted: 1 ) T h e inflow ratio typically varies as the rotor thrust coefficient and w o u l d thus be invariant with F r o u d e vs n o n - F r o u d e ( e . g . , M a c h ) scaling.
490
2) By virtue of the aforementioned difference in scaling of the rotor lift for the t w o types of scaling, for the s a m e g e o m e t r y (including blade pitch angles), the t w o types of scaling will p r o d u c e different inflow velocities d u e to differing values of lift. 3) O n l y for F r o u d e scaling does weight scale in the same ratio as does aerod y n a m i c lift. H e n c e , in general the unit scaling of (required) lift coefficients for n o n - F r o u d e scaled rotors w o u l d be difficult to achieve for the s a m e geometric pitch angles. This feature w o u l d be especially important for m o d e l tests wherein both rotor/ fuselage interactions and blade pitch angle similarity are important. A n additional aspect of a e r o d y n a m i c performance is the m a t c h i n g of (scaled) h u b m o m e n t s to achieve t r i m m e d flight. In the usual implementation of m o d e l fuselage pitch and roll articulation, gimbals with rotational springs about the gimbal axes are used (see F i g . 14.1). T h e s e springs generally h a v e fixed scaled rates according to the r e q u i r e m e n t s for invariance of the pitch and roll frequencies relative to the rotor rotational frequency and usually h a v e low spring rates. T h e m a i n t e n a n c e of scaled h u b m o m e n t s in forward-flight (wind-tunnel) conditions requires that s o m e trim m o m e n t s must be equilibrated by m o m e n t s about the gimbal a x e s . T h e dual constraints of low spring rates and transmissibility of variable trim m o m e n t s poses special p r o b l e m s in the design of the gimbal a x e s .
74.3.4
Damping
nom
T h e sources of d a m p i n g occurring in the full-scale helicopter in free flight are either structural [complex m o d u l u s of elasticity, E = (1 + ig)E ], aerodynamic, and/'or frictional. Table 14.1 s h o w s that for either type of scaling the a e r o d y n a m i c , elastic, and inertial forces all scale by the same scale factors. C o n s e q u e n t l y , sources of d a m p i n g that are either of the (classical) structural and/ or a e r o d y n a m i c types should, to first-order effects, scale properly. H o w e v e r , the d a m p i n g d u e to frictional sources tends to scale inversely with the scale factor. This can be appreciated by noting h o w this form of d a m p i n g w o u l d scale based on simple ideas using the results of T a b l e 1 4 . 1 . A s s u m i n g that in a rotational joint (or bearing) the shear stress d u e to friction is constant with scale, then the n o n d i m e n s i o n a l d a m p i n g is governed by the following relationships: F r o u d e scaling M a c h scaling (14.12)
T h u s , the use of bearings and/or constructions having frictional joints with Froudescaled m o d e l s should b e avoided or m i n i m i z e d as m u c h as possible for an accurate scaling of internal d a m p i n g .
14.4 74.4.7
Instrumentation and Test Procedures Typical Stability-Measuring Instrumentation
A w i d e variety of transducers are currently available for the usual m e a s u r e m e n t s of quantities relating to rotor aeroelastic stability. A l t h o u g h significant variation in objective and/or scope can exist b e t w e e n various rotor aeroelastic
491
tests the required instrumentation generally consists of e l e m e n t s in each of the following t y p e s : Motion transducers. M e a s u r e m e n t of the motion is essential to all aeroelastic testing and can b e achieved using a variety of transducers using different m e a s u r e m e n t principles: 1) P o t e n t i o m e t e r s : T h e s e d e v i c e s are relatively low-technology devices that present an electrical resistance proportional to angular motion. P o t e n t i o m e t e r s are m o s t often u s e d for m e a s u r i n g rotational motion w h e r e d a m p i n g is not a consideration. 2) L V D T s : T h e s e devices (Linear Variable Differential Transformers) present an electromagnetic induction proportional to linear motion. L V D T s are useful in l o w load factor e n v i r o n m e n t s in situations w h e r e zero d a m p i n g m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d b y a n o n c o n t a c t i n g transducer. 3) Strain g a g e s : T h e s e d e v i c e s are relatively low-cost, low-technology devices that p r o d u c e an electrical resistance proportional to linear strain. Strain g a g e s h a v e a filmlike construction and are attached to the surface of an elastic e l e m e n t . Strain g a g e s are generally available in a variety of forms so that the basic types of strain o c c u r r i n g on the surface of the structure are m e a s u r a b l e . M o t i o n is typically m e a s u r e d u s i n g strain g a g e s by m e a s u r i n g the strain in s o m e o n e or m o r e of the elastic e l e m e n t s of the test apparatus w h o s e motion-strain relationship is k n o w n . 4 ) A c c e l e r o m e t e r s : A c c e l e r o m e t e r s c o m e in a variety of sizes, types ( n u m b e r of a x e s ) , a n d construction t y p e s , d e p e n d i n g on the physical principle used to create the electrical output. All a c c e l e r o m e t e r s typically utilize s o m e form of internal elastic structure to p r o d u c e an electrical impedance or an electrical charge proportional to linear acceleration. Force transducers. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t of forces is s o m e w h a t optional in that either static (trim) loads can b e m e a s u r e d and/or the d y n a m i c loads participating in the instability can b e m e a s u r e d . F o r c e s are typically m e a s u r e d using load cells, w h i c h c o m e in three basic types: 1) Strain-gage t y p e s : L o a d cells can be fabricated in a variety of complexities r a n g i n g from simple b e a m s w h o s e strain is proportional to moment produced by a load at an antinodal point to c o m p l i c a t e d devices that are designed for m e a s u r i n g all six c o m p o n e n t s of load, e a c h of w h i c h is proportional to the strain in various of the structural e l e m e n t s , all with m i n i m a l elastic c o u p l i n g . Straing a g e - t y p e load cells are subject to the complexities required for t e m p e r a t u r e c o m p e n s a t i o n in the essentially W h e a t s t o n e bridge circuitry and to the relatively large m e c h a n i c a l c o m p l i a n c e of the cell ( i . e . , sufficient strain; h e n c e , motion m u s t b e d e v e l o p e d in order to c h a n g e the resistance of the strain g a g e s ) . 2) Piezoelectric types: L o a d cells b a s e d on a piezoelectric principle generate an electrical charge proportional to a stress state in a crystal having piezoelectric characteristics. A l t h o u g h they are generally m o r e e x p e n s i v e , load cells of this type h a v e the a d v a n t a g e s that multiple c o m p o n e n t s of loads can b e readily m e a s u r e d b y the s a m e c o m p a c t d e v i c e and that they h a v e low c o m p l i a n c e characteristics. G e n e r a l l y , piezoelectric d e v i c e s h a v e p o o r low-frequency and dc m e a s u r i n g p r o p e r t i e s , but are quite accurate for sinusoidal loads of sufficient frequency.
492
3) Piezoresistive types: L o a d cells based on a piezoresistive principle generate an electrical impedance proportional to the stress state in a crystal having piezoelectric characteristics. Piezoresistive load cells (and accelerometers) generally operate using an effective W h e a t s t o n e bridge circuit and are similar to strain gages in operation. Piezoresistive load cells also h a v e low mechanical c o m p l i a n c e but are not subject to the limitations on low-frequency and dc loads characteristic of piezoelectric d e v i c e s . Pressure sensors. M o s t aeroelastic p h e n o m e n a entail s o m e form of unsteady a e r o d y n a m i c loadings that are essential to the m o t i o n . Such loadings can n o w b e m e a s u r e d quite accurately using various miniature pressure sensors. T h e s e devices typically utilize s o m e form of structural element that converts pressure to a stress in a crystal having piezoelectric characteristics that can then be exploited in the s a m e m a n n e r as described earlier for force transducers. Rotor azimuth indexing. K n o w l e d g e of the position of the rotor b l a d e ' s azimuthal position is needed for ascertaining the rotor rotational speed and for correlating the blade motion with the a e r o d y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t . R o t o r h u b (and shaft) azimuthal m e a s u r e m e n t s are obtained three basic w a y s : 1) M a g n e t i c pickups: D e v i c e s of this type generally utilize a m a g n e t i z e d gearlike w h e e l attached to the shaft together with a nonrotating coil with a ferrom a g n e t i c core in close proximity to a point in space traversed by the teeth of the gear-like w h e e l . T h e device thereby generates an electromagnetically induced impulsive voltage in the coil proportional to the velocity of passage of the gear teeth past the ferromagnetic c o r e . T h e instances w h e n the impulsive voltages o c c u r thereby define the instances w h e n the gear teeth are at the point in space near the coil c o r e . 2) Inductive p i c k u p s : Inductive pickups are mechanically similar to magnetic pickups but instead incorporate a n o n m a g n e t i c gear-like wheel that generates an increase in inductive capacity when the gear teeth are at the point in space near the coil core. M e a s u r e m e n t of inductance m i n i m i z e s the d e p e n d e n c y of rotational speed on the m e a s u r e m e n t . 3) P h o t o t a c h o m e t e r s : T h e s e devices achieve time markers by producing a change in optical reflectivity, as measured by a photosensitive device, w h e n the optical reflectivity differentiated sections of the circumference of the rotor shaft are at the point in space to activate the photosensitive d e v i c e . Rotating to nonrotating data transmission. Testing for the physics of aeroelastic p h e n o m e n a in rotor blades might include the m e a s u r e m e n t s of stresses (as m e a s u r e d by strain gages) and a e r o d y n a m i c pressures (as m e a s u r e d by pressure sensors). B e c a u s e these quantities are in the rotating coordinate s y s t e m , m e a n s m u s t be provided for transmitting the outputs of the transducers to the nonrotating coordinate s y s t e m . T w o devices exist for addressing this issue: 1) Slip ring a s s e m b l i e s : Slip ring assemblies essentially consist of l o w - n o i s e , low-electrical-resistance rings that rotate with the rotor shaft and nonrotating low-resistance brushes that are in contact with the rings and thereby form an electrical circuit. T h e electrical signals required for transducer operation are
493
transmitted from the rotating s y s t e m to the fixed and vice versa t h r o u g h this ring-brush electrical circuit. 2 ) R e s o l v e r s : S o m e quantities, w h i l e m e a s u r e d in the rotating coordinate s y s t e m (and transmitted to the fixed using slip rings), need to b e r e v i e w e d and s u b s e q u e n t l y u s e d in the fixed c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m . A n " o n - l i n e " conversion from the rotating to nonrotating c o o r d i n a t e system is thus often required. For e x a m p l e , the b l a d e flapping angle , as m e a s u r e d in the blade coordinate s y s t e m , is often m o r e meaningfully interpreted by c o n v e r s i o n to rotor m o d e s . This can b e acc o m p l i s h e d b y appropriately c o m b i n i n g the blade flapping angle m e a s u r e m e n t s for the separate blades and then feeding these c o m b i n a t i o n s into a simple trigo n o m e t r i c resolution b a s e d on rotor a z i m u t h a n g l e . D e v i c e s that a c c o m p l i s h this t r i g o n o m e t r i c resolution are referred to as resolvers wherein the resolution is i m p l e m e n t e d either e l e c t r o m e c h a n i c a l l y or digitally using a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c h i p . Exciters. A l t h o u g h aeroelastic instability p h e n o m e n a are n o m i n a l l y selfexcited, the need exists for exciting appropriate subsystems that m a y not in and of t h e m s e l v e s b e unstable and/or for p r o v i d i n g a " s t a n d a r d " input to calibrate all the various r e s p o n s e s to b e m e a s u r e d . D e v i c e s that can b e used to p r o v i d e such excitations are as follows: 1) Electrical and hydraulic shakers: S h a k e r s are m o s t often used for vibrationrelated testing of structures. H o w e v e r , they h a v e a valid application to aeroelastic stability testing by p r o v i d i n g the m e a n s for m e a s u r i n g c o m p o n e n t impedance from w h i c h total system stability can b e calculated (using N y q u i s t t e c h n i q u e s ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , for s o m e r e s p o n s e applications shakers can be used as sources of standard input, either sinusoidal or p u l s e . S u c h shakers consist of t w o basic p a r t s , the b a s e and a p l u n g e r , with a sinusoidal linear relative motion of t w o parts of the s h a k e r w h o s e a m p l i t u d e and frequency are electronically (servo) controlled. 2 ) Piezoelectric crystals: T h e usual operation of piezoelectrically active solids (crystals) is to use the c h a r g e p r o d u c e d by an applied stress. T h e p h e n o m e n o n is actually reversible in that a strain can be induced in a piezoelectric solid by the application of a v o l t a g e . In practice this is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y attaching a piezoelectric film to an elastic structure in the form of a strain g a g e , o n e that is n o w a strain producer, h o w e v e r . A g a i n , such a device tends to operate best for sinusoidal input strains rather than steady o n e s .
14.4.2
Test
Preparation
P r e p a r a t i o n s that should b e m a d e for aeroelastic stability testing are typically t h o s e to b e m a d e for m o s t other forms of testing. W h e n practical and as a p p r o priate, these preparations generally consist of three basic items. First, ranges of the appropriate p a r a m e t e r s m u s t b e defined. This selection w o u l d b e m a d e based principally on the p u r p o s e of the tests. F o r cases w h e r e the testing is in support of design validation for a n e w aircraft d e s i g n , the r a n g e of p a r a m e t e r s w o u l d b e largely defined b y the characteristics of the full-scale d e s i g n . O n the other h a n d , tests that are m o r e exploratory in nature the r a n g e of p a r a m e t e r s w o u l d b e as w i d e as possible c o m m e n s u r a t e with available resources and t i m e . T h e a p p r o priate n o n d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s resulting from this process w o u l d then b e used to scale the d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s of the m o d e l .
494
O t h e r considerations that should b e taken into account are any limitations on the construction of the m o d e l . F o r s o m e configurations the selection of a g e o metric scale factor, X , might be m a d e on the basis of available test e q u i p m e n t and facilities. H o w e v e r , with the selection of the geometric scaling factor it might b e found that a strict M a c h - n u m b e r or F r o u d e - n u m b e r scaling is not possible d u e to practical construction considerations. In such cases a c o m p r o m i s e m u s t be m a d e in the selection of the velocity scale factor K to a value other than that uniquely d e t e r m i n e d by either M a c h n u m b e r or F r o u d e n u m b e r scaling. A second principal item of test preparation is the calibration of the test instrumentation. S u c h calibrations are, of c o u r s e , largely d e p e n d e n t on the type of instrumentation used. G e n e r a l l y , such calibrations should b e kept as simple as is practical. M e t h o d s for calibrating the instrumentation should be devised that are as direct as possible for obtaining the necessary tares and calibration factors. O n e point to k e e p in m i n d is that aeroelastic stability testing entails d y n a m i c responses as o p p o s e d to static readings; h e n c e , the calibrations should be m a d e using dynamic proof loads and/or deflections rather than static o n e s (as w o u l d generally be simpler). A third necessary item in the test preparations are the pretest calculations (using s o m e appropriate analysis) of the d y n a m i c p h e n o m e n a being tested using the selected ranges of the test p a r a m e t e r s . T o be sure, if a truly accurate, reliable analysis w e r e available for analyzing the d y n a m i c p h e n o m e n o n in question, then testing w o u l d not be necessary. Since this supposition is not true, a less than 1 0 0 % perfect analysis must b e used for the pretest calculations. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the pretest calculations m u s t be used as a guide in identifying trends in the responses to be m e a s u r e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , a c o m p l e m e n t a r y analysis to be b r o u g h t to the test p r o c e s s is s o m e form of on-line stability evaluator to assess h o w m u c h stability m a r g i n is available at any o n e test condition to guide the testing near a stability b o u n d a r y . T h e log d e c r e m e n t and m o v i n g block techniques described in the p r e c e d i n g chapter are often used for this p u r p o s e .
e v
14.4.3
Test Procedures and Data
Reduction
Excitations. A l t h o u g h unstable systems can typically be relied on to exhibit instability d u e to the small disturbances always present in the test e n v i r o n m e n t , a standard form of excitation is often e m p l o y e d in order to systematize the p r o c e s s . F o r tests w h e r e i n actual stable or unstable time-history traces are sought, a standard excitation is truly required in order to p r o d u c e measurable responses all with the s a m e initial energy level. This uniformity of initial conditions thereby ensures that the use of the previously discussed stability evaluator will p r o d u c e consistent results. F o r cases of this type of (transient) testing one appropriate form of excitation w o u l d be an impulse, suitably calibrated to s o m e standard m a g n i t u d e . A c t u a l l y , any form of standard excitation could be u s e d , even sinusoidal wherein after steady sinusoidal motion is established over s o m e fixed period of t i m e , the sinusoidal excitation is then sharply terminated. A n o t h e r form of stability testing is to test each of the various subsystems separately in the frequency d o m a i n and then to use the multiple-degree-of-freed o m N y q u i s t criterion (see Section 9 . 3 . 3 ) . In this form of testing frequencyresponse functions (either in the form of mobilities or impedances) are obtained.
495
T h u s , with tests in the frequency d o m a i n the excitation must generally b e s o m e form of sinusoidal force and/or m o m e n t . H o w e v e r , in such cases although the p r i m a r y r e s p o n s e s will b e sinusoidal and thus not generally unstable with regard to the p h e n o m e n o n b e i n g tested, other instability issues can arise. In this case an appropriate form of m o n i t o r i n g of the r e s p o n s e s w o u l d b e to perform on-line fast F o u r i e r transform ( F F T ) calculations to d e t e r m i n e if there are h a r m o n i c r e s p o n s e s at frequencies other than the fundamental o n e being used for the basic h a r m o n i c excitation. S u c h m o n i t o r i n g is well within the state of the art of current digital signaling p r o c e s s i n g ( D S P ) techniques and can be a c c o m p l i s h e d using high-speed (digital) implementations of F F T algorithms on microprocessors whose architectures are o p t i m i z e d for D S P o p e r a t i o n s .
Instability quenching. A n important aspect of aeroelastic stability testing is that the e x p e r i m e n t a l article ( i . e . , the test model) can potentially destroy itself in the p r o c e s s of p r o v i d i n g useful results regarding its stability (or lack thereof). T h e r e f o r e , suitable m e a n s m u s t be identified and i m p l e m e n t e d in the design stage of the test rig to e n s u r e that the m o d e l will yield the desired stability information and still b e intact and therefore able to b e tested again. G e n e r a l l y , there are t w o basic m e t h o d s for a c h i e v i n g a control of the unstable m o t i o n , i . e . , instability quenching: passive and active. A simple m e t h o d of passive instability q u e n c h i n g is the use of nonlinear stiffness and/or n o n l i n e a r d a m p i n g e l e m e n t s so that, for small m o t i o n , the m o d e l " s e e s " the correct values of k e y stiffnesses and/or d a m p i n g s , and for motion a b o v e certain ( p r e d e t e r m i n e d ) threshold values the greater stiffness and/or d a m p ing values w o u l d b e c o m e effective. W h e r e feasible, one simple w a y of achieving this w o u l d b e to d e v i s e amplitude limiters, w h i c h w o u l d be rigidly g r o u n d e d and w o u l d t h e r e b y p r o v i d e essentially an infinite stiffness. A n alternate a p p r o a c h w o u l d b e to use a frictional d a m p e r as the contacting surface of the a m p l i t u d e limiter. In this c a s e the frictional d a m p i n g w o u l d b e e n g a g e d only after the r e s p o n s e of the structure e x c e e d e d the threshold d i s p l a c e m e n t value(s). Both of these a p p r o a c h e s are schematically described in F i g . 1 4 . 2 . Active instability q u e n c h i n g requires that provision b e m a d e in the m o d e l construction for the operation of three instrumented activities: 1) sensors, to ascertain w h e t h e r the m o t i o n of the m o d e l is e x c e e d i n g s o m e p r e d e t e r m i n e d threshold value(s); 2) a caging or restraining mechanism to lock out key degrees of freedom ( m o t i o n ) of the m o d e l using s o m e form of active p o w e r ; and 3) a source of intelligence to activate the c a g i n g motion w h e n appropriate. T h e s e three activities can n o w b e i m p l e m e n t e d with state-of-the-art electronics and realt i m e m i c r o p r o c e s s o r s . H o w e v e r , a detailed description of generic m e t h o d s for such i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s is highly situation d e p e n d e n t and b e y o n d the scope of this text. G e n e r a l l y , as s h o w n in F i g . 1 4 . 3 , these three activities can be i m p l e m e n t e d using any of the various m o t i o n sensors identified earlier along with s o m e kind of powered m e c h a n i c a l actuator (electrical, h y d r a u l i c , or p n e u m a t i c ) , all of w h i c h can b e controlled by a real-time m i c r o p r o c e s s o r that w o u l d identify the p r e s e n c e of an instability and t h e r e u p o n actuate the p o w e r e d restraining m e c h a n i s m . It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that a critical item in the previously given m e t h o d o l o g y is the ability of the intelligence source to detect the presence of unstable motion at the incipient motion level. F o r this task a variety of m e t h o d s can b e i m p l e -
496
a) Use of stiff spring to amplitude delimit pylon motion
b) Use of friction to amplitude delimit rotor teetering motion Fig. 14.2 Schematic representations of methods for passive instability quenching using amplitude delimiting.
TESTING FOR ROTOR AEROELASTIC STABILITY

springs compressed by cylinders
497
motion sensor
arresting damps held open by pneumatic cylinders
no (stable)
Fig. 14.3 Schematic representation of an example of an active instability quencher.
m e n t e d a s s u m i n g the p r o g r a m m a b i l i t y of the selected m i c r o p r o c e s s o r . See S e c tion 13.5 for a discussion of instability-estimating a l g o r i t h m s .
14.5 14.5.1
Aeroelastic Considerations for Nonaeroelastic Testing Aerodynamic Performance Testing
M o d e l rotor whirl tests are performed for a variety of r e a s o n s , one of the principal of w h i c h is to establish a e r o d y n a m i c p e r f o r m a n c e . Such tests are often p e r f o r m e d with the a e r o d y n a m i c shell of the fuselage m o u n t e d beneath the g e o m e t r i c a l l y scaled rotor. N o t only the rotor but all other airframe c o m p o n e n t s ( i . e . , fuselage, e m p e n a g e , tail rotor, etc.) exhibit distinct a e r o d y n a m i c force characteristics (lift, d r a g / p r o p u l s i v e force, m o m e n t s ) . Since all of these airframe c o m p o n e n t s are typically of interest, each of these airframe c o m p o n e n t s will often b e separately attached to a m e c h a n i c a l g r o u n d point by m e a n s of s o m e form of load cell. C o n s e q u e n t l y , although the m o d e l might be admirably designed and fabricated to m e a s u r e a e r o d y n a m i c loads, it w o u l d generally be highly i m p r o p e r l y scaled in a d y n a m i c sense and w o u l d not necessarily exhibit the s a m e aeroelastic characteristics as the full scale flight vehicle. T h u s , although the m o d e l is not intended for a e r o m e c h a n i c a l or aeroelastic testing, the aeroelastic issue m u s t still be a d d r e s s e d to e n s u r e that the model will still be stable at the resulting dynamic scaling. In this c o n t e x t , t w o general issues can be easily defined. First, the rotor by itself at least should be aeroelastically stable. S e c o n d , the rotor-fuselage c o m b i n a t i o n should be stable from both g r o u n d r e s o n a n c e and air r e s o n a n c e s t a n d p o i n t s .
498
Blade aeroelastic stability. Since for a e r o d y n a m i c (performance) tests aeroelastic scaling is not generally i n v o k e d , any m e a n s that stabilize the rotor blades are acceptable (as long as aeroelastic effects are not an integral part of the a e r o d y n a m i c tests). F r o m aflutter standpoint a simple m e a n s of stabilizing the blades would be to control the c h o r d w i s e m a s s center to eliminate the inertial coupling n e e d e d to p r o d u c e flutter. A l s o , the blades could be fabricated to be relatively very stiff in torsion in order to provide a m a x i m u m separation b e t w e e n the pertinent frequencies. F r o m a pitch-flap-lag instability standpoint the blades could be provided with explicit excessive a m o u n t s of lead-lag d a m p i n g and/or with any form of kinematic coupling that analysis w o u l d show to be stabilizing. Rotor-fuselage coupled stability. As w a s indicated earlier, a c o m p r e h e n sive a e r o d y n a m i c m o d e l test facility for rotorcraft performance could include a separate load balance for each of the m o d e l e d rotorcraft substructures. A s such, the rotor w o u l d be attached through its load cell to a structural ground point and w o u l d form the basis of a configuration that might experience classical ground r e s o n a n c e instability even though the full-scale rotorcraft would be instabilityfree. In such a case sufficient care should be put into the design of the support structure (including the stiffness characteristics of the load cell) to ensure a stable configuration. A s s h o w n in F i g . 14.4, one m e t h o d is to fabricate the support structure so that an a m p l e source of pylon d a m p i n g is available between the load cell and the g r o u n d point. In this m a n n e r the stabilizing loads of the d a m p e r w o u l d not introduce errors in the m e a s u r e m e n t of rotor hub loads (except for the effects of h u b motion itself on the loads). An underlying issue in all of these considerations is that s o m e form of aeroelastic analysis should precede the fabrication of the test articles and that, on the basis of this analysis, appropriate features must be designed into these test articles to ensure stability. In as m u c h as the stability must be guaranteed, the inclusion of the stabilizing features should be conservative.
Fig. 14.4 Inclusion of pylon damping in a nonaeroelastic test facility to preclude the occurrence of ground resonance.
TESTING FOR ROTOR AEROELASTIC STABILITY 74.5.2 Vibration-Related Model Testing
499
T h e testing of rotors for vibration characteristics at m o d e l scale is generally a difficult task b e c a u s e of t h e m a n y features upon w h i c h vibration d e p e n d s . T o the extent that t h e vibration source is purely a e r o d y n a m i c ( i . e . , very stiff blades and zero rotor-fuselage c o u p l i n g effects p r e s e n t ) , then g e o m e t r i c scaling c a n offer a basis for t h e validity for vibration testing. H o w e v e r , g e n e r a l l y , t h e fullscale rotorcraft d o e s h a v e significant flexibilities both in the rotor a n d fuselage, and a p p r o p r i a t e scaling l a w s m u s t b e invoked (see Section 14.2). In addition to the basic b l a d e scaling issues identified in that section, t w o important effects that especially i m p a c t o n t h e p r o p e r scaling are t h e flexibilities of the control s y s t e m a n d t h e p y l o n mobility characteristics. Both of these structural issues p r e s e n t formidable c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e m o d e l designer. T h e control system as typified b y t h e s w a s h plate is a structure with nonlinear time-variable stiffness characteristics. T h e p y l o n mobility characteristics of a full-scale rotorcraft are p r e d o m i n a t e d b y t h e e l a s t o m e c h a n i c a l d y n a m i c characteristics of t h e elastic airframe in free-free b o u n d a r y conditions (as appropriate to free-flight c o n d i t i o n s ) . T y p i c a l l y , at rotor b l a d e p a s s a g e frequencies t h e elastic airframe is r e s p o n d i n g at vibratory c o n d i t i o n s in a r a n g e of frequencies a b o v e its first few n o r m a l m o d e s . I n c o r p o r a t i n g correct fuselage mobilities in this frequency range is e x t r e m e l y difficult t o incorporate in a m o d e l , a n d it i s , m o r e o v e r , equally difficult e v e n t o k n o w t h e natural frequencies a priori o n t h e basis of finite e l e m e n t analysis in the d e s i g n stage of a n y rotorcraft's d e v e l o p m e n t .
References
Section 14.1, 14.2 Author(s) Hunt Bielawa Stewart
(/?)
(7)
( )
Problems
14.1 A given full-scale rotor blade h a s the following s p a n w i s e (constant) section property distributions: E d g e w i s e b e n d i n g stiffness: EI
e
= 362 x 1 0 lb-in.
6
F l a t w i s e b e n d i n g stiffness: EI M a s s distribution: m' = 0 . 1 1 1 8 l b - s / f t

2 2 f
= 5.29 x
1 0 lb-in.
6
500
Also,
c = 1.5 ft, Determine appropriately a Froude-scaled model
R = 2 0 ft,
= 6 5 0 ft/s each for a Mach-scaled and
scaled, similar properties rotor 9 ft in diameter.
14.2 C o n s i d e r the full-scale rotor defined in P r o b l e m 1 4 . 1 , wherein a scaled m o d e l aeroelastic stability test is to be performed. This test is to determine the effects of a d v a n c e ratio as they impact on flap-lag stability, especially with regard to the periodicity of the a e r o d y n a m i c coefficients (Floquet theory effects). A test r a n g e of a d v a n c e ratios of 0 . 4 to 0 . 6 is required. T h e design and construction of the m o d e l rotor is to b e , as in P r o b l e m 1 4 . 1 , scaled to a 9-ft diameter. H o w e v e r , the tests are to be performed in a wind tunnel limited to a useful speed range of 1 5 0 - 2 4 0 ft/s. Determine appropriately scaled bending stiffness (both flatwise and edgewise) and mass distributions needed to accomplish these tests. 14.3 A 1/5-scale free-flying Mach-scaled helicopter model is to be d e s i g n e d , fabricated, and tested for the p u r p o s e s of measuring rotor noise. Using simple momentum strip theory aerodynamic analysis, estimate the scale factor required for the collective control angle range in order for the model to fly with an appropriately scaled gross weight. 14.4 A s discussed in Section 1 4 . 2 . 2 , the proper scaling of the natural freq u e n c i e s of the pylon structure of a model requires k n o w l e d g e of the implicit rotational spring d u e to the rotor as quantified by K . Using material from Appendix D, derive an expression for this spring rate for the hovering flight condition.
r
14 .5 F i g u r e 14.4 defines a typical installation of a multiaxis load cell for m e a s u r i n g rotor loads. Generally such load cells are strain-gage instrumented and therefore require a finite d e g r e e of c o m p l i a n c e in order to achieve accurately m e a s u r a b l e strains. Successful designs of these loads cells maintain linearity despite exhibiting c o n s i d e r a b l e coupling b e t w e e n the degrees of freedom. T h u s , the h u b load vector, { F } , [ = [F , F , F , M , M , \ ] can be related to the incremental h u b d i s p l a c e m e n t degree of freedom vector, { }, [ = [ * , y, , ^ . , ^ by m e a n s of a stiffness matrix defined by the load cell c o m p l i a n c e :
T x y z V f y F /7
{F} =
lK ]{bX }
LC h
(14.13)
terms using
Using the development in Appendix D as a basis, formulate the additional required in the equations of motion to account for load cell compliance this [K ] matrix.
LC
Appendix A: Glossary of Rotorcraft-Related Terms

alpha-two hinge actual h i n g e a r r a n g e m e n t or kinematic coupling of the b l a d e pitch link g e o m e t r y so that lead-lag motion of the blade p r o d u c e s pitch c h a n g e , as w e l l , at blade sections shape of a cross section of a rotor blade main rotor turning counterclockwise when viewed from a b o v e angle b e t w e e n the relative w i n d and the chord of the b l a d e section point in a d y n a m i c s y s t e m , oscillating at o n e of its natural frequencies, w h e r e the response is a maximum r e s p o n s e condition in a d y n a m i c system wherein a small sinusoidal excitation force applied at s o m e point in the system will cause a z e r o - a m p l i t u d e r e s p o n s e at s o m e other point in the system rotor system in which individual blades have hinges for flapping and lead-lag motion ratio of the blade radius to the average blade chord length form of a hingeless rotor wherein the feathering b e a r i n g is replaced by a torsionally soft elastic member blade w i d t h , i . e . , local d i m e n s i o n perpendicular to b l a d e radius d e v i c e suppressing the lead-lag motion about an articulated rotor blade hinge utilizing friction, hyd r a u l i c , or elastomeric energy dissipation u p w a r d convexity of the m e a n line of the airfoil force created by the tendency of a b o d y to follow a straight-line path even while b e i n g forced to m o v e in a curved p a t h , resulting in a force that tends to pull it a w a y from the center of rotation the part of a h e l i c o p t e r ' s control system wherein all blades change pitch simultaneously by the same amount aerodynamic effects acting on portions of the blade d u e to the closeness of air velocities to the speed of sound constant value of u p w a r d flapping of a blade d u e to lift and centrifugal force
airfoil A m e r i c a n rotor rotation angle of attack a n t i n o d e point a n t i r e s o n a n c e condition
articulated rotor aspect ratio bearingless rotor
blade chord blade d a m p e r
camber centrifugal force
collective pitch
compressibility
coning
501
502 Coriolis force
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S force created in a rotating b o d y tangential to the rotation by the tendency of the b o d y to maintain angular m o m e n t u m w h e n at the s a m e time s o m e of its mass elements are being m o v e d radially ratio of d a m p i n g in a d y n a m i c system to that required for periodic motion to b e c o m e aperiodic the part of a helicopter's control system wherein the blades c h a n g e pitch in a sinusoidal fashion as they traverse around the rotor a z i m u t h , each blade having the s a m e a m o u n t of such pitch c h a n g e w h e n it reaches any given rotor azimuth suppression of translational or rotary velocities in a b l a d e , structural c o m p o n e n t , or completely coupled aircraft actual hinge arrangement or kinematic coupling of the blade pitch link geometry so that flapping motion of the blade produces pitch c h a n g e , as well, at blade sections ratio of the gross weight of the rotorcraft to the area of the lifting rotor disk(s) rotation of the blade about its spanwise axis to c h a n g e its pitch vertical motion of blade sections due to either rotation about the horizontal hinge ( i . e . , normal to the plane of rotation) at the blade root or elastic b e n d i n g of the blade tendency for particles in a spinning b o d y to react to a m o m e n t applied to the b o d y in a n o n s p i n n i n g coordinate frame so as to achieve a rotational velocity a quarter of a revolution r e m o v e d from the applied m o m e n t rotor with no actual mechanical hinges that achieves flapping and lead-lag motion by elastically flexing m e c h a n i s m s that hold the blades proper to the h u b and allow free angular motion with zero m o ment transfer structure that holds the blades to the rotor shaft couple p r o d u c e d on the hub by the blades at their h u b attachment ratio of force quantity(s) to response quantity(s), for sinusoidally excited s y s t e m s . T h e term is used generally to describe such a ratio wherein the response is taken to be either d i s p l a c e m e n t , v e locity, or acceleration, and used specifically wherein the response is velocity (see mechanical impedance). W h e t h e r used generally or specifically, i m p e d a n c e is the reciprocal (inverse) of mobility as long as the response quantities are
critical d a m p i n g ratio cyclic pitch
damping
delta-three h i n g e
disk loading feathering flapping
g y r o s c o p i c effect
hingeless rotor
hinges
hub hub moment impedance
APPENDIX A
503
i n d u c e d velocity
inflow inflow ratio
= =
lateral cyclic control lead-lag m o t i o n
= =
longitudinal cyclic pitch matrix-related t e r m s : matrix
consistently defined. I m p e d a n c e and mobility can be scalar or matrix quantities, d o w n w a r d air velocity generated b y the rotor in the process of d e v e l o p i n g (upward) rotor thrust, or locally by a vortex c o m p o n e n t of air velocity through and perpendicular to the rotor disk ratio of total average velocity n o r m a l to the plane of rotation to the tip s p e e d , normally taken p o s itive w h e n flowing d o w n w a r d through disk c o m p o n e n t of cyclic control used to roll the helicopter horizontal motion of blade sections d u e to either rotation about the vertical hinge ( i . e . , nearly parallel to the axis of rotation) at the blade root or elastic b e n d i n g of the blade c o m p o n e n t of cyclic control used to pitch the helicopter
= set of n u m b e r s or elements arranged in a rectangular array of m r o w s and c o l u m n s . T h e array is then called an m matrix. T h e matrix defines a linear transformation. In this text the array will be represented by the following s y m b o l s :
A = [A] =
2l
2n
(A.l)
r o w matrix
(If n o confusion arises, it is s o m e t i m e s convenient to d r o p the brackets and indices altogether.) matrix of order 1 x n\ notation: A = [A] = [ a
2
. . .
a\
n
(A.2)
c o l u m n matrix
matrix of order m x
1; notation:
{A} =
(A.3)
square matrix
= matrix of order . Important: Only with square matrices can w e ascribe m e a n i n g to the concept of determinant. T h e value of the d e t e r m i n a n t is designated by the s y m b o l | A | .
504
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S square matrix of w h i c h the e l e m e n t s other than those in the principal diagonal are zero; notation: 0 a
22
diagonal matrix
[\A\]
0 0
0 0
(A.4)
unit matrix null matrix matrix m i n o r
cofactor singular matrix coefficient matrix
a u g m e n t e d matrix rank of a matrix transposed matrix
adjoint matrix
mechanical impedance
mechanical admittance
mobility
diagonal matrix of w h i c h the diagonal elements are equal to unity; notation: [/] any matrix w h o s e elements are all zero; notation: [0] in any square matrix the m i n o r of the e l e m e n t Aj, Mu is the r e m a i n i n g determinant if the ith c o l u m n and 7th r o w are deleted cofactor of the element A is the m i n o r M m u l tiplied by matrix is said to be singular if its determinant is zero given a set of linear equations in the u n k n o w n s {x}, the coefficients of {x} form the coefficient matrix. coefficient matrix to w h i c h the c o l u m n of constants has b e e n added order of the largest square array in the matrix of which the determinant does not vanish matrix A = [A] is called the transpose of any given matrix A ( [ A ] ) ; matrix that is equal to its transpose is said to be symmetrical. If A is a square matrix, the matrix obtained from A by replacing each element by its cofactor and then transposing the resulting matrix is called the adjoint of A . for sinusoidally excited mechanical s y s t e m s , the ratio of excitation force to response velocity; impedance is the reciprocal of mechanical admittance (mobility) for sinusoidally excited mechanical s y s t e m s , the ratio of response velocity to excitation force; mechanical admittance (mobility) is the reciprocal or inverse of mechanical impedance for sinusoidally excited s y s t e m s , the ratio of response quantity to force quantity; the t e r m is used generally to describe such a ratio w h e r e i n the response is taken to be d i s p l a c e m e n t , velocity, or acceleration and used specifically wherein the res p o n s e is velocity (see mechanical admittance). W h e t h e r used generally or specifically, i m p e d ij9 z / T /;
APPENDIX A
505
n o d e point pitch plane of rotation preconing
pylon pylon d a m p i n g
r e s o n a n c e condition
reverse-flow region
root vortex
shed vortex
stall
s w a s h plate
teetering rotor
thickness ratio
a n c e is the reciprocal (inverse) of mobility as long as the r e s p o n s e quantities are consistently d e fined. I m p e d a n c e and mobility can be scalar or matrix quantities. point in a d y n a m i c s y s t e m , oscillating at o n e of its natural frequencies, w h e r e the response is zero angle b e t w e e n a blade chord line and a plane p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the rotor mast plane p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the rotor shaft constant angle built into the blade roots of h i n g e less rotor blades to place the blades in a fixed c o n i n g position independent of lift or centrifugal forces portion of fuselage which supports the drive shaft to a rotor d a m p e r s attached to the helicopter airframe to d a m p motion of the pylon relative to the g r o u n d ; typically installed in landing gear struts r e s p o n s e condition in a d y n a m i c system wherein a small sinusoidal excitation force oscillating at or very near to the system natural frequency will c a u s e the system to r e s p o n d at amplitudes several orders of m a g n i t u d e greater than w o u l d be o b tained if the force w e r e of constant m a g n i t u d e area on the retreating side of the rotor w h e r e the c o m p o n e n t of free stream velocity a p p r o a c h i n g the trailing e d g e of the blade e x c e e d s the tangential velocity of rotation local whirling motion of air particles exiting in the c h o r d w i s e direction from the most inboard a e r o d y n a m i c portion of the rotor b l a d e , wherein the whirling is about an axis n o r m a l to the blade local whirling motion of air particles exiting from the trailing e d g e of the rotor b l a d e , wherein the whirling is about an axis parallel to the blade reduction of lift (or c h a n g e in pitching m o m e n t or increase in drag) associated with separation of airflow from the surface of the blade or other component portion of a rotor control system that converts control inputs from the pilot (in the nonrotating c o o r d i n a t e system) to collective and cyclic pitch angles to the separate blades t w o - b l a d e d rotor with structure to carry m o m e n t s from o n e b l a d e to the other, m o u n t e d on a single horizontal h i n g e that allows flapping that is alw a y s equal and opposite on the t w o blades ratio of m a x i m u m thickness to airfoil chord
506 thrust tip loss tip-path plane tip speed tip speed ratio tip vortex
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S rotor force perpendicular to the tip-path plane loss of lift at the blade tip d u e to t h r e e - d i m e n sional induced effects plane containing the path of the rotor blade tips tangential velocity of the rotor blade in h o v e r ratio of aircraft forward flight speed to tip speed local whirling motion of air particles exiting in the c h o r d w i s e direction from the tip of the rotor b l a d e , wherein the whirling is about an axis normal to the blade in a rotational sense from the b o t t o m to the top surfaces m o m e n t about the rotor shaft in the top view due to the total drag of the rotor blades
torque
Bibliography
Books A s t r o m , K. J . , and W i t t e n m a r k , . , Computer Controlled Systems, Theory and Design, Prentice-Hall (Information and S y s t e m Sciences Series), E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, N J , 1984. B a t h e , K . - J . , Finite Element Procedures H a l l , E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, N J , 1982. in Engineering Analysis, Prentice-
Bisplinghoff, R. L . , A s h l e y , H . , and Halfman, R. L . , Aeroelasticity, s o n - W e s l e y , C a m b r i d g e , M A , 1955. B r a m w e l l , A . R. S . , Helicopter Dynamics, W i l e y , N e w Y o r k , 1976.
Addi-
B r o c h , J. T . , Mechanical Vibration and Shock Measurements, D e n m a r k (for Brel & Kjaer), 1984. D e n H a r t o g , J. P . , Mechanical Vibrations,
Larsen & S o n ,
M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Y o r k , 1940. of Mechanism, Wiley, New
D o u g h t i e , V . L . , and J a m e s , W . H . , Elements Y o r k , 1954.
D o w e l l , E . H . , C u r t i s s , H . C , S c a n l a n , R. H . , and Sisto, F . , A Modern Course in Aeroelasticity, Sijthoff & Noordhoff, R o c k v i l l e , M D , 1978. E w i n s , D . J . , Modal H e r t s , E n g l a n d , 1984. Testing: Theory and Practice, Research Studies P r e s s ,
F r a z e r , R. . , D u n c a n , W . T . , and Collar, A . R . , Elementary C a m b r i d g e U n i v . P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e , E n g l a n d , 1950. F u n g , Y . C , An Introduction Y o r k , 1955. to the Theory of Aeroelasticity,
Matrices,
Wiley, New
G e s s o w , . , and M y e r s , G . C , Aerodynamics Y o r k , 1967. G r e e n s i t e , A . L . , Elements Y o r k , 1970. Hildebrand, F . . , Methods 1952. of Modern Control
of the Helicopter,
Ungar, New
Theory,
Spartan B o o k s , N e w
of Applied
Mathematics,
Prentice-Hall, N e w York,
547
548
R O T A R Y WING S T R U C T U R A L D Y N A M I C S to Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New
H i l d e b r a n d , F . . , Introduction Y o r k , 1956.
H u r t y , W . C , and Rubinstein, M . F., Dynamics E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, N J , 1964. J o h n s o n , W . , Helicopter L a m b , H . , Hydrodynamics, M y k l e s t a d , N . O . , Vibration Theory,
of Structures,
Prentice-Hall,
Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N J , 1980.
D o v e r , N e w Y o r k , 1932. Analysis, M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w Y o r k , 1944.
N A T O A d v i s o r y G r o u p for Aeronautical R & D ( A G A R D ) , Structures and Materials Panel, Manual on Aeroelasticity, edited by W . P. J o n e s , L o n d o n , 1960. N i k o l s k y , . . , Helicopter Payne, P. R., Helicopter 1959. P r o u t y , R. W . , Practical P e o r i a , I L , 1982. Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1951. Macmillan, N e w York,
Dynamics
and Aerodynamics,
Helicopter
Aerodynamics,
P. J. S. Publications,
R a l s t o n , . , and Wilf, H. S. ( e d s . ) , Mathematical puters, W i l e y , N e w Y o r k , 1960. R a n d a l l , R. B . , Frequency Kjaer), 1984. Analysis,
Methods
for Digital
Com-
Larsen & S o n , D e n m a r k (for Brel &
Saaty, T. L . , and Bram, J., Nonlinear 1964. S a v a n t , C . J., J r . , Basic N e w Y o r k , 1958. Feedback
Mathematics,
McGraw-Hill, N e w York,
Control
System
Design,
McGraw-Hill,
S c a n l a n , R. H . , and R o s e n b a u m , R . , Introduction Vibration and Flutter, M a c m i l l a n , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 1 . S c a r b o r o u g h , J. B . , The Gyroscope, N e w Y o r k , 1958. Theory
to the Study
of
Aircraft
and Applications,
Interscience,
S c h w a m b , P . , Merrill, A . L . , and J a m e s , W . H . , Elements W i l e y , N e w Y o r k , 1938. Stewart, H . L . , Pneumatics rill, Indianapolis), 1966. and Hydraulics,
of
Mechanisms,
A u d e l , (Division of B o b b s - M e r -
BIBLIOGRAPHY T i m o s h e n k o , S . , Vibration Y o r k , 1937. Problems in Engineering,
549 Van Nostrane, New
T s e , F . S . , M o r s e , I. E . , and H i n k l e , R. T . , Mechanical & B a c o n , B o s t o n , 1964. T u p l i n , W . . , Torsional T o n g , . N . , Theory Vibration,
Vibrations,
Allyn
P i t m a n , L o n d o n , 1966. Vibrations, W i l e y , N e w Y o r k , 1960. Theory,
of Mechanical
W r i g l e y , W . , Hollister, W . M . , and D e n h a r d , W . G . , Gyroscopic Design and Instrumentation, M . I . T . P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e , M A , 1969.
Z a v e r i , K . , Modal Analysis of Large StructuresMultiple Exciter Systems, N a e r u m Offset, D e n m a r k (for Brel and Kjaer), ( I S B N 87 8 7 3 5 5 0 3 5 ) , 1985.
Journal Articles B a i l e y , C . D . , " E x a c t and Direct Analytical Solutions to Vibrating S y s t e m s with D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , " Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 4 4 , N o . 1, 1976, pp. 15-25. B e d d o e s , T . S . , " A Synthesis of Unsteady A e r o d y n a m i c Effects Including Stall H y s t e r e s i s , " Veruca, V o l . 1, 1976, p p . 1 1 3 - 1 2 3 . B i e l a w a , R. L . , ' A n I m p r o v e d T e c h n i q u e for Testing Helicopter R o t o r - P y l o n A e r o m e c h a n i c a l Stability U s i n g M e a s u r e d R o t o r D y n a m i c I m p e d a n c e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , " Vertica, V o l . 9, N o . 2 , 1985, p p . 1 8 1 - 1 9 7 .
4
B i e l a w a , R. L . , " N o t e s R e g a r d i n g F u n d a m e n t a l U n d e r s t a n d i n g s of Rotorcraft Aeroelastic I n s t a b i l i t y , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 3 2 , N o . 4 , 1987, p p . 4 - 1 5 . B i e l a w a , R. L . , " V a l i d a t i o n of a M e t h o d for Air R e s o n a n c e Testing of Helicopters at M o d e l Scale U s i n g A c t i v e Control of Pylon D y n a m i c Characterist i c s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 3 4 , N o . 2 , 1989, p p . 33-42. B i s h o p , R. E . D . , " T h e Vibration of Rotating S h a f t s , " Journal Engineering Science, V o l . 1, N o . 1, 1959, p p . 5 0 - 6 5 . of Mechanical
B r o s e n s , P . J . , and C r a n d a l l , S. H . , " W h i r l i n g of U n s y m m e t r i c a l R o t o r s , " Journal of Applied Mechanics, V o l . 8 3 , Sept. 1 9 6 1 , p p . 3 5 5 - 3 6 2 . C o r l i s s , L . D . , " T h e Effects of E n g i n e and Height-Control Characteristics on Helicopter H a n d l i n g Q u a l i t i e s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 28, N o . 3, 1983, pp. 5 6 - 6 2 .
550
C r a n d a l l , S. H . , and B r o s e n s , P . J., " O n the Stability of a Rotor with R o tationally U n s y m m e t r i c Inertia and Stiffness P r o p e r t i e s , " Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 8 3 , D e c . 1 9 6 1 , p p . 5 6 7 - 5 7 0 . Desjardin, R. . , and H o o p e r , W . E . , " A n t i r e s o n a n t Rotor Isolation for Vibration R e d u c t i o n , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2 5 , N o . 3 , 1980, p p . 4 6 - 5 5 . D o n h a m , R. E . , C a r d i n a l e , S. V . , and S a c h s , I. B . , " G r o u n d and Air R e s o n a n c e Characteristics of a Soft In-Plane Rigid Rotor S y s t e m , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 14, N o . 4 , 1969, p p . 3 3 - 4 1 . E h r i c h , F . , and C h i l d s , D . , " S e l f - E x c i t e d Vibration in H i g h - P e r f o r m a n c e T u r b o m a c h i n e r y , " Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 106, N o . 5, 1984, pp. 6 6 - 7 9 . F a b u n m i , J. . , " D e v e l o p m e n t s in Helicopter G r o u n d Vibration T e s t i n g , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 3 1 , N o . 3 , 1986, p p . 5 4 - 5 9 . Franklin, J. N . , " O n the N u m e r i c a l Solution of Characteristic Equations in Flutter A n a l y s i s , " Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, Vol. 5, N o . 1, 1958, p p . 4 5 - 5 2 . Friedmann, P. P . , and Shanthakumaran, P . , " O p t i m u m Design of Rotor Blades for Vibration Reduction in F o r w a r d F l i g h t , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2 9 , N o . 4 , 1984, p p . 7 0 - 8 0 . F r i e d m a n n , P . P . , H a m m o n d , C. E . , and W o o , T . - H . , "Efficient N u m e r i c a l T r e a t m e n t of Periodic S y s t e m s with Application to Stability P r o b l e m s , " International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 1 1 , N o . 7, 1977, pp. 1117-1136. F r i e d m a n n , P . P . , and S t r a u b , F . , " A p p l i c a t i o n of the Finite E l e m e n t M e t h o d to R o t a r y - W i n g A e r o e l a s t i c i t y , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2 5 , N o . 1, 1980, p p . 3 6 - 4 4 . G a b e l , R . , and C a p u r s o , V . , " E x a c t M e c h a n i c a l Instability Boundaries as D e t e r m i n e d from the C o l e m a n E q u a t i o n , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 7, N o . 1, 1962, p p . 1 7 - 2 3 . G a o n k a r , G. H . , Sastry, V. V. S. S . , R e d d y , T. S. R . , N a g a b h u s h a n a m , J . , and P e t e r s , D . . , " T h e Use of Actuator-Disc D y n a m i c Inflow for Helicopter F l a p - L a g S t a b i l i t y , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2 8 , N o . 3, 1983, pp. 7 9 - 8 8 . G a n g w a n i , S. T . , " C a l c u l a t i o n of Rotor W a k e Induced E m p e n n a g e Airl o a d s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2 8 , N o . 2, 1 9 8 3 , p p . 37-46.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
551
G a n g w a n i , S. T . , " P r e d i c t i o n of D y n a m i c Stall and U n s t e a d y Airloads for R o t o r B l a d e s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 2 7 , N o . 4 , 1982, pp. 5 7 - 6 4 . G a u k r o g e r , D . R . , S k i n g l e , C . W . , and H e r o n , . H . , " N u m e r i c a l A n a l y s i s of V e c t o r R e s p o n s e L o c i , " Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1973, pp. 3 4 1 - 3 5 3 . G l a d w e l l , G . M . , a n d S t a m m e r s , C . W . , " O n the Stability of an U n s y m metrical Rigid R o t o r S u p p o r t e d in U n s y m m e t r i c a l B e a r i n g s , " Journal of Sound and Vibration, V o l . 3 , N o . 3 , 1966, p p . 2 2 1 - 2 3 2 . H o d g e s , D . H . , " V i b r a t i o n and R e s p o n s e of N o n u n i f o r m Rotating B e a m s with D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 2 4 , N o . 5 , 1979, p p . 4 3 - 5 0 . H o h e n e m s e r , . H . , and Y i n , S . - K . , " S o m e Applications of the M e t h o d of M u l t i b l a d e C o o r d i n a t e s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 17, N o . 3 , 1972, p p . 3 - 1 2 . H o r v a y , G . , a n d Y u a n , S. W . , " S t a b i l i t y of R o t o r Blade Flapping M o t i o n W h e n the H i n g e s are Tilted. Generalization of the ' R e c t a n g u l a r R i p p l e ' M e t h o d of S o l u t i o n , " Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, V o l . 14, N o . 10, 1947, p p . 583-593. H o u b o l t , J. C , and R e e d , W . H . , " P r o p e l l e r - N a c e l l e Whirl F l u t t e r , " of the Aeronautical Sciences, V o l . 2 9 , N o . 3 , 1962, p p . 3 3 3 - 3 4 6 . Journal
H o w l e t t , J. J . , M o r r i s o n , T . , and Z a g r a n s k i , R. D . , " A d a p t i v e Fuel Control for H e l i c o p t e r A p p l i c a t i o n s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 2 9 , N o . 4 , 1984, p p . 4 3 - 5 4 . I b r a h i m , S. R . , and M i k u l c i k , E . C , " A M e t h o d for the Direct Identification of Vibration P a r a m e t e r s from the Free R e s p o n s e , " Shock and Vibration Bulletin, N o . 4 7 , Pt. 4 , 1977, p p . 1 8 3 - 1 9 8 . I s a a c s , R . , " A i r f o i l T h e o r y for F l o w s of Variable V e l o c i t y , " Journal Aeronautical Sciences, V o l . 12, N o . 1, 1 9 4 5 , p p . 1 1 3 - 1 1 7 . I s a a c s , R . , " A i r f o i l T h e o r y for Rotary W i n g A i r c r a f t , " Journal nautical Sciences, V o l . 1 3 , N o . 4 , 1946, p p . 2 1 8 - 2 2 0 . of the of the
Aero-
J e t m u n d s e n , B . , B i e l a w a , R. L . , and Flannelly, W . G . , " G e n e r a l i z e d F r e q u e n c y D o m a i n Substructure S y n t h e s i s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 3 3 , N o . 1, 1988, p p . 5 5 - 6 4 . K e m p , . H . , " O n the Lift and Circulation of Airfoils in S o m e U n s t e a d y F l o w P r o b l e m s , " Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, V o l . 19, N o . 10, 1952, pp. 713, 714.
552
K e n n e d y , C. C , and P a n c u , C. D . P . , " U s e of Vectors in Vibration M e a surement and A n a l y s i s , " Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 14, N o . 1 1 , 1947, p p . 6 0 3 - 6 2 5 . Kottapalli, S. B . R . , " U n s t e a d y A e r o d y n a m i c s of Oscillating Airfoils with Inplane M o t i o n s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 3 0 , N o . I, 1985, p p . 6 2 , 6 3 . K u c z y n s k i , W . . , C o o p e r , D . E . , T w o m e y , W . J., and H o w l e t t , J. J., " T h e Influence of E n g i n e / F u e l Control Design on Helicopter D y n a m i c s and Handling Q u a l i t i e s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2 5 , N o . 2 , 1980, pp. 2 6 - 3 4 . L o e w y , R. G . , " H e l i c o p t e r Vibrations: A Technological Perspective (The A H S A l e x a n d e r A . N i k o l s k y H o n o r a r y L e c t u r e ) , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 2 9 , N o . 4 , 1984, p p . 4 - 3 0 . L o e w y , R. G . , " A T w o - D i m e n s i o n a l A p p r o x i m a t i o n to the Unsteady A e r o d y n a m i c s of Rotary W i n g s , " Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 2 4 , N o . 2 , 1957, p p . 8 1 - 9 2 . L o e w y , R. G . , R o s e n , . , and M a t h e w , M . B . , " A p p l i c a t i o n of the Principal C u r v a t u r e Transformation to N o n l i n e a r Rotor Blade A n a l y s i s , " Vertica, V o l . I I , N o . 1/2, 1987, p p . 2 6 3 - 2 9 6 . L u k e , Y . L . , and D e n g l e r , . . , " T a b l e s of the T h e o d o r s e n Circulation F u n c t i o n for G e n e r a l i z e d M o t i o n , " Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 18, N o . 7, 1 9 5 1 , p p . 4 7 8 - 4 8 3 . L y t w y n , R. T . , M i a o , W . - L . , and W o i t s c h , W . , " A i r b o r n e and G r o u n d R e s o n a n c e of Helicopter R o t o r s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 16, N o . 2 , 1 9 7 1 , p p . 2 - 9 . M a c F a r l a n e , A . G . J., and Postlethwaite, I., " T h e General Nyquist Stability Criterion and Multivariable Root L o c i , " International Journal of Control, Vol. 2 5 , 1977, p p . 8 1 - 1 2 7 . Miller, R. H . , and Ellis, C. W . , " B l a d e Vibration and F l u t t e r , " Journal the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 1, N o . 3 , 1956, p p . 1 9 - 3 8 . N a g y , E. J . , " I m p r o v e d M e t h o d s in G r o u n d Vibration T e s t i n g , " Journal the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 2 8 , N o . 2, 1983, p p . 2 4 - 2 9 . N e l s o n , R. B . , " S i m p l i f i e d Calculation of Eigenvector D e r i v a t i v e s , " Journal, Vol. 14, N o . 9 , 1976, p p . 1 2 0 1 - 1 2 0 5 . of
of
AIAA
O r m i s t o n , R. . , and H o d g e s , D . H . , " L i n e a r Flap-Lag D y n a m i c s of H i n g e less Helicopter R o t o r Blades in H o v e r , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 17, N o . 2 , 1972, p p . 2 - 1 4 .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
553
P a u l , W . F . , " A Self-Excited R o t o r Blade Oscillation at H i g h S u b s o n i c M a c h N u m b e r s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, Vol. 14, N o . 1, 1969, pp. 3 8 - 4 8 . P e n r o s e , R . , " O n the G e n e r a l i z e d Inverse of a M a t r i x , " Proceedings Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1955, pp. 4 0 6 - 4 1 3 . of the
P e t e r s , D . . , " F l a p - L a g Stability of Helicopter Rotor Blades in F o r w a r d F l i g h t , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 2 0 , N o . 4 , 1975, p p . 2-13. Pitt, D . M . , and P e t e r s , D . . , " T h e o r e t i c a l Prediction of D y n a m i c - I n f l o w D e r i v a t i v e s , " Vertica, V o l . 5 , N o . 1, 1 9 8 1 , p p . 2 1 - 3 4 . R e e d , W . H . , " P r o p e l l e r - R o t o r Whirl Flutter: A State-of-the-Art R e v i e w , " Journal of Sound and Vibration, V o l . 4 , N o . 3 , 1966, p p . 5 2 6 - 5 4 4 . S e a r s , W . R . , " S o m e A s p e c t s of N o n - S t a t i o n a r y Airfoil T h e o r y and Its Practical A p p l i c a t i o n , " Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 8, N o . 3 , 1 9 4 1 , pp. 104-108. T a y l o r , R. B . , and T e a r e , P . . , " H e l i c o p t e r Vibration R e d u c t i o n with Pend u l u m A b s o r b e r s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 2 0 , N o . 3, 1975, pp. 9 - 1 7 . T o n g u e , . H . , " L i m i t C y c l e Oscillations of a N o n l i n e a r Rotorcraft M o d e l , " AIAA Journal, V o l . 2 2 , N o . 7 , 1984, p p . 9 6 7 - 9 7 4 . U r a b e , M . , " G a l e r k i n ' s P r o c e d u r e for N o n l i n e a r Periodic S y s t e m s , " of Rational Mechanics and Analysis, V o l . 2 0 , 1965, p p . 1 2 0 - 1 5 2 . Archives
W e r n i k e , K. G . , and Gaffey, T . M . , " R e v i e w and Discussion of T h e Influe n c e of B l a d e F l a p p i n g Restraint on the D y n a m i c Stability of L o w Disk L o a d i n g P r o p e l l e r - R o t o r s , ' " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 12, N o . 4 , 1967, p p . 5 5 - 5 7 . Y o u n g , M . I . , and L y t w y n , R. . , T h e Influence of Blade Flapping Restraint on the D y n a m i c Stability of L o w Disk L o a d i n g Propel 1 e r - R o t o r s , " Journal of the American Helicopter Society, V o l . 12, N o . 4 , 1967, p p . 3 8 - 5 4 .
4
Z a j a c , . E . , " T h e K e l v i n - T a i t - C h e t a e v T h e o r e m and E x t e n s i o n s , " of the Aeronautical Sciences, V o l . 1 1 , N o . 2 , 1964, p p . 4 6 - 4 9 .
Journal
Reports " R e q u i r e m e n t s for Rotorcraft Vibration Specifications, M o d e l i n g and Testi n g , " U . S . A r m y A V S C O M , Aeronautical Design Standards, A D S - 2 7 , St. Louis, M O , O c t . 1985.
554
44
Bellinger, E . D . ( e d . ) , M S C / N A S T R A N A e r o e l a s t i c S u p p l e m e n t , " M a n ual M S R - 5 7 , M a c N e a l - S c h w e n d l e r C o r p . , Los A n g e l e s , C A , 1980. B i e l a w a , R. L . , J o h n s o n , S. . , C h i , R. M . , and G a n g w a n i , S. T . , " A e r o elastic A n a l y s i s for P r o p e l l e r s , " N A S A C R - 3 7 2 9 , 1983. B i e l a w a , R. L . , ' ' S i m p l i f i e d D y n a m i c Equations for G r o u n d and Air R e s o n a n c e , " R e n s s e l a e r Polytechnic Inst., Rotorcraft T e c h n o l o g y Center, Rept. D 9 0 - 1 , 1990. B i e l a w a , R. L . , " A n E x p e r i m e n t a l and Analytical Study of the M e c h a n i c a l Instability of Rotors on Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom S u p p o r t s , " Princeton Univ., P r i n c e t o n , N J , D e p t . of Aeronautical Engineering Rept. 6 1 2 , 1962. C a n s d a l e , R . , G a u k r o g e r , D . L . , and S k i n g l e , C. W . , " A T e c h n i q u e for M e a s u r i n g I m p e d a n c e of a Spinning M o d e l R o t o r , " Royal Aircraft Establishment TR-71092, 1971. C o l e m a n , R. P . , and F e i n g o l d , A . M . , " T h e o r y of Self-Excited M e c h a n i c a l Oscillations of Helicopter Rotors with H i n g e d B l a d e s , " N A C A Rept. 1 3 5 1 , 1958. Flannelly, W . G . , F a b u n m i , J. . , and N a g y , E. J., " A n a l y t i c a l T e s t i n g , " N A S A CR-3429, 1981. G r e e n b e r g , J. M . , " A i r f o i l in Sinusoidal M o t i o n in a Pulsating S t r e a m , " N A C A T N - 1 3 2 6 , 1947. H a l f m a n , R. L . , J o h n s o n , H . C , and H a l e y , S. M . , " E v a l u a t i o n of High Angle-of-Attack A e r o d y n a m i c D e r i v a t i v e Data and Stall-Flutter Prediction T e c h n i q u e s , " N A C A TN-2533, 1951. H a m , H . D . , " H e l i c o p t e r Blade F l u t t e r , " A G A R D Rept. 607 (revision of Pt. I l l , C h a p . 10 of the A G A R D M a n u a l of Aeroelasticity), 1973. H a m m o n d , C. E . , and D o g g e t t , R . , " D e m o n s t r a t i o n of Subcriticai D a m p i n g by M o v i n g - B l o c k / R a n d o m d e c A p p l i c a t i o n s , " N A S A S P - 4 1 5 , 1976, p p . 5 9 - 7 6 . H o u b o l t , J. C , and B r o o k s , G. W . , "Differential Equations of M o t i o n for C o m b i n e d F l a p w i s e B e n d i n g , C h o r d w i s e B e n d i n g and Torsion of Twisted N o n uniform R o t o r B l a d e s , " N A C A Rept. 1346, 1958. H u n t , G . K . , " S i m i l a r i t y R e q u i r e m e n t s for Aeroelastic M o d e l s of Helicopter R o t o r s , " Aeronautical Research C o u n c i l , C P - 1 2 4 5 , 1972. J o n e s , R . , Flannelly, W . G . , N a g y , E . J., and F a b u n m i , J. . , " E x p e r i m e n t a l Verification of Force D e t e r m i n a t i o n and G r o u n d Flying on a Full-Scale Helic o p t e r , " U . S . A r m y Applied T e c h n o l o g y L a b . , U S A A V R A D C O M - T R - 8 1 - D 1 1 , Fort E u s t i s , V A , M a y 1 9 8 1 .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
555
J o r d a n , P . F . , " A e r o d y n a m i c Flutter Coefficients for S u b s o n i c , Sonic and S u p e r s o n i c F l o w (Linear T w o - D i m e n s i o n a l T h e o r y ) , " R A E Reports and M e m o r a n d a N o . 2 9 3 2 , April 1 9 5 3 . St. Hilaire, A . O . , C a r t a , F . O . , and J e p s o n , W . D . , " I n f l u e n c e of S w e e p on the A e r o d y n a m i c L o a d i n g on an Oscillating N A C A 0 0 1 2 A i r f o i l , " N A S A C R - 3 0 9 2 , 1979. S c h e i m a n , J . , and K e l l y , H . L . , " C o m p a r i s o n of F l i g h t - M e a s u r e d Helicopter R o t o r B l a d e C h o r d w i s e P r e s s u r e Distributions with Static T w o - D i m e n s i o n Airfoil C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , " N A S A T N D - 3 9 3 6 , 1967. W i l k e r s o n , J . B . , " A n Analytical Study of the M e c h a n i c a l Stability of T w o B l a d e d Rigid R o t o r S y s t e m s , " N a v a l Ship R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r R e p o r t 3 3 5 1 , J a n . 1970. Y n t e m a , R. T . , " S i m p l i f i e d P r o c e d u r e s and Charts for the Rapid Estimation of B e n d i n g F r e q u e n c i e s of Rotating B e a m s , " N A C A T N - 3 4 5 9 , J u n e 1955.
Proceedings B i e l a w a , R. L . , " T e c h n i q u e s for Stability Analysis and Design O p t i m i z a t i o n with D y n a m i c Constraints of N o n c o n s e r v a t i v e Linear S y s t e m s , " Proceedings of the 12th A1AAIASMEIAHS Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, A I A A Paper 71-388, 1971. B i e l a w a , R. L . , " D y n a m i c A n a l y s i s of M u l t i - D e g r e e - o f - F r e e d o m S y s t e m s U s i n g P h a s i n g M a t r i c e s , " Proceedings of Specialists Meeting on Rotorcraft Dynamics, N A S A A m e s R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , 1974. C a r l s o n , R. G . , B l a c k w e l l , R. H . , C o m m e r f o r d , G . L . , and M i r i c k , P . H . , " D y n a m i c Stall M o d e l i n g and Correlation with E x p e r i m e n t a l D a t a on Airfoils and R o t o r s , " Proceedings of Specialists Meeting on Rotorcraft Dynamics, NASA A m e s R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , 1974.
1
C a r t a , F . O . , and H a m , N . D . , " A n A n a l y s i s of the Stall Flutter Instability of Helicopter R o t o r B l a d e s , " Proceedings of the 23rd Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society, W a s h i n g t o n D C , M a y 1967. E d w a r d s , J. V . , A s h l e y , H . , a n d Break w e l l , J. B . " U n s t e a d y A e r o d y n a m i c M o d e l i n g for Arbitrary M o t i o n s , " Proceedings of the AIAA Dynamic Specialist Conference, P a p e r 7 7 - 4 5 1 , 1977. F l a n n e l l y , W . G . , " T h e D y n a m i c A n t i r e s o n a n t Vibration I s o l a t o r , " Proceedings of the 22nd Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society, W a s h i n g t o n D C , M a y 1966.
556
H a l w e s , D . R . , " L I V E L i q u i d Inertia Vibration E l i m i n a t o r , " Proceedings of the 36th Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society, Paper 8 0 - 2 2 , M a y 1980. L y t w y n , R. . , ' 'Aeroelastic Stability Analysis of Hingeless R o t o r Helicopters in F o r w a r d Flight U s i n g Blade and Airframe N o r m a l M o d e s , " Proceedings of the 36th Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society, P a p e r 7 9 2 3 , 1979. M i a o , W . - L . , and H u b e r , H . B . , " R o t o r Aeroelasticity C o u p l e d with Helicopter B o d y M o t i o n , " Proceedings of Specialists' Meeting on Rotorcraft Dynamics, N A S A A m e s Research C e n t e r , 1974. P a u l , W . F . , " D e v e l o p m e n t and Evaluation of the M a i n R o t o r Bifilar A b s o r b e r , " Proceedings of the 25th Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society, W a s h i n g t o n D C , M a y 1969. P e t e r s , D . . , and I z a d p a n a h , . , " H e l i c o p t e r T r i m by Periodic Shooting with Newton-Raphson Iteration," Proceedings of the 37th Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society, W a s h i n g t o n D C , Paper 8 1 - 1 8 , 1 9 8 1 . R a o , . M . , and J o n e s , W . P . , " A p p l i c a t i o n to Rotary W i n g s of a Simplified A e r o d y n a m i c Lifting Surface T h e o r y for Unsteady C o m p r e s s i b l e F l o w , " Proceedings of Specialists' Meeting on Rotorcraft Dynamics, N A S A A m e s Research C e n t e r , 1974.
SUBJ ECT INDEX
Index Terms
Links
A
Accelerances Acceleration: decoupling harmonie linear potential Accelerometers Actuator disk Adams method Advancing blade compressibility phenomena Aerodynamic: integration constants phase lag spring Aeroelastic conformability Air bag suspension Air resonance Air spring suspension Air-mass dynamics Aliasing Amplitude: limiters reducers 495 224 539 389 390 216 243 356 243 298 280 365 381 527 470 465 464 463 428 247 366 463 491 222
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation
Index Terms
Analog to digital conversion Analytical testing Angular momentum nonspin spin Angular velocity vector Anisotropic inertias Anisotropy Antialiasing filters Antiresonance point Arbitrary motion Aspect ratio Autospectra Auxiliary equation Axial inertia term
Links
248 220 111 114 114 112 289 344 250 26 231 403 380 251 265 291 120 115 530 120 519
B
Backward differencing Beam in tension Bernoulli's equation Bifilar absorber Bifilar stiffening Biot-Savart theorem Blade: appended pendulum absorbers articulated (hinged) flapping motion hingeless higher harmonic control 224 65 121 65 228 73 85 73 85 463 64 398 154 97 424 419
Index Terms
Blade (Cont.) passage frequency reference uniform section circulation tip deflection tip slope torsion twist Branch points Branched gear systems Built-in twist angle Bungee: support system suspension system Burst: chirp random
Links
193 74 428 92 92 93 95 151 150 93 256 243 254 254
C
Cancellation effects Centrifugal load relief Chaos theory Characteristic: amplitude damping coefficient equation exponent frequencies loci 258 259 7 279 20 274 21 259 215 178 480
Index Terms
Characteristic (Cont.) multiplier root Circulatory terms Cofactor Coleman diagram extended Collective: angle mode responses Compressibility effects Computational fluid dynamics Coning angle Constant coefficients Constraint: matrix due to gimbaling pylon Constraints modeling of Continued product Coupled modes Coupling: effects in rotor blades elastic factor, elastic generalized rotor-airframe inertia of substructures pitch-flap
Links
282 258 384 44 347 359 310 127 332 343 424 65 258 541 488 218 541 43 101 100 100 324 542 28 520 316
284
354
356
379 310
424 319
Index Terms
Coupling (Cont.) pitch-lag rotor-fuselage stiffness Couplings Cramer's rule Critical: damping damping ratio drivers speed, shaft speeds Cross spectra Crout reduction Curvatures Cyclic: feathering in-plane rotor modes responses
Links
315 198 28 485 11 8 9 273 133 293 251 46 95 305 346 332 348 354 45
D
D'Alembert's principle Damping aerodynamic coefficient characteristic coefficient equivalent coefficient equivalent aerodynamic coefficients modal criteria, product of critical 5 7 444 259 443 443 186 349 8 351 529 490 531
Index Terms
Damping (Cont.) equivalent external in pitch internal pitch proportional ratio, critical ratio, viscous equivalent critical structural DAVI Decoupling: acceleration displacement Deflection correction vectors Degrees of freedom: interface internal Design parameters Determinants Divergence Drag coefficient divergence Mach number Driving forces Duhamel integral Dynamic: absorber inflow lift stall
Links
456 134 98 134 300 24 9 33 32 233 465 465 103 519 519 211 44 308 297 299 328 270 404 231 356 441
458 296 296 443
461
460
340 303 438
409
Index Terms
Dynamic: (Cont.) loads magnification factors moment stall signal analyzers stall stall parameters
Links
163 184 441 248 436 447 439 440
E
Effective: e.g. offset focal point masses Eigenfunction Eigenvalue derivatives of problem, matrix Eigenvector derivatives of Elastic torsion Energy: flow paths kinetic loss per cycle potential Engine/fuel control systems Equivalent: aerodynamic damping coefficient damping distributions 443 456 90 458 461 270 19 33 19 157 273 421 361 346 20 20 213 269 20 213 93 258 258
Index Terms
Equivalent: (Cont.) hinge point stiffness Euler angles Euler's equations Exponential: decay coefficient functions
Links
323 457 55 113 7 477 116 291
F
Fan chart Fatigue testing Feasible design space Finite element: in time methods modeling Finite span effects Floquet theory Flutter: bending-torsion fixed-wing flexible rotor blade helicopter stall of rotor blades, stall propeller stall rotor-nacelle whirl stall two-dimensional wing Focused pylon 382 266 417 451 447 470 333 382 415 235 436 447 458 468 414 480 86 199 343 276 279 69 254 217
Index Terms
Force: integration loading distribution phasing matrices Foucault pendulum effect Fourier: analysis, discrete series transform transform, fast transform inverse Frequency: blade passage criterion, pylon damped natural natural nutation reduced response function (FRF) scaling sweep excitation testing, wideband undamped natural Fraude number Froude-scaled: blades rotors Function: coherence cost
Links
163 96 270 62 14 14 17 18 18 193 362 7 21 119 380 17 360 253 252 9 360 489 486 252 217
176 327 363 423
18
249
476
495
461 199 484 251
484
Index Terms
Function: (Cont.) describing dissipative frequency response generalized Theodorsen Hankel kernel lift deficiency lift deficiency Loewy-Miller Loewy open loop transfer reversed-flow signing rotor-induced velocity Sears shape Theodorsen transfer Wagner Fuselage: mobility suspension
Links
457 19 17 406 384 429 377 453 393 268 302 370 387 86 383 197 404 197 242 388 250 405 211 348 422 267 389 384 420 436 199 251
G
Galerkin's method Galerkin technique Gear ratio Generalized: coordinates excitation forces 20 129 19 25 25 72 138 66 528 420 531
Index Terms
Generalized: (Cont.) forcing function masses rotor-airframe coupling Theodorsen function Ground resonance Gyroscopic precessional behavior
Links
25 24 542 406 344 115 485 338 498 527 25 202
H
Hamilton's principle Harmonic: acceleration method control, blade higher inflow Hermite interpolation polynomials High-speed flight Holzer method Holzer-Myklestad technique Homogeneous solution Hooke's joint Hub mobility Hurwitz determinant Hysteretic: behavior response, nonlinear 439 474 464 228 188 86 450 151 76 6 137 366 263 154 86 88
I
Ibrahim time domain method Impedance connections 479 197 524
Index Terms
Impedance (Cont.) matrix rotor Inclination angle Induced velocity Inertia: coupling equivalences, rotary integration constants Inertial: acceleration coordinate system inequality Inflow dynamic mass flow parameter ratio variable In-plane bending Instability air resonance flap-lag ground resonance pitch-flap-lag pitch-lag point, center of quenching rotor weaving subharmonic (helicopter) rotor unsymmetrical rotor
Links
197 197 120 187 100 137 307 57 111 291 356 374 297 298 65 257 356 315 344 315 315 350 495 305 470 289 527 323 325 310 366 536 101 206 348
Index Terms
Interface load vector points IRIS rotor isolation system Isaacs problem Isotropic: pylon stiffness Isotropy
Links
221 222 220 235 391 354 296 344
K
Kaiman filtering Kelvin-Tait-Chetaev theorem 229 274 293
L
Lagrange's equation Laplace operator Laplace transform Laser vibrometer Leading-edge suction Lead-lag damper Legendre: differential equation polynomials Lift coefficient -curve slope Limit cycle condition Linearization Linear variable differential transformers 70 70 297 299 387 455 456 491 437 528 473 439 71 19 202 204 247 441 183 455 407
Index Terms
Load cells Lock number Loewy theory Logarithmic decrement Low-pass filter
Links
247 308 360 431 34 457 475 491 310 484 497 317 358
M
Mach number Mach-scaled blades Mass: coupling parameter moments of inertia ratio Matrix adjoint Boolean mapping conformability due to gimbaling, constraint eigenvalue problem field transfer impedance integration approximatio n operator inverse Jacobian mobility multiplication multiplication, Hadamard 348 113 348 38 45 522 42 541 269 82 197 482 45 473 197 41 41 272 519 48 361 485 343 489 471 484
Index Terms
Matrix (Cont.) partitioning point transfer positioning pseudoinverse singular skew-symmetrical transfer transition transpose transposition unit Mean aerodynamic radius Mechanical admittance Miller theory Mobility matrix Modal: analysis damping coefficients shaping variables Mode collective deflection rigid-body shapes, natural Modification: methodology
Links
49 81 48 239 46 39 77 284 40 44 39 460 35 431 35 197 250 186 212 25 258 127 163 29 22 211 519 275 79 286 49
Index Terms
Modification: (Cont.) of blade dynamics of fuselage dynamics parameters Moment: coefficient hysteresis Moment loading distribution Motion-induced loads Moving-block technique Multiblade coordinates Multiple coordinates
Links
215 219 211 438 443 96 179 476 332 331 257
N
N-pass method NACA 0012 airfoil 284 442 449 472 Narrowband: low-frequency testing process Newmark method Newton-Raphson method Newtonian approach Nodal drive Nodamatic suspension system Node point Normal modes Notch filter 252 219 463 260 19 152 232 28 24 160 444 451 445 459 448 460
Index Terms
Numerical integration of equations Nutation
Links
462 115 118
O
Orthogonality Out-of-plane bending Overlift Overmoment 22 65 439 440 66
P
Pad: approximants form Particular solution Pendabs Pendulum dynamic absorbers Performance trim Periodic coefficients Perpendicular air velocity component Perturbational airloads Phase angle PID controller Piezoelectric: characteristics crystals Piezoresistive principle Pitching moment Porter method Positive feedback loop 491 254 492 299 150 267 493 412 421 6 224 153 278 276 537 303 12 159 36 474 10
Index Terms
Potential: energy flow Potentiometers Prandtl-Glauert correction factor Pre-, postmultiplication Precession Pressure: doublet flow sensors Principal axes Prony's method Propeller: advance ratio moment stall flutter state, thrusting Pseudogyroscopic effects Pseudostatic: load moment shear Pylon natural frequencies
Links
19 426 491 409 43 115 426 492 113 477 337 97 470 370 135 185 167 167 485 176 177 419 290 118 428
Q
Quadratic factorization Quasilinearization Quasisteady: aerodynamic theory aerodynamics 335 296 261 473
Index Terms
Quasisteady: (Cont.) airloads lift
Links
289 436
325
R
Radii of gyration Radius of curvature method Random excitation Reactionless: mode rotor modes Reference uniform blade Resolvers Resonance condition curve width Response: amplitude phase angle trim Returning wake Reversed flow signing function Ripple method Rise factor variation parameter Root: bending moments shears Rotating beams 191 189 63 79 174 12 12 278 393 281 302 280 68 75 283 358 418 397 301 127 333 74 493 26 12 34 96 35 253 37
Index Terms
Rotational: motion speed velocity vector Rotor: advance ratio aeroelastic operators anisotropy azimuth indexing bearingless bifilar absorbers center of gravity "far wake," -fuselage interactions hingeless hub loads impedance induced velocity function inflow ratio modes modes, reactionless nacelle whirl flutter pitching moment pylon coupling rolling moment solidity supercritical teetering thrust tip speed
Links
111 54 57 277 535 276 492 323 227 332 193 195 323 189 197 372 188 122 333 333 368 545 368 310 347 305 368 277 277 331 297 332 206 348 297 542 360 484
Index Terms
Rotor: (Cont.) two-bladed wake, distorted weaving Routh: array criterion Hurwitz criterion Runge-Kutta methods
Links
353 431 305 264 309 263 285 338 464 329
S
Scale factors Scaling: frequency Froude geometric Mach of the pylon of the rotor velocity Scatter factor Shake testing Shakers Simplified gyroscope equation Sine chirp Single-pass method Slip-ring assembly Shngren's inversion formula Source alleviators 360 490 486 490 484 483 486 255 241 493 114 254 284 254 397 224 492 115 117 484 486
Index Terms
Southwell: coefficient diagram Spectrum analyzers Spinning top Square matrices Stability: boundaries criterion, Nyquist estimation Stalled airfoil Startup technique Static stall stall angle Stationary coordinate system Stiffness: complex equivalences, torsional equivalent external inequality internal isotropic St. Venant torsional Strain gages Subcritical operation Substructure syntheses Supercritical: operation
Links
68 69 248 119 38 262 267 475 379 466 437 437 57 33 137 457 296 291 292 296 97 491 133 224 133
89
418
532
264 273 349
321
134
321
Index Terms
Supercritical: (Cont.) rotor shafting Synthesized unsteady airfoil data
Links
347 328 445
T
Tangential air velocity component Tennis racquet effect Tension Theorem of: Biot and Savart Coriolis Three-quarter-chord point Tilt-rotor Time delay method Tip loss factor Torsional: natural frequencies pendulum absorber stiffness equivalences Transmissibility Turbulent windmill state Twist coupling Typical blade section 136 154 137 230 372 102 336 426 57 386 130 468 318 368 530 537 97 97
U
Uncoupled modal responses Uncoupled modes 63 101
Index Terms
Uniform reference blade Units Unsteady decay parameter compressibility corrected
Links
74 5 408 410 409 411
V
Variable: coordinate system inflow -stream velocity Vector derivatives products rotational velocity triple products unit Vibration suppression devices Virtual: displacements mass terms Vortex flow Vortex-ring state Vorticity: bound shed shed wake trailing trailing wake 397 394 428 433 428 435 435 88 384 426 369 57 298 391 50 53 44 57 53 50 224 51 412
Index Terms
Links
W
Wake: distorted induced lift rigid skew angle Whirl: backward flutter, rotor-nacelle forward modes progressive regressive Wind tunnel: installations pressurized Windmill brake .state Wing flexibility Wing-vortex interaction 536 488 370 340 194 340 333 124 123 124 125 125 126 341 431 436 430 374 430
Y
Yntema charts 89 507

Mechanisms in Modern Engineering Design

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Mechanisms in Modern Engineering Design

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Rotary Wing Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Chapter 10. 10.1

Chapter 11. 11.1

Chapter 13. 13.1 13.2

F u t u r e Directions Finite E l e m e n t s in T i m e Chaos Theory References Problems

501 507 519

ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

2 Basic Analytical Techniques

Linear Single-Degree-of-Freedom System

(2.la) (2. l b ) (2.lc) (2. Id)

U ( d a m p e r , c) = lbf-s/ft U (spring, k) = lbf/ft U [applied force, F(t)\ = lbf

(2.2a) (2.2b) (2.2c)

w h e r e ( ' ) = d( )/d/, and F , FU).

, is an arbitrary, t i m e - d e p e n d e n t applied force.

ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

Simple spring-mass-damper dynamic system.

Equilibration of loads acting on mass element.

BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

(2.5) can be a s s u m e d , so that

(not, in general, = 0) Therefore, m\ This is the basic characteristic is given b y

w h o s e solution (the t w o values of )

W e c a n obtain a s o m e w h a t m o r e useful form by noting first that exp(z')/) = e

N o t e : T h e frequency increases with spring stiffness k a n d decreases with inertia m.

ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

Attenuation characteristics of damping for homogeneous solutions.

T h e condition of zero d a m p e d natural frequency (co klm (dim)

= 0) then yields = 2\[km (2.14)

BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

Attenuation characteristics of critical damping.

ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

w h e r e , again, Cj a n d C are determined from the initial conditions.

BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

+ 21] cosili l )B]

T h e n , upon e q u a t i n g coefficients of like trigonometric functions (

-24 These A and T h e final in t e r m s

Therefore, A )8 (2.31a) (2.31b)

ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

= response amplitude + (2)

BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

Fourier Methods Multiharmonic Responses

ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

where A = F (&l - n il ) - ,, 2/21 m[()- / r ~ ) - + (2/)-

(2.39) excitation Fourier

Discrete Fourier Analysis

BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

Fit) Git) so that fit)

Graphical representation of a discretely known periodic function.

ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

T h u s , for the discretization s h o w n in F i g . 2 . 6 , the following expressions c a n be written: F

(2.45a) (2.45b&c) (2.45d&e)

sin /(2Trr/r)] (2.46)

(2.48) + (2.49) (2.50) (2.51)

+ ( - D ^ ' / V . + * ' + G/v-i

E x a m p l e of u s e of a p p r o x i m a t e formulas: six h a r m o n i c s , i . e . , / ( / , ) values every 3 0 d e g : A

BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

(2.53g) (2.54a) (2.54b) (2.54c)

ROTARY WING STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS

Finally, the actual time d o m a i n solution, Fourier transform:

Linear Two-Degree-of-Freedom System

Basic configuration of a two-degree-of-freedom dynamic system.

BASIC ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

or, m o r e c o m p a c t l y , after rearranging, m x\