Notes in Mechanical Engineering

REESE LIBRARY
OF THK
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Received
Accessions
^.^<?<fe~
Shelf No.
NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
NOTES
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
COMPILED PRINCIPALLY
THE USE OF STUDENTS ATTENDING THE LECTURES

IN THIS SUBJECT
AT THE CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE
BY
HENRY ADAMS,
//
MEHB.
INST.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, MEMB. INST. CIVIL ENGINEERS, MEMB. SOOJETT OF ENGINEERS, ETC.
E.
&
F.
SPON, NEW YORK
125,
:
STEAND, LONDON.
35,
MURRAY STEEET.
1888.
All rights reserved.
PREFACE.
"
THE
City and Guilds of
London
Institute for the
Advance-
ment of Technical Education" having, in the year 1880,
programme of instruction in various subjects, upon the basis of the system so well developed by the Government Department of Science and Art, the author became enrolled
issued a
as a teacher of Mechanical Engineering in connection with
the Institute, and delivered a series of lectures in that

subject at the City of London College. His efforts to render the course attractive and useful were fairly successful, as he
draw upon a very large collection of diagrams prepared for machine construction and other allied science subjects and these, supplying the ground work of the illuswas able
to
;
trations,
enabled him to devote some time to the preparation
of others specially applicable to the circumstances of the

case.
However, the very abundance of the information

itself
proved in
a drawback, as the majority of the students,
coming totally unprepared by previous training for taking notes, and having but little aptitude for dealing with
formulae, or even for the classification of facts, were unable
to assimilate the technical food placed before
first
them.
Tho
course of thirty lectures was illustrated

fifty-five
and
by one hundred besides blackboard sketches, and yet diagrams
embraced only the
first four lines of the syllabus issued by the Committee, while so far from being exhaustive of that
IV
PKEFACE.
portion of the subject, the author felt that he had merely been able to direct attention to some of the more important facts and principles.
would be apparent
If students would give the matter a little consideration, it to them that the teacher's work must of
necessity be supplemented
by a large amount of home work
on
be
their part.
If they could only be sufficiently impressed
with the fact that science cannot be absorbed, but must

learntj the
labour of teaching would be considerably
lightened.
The present work may be described as an effort to write out a part of the student's notes for him, in the hope that he
will thereby be enabled to give a
to the illustrations
more undivided attention

details
and descriptions of mechanical

lectures.
and operations put before him in the
It is not
intended in any way to supersede the ordinary text-books, but simply to supplement them in the form of a student's
own
which should represent a summary of his reading and study. The notes are compiled from various sources ; in
notes,
many
is
cases the authority is given, in others the information
original or has been derived from sources of
which no
record has been kept. Although the text has been carefully read through, there are doubtless some errors which have
escaped notice, and which the author will be glad to have pointed out. He will also be grateful for any suggestions from students or others with regard to increasing the
efficiency of this as a STUDENT'S
NOTE BOOK.
60,
QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.G.

1st October, 1883.
CONTENTS*
PART
Fundamental
I.
SECTION
I.
principles of mechanics
SECTION
The
wrought
iron, steel, cast iron, brass,
II.
properties of materials used in mechanical engineering
wood, &c
SECTION
The behaviour
shafts, brackets,
III.
;
of materials under strain
the strength of beams,
&c
17
SECTION
The
IV.
..
action of chisels, hammers, punches, planes, shears, drills
33
SECTION
V.
Operations of tempering, welding, riveting, caulMng,
&c
38
* Although the classification adopted by the Committee, as given in the published syllabus of the Mechanical Engineering Examination, is open to objection, it has been thought better, in the present interest of
students preparing for that examination, to retain this syllabus intact. It has therefore been divided into sections, and condensed information,
consisting of facts and formulae, is placed under each head. Further particulars are given upon the illustrative diagrams, especially in
Parts
II. to
VI
VI
CONTENTS.
SECTION
VI.
PAGB
Tools used in the workshop. Machines used for labour-saving in the construction of small machinery, as milling, stamping,
and screwing machines
..
..
42
PAKT
II.
Founding, moulding, and pattern-making
43
PART
Shafting, gearing, and
pedestals,
III.
general
machinery.
The
fitting
of
brackets, couplings, &c. ; the keying of wheels; millwrights' work as in mortise wheels. Operations of the
pattern-maker, founder, blacksmith, and turner, in connection
with shafting and gearing
48
PAKT
The steam-engine
IV.
stationary, marine, and locomotive. Operations of the erecting and fitting shops. Operations of the pattern-maker, founder, blacksmith, and turner, in connection
with steam-engines
61
PART
Different kinds of boilers
of boilers and riveted
girders, roofs,
V.
and boiler-fittings. The manufacture work generally, such as lattice and plate
67
&c
PART
Hydraulic machinery
VI.
turbines,
Pumps, centrifugal and other
water-wheels, hoists, pressure engines, the hydrostatic press, &c. Operations of the pattern-maker, founder, blacksmith,
and
turner, in connection with hydraulic machinery
..
..
82
INDEX TO SUBJECTS.
No. of
PART
I.
SECTION L
PAGE
,
P ara.
1.
2.
Force and matter
..
..
.
3.
4.
Mass and weight Work and energy Inertia and momentum

Equilibrium Units employed in engineering calculations French measures
2 2 3
5.
6.
3
4
4
7.
PART
8.
I.
SECTION
II.
Varieties of iron
9.
Effect of carbon in iron
10.
Common
ores of iron
11. Pig-iron 12. Classification of pig-iron
13 Refining
14.
Puddling
15. Qualities of 16. Defects in 17.
wrought iron wrought iron
..
..
5 5 6 6 6 7 7
8 8
Case-hardening
..
..
18. Varieties of steel (No. 1)
9
9 10 10
11 11
19. 20.
(No. 2) (No. 3) (No. 4)
21.
22. 23.
Dannemora
cast steel
Notes on cast iron
24. Qualities of cast iron 25. Chilled 26. 27.
12
.. ..
and malleable cast iron

cast iron
12
Toughened Copper
12 13
Vlll
No. of
Para.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
PAGE 13
28. Alloys 29. Effect of alloying with copper 30. Bronze alloys
13 14 14 14 15 15 15
16
31. Brass alloys 32. Antimony alloys

33. 34. 35.
36.
Various alloys
Melting points of various metals
Weight of various metals in Use of wood in engineering

and pine
Ibs.
37. Fir, deal,
16
PAET
38. Classification of strains
39. Definitions of strain
40.
I.
SECTION
III.
and
stress
17 17 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 20 20
. .
Testing wrought iron
41. Factor of safety 42. Proof strength Moments of transverse strength
43.
44.
45. Safe load

46. 47.
48. 49.
Usual allowance for dead loads on structures

floors
Weight of men in crowds Approximate safe load on columns and Weight of materials for estimating
wrought iron
Designing wrought-iron work
(
piers
50. Specification tests of cast iron

61.
52.
(bridge
and girder work)
21
)..
21
(shipbuilding)
53.
21 22
53*. Comparative strength of iron and steel plates 54. Ultimate strength of various metals and alloys
55.
Limit of elasticity
22 22 23
56.
57. 58.
59.
0.
Modulus of elasticity Definitions of modulus of elasticity Formula for elongation by elasticity Moduli of elasticity (table)
Allowance in bridges
for
changes of temperature
61. Resilience of
beams
62. Kesilience
63. Ultimate strength of timber
64. Strength
and stiffness of timber
23 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 26
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
No. of
Para.
IK
PAGE
65. Proportions of beams for strength and stiffness 66. Approximate proportions of beams
26 26
27 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 30 30 31 31 31 32 32 32 33
67. Deflection
68.
69.
and camber
of girders
Formula
for deflection of
wrought-iron flanged girders
..
..
70. Deflection of 71.
beams Notes on torsion and shafting

power by shafting
72. Ultimate torsional strength of various metals
73. Transmission of
74.
for strength of shafting 75. Molesworth's formula for ditto
Formula
76. Proportions of flange coupling 77. Transverse strength of shafts
on screw shaft
78. Proportions of bolts, Whitworth Standard 79. &c., in carpentry 80. Strength of bolts 81. (Unwin)
82. 83.
To
secure check or lock nuts

.. ..
'..
Check nuts
..
PAKT
84.
I.
SECTION
IV.
,
Formulae for falling bodies 85. Holtzapffel's classification of cutting tools 86. Angles of tools
87. Cutting speed of machine tools 88. Speed of machine tools (Evers)
33
3-4
89. 90. Shearing 91.
(Engineering)
and punching
..
..
formula
34 34 35 35 35 36
'
92. Pressure required to 93. Laws of friction
punch wrought-iron plates

.
.
94. Definitions of friction 95.
Mean
coefficients of friction
96. Morin's experiments
on
friction of
motion
36 36 37 37 38
PART
97.
98.
I.
SECTION
V.
Forging
99.
Welding Tempering
38 39 39
X
No. of
Para.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
PACK
.. .. 100. Colours corresponding to temperature 101. Tempering steel ; colours produced at various temperatures, and alloys fusible at same
39 40 41
41
41
102. Notes on riveted joints
103. Notes on caulking 104. Caulking tools
..
PART
105.
I.
SECTION
VI.
Workshop
tools
42
PAET
106. Pattern-making
II.
Moulding in foundry 108. Sand for moulding 109. Foundry drying stove
107.
110. Cleaning castings 111. Classification of iron ores

112.
Charges employed at Dowlais
for different
kinds of pig-iron
113. Analyses of pig-iron 114. Foundry pig

115. Mixtures of pig-iron 116. Melting metal for castings 117. Contraction of metals in cooling
118.
119. Bronze
ofcastings
and brass castings
43 43 44 44 44 45 45 46 46 46 47 47 47 48
PAET
120. Transmission of motion 121. Useful
III.
work and
efficiency
..
122. Velocity ratio

123. Principle of virtual velocities 124. Definitions of the principle of virtual velocities
48 49 49 49
50 50 51
51 52
125. 126. 127. 128.
Angular velocity Notes on belt gearing (No.
1)
(No. 2)
(No. 3)
129. Notes
on ropes
130. Strength of ropes
52 53
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
No. of
Para.
XI
PAGE
131. Formula) for strength of ropes .. .. 132. Strength of chains
133.
134.
Remarks on crane chains Wheel gearing, Manchester
pitch
1)
135. Notes
on toothed gearing (No.
136.
(No. 2) 137. Strength and weight of toothed gearing 138. Formulae for strength of gearing
139.
for shafts
and axles
,.
140. Ordinary proportions of keys 141. Proportions of cotters through bars

142. Screw-cutting to find the wheels for 143.
any pitch
..
..
144.
Examples of change wheels

on
spiral springs
for screw-cutting
145. Notes
1 16. Spiral springs,
147.
formula for strength and deflection Rankine's formula
..
53 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 57 58 58 58 59 59 59 60 60
61
148. Differential pulley calculations
PART
149. 150.
IV.
61 62 62 63 63 64 64 65 65 66 66
Horse-power
..
Steam worked expansively 151. Crank and piston notes 152. Link motions
153. Notes on calculation of engine shafts 154. Calculation of engine shafts 155. Strength of crank pin 156. Definitions relating to screw propellers 157. Notes on screw propellers 158. Slip of screw propeller 159. Pitch of
PART
160. Sensible heat
161.
V. 67 67 68 68 68 68
Comparison of thermometers
..
162. Transfer of heat

163. Mechanical equivalent of heat
164.
Thermodynamics
165. Capacity of bodies for heat
Xll
No. of
Para.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
PAGE
*
166. Specific and latent heat 167. Gases and vapours ..
..
168. Atmospheric pressure 169. Properties of saturated steam
170. Experiments on evaporation in boilers 171. Evaporative value at different temperatures 172. Loss of heat in boiler
173. Combustion in boiler furnaces 174. Coal burnt per hour per square foot fire-grate
69 69 69 70 70 70 71 71
"72
,.
175. Combustion of fuel

176. Horse-power of boilers 177. Boiler furnaces
178.
Heating surface of
boilers
179. Comparative value of heating surfaces 180. Fire-bars
181. Boiler tubes
182. Taper of plugs for boiler cocks 183. Boiler seatings 184. Size of factory chimney for boilers
185. Brick chimney shafts 186. Sea-water

187. Boiler incrustation
188.
To
calculate size of boiler
72 73 73 74 74 74 75 75 75 76 77 77 77 78
safety-valve leverage 190. Ultimate strength of boiler shell 191. Collapsing pressure of boiler tubes
192. Boilers
:
189.
comparison between bursting and collapsing pressure
193. Factor of safety, steam boilers 194. Testing boilers

195.
79 79 80 80 81
81 81
Duty
of 'engines'
-.'<
..
..
196.
Steam pipes
82
PAET
197.
VI.
of hydraulics 198. Comparison of discharge through various apertures 199. Useful numbers in connection with water
Summary
..
..
200. Discharge through pipes from natural 201. Hydraulic pressure accumulator 202. Pressure in pipe mains
head
203. Variation of accumulator pressure due to machinery working
82 83 83 84 84 85 85
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
No. of
Para.
Xlll
PAGE
204. Friction of accumulators 205.
Air accumulators
206. Velocity of water through pipes 207. Delivery of water in pipes
and valves
208. Thickness of hydraulic pipes 209. Strain allowed on wrought iron in hydraulic cranes 210. Effective pressure for hydraulic cranes and hoists
..
..
211. Speed of lifting with hydraulic power 212. 'Lifting rams for hydraulic cranes 213. Turning 214. Areas of valves for machinery under accumulator pressure of ports in slide valves 215.
.
. .
85 86 87 87 87 88 88 88 88 89 90
90
216.
Diaphragm regulator
for hydraulic
machinery
90
91 91 91 92
217. Counterweights for crane chains 218. Mechanical value of fluids under pressure of water under accumulator pressure 219. 220. Power required to work hydraulic machinery
221.
..
Packing
for force
pumps
.
92
..
222. Efficiency of pumps and accumulator 223. Power and speed of hydraulic hauling machines
93 93
NOTES
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEEEING.
PAET
SECTION L
I.
FUNDAMENTAL PKINCIPLES OF MECHANICS.

1.
FORCE AND MATTER.
change of place. which produces or destroys motion, or which tends to produce or destroy it. Matter is that which is the subject of motion or a tendency
is
Motion
Force
is
that
to motion.
Forces in equilibrium are called pressures or reactions. Gravity is the attraction one body has for another, and,
being proportional to the mass of the body, the attraction of
the earth practically overwhelms all others. The direction of attraction is towards the centre of the mass, hence under the action of gravity all bodies tend to fall towards the
centre of the earth.
Centre of Gravity is that point in a body through which the resultant of the gravities of its parts passes, in every position the body can assume.
NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
Accelerating Force of Gravity is the velocity imparted to bodies falling near the surface of the earth, in lat. 45 =
32-169545
ft.
per
sec.,
say 32-2
= g.
2.
MASS AND WEIGHT.
Density
Mass
is
is the quantity of matter in a unit of volume. the quantity of matter in a body of any volume, /
density
magnitude
also
W\
).
Weight
is
the mass
.*.
stant for one place,
WaM
force of gravity,
g.
which
is
only con-
Work = weight X space passed through

pressure exerted
vertically, or
= mass X velocity. Moving Force, or the moving quantity of a force, is the additional momentum which it communicates in each second
Momentum
to a body.
3.
space passed through in any direction.
WORK AND
ENERGY.
the power expended when a pressure of 1 Ib. is exerted through a space of 1 foot.
A unit
of work
is
A foot-pound is the measure of one unit of work. A horse-power is the exertion of 33,000 units of
foot-lbs. in the period of 1 minute.
work or
Energy in mechanics means capacity for performing work, and is measured in foot-lbs.
Potential energy is the product of the effort into the distance through which it is capable of acting. Actual energy, kinetic energy, or accumulated work of a
moving body
is
the product of the mass of the
body
into
half the square of its velocity, or the weight of the body into the height from which it must fall to acquire its actual
velocity
(~ = -^- \

Vis viva of a moving body
the body into the square of
is
energy
(m
2 v*
WV 4.
its velocity,
the product of the mass of or double the actual
\
J.
INERTIA AND MOMENTUM.
Inertia is resistance to communication of motion.
Momentum
is resistance to extinction
of motion.
They They
are equal to each other, and of opposite character. are compared with Work by ascertaining h necesg,
sary to create the v under action of
and considering
W as
moved through
Jt,
giving result in foot-lbs.
=
.
truck on a railway,
In calculating the power exerted in moving a load, as a we have the inertia overcome in reachv2\
(W
added to the work done
transporting the load through the space passed over (W //, s). In coming to rest the inertia is given up again as momentum. The value of the momentum is irrespective of the
distance in which the velocity was acquired ; its effect depends entirely upon the distance in which it is expended.
5.
EQUILIBRIUM.
May be stable, unstable, indifferent, or mixed. When a body is resting on another, in such a position
its
:
that
centre of gravity is the lowest possible, it is in stable the point upon e. g. when vertically under equilibrum which it is supported. When the highest possible, it is in
unstable equilibrium: e.g. when vertically over point of support. When constant for any position, the equilibrium is
indifferent
e. g. a sphere. When stable with regard to in one direction, and unstable or indifferent with regard to another direction, it is said to be in a position of mixed equilibrium : e. g. a cylinder lying on its side.
:
movement
B 2
4
6.

UNITS EMPLOYED IN ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS.
Dimensions in inches. Loads or forces in Ibs.

Stresses in Ibs. per square inch. Fluid pressure in Ibs. per square inch/
Velocities and accelerations in feet per second. Mechanical work in foot-lbs.
Speeds of rotation in revolutions per minute, or in angular

velocity per second.
Statical
moments
(as
bending and twisting moments) in
inch-lbs.
Unwinds Machine Design.

7.
FRENCH MEASURES.
3'
Metre or
m. =
"
3f
1 Decimetre or 1 dm. (very seldom used)
= 3if"
or nearly
inches.
" or say f full. 1 Centimetre or 1 cm. or 1 c/m. = f = ^ 1 Millimetre or 1 mm. or 1 m/m. -$%" or about ^o^h
^"
an inch.
Millimetres per metre
'012
inches to 1 foot.
PAET
I.
SECTION
II.
THE PEOPEETIES OF MATERIALS USED IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, WROUGHT IRON, STEEL,

CAST IRON, BRASS, WOOD, ETC.
8.
VARIETIES OP IRON.
Wrought Iron.
Fibrous
Tough
Soft
Ductile at high
temperatures, but not fluid Welded at 1500 or 1600 F. Easily oxidised Forged, hammered, or rolled to various
shapes
Steel.
Contains very little carbon. Fibrous to granular Containing small amount of

carbon
may be
welded, and with more carbon
may be
cast
Very tough and strong Special properties due to some extent to
Can be forged
for tools.
Cast Iron.
May
silicon
be tempered
Used chiefly
tures
Crystalline Brittle Fluid at high temperaTakes complicated shapes by casting in a mould
Contains
Nos.
1, 2,
much carbon
and
3.
The
various qualities
known
as
Colours to represent them upon drawings
Wrought
Steel
iron
Cast iron
9.
Blue (Prussian blue). Purple (Violet carmine). Grey (Payne's grey).
EFFECT OF CARBON IN IRON.
No.
NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING-.

Spathose iron ore, or iron glance.
Clay Ironstone. Black Band Ironstone.

11. PIG-IKON.
Hot-Hast and Cold-llast. Named from the temperature of the blast used in smelting the ores. Hot-blast generally quicker and more economical, but the metal is not considered
Difficult to distinguish the two varieties, circumstances other but, being equal, hot-blast iron has rather a finer grain, duller fracture, with sometimes patches
to be so strong.
of coarse grains, and usually more impurities. Increasing the blast or reducing the supply of fuel makes the iron whiter, harder, and less suitable for re-melting, but better
for conversion into
wrought iron or
steel.
12. CLASSIFICATION
OF PIG-!RON.
Bessemer Iron.
tite
rities.
variety of pig-iron made from hfemaores for conversion into steel, very free from impu-
All pig-iron having grey fracture and uncombined carbon, produced under high of large proportion temperature and full supply of fuel.
Foundry Iron.
White pig-iron, almost free from uncombined for conversion into wrought iron, produced suitable carbon,
Forge Iron.
with low temperature or insufficient
in breaking up.
13.
fuel, frequently
it brittle
run from
for ease
blast furnace into iron moulds, rendering
EEFINING
Is a combination of chemical and mechanical processes by which pig-iron is deprived of its impurities previously to its conversion into wrought iron.
Refining consists simply of melting the pig-iron with coke
or charcoal in an open hearth or " refinery furnace," supplied with an air blast so as to impinge on the melted metal and
This carries off a portion furnish an oxidising atmosphere. of the carbon, and at the same time removes a portion of the
impurities, particularly silicon, in the shape of slag.
The
melted metal, having lost some of

into a cast-iron trough kept cold
its
by
carbon, is then poured water, and the sudden
chilling has the effect of converting soft grey iron into hard silvery-white metal, the carbon which formerly existed in the
shape of graphite entering into perfect chemical combination.
By
this
change the
fluidity of the iron is reduced,
and the
subsequent puddling process facilitated. The loss of weight in refining crude iron averages 10 per cent., and the weekly production of a refinery furnace is from
80
to
160 tons.
14.
PUDDLING
Is the process of obtaining wrought iron by burning the carbon out of cast iron. The oxygen of the air, at the high
temperature employed, combines with the carbon to form carbonic oxide gas, which escapes. In hand-puddling the
mass
about until it is of sufficient tenacity to be the furnace; in Banks' rotary furnace the revolution of the furnace effects the same as the hand
is stirred
lifted out of
labour.
If the operation be stopped before removed, puddled steel is obtained.

15. QUALITIES
the carbon is all
or WROUGHT IRON.
and hard and strong when cold, (a) Iron easily worked hot, used for rails. used for ships, bridges, and sometimes (I) Common iron,
for shafting.
and treble best iron, from Staffordshire (c) Single, double, and other parts where similar qualities are made. The single

Double and
treble best
or double best is used for boilers.
are used for forging.

(d)
where only
is
Yorkshire iron, from Lowmoor, Bowling, or other forges fine qualities are made. The best Yorkshire iron
very reliable, and uniform in quality. It is used for tyres, for difficult forgings, for furnace plates exposed to great heat, for boiler plates which require flanging, &c.
(e)
Charcoal iron, very ductile and of best quality. Unwinds Machine Design.
16.
Cold-sJiortness
DEFECTS IN WROUGHT IKON.
is produced by the presence of a small of phosphorus as an impurity. The iron is brittle quantity when cold, but of ordinary character when heated. It cracks
if
bent cold, but
may be
forged and welded at high tem-
peratures. Red-shortness is generally produced
by the presence of sulphur, sometimes by arsenic, copper, and other impurities. The iron is tough when cold, but cannot be welded, and is
high temperatures.
difficult to forge at
17. CASE-HARDENING.
When
polished wrought iron
is
heated to a cherry red and
placed in contact with broken prussiate of potash, scraps of leather, &c., the surface is converted into steel by
absorption then hardened by quenching in water. The nitrogen in the mixture is supposed to play an important
of carbon, and
is
part.
and hide clippings, are often used.
Other nitrogenous matters, such as bone-dust, horn, hoof If heated with the mix-
may
ture in a close box, the effect is greater. extend to a depth of about T inch.
The case-hardening The surface shows
a mottled appearance before re-polishing.

This method of hardening is used largely for motion blocks, links, pins and eyes, and generally for small articles or portions of them which have to stand much friction. It is cheaper than using steel, but the tendency of the articles to crack and twist is an objection.
18. VARIETIES OP STEEL.
No.
1.
Steel
iron,
may
be
made by
or the abstraction of carbon from
the addition of carbon to wrought cast iron ; both
methods are in use commercially. Blister Steel is produced by a process called cementation. Bars of purest wrought iron are placed in a furnace between layers of charcoal powder, and kept at a high temperature for from 5 to 14 days. The bars are now brittle, crystalline, and more or less covered with blisters. Small regular Used for facing blisters and fine grain denote good quality. hammers, &c., but not for edge tools; used largely for
conversion into other kinds of
steel.
Spring Steel is blister steel heated to
an orange-red colour,
and rolled or hammered.

19. VARIETIES OF STEEL.
No.
2.
into faggots, sprinkled with sand
welding heat under a
SJiear Steel is blister steel cut into short lengths, piled and borax, and placed at " " " "
tilt
shear steel denotes the
peated. knives, scythes, plane irons, shears, &c., frequently in con-
hammer. Single and double number of times this process is reFibrous character now restored. Used for large
junction with iron.

Crucible Cast Steel. Originally made by melting fragments of blister steel in covered fireclay crucibles, and running into iron moulds. Now generally made direct from Swedish
bars cut up and placed in crucibles, with small quantity of charcoal, with subsequent addition of spiegeleisen or oxide of
10
manganese. Variations on this process are known as Heath's
and Mushet's, also Tungsten steel, Chrome steel, &c. Forged at low heat, unweldable, fracture grey, crystals very minute.
20. YAEIETIES OF STEEL.
"No. 3.
pig-iron containing a large proportion of free carbon, small quantity of silicon and manganese, free from sulphur and phosphorus. Iron melted
Steel.
Bessemer
Made from grey
in cupola, and run into a converter lined with fire-brick and suspended on hollow trunnions. Air blown through the metal about twenty minutes, removing all carbon; 5 to 10 per cent, spiegeleisen then added, and blowing resumed long enough to incorporate the two metals. Steel then run out into ladle and moulds. Ingots being porous are reheated and put under steam hammer, then rolled or worked as reUsed for rails, tyres, common cutlery and tools, quired.
roofs, bridges, &c.
Siemens Steel. Pig-iron melted on furnace hearth good ore and limestone are then added and heat kept up, process resulting in carbonic acid gas, slag, and steel.
;
21. VAEIETIES OF STEEL.
No.
4.
Pig-iron melted in furnace, three or four times its weight of heated wrought-iron scrap or steel added, together with spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese,
Siemens-Martin
Steel.
until required proportion of carbon, &c., is obtained, to give steel of requisite hardness ; then run into ingot moulds.
Landore-Siemens Steel. Iron ore is treated in a rotatory furnace with carbonaceous material, and converted into balls of malleable iron, which are transferred direct to steel-melting The result is steel furnace. Spiegeleisen, &c., then added.
of very ductile quality, dense, and uniform in texture, and particularly suitable for replacing wrought-iron where increased strength is required, in addition to all the best
properties of wrought iron.
11
22.
DANNEMORA CAST STEEL.

Tools suited for
Carbon.
Temper.
Eemarks.
per cent
Razor
Turning and planing,

&o.
drills,
Great skill required

in forging, spoilt if overheated. Not weldable.
II
Turning Turning, planing, and

tool.
tools,
drills,
slotting
cutters,
small
and 'taps.
Punch
Mill picks,
circular cutters, taps, rimers, small shearblades, large turning-tools
May be welded with

great care.
and
Chisel
drills, punches, screwing dies.
and
Will weld with care.
Cold chisels, hot setts, mediumshear-blades, large punches, large taps, miners'
drills for granite.
size
Sett
Cold
setts, minting dies, large shear-blades, miners' drills; smiths' tools, as sett ham-
Will weld without

difficulty.
mers,
swages, fullers, &c.
flatteners,
Die
Boiler-cups, snaps, hammers, stamping and pressing dies, welding steel for plane-irons, &c.
Will weld like iron.
23.
NOTES ON CAST IRON.
Stronger in compression than wrought iron, but much weaker in tension. Not so safe as wrought iron when subjected to impact or suddenly applied loads. Used for complex parts of machines, because easier to mould in casting than wrought iron in forging. Principally for wheels, bed-plates, and framings.
will be
If thickness of different parts varies much, the castings strained in cooling. All edges should be well
filleted.
rounded and hollows
Expands
at
moment
of solidification in casting, but con-
12
tracts in cooling. Contraction varies with size and thickness of casting, and quality of metal.
24. QUALITIES OP
CAST IRON.
No.
1.
Grey.
Soft.
Deficient in
fluid
ordinary castings. Very per cent, carbon chemically combined, 2-9 to 3 7 per cent. mechanically combined.
when
Used for strength. 0-6 to 1*5 melted.
No.
2.
Mottled.
Variable hardness.
Used
for larger castings. More bined, and less mechanically.
Stronger than No. 1. carbon chemically comStrong.
No.
3.
White.
Hard.
Fusible.
Used
for conall
version into wrought iron.
3 to 5 per cent, of carbon
chemically combined.
These
varieties
are
mixed in various proportions for
special purposes.
Unwin's Machine Design.
25.
Chilled
CHILLED AND MALLEABLE CAST IRON.
during
tected
solidification,
Cast Iron is ordinary cast iron rapidly cooled by using a solid cast-iron mould pro-
by a wash of loam, causing a chemical combination of Fracture silvery. the molten iron and carbon. Very hard.
Direction of crystallisation strongly marked. Malleable Cast Iron is made by heating ordinary castings from two to forty hours, according to size, in contact with
oxide of iron or powdered red hgematite, causing partial conversion into wrought iron by abstraction of carbon.
26.
TOUGHENED CAST IRON.
iron,
by adding to the cast from one-fourth to one-seventh of its weight of wrought-iron scrap, which removes some of the carbon from the cast iron, and causes an approximation
Toughened and melting amongst
cast iron is produced

it,
to steel.
Notes on Building Construction,
iii.
252.
13
27. COPPER.
Very malleable, and hence specially suited for hammering into thin hemispherical pans, rolling into sheets, &c., also ductile to a less degree. Eendered brittle by absorption of
carbon, refined and toughened during manufacture, but may be spoilt again by careless manipulation. May be cast.
Can be forged
hot.
cold, or at red heat, but rapidly scales when Addition of 2 to 4 per cent, of phosphorus improves its fluidity and tenacity. Used for fire-boxes, &c., because it is a good conductor of heat, but loses tenacity in proportion
to its temperature.
Much
used in forming alloys.
28. ALLOYS.
Bronze is a mixture of (say) 10 copper, 1 tin. Brass is a mixture of (say) 2 copper, 1 zinc. Gun-Metal is a mixture of copper, tin and zinc in
proportions, according to the hardness or toughness requi say 16 copper, 2 tin, 1 zinc. May be also called bronze.
Muntz-Metal
fore a brass.
is
a mixture of 3 copper, 2 zinc, and
is
there-
29.
EFFECT OF ALLOYING WITH COPPER.
Tin increases the hardness, and whitens the colour through various shades of red, yellow, and grey. Zinc in small quantity increases fusibility without reducing the hardness, in greater quantity increases malleability when cold, but entirely prevents forging when hot.
Lead increases the ductility of brass, and makes alloy more suitable for turning, filing, &c. ; in large quantity
causes brittleness.
Phosphorus increases the fluidity and tenacity, reduces the

effect of the
atmosphere, and allows of tempering.
14

30.
Name.
BRONZE ALLOYS.
NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEEKING.

33.
Name.
15
VARIOUS ALLOYS.
16

36.
USE OF WOOD
IN ENGINEERING.
pine,
Pattern-making.
pine,
American yellow
vitaB.
Kew
Zealand
mahogany,
BlocJcs.
alder, sycamore.
Searings.
Lignum
Brake
Buffer Beams. Floats for Paddle-wheels.

elm.
Willow, poplar. Oak. Willow, American elm, English

holly, apple, oak if in
Wheel Teeth.
Hornbeam, beech,
Oak, greenheart. Beech, box.
damp
place. Sluice Paddles.

Joiners' Tools.
Shafts and Springs.
Ordinary framing, piling, &c. Teak. Carriage-building.
Ash, hickory, lancewood. Yellow deal.
Fender and Hubbing pieces.

37. FIR,
American elm.
DEAL, AND PINE.
Fir
is
a general term for wood used in the rough, as
distinguished from Deal, a general term for

joiner.
wood wrought and used by the
Pine
is
another general term used for even grained stuff
suitable for panels.
Also for pitch pine. Yellow deal and red deal are botanically classed as pine. White deal and spruce deal are botanically classed as fir. Deal is not a botanical term. Planks, deals, and battens, are trade terms for boards of
certain widths, viz., planks 11 inches, deals 9 inches, battens 4 to 7 inches.
KOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
17
PART
I.
SECTION
III.
THE BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS UNDER STRAIN THE STRENGTH OF BEAMS, SHAFTS, BRACKETS,
ETC.
38. CLASSIFICATION OP STKAINS.
Tension
Compression Transverse Strain

..
..
..
Stretching or pulling. Crushing or pushing.
..
..
Torsion
Shearing
Cross strain or bending. Twisting or wrenching. Cuttin g> or when actin S alon g
>
the grain of timber, detrusion.
39. DEFINITIONS OF
STRAIN AND STRESS.
Strain. Every load which acts on a structure produces a of form, which is termed the strain due to the load. change The strain may be temporary or permanent, the former dis-
appearing when the load
is
removed, the latter remaining as
permanent
set.
The molecular forces, or forces acting within the Stress. material of a structure, which are called into play by external forces, and which resist its deformation, are termed stresses.
Univin's
Machine Design.
40.
TESTING WROUGHT IRON.*
The strength of a bar should be measured by the work done in producing rupture, i.e. the product of the elongation into the mean stress. A convenient approximation to relative toughness is obtained by observing the maximum stress and
the elongation in a given length. The length formerly taken was 8 inches, but 6 inches is now usually adopted, so
that the increase of length in sixteenths of an inch will
* Sec leaflet
Strain.'
by the author on
'
The Behaviour
of Materials under
18
NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING:.
represent the elongation per cent. The elongation being principally local, the percentage specified for a length of
8 inches x -f^)- or 1*28, will give the proper percentage for a length of 6 inches.
41.
FACTOR OP SAFETY
Is an
by practical experience, varying with the material used, and the manner of using. It is the ratio of the greatest safe stress to the ultimate resistance of
fixed
amount
the material, such as J, y1^, &c., and the calculated resistance of any section multiplied by the factor of safety suitable to the circumstances, will give the safe working load.
42.
PROOF STRENGTH.
It was formerly supposed that the proof strength of any material was the utmost strength consistent with perfect that is, the utmost stress which does not produce elasticity a permanent set. Mr. Hodgkinson, however, has proved that
';
a set
is
produced in
ent with safety.
many cases by a stress perfectly consistThe determination of proof strength by ex-
periment is now, therefore, a matter of some obscurity ; but it may be considered that the best test known is, the not producing
an increasing
Mechanics.
43.
set
by repeated application.
Ranldne's Applied
MOMENTS OF TRANSVERSE STRENGTH.
is the load multiplied by its effective the point required. The moment of a load divided by the depth of beam will give the horizontal strain on the extreme fibres in its upper and lower sides.
Moment of Load
leverage at
Moment
area of
of Resistance in a beam
fibres
is
proportional to the
their
multiplied distances from the neutral axis.
the
by the squares of
in
Moment of Inertia is the sum of the moments of any given section. Hurst.
resistance

44.
19
USUAL ALLOWANCE FOR DEAD LOAD PER SQUARE INCH

SECTIONAL AREA.
20

Ibs.,
Belgians weigh about 140 Ibs. each, Frenchmen 136 while Englishmen weigh 150 Ibs.
Mr. F. Young
practice.
states
80
Ibs.
per square foot
is
quite safe in
Mr. Thomas Page packed picked men on a weighbridge

with a result of 84
Ibs.
per foot super.
Mr. George Gordon Page says that for troops on march 351 Ibs. per square foot is sufficient. The usual practice is to assume the live load as 100 Ibs. per
square foot.
48.
A. T. Walmisley.
APPROXIMATE SAFE LOAD ON COLUMNS AND PIERS
Oak
Fir
post
up
to
10 diameters long, T3^- tons per

^
sq. in.
Cast-iron column ) or stanchion $
10 to 15 15 to 20 20 to 25 25 to 30 Hard York or Portland stone piers Stock brick in cement (if covered with)
Do. Do. Do. Do.
4
3 2
.,
H
12
foot super.
stone template)
(without do.)..
49.
WEIGHT OF MATERIALS FOR ESTIMATING.

iron
..
.. ..
Wrought
Cast iron
..
..
.. ..
Gun
metal
..
Lead
Greenheart
.. ..
..
Oak
Fir Granite
..
..
..
Bramley Fall and
Hard York
480 450 525 700 60 50 40 ICO 140
Ibs.
per cub.
ft.
.,
,,

50. SPECIFICATION
21
TESTS OF CAST IRON.
(BRIDGE AND GIRDER WORK.)
Three bars cast in dry mould from each melting, 3 feet 6 inches long, 2 inches deep, 1 inch wide 3 feet between bearin centre, or minimum of ings, to break with average of 30 cwt. with load of 25 cwt. than deflect not less and to 28 cwt., T
;
Samples prepared in lathe to bear 2

tensile strain before loss of elasticity, less than 7 tons per square inch.
tons per square inch
and to break with not
51. SPECIFICATION
TESTS OF WROUGHT IRON (BRIDGE A
GIRDER WORK).
22
53. DESIGNING WROUGHT IRONWARE. Limits of ordinary prices, Staffordshire district. Plates. Weight 5 cwt., length 15 feet, width 4 feet, 30 feet super, shape regular. Angle and Tee Irons. Length 40 feet, size 2J inches by 2 by 1J- up to 8 united inches.
IT
Bars.
(Round and square), diameter

feet.
-J-
inch to 3 inches,
to 6 inches
length 25
Bars. (Flat), size 1 inch 1 inch, length 25 feet.
by J inch up
by
CLEVELAND DISTRICT.
Plates.
Weight 12
cwt., length
21
feet,
width 4 feet
G inches, shape regular.
53*. COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OP IRON AND STEEL PLATES.
Quality.

55.
23
LIMIT OF ELASTICITY.
strain per square inch sectional area, which can material undergo without receiving a visible permaany nent set, is called its limit of elasticity.
The maximum
The average
Wrought
iron,
limits of elasticity are
10 tons.
Cast iron, 2 tons.
Steel,
15 tons.
And the average elongations under a strain of 1 ton per square inch are Steel Cast iron y^rWrought iron 3-^}^.
56.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.
bar in tension or compression is elongated or shortened by an amount proportionate to the strain, within certain limits. Assuming the elongation, on increasing the strain,
to continue in the
same
ratio,
reached where the bar would be
a certain point would be increased to twice its
original length. The weight in Ibs. per square inch sectional area of the bar, to produce this result, is the modulus of
elasticity.
The amount
varies with the kind and quality of
the material employed.

57. DEFINITIONS OF
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.
The modulus
of direct elasticity of a material is the ratio
of the stress per unit of section of a bar, to the elongation or compression per unit of length, produced by the stress.
Unwin's Machine Design. It is the weight in Ibs. that would stretch or compress a bar, having a sectional area of one square inch, by an amount
equal to
Strains.
its
own
length, called
Hooke's law.
CargiWs
58.
FORMULA FOR ELONGATION BY ELASTICITY.

elasticity (see table).
M
I
= =
Modulus of direct Length in inches.
24 w
e
NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
= =
Load per square inch

Elongation in inches.
sectional area, in Ibs.
w X
59.
MODULI OF ELASTICITY.
In
Ibs.
Cast
steel,
tempered
Steel,
ordinary
.......
........
,
per sq.
in.
36,000,000
..
30,000,000
29,000,000
Wrought-iron bar
Ditto plate Cast iron
........
............ Brass ............... Tin ..............

Gun
metal
Copper Phosphor bronze
............ ............ ............

........
25,000,000
18,000,000
17,000,COO
14,000,000 10,000,000
9,000,000
Lead
CO.
..............
IN BRIDGES FOE
5,000,000
720,000
ALLOWANCE
CHANGES OF TEMPERATURE.
Variation of 15 F. alters length of wrought iron as

as strain of 1 ton per square inch.
much
In exposed situations an allowance of T7^ of an inch movement, per 100 feet length, is necessary for the purpose of eliminating the strains due to change of temperature.
Graham Smith.
61. RESILIENCE
OF BEAMS.
The
resistance of
is
beams
to transverse impact, or a sud-
termed their resilience. It is simply proportional to the mass or weight of the beam, irrespective of the length or the proportion between the depth and
denly applied load,
breadth.
Thus,
similar
if a given beam break with a certain steady load, a beam of twice the length will break with half the
25
load applied in the same way; but if the short beam be deflected or broken by a certain falling load, the long beam
from the same height or the load dropped from twice the height, to produce the same effect. Anderson's Strength of Materials.
will require double the load dropped
62. RESILIENCE.
Resilience or Spring is the quantity of mechanical work required to produce the proof- stress on a given piece of material, and is equal to the product of the proof strain or
alteration of figure, into the
;
mean
load which acts during
the production of that strain that is to say, in general, very nearly one half of the proof load.
The
Resilience or Spring of a
Beam
is
in bending it to the proof deflection : energy of the greatest shock which the
the work performed in other words, the
beam can bear with-
out injury
such energy being expressed by the product of a
weight into the height from which it must fall to produce the shock in question. This, if the load be concentrated at or near one point, is the product of half the proof load into
the proof deflection.
63.
Rankine*
ULTIMATE STRENGTH OP TIMBER.
Name.
26

64.
STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS OF TIMBER.
Name.

67.
27
DEFLECTION AND CAMBER.
the displacement of any point in a loaded from its beam, position when the beam is unloaded. Camber is an upward curvature, similar and equal to the
Deflection is
maximum
some
line in
calculated deflection, given to a beam or girder or it, in order to ensure its horizontality when
fully loaded.
68.
DEFLECTION OF GIRDERS.
In girders with parallel flanges of uniform strength, the deflection produces a circular curve, the amount of deflection varies directly as the load x the sum of the areas of both
flanges
of top flange squared, or
the cube of the length, and inversely as the area X area of bottom flange X depth of web
+a>)xP A= WjjCg X a X d
?
Common
Rule.
Girders to be constructed with a camber
of J to J inch per 10 feet of span, to allow for deflection when loaded.
69.
FORMULA FOR DEFLECTION OF WROUGHT-IRON FLANGED

GIRDERS.
Of uniform strength, supported at both ends, and carrying distributed load. Strain allowed 5 tons per square inch
tension, 4 tons per square inch compression.
= Span in feet. = Mean depth in inches. A = Deflection in inches in

s
centre.
A
If depth 0.18s.
0144s2 d
= TV
span,
A =
-012
s,
TV
'0144
s,
28

70. DEFLECTION or BEAMS.
.
A =
I
Deflection in inches.
in feet.
= Length
= Breadth
in inches.
W
c
Depth in inches. = Load in cwts. in
centre,
Constant
=
..
.. ..
Steel
..
..
..
40 36 30 26
Rectangular beam
3

such, but above.
it
29
is
more convenient
d3
to take it
by leverage as
d*
,
Strength varies as
stiffness as
To run
1
smoothly, long shafting must not twist more than
in 10 feet under
maximum
load.
Long
shafts are not designed in strict accordance with rule
as they would then be tapered from driving end, involving extra assortment of driving pulleys. Every alteration in diameter of a shaft, unless made at a
coupling, must be made gradually junction of the two diameters.
by means
of a curve at the
Factor of safety, long shafts less than 4J inches diameter T\j-; short shafts and all over 4J inches diameter = ^.
5 tyd 2 . Friction of Distance apart of supports in feet ordinary shop shafting is about one horse-power per 100
feet.
72.
ULTIMATE TORSIONAL STRENGTH OF VARIOUS METALS.

1 inch diameter, load applied at 1 foot radius.
Round bars
Cast
steel,
average 1500
Ibs.
Mild
steel,
Wrought
iron,
Cast iron,
Wrought
copper,
1200 800 700 400
73. TRANSMISSION OF
POWER BY SHAFTING.
Strength of shaft to transmit power depends upon velocity : thus, shaft able to transmit 20 horse-power at 60 revolutions is sufficient for 60 horse-power at 180 revolutions. The explanation is, that the actual strain is the same in each case the increase in horse-power being due to the increase in speed
only.
Power
directly as the
consists of pressure amount of each.
and
velocity,
and varies
30

74.
FORMULA FOR STRENGTH OF SHAFTING.

in
Ibs.
W = B. W.
Z
at 1
foot
radius,
of shaft 1
inch
diameter.
C = Coefficient of safety. d - Diameter of shaft.
=
=
Leverage in
feet.
Strain in Ibs. at circumference of wheel.

~~
V w^
SHAFTING.
/ Sl
Wd
c.
75.
MOLESWORTH'S FORMULA FOR WROUGHT-IRON
D=
H
n
Z
Diameter of shaft in inches. for crank shafts and prime movers. 200 for second motion shafts. 1320 100 for ordinary shafting. = Actual horse-power to be transmitted,
= Number of revolutions per minute. = Leverage in feet. / = Force applied in Ibs. at circumference
of wheel.
H
y
v
33000
~
H=
'
K
Xi 33000 ~VX^^vK
FLANGE COUPLING
33000H
27rZra
3/H
n*
76. PROPORTIONS OF SOLID WROUGHT-IRON
ON SCREW SHAFT.
Let d = diameter of shaft. Then there should be eight J d in diameter, the diameter of circle passing through the centres being 1 d. The flanges should be 2 d d thick. Unwin. in diameter and
bolts,* each
* Six bolts are commonly used, np to 6 inches diameter of shaft.

77.
31
TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF SHAFTS.

or
Load
distributed on wrought-iron crank pin 1200. hanging journal in Ibs., c
over-
Ditto, concentrated
on shaft supported
at ends, c
c
=
=
2400. 4800.
Ditto, distributed
Safe load
3/
WZ _
c
'
Forces may be taken to act at the centres of journals in cases where supports are not contiguous to journals.
78.
PROPORTIONS OF BOLTS, WHITWORTH STANDARD.
Diameter of
Bolt in inches.
32

. .
Side of square washer for oak Thickness of washer
= =
fir,
2^ diameter of
'
bolt.
^
the washers should
When
the nuts are let in flush in
be same size as for oak.

80.
STRENGTH OP BOLTS.
strained to
section.
Bolts in machinery subject to varying loads should not be more than 2 tons per square inch of minimum
bolt 1 inch diameter being *84 at bottom of thread will take not more than (say) 2000 Ibs., including
initial strain in
2000 d 2 3 safe load in Ibs. for 1-inch bolts and upwards; 2000 d safe load in Ibs. for 1-inch bolts and under.
Let d
screwing up. outside diameter of thread in inches
= =
The ordinary force used in screwing up bolts is liable to break a f -inch bolt and seriously injure a |^-inch bolt hence bolts, for joints requiring to be tightly screwed up should not be less than f inch in diameter.
;
81.
STRENGTH OF BOLTS (Unwin).

Per
sq. in.
Bolts not requiring to be tightened before load is applied
net area.
Safe load
6000
Ibs.
Bolts
accurately
fitted
"j
and requiring to be ened moderately
tight. . . .
>
= =
4000
j
}
I
Bolts used to draw joints steam tight and resist the
1600
to
2000
Ibs.
pressure in addition
82.
To SECURE CHECK OB LOCK NUTS.
Put on check nut (^ diameter of bolt in thickness), screw as tight against flange or work as an ordinary nut would be screwed under the circumstances, then put on ordinary
up
33
thick nut (1 diameter thick), screw it up with the same force and hold on to it with the spanner. Then with a thin
spanner reverse the check nut against the other as far as it will go with about the same pressure as before. The check nut has then only the screwing-up force to resist, while the
thick nut has in addition the strain which
may be brought
upon
it
by load or
vibration.
83.
CHECK NUTS.
.... This loosening of a nut can be prevented by adding another nut, which must be screwed hard down upon the 9 WiUis first, to increase the pressure upon the thread. Mechanism.
NOTE.
As
described here, the second nut would only be

first nut,
equivalent to thickening the as a check.
and would be useless
PAET
I.
SECTION
IV.
THE ACTION OF CHISELS, HAMMERS, PUNCHED"

PLANES, SHEARS, DRILLS.
h
v
g
t
= = =
Height of fall in feet. Velocity in feet per second.

Force of
proximately). of fall in seconds.
Falling from Rest.
FORMULA FOR FALLING BODIES. H = Highest point reached in feet. T = Time to reach ditto. gravity .= 32 (ap- V = Velocity imparted otherwise
84.
than by gravity.
Time
Thrown Downward.
h
27i
=Vt+
-V+
*/2g~h
= V+g
9*
34

Thrown Upward.
V2
V2
'
.T>if..g
t>
V-
85.
HOLTZAPFFEL'S CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS.
two
Shearing tools act by dividing the material operated on into parts, which separate from each other by sliding at the
surface of separation. Paring tools cut a thin layer or strip called a shaving from the surface of the work, and thus produce a new
surface.
Scraping tools scrape away small particles from the surface of the work, thus correcting the small irregularities which may have been left by the paring tool.
86.
ANGLES OF TOOLS.
Speed of Cut.
Angle of
Tool.
For wood
cast iron
30-40
..
wrought iron
brass
..
60 70
8000 feet per minute. 15-20 10-15
..80
relief for all tools,
Angle of
87.
5-10.
CUTTING SPEED OF MACHINE TOOLS.

..
..
..
Steel
Cast iron
Brass
....
iron
..
Wrought
Wood
..
12 18 20 24 2000
feet per
minute
when
material
revolves.
35
Wood
..
..
3000
feet
per minute when tool
revolves.
Grindstone
88.
..
800
feet per minute.
SPEED OP MACHINE TOOLS.

..
On
soft cast iron
5 feet per minute.
steel
and hard
ditto
..
wrought iron
brass
10 to 20 15 to 25 40 to 100
wood
300
to
2000
Evers' Applied Mechanics.

89.
SPEED OF MACHINE TOOLS.

iron, 20 feet per minute. Cast iron, 16 Cuts per inch, 16 to 80. (Wrought
Tor
flat
work-
Speed in inches per second
speed
in feet per minute.
For small diameters

Diameter in inches
revolutions in 16 seconds
Epeed in feet per minute.
For large diameters

Diar. in inches X 16 = S^ eed in ft min Seconds for 1 revolution 5 Cutting speed in feet per min. x ~ = S 1' ft tooled P er hour Cuts per inch
'
Engineering, 21st Nov. 1879.

90.
SHEARING AND PUNCHING.
Resistance to shearing of wrought iron averages 50,000 Ibs. per square inch area of surface cut. This will be the pressure required on the material at the commencement of the
stroke.
D 2
36
The mechanical work in punching or shearing is estimated by Weisbach as this pressure exerted through ^th the thickness of the plate, and the coefficient or modulus of the machine as 66, the friction being taken at 33 per cent, of the gross pressure.
91.
SHEARING AND PUNCHING.

power required
:
Formula
t
I
for calculating
= = / = M= P =
Thickness of plate or bar. Length or circumference of
cut.
Resistance of material to shearing. Modulus of machine, say *66.
Gross pressure in
"
Ibs.
P-il/
92. PRESSURE REQUIRED TO

d.
PUNCH WROUGHT-IRON PLATES.

P.
c.
(From experiments).
t.
To punch
Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do.
i-
hole in
-J-
plate requires
i
i
-|
j t
2| tons 64
13 22
J f
f
1
J
|-
33J 47i 62J

80
144 104 92 88 86 84 82 80
P = d X t X c. = Approximately diam. X thickness x 88 = 28 area of cut surface x or,

93.
pressure in tons
ditto
LAWS
OF FBICTION.
The friction between two surfaces, dry or only slightly greasy, is in direct proportion to the force with which they are pressed together (within the limits of abrasion), and is
37
independent of the area of the surfaces in contact. With ample lubrication the friction is reduced, but the heavier the
pressure per unit of surface the greater must be the consistency of the lubricant, to prevent it from being squeezed
out.
The friction between two surfaces at rest is slightly greater than when they are in motion, but when in motion the friction is independent of the velocity so long as the surfaces are kept cool.
94. DEFINITIONS
OF FRICTION.
is the angle through The Limiting angle of Resistance which any surface requires to be lifted from the horizontal to cause a body to be on the point of sliding (friction of rest) or Its magnitude is to continue sliding (friction of motion).
fixed
by the physical nature of the surfaces in
contact.
It is
also the angle from the vertical made by the resultant of the force or forces acting upon a body when sliding is just about to take place or is taking place.
The Coefficient of Friction /x is the ratio of the pressure required to overcome the friction of a body on any given of and on the body horizontal surface, to the whole load
(p,
= ~r Y
Trigonometrically
it is
equal to the tangent of
the limiting angle of resistance

95.
(/x
= tangent $).
4 to
6
MEAN
COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION.
dry,
;
Wood on wood
lubricated,
or metal
greasy,
2 to
1 to '2.
;
Metal on metal
1 standing, or
wet, 3 dry, 2 ; greasy, 08 moving. Leather on metal, wet '25, dry *5. Friction of motion = friction of repose X
15
lubricated,
7.
Frictioa varies with the nature of the surfaces, the lubricant, and the temperature.
38

96. MORIN'S
EXPERIMENTS ON FRICTION, OF MOTION.
Dry
Wrought
Cast
iron on brass *172
Brass on wrought iron

cast
161 -217
-147
Greasy
Wrought
Cast
Lubricated with olive
-160 -132
oil
wrought
cast
-166 -107
Wrought
Cast
-078
-078
wrought
cast
-072 -077
Oak upon elm dry
=^
of friction of elm upon oak dry.
NOTE. These results reduced from General Morin's experiments appear to be very questionable, and indicate the necessity for further investigation.
PAET
I.
SECTION
V.
OPERATIONS OF TEMPERING, WELDING, RIVETING, CAULKING, &c.

97. FORGING.
Wrought
iron at a red heat
may be hammered
into various
When a piece is drawn down shapes, called "forging." " " if jumped up thicker, it is smaller it is called swaging ; " called upsetting." Common iron is not suitable for forging, Double and treble as the scale or slag in it causes cracks.
and ordinary Yorkshire are suitable. The best Yorkshire is used for flanging and difficult forgings. Charcoal iron for light and complicated work.
best Staffordshire
Steel
may be
forged gradually at a low heat.
The
greater
39
the proportion of carbon contained, the greater the difficulty All forging should proceed by easy stages, and of forging.
care be taken not to burn the iron or steel.
98.
WELDING
Is the process of joining two pieces of wrought iron or
by heating, and hammering them together. To weld iron the pieces must be 'brought to a white heat, and the Steel requires scale swept off before they are put together. a much lower heat, and the surfaces should be sprinkled with
steel
sand or borax. The welding temperature depends upon the amount of carbon contained: hence, the extra difficulty of welding two pieces of /different composition. Mild steel
approaches wrought iron in its welding qualities. Steel faces may with care be welded on to iron tools; shear steel is generally used for this purpose.
99. Steel
TEMPERING.
when heated
oil, is
water or
carbon
is
and suddenly cooled in rendered very hard. Some suppose that the caused to take the crystalline or diamond form.
to a cherry red,
For tempering the hardened
steel a portion is brightened with a piece of broken grindstone, and then reheated until the film of oxide formed on the surface shows the requisite
temperature; it is then quenched in water, and the hard" " ness is found to be " let down to the " temper required.
Tempering was formerly considered

of steel.
to be the only true test
100. COLOUES CORRESPONDING TO TEMPERATURE.

Deg. Fahr. Deg. Fahr.
Faint red Dull red
.. .. ..
..
..
"960
Orange
Bright orange
..
2010
Brilliant red
..
..
Cherry red Bright cherry red
..
1290 1470 1650 1830
..2190
..
White heat
Bright white heat..
2370 2550
Becquerel.
40
fed
H
C^

102.
41
NOTES ON RIVETED JOINTS.
Hard wrought
by punching. In punched
together.
iron is weakened from 15 to 30 per cent,
plates the small sides of the holes should
come
Drilled holes should have the edges chamfered. The tension in a rivet may be estimated at 21,000 Ibs.
square inch of its section. Friction due to this tension would be about 7000 Ibs. per square inch of rivet section.
The
^ inch
usual diameter of rivets in hand riveting varies from

to
-|
inch.
In machine riveting they may be used up to 1J inch

diameter.
Maximum
of plate.
efficiency of single riveted joint

efficiency of
=
=
strength
Maximum
of plate.
double riveted joint
f strength
103.
NOTES ON CAULKING.
Caulking consists of burring up the inner edge of the

plates in a joint by means of a tool like a flat-ended chisel, to prevent leakage in boilers, tanks, &c.
Plates with rough sheared edges should be chipped even,

to a slight bevel, before caulking.
hammer
Joints appearing at all open should be closed by a flogging before caulking.
the caulking is done on one side only, it should be side as the riveting. In best work the joints are caulked inside and out.
When
upon the same
When
caulking
is
the lap exceeds three times diameter of rivet the apt to open the joint, unless done very lightly.
104. CAULKING TOOLS.
The caulking
bevelled, from
-J-
tool
should be flat-ended
and
slightly
3 inch to T inch thick ff
1 inch to
1^ inch
42
wide, with one edge square and the other rounded to prevent cutting into the plate.
The rounded edge should be held

first
next to the plate the
time of going along the joint, called splitting the lap, and afterwards reversed.
The finished caulking should appear like a parallel groove about Jy inch deep X inch wide in a f-inch plate.
PART
I.
SECTION
VI.
TOOLS USED IN THE WORKSHOP, MACHINES USED FOB LABOUR-SAYING IN THE CONSTRUCTION OP SMALL MACHINERY, AS MILLING, STAMPING, AND SCREWING MACHINES.
105.
WORKSHOP TOOLS
Are divided into two classes, hand tools and machine tools. In the former are included hammers, chisels, files, ratchet braces, spanners, &c., and in the latter lathes, planing, shaping, drilling, and slotting machines, &c., in the fitting shop and punching and shearing machines, bending rolls,
;
steam hammers, &c., in the smiths' shop.
now mostly driven by steam power connected by belts. through shafting A workshop should be so arranged that the raw material coming in at one end should be received at the various tools in the order of the work to be done upon it, and be removed
The machine
tools are
in a finished state at the other end.
43
PAET
II.
FOUNDING, MOULDING, AND PATTERN-MAKING.

106. PATTERN-MAKING.
Small patterns made of mahogany or New Zealand pine. Metal Larger patterns made of white or yellow pine. patterns used where a great number of similar castings are Wood patterns coated with red or black varnish, required.
to prevent distortion
from damp sand.
Patterns should have rounded edges, and filleted angles wherever possible. The thickness of metal throughout a
casting should be as uniform as possible, changes of direction being avoided. Sharp corners in a casting are always weak.
Sufficient taper
allowance
made
must be given to draw out of the sand, and for knocking to loosen in mould.
107.
MOULDING
Used
IN FOUNDRY.
for light iron castings, fire-
Green-sand Moulding.
The ordinary damp sand bars, rough machine castings, &c. " of the foundry is used in iron boxes or " flasks for receiving impression from "patterns," the hollow parts being formed of baked sand "cores." Long cores are supported " by chaplets," small and complicated cores are made of
" loam."
Dry-sand Moulding. Used for ornamental ironwork, imThe portant machine castings, and for casting in brass. sand consists of fresh sand mixed with loam which has been
used or of fresh sand only.
dried
for
When
"
finished, the
several
hours.
"
Blackening
prevents
moulds are sand
melting.
Loam Moulding. Used for steam cylinders, bent pipes, and complicated work. The mould is often built up without patterns, and consists of brickwork coated with loam and
44
"swept"

to
required
shape
by a "loam-board."
Long
straight cores are formed of iron pipe with haybands twisted on to hold the loam, and other cores of loam strengthened
by bent "core-irons." The loam is common brick-clay mixed with horse-dung, cow-hair, sand, &c.
108.
SAND FOR MOULDING.
Moulding Sand consists of 93 to 96 per cent, of sharp sand
and 3
to 6 per cent, of clay.
Quality varies for different
The smaller the castings, the more clay the sand castings. may contain. Heavy castings require poorer and coarser Coal and coke are used to make the sand more porous, sand.
makes the castings rougher, but by giving free vent to the gases makes them sounder. Parting Sand is the burnt sand scraped off castings, and is
used to
facilitate the division of the
upper and lower boxes
in moulding. Core Sand consists of 90 per cent, sharp sand and 10 per cent, of clay, and should be used fresh.
109.
FOUNDRY DRYING STOVE.
close iron doors on fourth side.
Brick chamber of three sides with arched top shut with Size about 10 feet x 10 feet X 7 feet high. Fire-place on one side, flue near ground on opposite side, fire fed through a door on outside. Iron shelves on walls for drying small cores and boxes. Bails run from crane into drying stove, so that large moulds
may be wheeled
moulds.
in.
Stoves of various sizes in large foun-
dry, the larger ones only used
when required
for very large
110. CLEANING CASTINGS.
have
Moulds taken apart and sand removed as soon as castings to cool, time set, castings taken out with tongs and left
45
varying according to weight and mass. Gates and partings broken off, and heavy or hard cores removed in foundry
Projections removed in cleaning sharp hammer, or worn-out file, and Holes stopped casting well brushed with steel wire brush. with black putty, cement, or lead, and castings painted with
before casting is cold.
shop with
chisel,
black wash.
less
The
scrap averages 25 per cent, of the castings,
on large work.
111. CLASSIFICATION OF IRON ORES.
Mr. Truran
classifies "the ores of

:
Great Britain into four
great divisions, thus
A. The argillaceous ores of the coal formations, having clay, but sometimes silica, as the chief impurity. B. The carbonaceous ores of the coal formations, distinguished by their large percentage of carbon.
C.
The
tes of iron,
calcareous or spathic ores, or the sparry carbonhaving lime as their chief earthy admixture.
ores,
is
earth.
D. The siliceous This class
having silica as their predominating subdivided into the red and brown
oolitic
haematites,
the ores of the
formation,
the white
carbonates, and the magnetic oxides.
112.
CHARGES
EMPLOYED
AT
DOWLAIS
FOR
DIFFERENT
KINDS OF PlG-lRON.
" Calcined " mine (fresh ore) Ked haematite ore
Forge and Limestone

Coal
refinery cinder
46

113.
ANALYSES OP PIG-!RON.
'
Carbon, partly combined, and partly 1 J in a graphitic form.. .. $

Silicon
Manganese
Sulphur Phosphorus
..
..
..
..
0-13 5-7 0*0 7'6 0-0 ,,0-87 O'O ,,1*66
114.
FOUNDRY
PIG.
No. 1 Pig
is chiefly
used in the foundry.
Colour dark
grey, crystals large and leafy, carbon in form of graphite. Very soft, melts very fluid, but being coarse grained, will not
give a sharp impression. Cools slowly. For fine castings the presence of a little phosphorus is advantageous: the grain is finer, the iron a lighter colour, and the impressions
sharper.
Used
for
small
castings,
hollow
ware,
small
machinery, &c. No. 2 Pig, grey and mottled in colour.
Used for large Melts fluid, is tough, close castings in dry sand or loam. texture, fills the mould well, more free from impurities than
No.
1.
Heavy machine
1, 2,
castings
3.
made from No.
2,
or
various mixtures of
and
No. 3 Pig, hard and white, used for mixing.

115.
MIXTURES OF PIG-!RON.
&c.,
Mixture recommended for girders,

strength are required
:
where rigidity and

30 per
25 20
cent.
Lowmoor, Yorkshire No. 3

Blaina or Yorkshire No. 2
..
..
..
..25
..
Shropshire or Derbyshire No. 3 Good old cast scrap
100
Fairbairn.

116.
4f
MELTING METAL FOR CASTINGS.
Crucibles are sometimes used for melting iron for trinkets and small goods. The best castings, whether iron, bronze,
made from a
or other metal, for machine frames, bells, statues, &c., are reverberatory furnace, run directly from the
The cupola has furnace in dry sand ditches to the mould. the advantage of melting iron cheaper than any other furnace
;
where strength
is
unimportant,
it is
the best method.
117. CONTRACTION OF
METALS
IN COOLING.
Metal.
48

..
..
Zinc and lead, each
Copper Bismuth Tin
= = = =
-^ inch per
foot.
&
i
&
>
Pattern-makers commonly allow for iron castings per foot, and for brass castings ^\ inch per foot.
119.
-J
inch
BRONZE AND BRASS CASTINGS.
Melted in crucibles, wasting prevented by covering surface with mixture of potash, soda and charcoal powder. Copper melted first, then tin, then zinc or antimony, then covering
added in form of brass, calculating Large strong castings require the metal exposed to fire in fluid state 8 or 10 hours, proof taken by small ladle and broken when cool, judged by Before crystallisation, and copper or tin added as required. Brass casting, bronze is well stirred with heated iron rods.
applied.
Zinc
is best
the copper contained.
made by melting together copper

spelter,
and charcoal powder, remelted
scraps, crude zinc or for casting.
PAET
SHAFTING, GEARING,
III.
AND GENERAL MACHINERY.
120. TRANSMISSION OP MOTION.
By rolling
contact, as
and pinion, face wheel and and pinion, &c.
spur wheels and pinions, crown wheel lantern, bevil wheels, cones, rack
By
plate,
sliding contact, as inclined plane,
wedge, cams, swash
belts and pulleys or riggers, speed pulleys, capstan, fusee of watch, &c. By link work, as levers, cranks, treadle of lathe, &c.
crown wheel escapement, screw, &c. By wrapping contact, as cords and pulleys,
Tomkins* Machine Construction.

121.
49
USEFUL
WORK AND
EFFICIENCY.
that performed in producing Useful work of a machine is the effect for which the machine is designed. Lost work is that performed in producing other effects. of a machine is the energy exerted, and the The
power
effect
the useful
work performed,
of a machine
is
in
some interval of time of
definite length.
The
efficiency
a fraction expressing the
ratio of the useful
work
to the
is
energy expended. This ratio machine. coefficient of the
whole work performed or also called the modulus or
and
counter-efficiency is the reciprocal of the efficiency, the ratio in which the energy expended is greater than Ranhine's Applied Mechanics. the useful work.
is
The
122. VELOCITY EATIO.
The
the
velocity ratio in
any machine
is
the proportion between
of the power and the movement of the resistance, in the same interval of time; for example, in a 1 ^-, and in a hydraulic punching press it may be 100 to 1
movement
These proportions also express the amount of the resistance (including friction), compared with the power or pressure applied. (See definition of virtual
crane 1 to 8
-J-.
velocity.)
The term purchase of a machine is applied either to the motion or pressure of the resistance compared with the power; in above examples, the purchase of the punching press would be 100, that of the hydraulic crane 8, but the
term
is
generally restricted to the gaining of pressure
by the
sacrifice of speed, as in the first case.
123. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL VELOCITIES.

If any machine without friction be in equilibrium and the whole be put in motion, the initial pressure P will be to the
50
final

pressure p as the final velocity P 0, or P : p ; ; v, or p
V
v.-
is
to the initial
velocity
V=
In practice, as
all
machines have
friction,
will be in accordance with the upon the friction, but calculation of the leverage or gearing. Let e = the final pressure by experiment, then p e
will
depend
friction,
and the
coefficient
or
modulus
of machine
M=-
e
.
124. DEFINITIONS OP
THE PEINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL
VELOCITIES.
KanJcine's.
The
effort
and resistance are to each other
inversely as the velocities, along their lines of action, of the points where they are applied.
Twisden's.
If a system of pressures, in equilibrium, act
on any machine which receives any small displacement,

consistent with the connection of the parts of the machine, the algebraical sum of the virtual moments of the pressure will equal zero.
1-25.
ANGULAR VELOCITY.
The angular velocity of a wheel is the speed of a point in the circumference of an imaginary wheel with unity as
radius,
and making the same number of revolutions per

Velocity is taken in feet per second. Revolutions are taken at per minute.
(
minute as the given wheel.
Circumferential velocity
-- = "^ =
=
-10472 rn.
Angular velocity
=2 _
'
10472
n.

126. NOTES ON
51
BELT GEARING (No.
1).
Coefficient of friction between ordinary leather belting and Ultimate strength cast-iron pulleys or drums = -423. of ordinary leather belting = 3086 Ibs. per sq. in.
vary from
-^-
inch to
\ inch
..
thick, average
inch.
Strain.
Breaking Strain.
Safe
..
..
Working
Through .. Through riveting Through lacing .. .. The working strength of the

-
solid part
675 Ibs. 382 Ibs. 210 Ibs.
..
225 127 70
Ibs.
per
in.
wide
belt
must be taken as that of
its
weakest part, which is, the lacing. The tension of the driving side, which must not exceed
the safe working strength of the belt
force transmitted
+ mean normal tension. The force transmitted =

si'on
the difference between the ten-
of the driving side and the tension of the following side. Welclis Designing Belt Gearing.
NOTES ON BELT GEARING (No. 2). When the arc of contact - 180, the force able
127.
to be
transmitted
may
be taken as 50
Ibs.
per inch wide.

*
If
more
or less than ^ circumference be embraced by belt, the force transmitted may be increased or reduced by about 2 8 Ibs. for
very 10 difference from 180.
The sum
of the tensions, or cross strain on shafting,
may
be taken as 90 Ibs. per inch wide. The lower side of a belt should be made the driving side when possible, so that the arc of contact may be
increased by the sagging of the following side. The actual horse-power capable of being transmitted by a belt =
0015
To
velocity in feet per min. X breadth in inches. increase. the capability for transmission of power, the
diameters of the pulleys may be increased, retaining the same ratio, the increase of power being obtained by the increased velocity alone. E 2
52

128.
NOTES ON BELT GEARING (No.
3).
inch thick
Approximate rule for width of single leather '_ 1100 H.P. k

.
belt,
say $,
per inin. For double belting take T^-ths of width of an equivalent

v. ft.
single belt.
Wide
than narrow
short belts.
belts are less effective per unit of sectional area belts. Long belts are more effective than
belt should never exceed 18 inches wide.
The
velocity of lathe belts should be from 25 to 33 feet
per second,
to 2000 feet per minute. of Convexity pulleys to receive belt = J inch per foot wide. The proportion between the diameters of two pulleys
1.
= 1500
working together should not exceed 6 to Width of pulley = J more than belt.
129.
Italian
NOTES ON ROPES.
hemp ropes are stronger than Eussian hemp. white ropes are stronger and more pliable than tarred ropes, but the latter retain their strength for a longer
New
period.
Tarred ropes are stiffer than white by about ^, and in cold weather somewhat more.
Eopes which have been some time in use are more

flexible
than
new
**
ones ; the stiffness of ropes increases after
little rest.
Wet
large, a
ropes, if small, are a little

little less flexible.
more
flexible
than dry
if
Eopes shorten and swell
when
wetted.
There
is
considerable loss of strength from strain, and
exposure after use, although a rope sound.
may
appear perfectly
:
Eopes are usually measured by
their circumference
hence
NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING:.

a 6-inch rope
inch diameter.
is
53
one 6 inches in circumference, or about If
All ropes should be kept dry and free from lime.
130.
STRENGTH OP ROPES.
Ultimate strength of new white ropes is about 6000 Ibs. per equare inch sectional area, but good ropes may stand 1000
Ibs.
per square inch.
Double rope slings are not twice the strength of single rope, owing to inequality of strain but in a rope fall with sheaves in good order, each fold of the rope may be counted
;
for the strength.
in bending a rope fall over a sheave and quality of the rope, the diameter of the rope, the diameter of the sheave, and the tension in the
varies with the size
rope.
The work absorbed
fall,
Include weight of running block in calculating load on and both blocks together with the rope, in weight on
strop.
Snatch block makes practically no difference in lifting power, if it has a good lead.
131. FORMULAE POR
STRENGTH OP ROPES.
Breaking weight new rope, cwts. Safe load on
B.W. new
Safe load
stretched rope in
fall
on new rope good
= circumference x 5. = wt. Ibs. per fath. x 3. = (diameter in |ths) = wt. Ibs. per fath. x 4. = circumference
2 2
.
=-= t
>
Weight of clean dry rope per) fathom, in Ibs 3

. .
"
.
,
Minimum
diameter of sheave in
j_
54

132. STRENGTH OF CHAINS.
= Diameter of Iron in iths of an Inch.

out.
55
These chains occasionally
fail
in use, although the
factor of safety adopted allows so great a margin.
134.
WHEEL
GEARING, MANCHESTER PITCH.
Diametral pitch (Manchester pitch)
=
ins.
No. of teeth Diam. of pitch circle in

Circular pitch
or (tooth
^. diametral pitch
.-
space) in inches.
No. of teeth in wheel
diameter
diametral pitch.
Diameter of wheel
No. of teeth
diametral pitch
Addition to diameter for increased No. of teeth
No. to be addded
"
diametral pitch
Outside diameter of wheel

diameter pitch circle.
135.
2
diametral pitch
NOTES ON TOOTHED GEARING (No.
1).
steel,
Pinions, wheels, and racks are made of and malleable cast iron ; the latter is strong, but liable
cast iron, cast
to twist or warp.
iron
small gearing
is
Pinions are sometimes made of wrought is frequently made of gun metal.
Gearing
increased in strength
by shrouding
or flanging
up
to pitch line.
The comparative wear

to the
of gearing
;
number of
teeth
is inversely proportional hence, pinions wear quicker than
wheels.
Two
teeth on a pinion or wheel is the
minimum number
in gear at one time.
56
capable of being transmitted by gearing within reasonable limits, entirely upon the depends, speed the pressure (at pitch line) depends upon the pitch.
;
The power
136.
NOTES ON TOOTHED GEARING (No.
2).
The
transmission of the power strains the teeth as canti-
levers, or s
c,
c for cast iron safe load
600.
The working -load should

weight.
not exceed -^th of the breaking
The dimensions of the teeth are proportional to the pitch ; hence, in ordinary proportions the strength is represented by 2 p c, c for cast iron being 1000. The breadth
of tooth on face beyond a certain amount,
say twice the pitch, cannot be reckoned upon for strength, owing to irregularities in the teeth, and probability of
unequal bearing.
137.
STRENGTH AND WEIGHT OF TOOTHED GEARING.
Safe pressure in Ibs. at pitch line on wheel teeth of average
proportions
Cast iron,
little
shock,
moderate shock,
excessive shock,
= = =
625 400 277
X x x
pitch
2
pitch
2
pitch
The
pitch.
latter case also applies to the iron teeth of mortise
wheels, which are
made thinner than ordinary
teeth of
sam
Breadth of teeth
2 to 2^ times pitch.
is
of toothed gearing in Ibs. approximately, 2 325 n b p 2. for spur wheels -38 n I p , Bevil wheels
The weight

138.
s
57
FORMULA FOB STRENGTH OF GEARING.
=
=
strain in Ibs. to be transmitted, calculated at pitch

circle.
p=
c
pitch in inches.
constant,
when
teeth of ordinary proportion
58
Increasing diameter increases friction, because the rubbing surface has further to travel in one r evolution. Increasing length does not affect the friction, because for a given space passed through, with a constant load, the friction is independent of surfaces in contact.
When an overhanging journal is increased in length the diameter must also be increased slightly, to give same strength
as before,
= d
\J
Pressure on bearings per square
inch longitudinal section
may be
o(J
^r
v.
^-. ieet
mm
but
must never exceed 1000, maximum say 800 in engines.

140. ORDINARY PROPORTIONS OF KEYS.
Width of key
\ diam. of shaft up to 4 inches. -4 inches to 8 inches. 8 inches to 12 inches. -J Key square at thick end One-third of thickness let in shaft, remainder in wheel.
141. PROPORTIONS OF COTTERS
THROUGH BARS.
b
t
= Breadth of cotter. = Thickness of cotter. d = Diameter of bar.

Through round
bars,
1-4635(1.
=1
o
side of bar
Through square
6
bars,
t
1 5 side of bar.
142. SCREW-CUTTING.
Set of change wheels numbers 22
from 20 25 in a
to 120,
set,
; increasing by 5 teeth two being alike, generally 80 or 90. When the extra wheels are 130, 140, and 150.
59
Wheels of 10 and 15
teeth are supplied
when the screw-
cutting gear works the slide rest.
or 4 threads per inch. leading screw Double tram must always be used wnen T is less screw required
Leading screw has usually
2,
..
3,
,
-.
than
J,
generally
when
less
than
J.
143. SCREW-CUTTING.
To
Single train
find the wheels for
any
pitch.
Threads per inch in leading screw _ driver in screw to be cut follower* Ditto
Double
train
_
Threads leading screw Threads screw required

144. EXAMPLES OF
driver
driver
follower
follower
CHANGE WHEELS FOB SCREW-CUTTING.

15
]
Single trains
Leading screw, 4 threads 4 X 5 " _ 20 5 36' 7 Bequired do., 7
Leading screw, 4 threads
Kequired do.
2g
~ 60
2
15
105
_ ~
2f
16
11
_ X _1_0 ~
10
160__.__2 '
_ 80 ~
65
110
Double
trains
Leading screw, 4 threads

Eequired
do.,
8 | pitch Leading screw, 4 threads 4 ~~ TOO 5 Kequired do., 100
40 _ 50 X 8O 5x4 ~~ _ 5x4 _ ~ ~ 50 x 2x4 ~20 X 40 20 X 80 10 2x2_20x20__ ~ ~ 20 x
20
50
200
50 x 10O
Trains to be used are shown in broad-faced type.
NOTE.
Work
out same with leading screw of three threads.
145.
Effective No. of
NOTES ON SPIRAL SPRINGS.

coils
generally 2 less than apparent
number, owing
to flattening at ends for bases.
60
Stroke
effective
coil.
number of
coils
compression or ex-f-
tension of each
Pitch of spiral = diameter of steel in inches pression of one coil under full load, but coils
twice comlie close
may
when spring
tension only. Diameter of coil = say 8 times diameter of steel.

is for
Working load may

composing spring.
stretch each coil
= J
diameter of steel
To
increase stroke add to the

is
Spring in tension
number of coils. more accurate for exact work than one

but square form
is
in compression. Best form of section
is circular,
stronger,
as 10 to
7.
146. SPIRAL SPRINGS.
Formula
for strength
and
deflection.
E = Compression or extension of one coil in inches. D = Diameter of coil in inches from centre to centre. d = Diameter or side of square of steel composing spring
in
W = Weight applied
c
^ths
an inch.
in Ibs.
= a constant found
22 for round
by experiment, which may be taken as

steel
and 30 for square
steel.
W _D ~
3
d*c
147. SPIRAL SPRINGS, EANKINE'S FORMULA.
d
c
= = =
diameter of wire in inches. wire say coefficient of transverse elasticity of 10,500,000 to 12,000,000 for charcoal iron wire,
and
r
steel.
coil.
radius to centre of wire in

effective
n =
number of
coils.
W = any load not exceeding
/=
greatest safe shearing stress, say 30,000. greatest safe load.
61
W=
v'
corresponding extension or compression.

greatest safe steady load. greatest safe steady extension or compression.
safe
load.
W - = sudden greatest 12- 566 nfr* W cd* = -196/d v = w r cd 64rar v W should be ascertained by direct experiment. Katio
3
Eankines Machinery and Hillworh.

148. DIFFERENTIAL
PULLEY CALCULATIONS.
W
M = modulus
=
or
efficiency
P-
of machine, then
WXM=
actual load lifted.
By experiment Five cwt. differential pulley block multiplying 16 to 1,

coefficient
*
4.
30 cwt.
efficient
differential pulley
block multiplying 53 to
1, co-
-25.
NOTE. than *5.
Load
will not lower
by
itself
when
is less
PAKT
149.
IV.
THE STEAM ENGINE.

HORSE-POWEB.
Actual H.P. =
33,000 foot-lbs. per minute in all calculations, but the actual work of a horse is about 22,000
foot-lbs.
per minute.
7, IDS,
Nominal H.P. low-pressure engine (pressure

atmosphere)
above
= d in inches x y
2
stroke in feet
-7-
47.
62

Ibs.
Nominal H.P. high-pressure engine (pressure 21
above
=
Do.
atmosphere),
N.H.P. low pressure engine
3.
=
Do.
d* -4-
Watt's rule for condensing engines, 28 (22 square inches piston per N.H.P.).
=$
Watt's rule for high-pressure,

14=
(11 square inches piston per N.H.P.).
Admiralty N.H.P. = c?ins. X speed feet per min. -7- 6000. Indicated H.P. = mean p Ibs. square inch, from indicator diagram x area of piston. (x No. of pistons^) X speed in feet per minute -f- 33,000. = actual H.P. of work done. Effective H.P. Nominal H.P. = is a useless commercial term, now becoming
obsolete.
Boiler H.P.
cubic feet of water evaporated per hour.
150.
STEAM wo EKED EXPANSIVELY.

'>
When
Then
cut off at any part of stroke as

its efficiency
-J-
hyp.
log. n.
Mean
pressure
=p X
p -
IV
(1
+ hyp.
log.
n\
Terminal pressure =
All pressures are measured from perfect vacuum. Above formulae assume theoretically perfect indicator
diagrams and expansion according to Boyle and Marriott's

law.
151.
CEANK AND PISTON NOTES.

rod.
a
Z>
Length of connecting
sc
= Length
crank,
of crank.
Distance of piston, from end of stroke furthest from
when point
of
maximum
leverage is reached.

x'
63
Distance of piston as before, when crank has quarter revolution from dead centre.
(
made
6
2
.
a-
+ 1) - VV +
&
0'
(a
6)
A/a
These values divided respectively by 26 will give the proportion of stroke where these points occur. All the distances are measured from the end of stroke
furthest from crank.
152.
StepJienson's.
LINK MOTIONS.
trics, shifted to
Link curved, concave side towards eccenvary position of motion block, block moving in direct line with slide rod, lead increasing towards midgear with open rods and decreasing with crossed rods. Link curved, concave side towards spindle, Gooctis.
maintained in central position by rod swinging on a stud, motion block shifted in link by radius rod connected to
valve spindle', lead constant. Allans. Link straight, link and motion block
moved
in
opposite directions by rocking shaft, lead increasing towards midgear with open rods, and decreasing with crossed rods.
153.
NOTES ON CALCULATION OF ENGINE SHAFTS.

velocities,
By
law of virtual
mean pressure on crank pin

s
d2
in
'
a
"
1-57'
but the force being irregular, the maximum must be taken for the crank and fly wheel shaft ; say full pressure on piston
acting at radius of crank,
.
at radius
s -
Beyond the fly-wheel
may be
substituted for
j^
as the strain will there be practically uniform.
64

154. CALCULATION OF ENGINE SHAFTS.
p = maximum
boiler pressure, Ibs. per square inch.
m=
s
mean
pressure in cylinder stroke of piston in feet.

inches.
d = diameter a = area
square inches.
Hyde. eng. and
/=
factor of safety.
Steam engine.
stm. winches.
.
.
Wrought
Cast iron
It,
iron and steel

.
.
yV
TV rV
ultimate strength, 1-inch bar, 1 foot radius.

Cast
steel.
Mild
steel.
Wrought
iron.
Cast iron.
1250
c
1000
750
600
125 75
constant or safe load
- fk.
175 100
200 .. Steam engine Hydraulic engine, &c. 125
60 40
diameter of shaft in inches.
For crank
shaft
~~
/d X *
Xp X T~x~2~x/x
s/d 2 p
*
:
V2-5c'
-.
And beyond fly-wheel 3 /~~d* X m, X s _ ~
2~x~2~x/"xfc
let
V Tc~
=D+ =D+
*
/d*ms
'
For 2 cylinders, For 3 cylinders

155.
diameter
15 D.
3 D.
STEENGTH OF CRANK PIN.

Ibs.
p =
I
uniformly distributed load in

length of journal in inches. diameter of journal in inches.
d =
65
f=
greatest safe stress per square inch, say, wrought iron 6000 to 9000.
steel
.. ..
..
cast iron
9000 to 13500. 3000 to 4500.

at fixed
=
a
greatest bending
moment
end of journal.
sec.
M
I
= =
go
^3
'0982
3
d?
modulus of circular
d*
= j
of
M^ =-r^ ^
O-J
i OA
-0491 ft
= moment
inertia of circular section.
^
1
64 1964/
3/5a Pj /
156. DEFINITIONS RELATING TO
SCREW PROPELLERS.
measured along the axis of the shaft. Length H, which is a plane triangle when developed. Angle = P 1 Pitch = The distance traversed on A B for one complete
1
A B
1
revolution of
Slip
P.
The
difference
between the theoretical forward
motion, calculated from the pitch of the screw, and the actual progress of the ship.
Area = A P O B, surface of blade in square feet. P. Thread or Helix = Outer edge of blade, Diameter = Diameter of cylinder circumscribing the thread
1
of screw.
A P = radius.
1
157.
NOTES ON SCREW PROPELLERS.
In the common form of propeller the screw surface is generated by a line perpendicular to the axis of the shaft revolving round the shaft and progressing uniformly along it. Screw surfaces are also generated by a line at right angles to a conical surface; in some cases the vertex of the cone points aft, and in others forward. In some the surface is
F
66
traced out by a line perpendicular to a sphere. The object in such cases being to diminish, if possible, centrifugal action of the water.
'Screws of same
diameters
differ.
pitch
have different angles
if
their
Angle reducing
as diameter increases.
The
screws are either right or left-handed, and
may have
two, three, or four blades.
158. SLIP OF
Slip is less
SCREW PROPELLER.
small and speed great, but more When pitch is small, the
when
pitch
is
danger from heated bearings.
propeller is less liable to break from a blow.
The
1. 2.
slip is diminished, cseteris paribus,
by
Decreasing the angle of the screw. Increasing the diameter of the screw.
Increasing the length of the screw. friction increases rapidly with the surface of the
3.
But the
blade.
The indicated horse power varies as the square of the speed of the ship x number of revolutions of screw x pitch. The most economical speed is when the vessel steams half
as fast again as the opposing current, or half as fast again as a vessel it desires to overtake. 159. PITCH OP
SCREW PROPELLER.
Ordinary propellers have the pitch uniform throughout each blade, the angle varying with the distance from the
axis, originally
known
as Smith's propeller.
Screws of increasing pitch are sometimes used, and known as Woodcroft's propeller. Propellers with two blades are common in large ships, but those with three or four blades are better when the draft is small or in a rough sea. Feathering-screws have the blades pivoted so that the angle, and thereby the pitch, may be altered. The pitch of a screw varies with the ratio of the circle described by the screw to the immersed midship section.
PART
BOILERS
V.
AND BOILER
FITTINGS.
160. SENSIBLE HEAT.
The Temperature
sensible heat.
of a body is
its
state
with regard to
For purposes of measurement some definite effect produced by heat must be selected, e. g. the alteration in length or volume of a substance which expands and contracts uniformly
when heated or cooled. At all ordinary temperatures the
ratio
of increment in
volume to increment in absolute temperature is practically constant in the case of mercury, it is moreover a liquid at such temperatures, and easily measured ; hence the Mercurial Thermometer is that most commonly used for determining
the temperature of a body.
161. COMPARISON OP
THERMOMETERS.
68

162. TKANSFER OF HEAT.
Radiation of heat
bodies at
all
is
distances
the transfer which takes place between apart, in the same manner and
according to the same laws as the radiation of light. Conduction is the transfer of heat between two bodies, or parts of a body, which touch each other.
Convection, or carrying of heat, means the transfer and diffusion of the state of heat in a fluid mass by means of the
motion of the particles of that mass.

163.
British
MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT.

is
Thermal Unit, or unit of heat,

Ib.
heat required to raise 1
maximum
density (=39-1 Joules Equivalent is the mechanical thermal unit 772 foot-lbs.
of pure water, at F.), through 1 F.
the quantity of its point of
effect resident in
one
the centigrade scale is used, the point of maximum water will be 4 C., the thermal unit the quantity of density of heat required to raise 1 Ib. water through 1 C., and its
When
mechanical equivalent 1390 foot-lbs.

164. THERMODYNAMICS. First
Law of Thermodynamics
;
are mutually convertible
Heat and mechanical energy and heat requires for its production
and produces by its disappearance, mechanical energy in the proportion of 772 foot-lbs. for each British unit of heat.
Second Law of Thermodynamics. If the total actual heat of a homogeneous and uniformly hot substance be conceived to be divided into any number of equal parts, the effects of these parts in causing work to be performed are equal.
165. CAPACITY OF BODIES FOR HEAT.
Capacity for heat of a body

required to raise
in temperature.
is
the
number of
units of heat
one pound weight of the body one degree
69
Specific heat of a body is its capacity for heat comthat of an equal weight of water. with pared Latent heat is the heat absorbed or disengaged by a body without alteration of temperature, upon a change of state or
The
alteration in the aggregation of its molecules.
166.
LATENT AND SENSIBLE HEAT.
Dr. Black's theory of the latent and sensible heat of steam
was that the sum of the two was constant at all temperatures. Regnault's experiments showed that the total heat was not
constant, but increased slowly with increase of temperature, and was equal in F. to
(Sensible temperature in
167. GASES
F. X
305)
+ 1082.
AND VAPOURS.
Permanent gases are those which cannot be liquefied. Ordinary gases are those which do not liquefy at ordinary temperatures or pressures, and the farther they are removed from their point of liquefaction the nearer they approach the
character of permanent gases. Vapours are gases near their point of liquefaction. Ordinary high or low pressure steam is a vapour, superheated steam is a gas.
constant, the volume of a gas is as its inversely pressure (Boyle's Law). When a gas is heated, the expansion is about ir|7 of its
The temperature being
volume
at
C. for each
C. increase of temperature.
168. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
Fahr. and 30 ins. barometric pressure is 14*6757 Ibs. per square inch. No. of atmos. x '006557 tons per square inch. Absolute pressure is the pressure from zero, or the pressure of the atmosphere added to the indication of the 15 Ibs. pressure gauge, say gauge pressure
The weight
of the atmosphere at 60
70
All questions of expansion and compression of steam must be worked from absolute pressure or perfect vacuum
line of indicator diagram.
169. PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM.
Absolute
Pressure.

172. Loss OP
71
HEAT
IN BOILERS.
Assuming that
it
1 cubic foot of water
requires 10 Ibs. of coal to evaporate from 60 into steam at 60 Ibs. per
square inch gauge pressure, the loss of heat may be shown, as follows, to be about 50 per cent Total heat of combustion in 1 Ib. of coal in
:
British thermal units
=
10
14,700 units per Ib.
14,700. Ibs. coal
..
..
=147,000
Steam at 60 Ibs. pressure has a total heat of 1207 units, 1207 - 60 temp, of feedwater = 1147 units per Ib. of water.
1 cub. foot water = 62 -5 Ibs. 62-5x1147 = Loss in chimney, 24 Ibs. air, required to burn 1 Ib. coal. 24 x 10 = 240 Ibs. to burn
71,687
10
Ibs. coal.
x 600 Loss in hot ashes, fuel dropped through, &c., say 10 per cent, of total heat Loss by radiation and conduction, say 10 per
cent
temperature 240 x '2374
Specific heat of air of escaping gases
= 2374, = 600.
=
= =
34,185
14,700 14,700
11 ,025
Loss by imperfect combustion, say 7J per cent.
146,297
173.
HEAT
IN BOILER FURNACES.
(1) Temperature of furnace, say about 2500 F. of escaping gases, say 600 to 1200 F. (2)
steam and water in boiler, say 300 F. water in condenser, say 100 F. Difference between (1) and (2) is absorbed by the water in raising its temperature, by the steam as latent heat, and by
(3)
(4)
.,
the air entering furnace in excess of quantity required for combustion.
72

(2) and (3) is utilised in creating the most economical temperature of escaping allows sufficient difference of temperature for
is
Difference between
draught
600
gases as it rapid passage of heat to water, and the density is sufficiently reduced to give rapid ascending current in chimney shaft.
Difference between (3) and (4) is utilised in the engine. difference of temperature or quantity of sensible heat does not by itself represent the comparative See
The
efficiency.
article 172.
174.
COAL BUENT PER SQUARE FOOT OF FIRE-GRATE.

Ibs.
per hour.
Cornish boilers for pumping engines
.. .. ..
..
and others for factory uses

Marine
.. boilers, ordinary rates Boilers with strong chimney draught
4 to 10
15 20 60
10 15 20
Locomotives
30 120
175. COMBUSTION OF FUEL.
Two
to three Ibs.
oxygen
120 to 180 cubic
feet of air
required to burn 1 Ib. of coal, or, assuming only frds effective 180 to 270 cubic feet will be required. Air and smoke together equal about 2000 cubic feet per
cubic foot water evaporated, temperature say 800 Fahr. Area of fire-grate = 1 square foot per N.H.P.
heating surface
1 square yard per
N.H.P.
boiler.
Cubic
feet evaporated per
hour
N.H.P. of
Steam space of
tion of engine
boiler
= quantity required for one revolu=
X 10. Water space = 5 to

2
10 cubic feet per N.H.P.
Area of chimney in square inches
112
N.H.P. or cubic foot per hour
VHeight.
NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGS

176.
73
HORSE-POWER OP BOILERS.
S
g
= heating surface in square yards. = grate surface in square feet. H.P = c (S + g) =

1 for ordinary coal.
,,
good steam
coal.
-J
best coal only.

It.
Armstrong.
= area in
boiler.
sq. ft. of
water surface in boiler -f- horizontal
sectional area of furnace tube in Cornish or Lancashire
Thin
firing is more economical, but requires more careful Fresh fuel should be put in front of the fire and stoking. the red-hot fuel pushed back, or should be spread thinly over
the surface after the hollows are filled up. With coke or hard coal the fire may be thicker, especially if a blast be used.
178.
HEATING SURFACE OF BOILERS.
Class.
75
tance pieces on bars should be made at both ends and middle. Air spaces between bars f inch to -f inch, usually |- inch. The
fire-grate should incline downwards towards the back, J inch to inch per foot. Passage above bridge = one-sixth area Perforations in furnace door f inch to J inch of grate.
diameter, total area from 2 to 5 square inches per square foot

fire-grate.
181. BOILER TUBES.
Class of Boiler.
76
Flues should be large enough for a man' to pass entirely round, area should be kept as uniform as possible, corners rounded, and angles filled up. Externally fired boilers are frequently set with flash flues, i. e. the gases pass directly from furnace, over the bridge,
and along bottom of

set
with a
fall of
Boilers should be boiler, to chimney. about 1 in 200 or -^ inch per foot towards
front.
184. SIZE OF
FACTORY CHIMNEY FOR BOILERS.

Ibs.
W
H
=
=
A =
weight of coal burnt in
per hour.
area of chimney in square feet at top. height of chimney in feet.
W
Chimney
Do.
Do.
,
14
A VH
=
~
-J
l T1E5
H
fire-grate.
for single boiler, area feet high I " for more than one \
under 150
"
over 150 feet high do.

.
-^
.. . fj height feet
.
Area of chimney in square inches =
Ibs. coal
per hour
12
.
Bourne.
Area of chimney usually

high.
Scott Russell.
-fa
area of fire-grate and 40 feet
20 square inches area per N.H.P. of engine. Height about 20 times internal diameter. Flues -^ area of fire-grate, diminishing to j1^ Height of chimney = 45 feet.
at
chimney.
Area of chimney
area fire-grate ht ^ 1-53
Elswick.
Ordinary velocity of gases in chimney shaft = 2 4 J H. Most economical temperature of escaping gases =600
Fahr.
77
At this temperature the volume of air entering furnace is doubled on exit. A cubic foot of water requires 10 Ibs. coal to evaporate it ;
10
Ibs. coal
require 210 Ibs. air for complete combustion,

feet.
say 2750 cubic
185. BRICK CHIMNEY-SHAFTS.
The bond
stretchers.
usually adopted
is 1
course of headers to 4 of
thick
120 feet high the top length is generally one brick above that height, top length 1^ brick thick. Height of any length of uniform section should not
Up
to
exceed 90
feet, and should be less in thin sections. Outside diameter at ground line should not be less than
TLth the height. 45 feet is an ordinary height for two steam boilers, but in some towns, as Manchester and Leeds, the minimum height
allowed
is
90
feet.
186. SEA-WATER.
Proportion of salt in water of open sea, 32 to 38 parts per 1000; Eed Sea 43, Baltic 6 -6, Black Sea 21, Arctic Ocean 28-5 British Channel 35-5, Mediterranean 38. Ure. Average specific gravity of sea- water 1 027, pure distilled water being 1. Salts contained per 1000 Chloride of Sodium 25 parts, Muriate of magnesia 3, Sulphate of magnesia 2
:
Sulphate of lime 1, others 1, total 32. Faraday. Weight of one cubic foot, about 64 14 Ibs.
187. BOILER INCRUSTATION.
Order of deposition of impurities as water becomes concentrated

1.
:
Carbonate of lime.
Sulphate of lime.
2.
/^Rt F Sf
78
3. Salts

of iron, as bases or oxides, and
silica
some of these
of magnesia.
4.
The
or alumina, usually with more or less of
organic matter.
5.
Common
salt.
M.
Couste.
188.
To CALCULATE
SIZE OF BOILER.
:
Say d =
s = B=
Cornish boiler for high-pressure engine diameter of cylinder in inches.

stroke in inches.
= p =
r
revolutions per minute. ratio of cut-off.

.
boiler pressure, Ibs. per square inch
by gauge.
= =
number of
cylinders.
cubic feet steam required per hour, allowing 25 per

cent, for contingencies.
S
v
l-25d2
s-2wK60 =
say
relative
volume of steam
W = weight of water
c
at p pressure. to be evaporated in Ibs. per hour.
=
=
combustion of coal in Ibs. per square foot fire-grate = 12 Ibs. per hour, say for Cornish boiler of water in Ibs. from 60 Fahr. per Ib. evaporation
of coal, say for Cornish boiler
= 7
Ibs.
Ibs.
water evaporated per square foot fire-grate
A=
=
per hour.
area of fire-grate in square feet.
ce
I
length of fire-grate in feet, say
4-5
to 5*5.
w=
width
v>=~+
'166.
79
D = L=
diameter of boiler shell

length of
exceeds 3*25,
2 w.
=4 D.
make two Cornish
boilers or one
When w
Lancashire.
For
latter,
D=
2J
(10
being width of one furnace).
189.
To CALCULATE SAFETY-VALVE LEVERAGE.

pressure in Ibs. per square inch.
Ibs.
area of valve in square inches.
W= weight on end of lever in

w
p = gauge
= weight of lever in Ibs. w' = weight of valve in Ibs. L = distance between weight and fulcrum in inches. centre of gravity of lever and do. do. g = valve centre and Z = do. do.
=
Wn
JL.
T,
w'
190.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF BOILER-SHELL.

:
Longitudinal strength pdl = 2 tlc.'.pd
2tc.
Ztc
pd
'."f;
*=-*Transverse strength
:
divide
by -=
>
then
80
but
KOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING-.

will rarely exceed '01, and
-
-r-
may therefore be
-
omitted.
4:tc
p d
or the transverse strength
is
double the longitudinal.
191. COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF BOILER-TUBES.
Length not exceeding 15 diameters.

Cylindrical
:
p
or log p = 1-5265 or approximately,
33 61
QJJ!1 L d
- logLd;
t*
Fairbairn.
+ 2- 19 log. 100
P
''
_ 800,000
~Ld~'
radius of natter curve.
Elliptical
p = ^0,000*^
L(2r)
Li
= 800,000^ x 2D'.
d
in inches.
D ^ aretlietwodiameters
192. BOILERS
COMPARISON BETWEEN BURSTING AND COLLAPSING PRESSURES.
P = p=
c
=
=
internal or bursting pressure in Ibs. per square inch. external or collapsing ultimate strength of single rivetted joint = say
D=
d =
30,000 Ibs. length of unsupported cylindrical tube in diameter of boiler in inches.

tube
thickness of shell plate in inches. tube
feet.
T =
t
81
E=
ratio of tube diameter to shell diameter
-=-
2Tc _
*
60,000
800,000
~TT-P
^-|
P _ ~
p
.-.
TZE Tld ~ __ WW? iFD SOpOO

60.000
When P = p, then I =
193.
FACTOR OF SAFETY, STEAM BOILERS.
Test pressure
ultimate strength.
Working Working
pressure, if under periodical inspection,
do.
pressure, if
not under independent inspection,
TESTING BOILERS.
Government Yards.
their
New boilers to be
tested to three times
working pressure. Boilers in use not to be worked more than 300 hours without being laid off for examination. To be tested periodically to twice their working pressure.
Best private practice.
their
New
boilers to be tested to twice
working pressure. Boilers in use not to be worked more than 1000 hours without being laid off for examination. To be tested after repairs to 1^ times their working
pressure.
195.
s
DUTY OF ENGINES.
of comparison in Ibs.
..
..
:
= Standard
Cvvt.
any coal .. Bushel Welsh coal
10
=
-
Newcastle coal Ibs. wt. coal burnt per I.H.P. per hour. no. of cwts. or bushels burnt per hour.
. .
112 94 84
Ibs.
82 Duty

in ft,lb S . per standard
T, JUO.
mj. X 83.000 x 60^

=
33,000
x
991
60
x
.
8
.
Duty
in million ft.-lbs. per cwt.

:
7T
= gallons of water pumped per hour. / = feet lift of water pumped.

g
Cornish duty
Duty =
196.
W ?/
n
PIPES.
STEAM
Thickness between 2" and 12" diameter and up to 70 ILs

boiler pressure, cast iron,
in Tgths of an inch
for exhaust steam, suction,
and ordinary low pressure pipes,
cast iron,
+ 10
in
^nds
of an inch.
PAET
VI.
HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
197.
SUMMARY OF HYDRAULICS.
quantities discharged from different apertures of similar character vary directly as the areas, and as *J altitudes.
THE
account of friction, a small orifice discharges proportionally less water and of several orifices having the same
;
On
area, that with the smallest perimeter discharges
most hence
:
a circular
orifice is
the most advantageous.
83
Water issuing from a

distance of
circular aperture is contracted at

orifice,
J diameter from
from 1
to! Venturi
[Bossut
-666)
631
>
(Eytelwein-64 J in area, called " vena contracta." Vein contracts more with greater head, therefore discharge slightly diminished below theoretical discharge due to altitude.
The
same
discharge through a tube of diameter
length
is
the
dis-
as through simple orifice of equal diameter. charge increases up to a length of 4 diameters.
The
discharges through horizontal conduit pipes are To have directly as the altitudes and inversely as *J length. perceptible and continuous discharge, head must not be less
The
than
zontal,
Vertical bends discharge less water than hori~
and horizontal bends less than straight pipes. In prismatic vessels twice as much is discharged from the same orifice if the vessel be kept full, during the time it would take to empty itself.
198. COMPARISON OP
DISCHARGE THROUGH VARIOUS
APERTURES.
Theoretical velocity in feet per second
Theoretical discharge being 1 , Short tube projecting into reservoir Orifice in thin plate, 1" diameter = Tube 2 diameters long = 82.
= ^/ Head inii^x^g. =
5.
62.
Conical tube approaching form of contracted vein
Do.
199.
edges rounded
IN CONNECTION
off
= =
92.
-98.
USEFUL NUMBERS
WITH WATER.
standard or imperial gallon of water was formerly 277-274 cubic inches, is now lOlbs. avoirdupois at 62Fahr.
and 30"
feet.
bar.
277-123 cubic inches or
Capt.
K M. Shaw.
-1G0372 cubic
G 2

feet per
Cubic
Head
in feet
Lbs. per
minute x 9000 = gallons per x 434 = Ibs. per square inch. square inch x 2 3 = foot-head.
*
24 hours.
Tons x 224 = gallons. Diameter inches2 -7- 10 = gallons per yard.

200. DISCHARGE
THROUGH PIPES FROM NATURAL HEAD.
H = head of water in
L= d =
ft
length of pipe iu ft diam. of pipe in inches constant (see Table) cub. ft. discharged per min.
. .
85
galvanic action set up. "Water lias been used for ballast where the pressure is required to be varied occasionally. Clay has also been used in its natural state, but is better
when
and
burnt.
Iron kentledge, brickwork, cast-iron blocks
direct steam pressure have also been used manufacturers for producing the load.
by various
202. PRESSURE IN PIPE-MAINS.
Working pressure averages 700 Ibs. per square inch when given by Accumulator, but may be from 350 Ibs. to 1000 Ibs.
700 Ibs. per square inch = 549*78 Ibs. per circular inch, equivalent to 1613*2 feet-head. All pipes subject to the Accumulator pressure to be tested
to 2,500 Ibs. per square inch before leaving the works, to 2000 Ibs. per square inch after being laid.
and
Water companies' pipes to be tested with a pressure equal 500 feet-head, and while under pressure to be sounded from end to end with a 5-lb. hammer,
to
Pressure in water companies' mains is at maximum between 2 and 3 A.M., minimum 6 A.M. to 6 P.M., variation say from 10 to 60 Ibs. per square inch.
203. VARIATION OP ACCUMULATOR PRESSURE DUE TO WORKING
OF MACHINERY.
Average below to 100 Ibs. above the normal Maximum variation, 250 Ibs. above and below, but pressure. this only occurs on a long line of pipe where the Accumulator is at some distance from the machine.
variation,
Normal
pressure, say 700 Ibs. per square inch.

Ibs.
from 50
204. FRICTION OF ACCUMULATORS.
P =
p =
pressure in Ibs. per square inch taken at half stroke,
Accumulator rising slowly.

pressure in Ibs. per square inch, Accumulator falling
slowly.
86
/=
friction of
ram
in Ibs. per square inch.
At the Marseilles Docks the

mulator amounted to 7*355
Ibs.
friction of a 17-inch
Accu-
1 per cent, of the gross load. At Scottish Wharf the friction of a 17-inch
per square inch, or not quite Hawthorn.
Accumulator
was 10
Ibs.
per square inch.

205.
AIR ACCUMULATORS.
feet of water.
W = working capacity in cubic

C = mean capacity for air in a = cubic feet air required
charge Accumulator.
cubic feet.
at atmospheric pressure to
p = mean pressure P = maximum

P'
in Ibs. per square inch.
= minimum
- W~ 20 P'W 2(p-P)
P' -
W" I-UJL; r
2C
C p
15'
May
be proportioned as follows
inside diameter in feet.
L = inside length in feet. = L = 11D D #-4244W

Total capacity divided thus
:
Air under maximum pressure
..
..
..
..
Water
Margin from
water level 700, then P
level of outlet to lowest
............
= 840 and
P'
Ifp =
600.
87
206. VELOCITY OF
WATER THROUGH
PIPES AND VALVES.
With an Accumulator pressure of 700 Ibs. per square inch, the natural velocity (theoretical) is 322 32 feet per second. It is found in practice that not more than y^th of this can be
obtained through the pipes and ^rd through the valves, in order to maintain the proper speed of the machinery. The loss from friction in the pipes is about 1 Ib. per square inch
per 100 feet length, after they have been laid some time. In order to allow for the furring-up of the small pipes, it is not safe to reckon upon more than three times the dia-
meter of pipe in inches as the velocity obtainable in feet per second. It is also usual to calculate the velocity through the valves at not more than 98 feet per second.
207. DELIVERY OF
v
WATER
IN PIPES.
= velocity in feet per second through pipe. = area of pipe in square inches. = diameter of pipes in inches. W = discharge in cubic feet per minute.
a d
Approximately :
208. THICKNESS OP HYDRAULIC PIPES.
For Accumulator pressure of 700 Ibs. per square inch: thickness of metal in ^ths. Inside diameter in inches -f- 2 local made firms, -fa inch thicker. by Filling pipes
88
209. STRAIN
ALLOWED ON WROUGHT IKON IN HYDRAULIC

CRANES.
Tons per square inch. Tension. Compression.
Ballast and coaling cranes Warehouse and other cranes lifting

. .
2J 3
from 1 to 5 tons ...... Cranes lifting more than 5 tons
3J
2 3
210. EFFECTIVE PRESSURE FOR HYDRAULIC CRANES AND
HOISTS.
p = Accumulator pressure in Ibs. per square inch. m = ratio of multiplying power. E = effective pressure in Ibs. per square inch, including
all
allowances for friction.
E =_p(-84-
-02m).
211. SPEED OF LIFTING WITH HYDRAULIC POWER.
Warehouse cranes and jiggers, 6 feet per second. Platform cranes and small luggage lifts, 4 feet per second. Passenger and waggon hoists, 2 feet per second. Maximum speed under any circumstances, 10 feet per
second.
Warehouse
cranes, other formulae.

tons.
W = load in
li
= height of lift in feet. = velocity in feet per second.
212. LIFTING
EAMS FOR HYDRAULIC CRANES.
W = load
w
I
to be lifted in Ibs. weight of ram, crosshead, sheaves, and chain.

lift
height of
in feet.
89
m = multiplying power. c = coefficient of effect =

a
s
84
02 m.
area of
stroke
ram in square inches. of ram in inches.
p = Accumulator pressure in Ibs. per square inch. C = capacity of cylinder in cubic feet.
For horizontal cylinders
a
__
:
Wm
pC
:
C=_^14:4:
pC*
For
vertical cylinders
=
PC
:
C=
=-T-J
14:4:
For inverted cylinders

__
Wm -w
Pc
Q = Wl-ws
213.
TURNING KAMS FOE HYDKAULIO CRANES.

tons.
feet.
W = load in
R = rake in
/
length between bearings in feet.

in feet.
d = diameter of turning drum
m=
p = Accumulator
tol).
per square inch. of multiplying power turning cylinder (usually 2

pressure, Ibs.
inches.
a = area of turning ram in square

Alternative formulae
ft
.
120WR m
2
SOOOWRm
B
dp
dp
a= (5906^-?) V Idp )
-3-3.
90
214.
AREAS OF VALVES FOR MACHINERY UNDER ACCUMULATOR

PRESSURE.
A = area of lifting ram. m = ratio of multiplying power. v = velocity of load in feet per second. V = velocity of water through valve, feet per second. W = weight of ram, crosshead, sheaves, chain, &c. in Ibs. a = area of lifting valve (mitred spindle).
a = area of lowering valve (mitred
1
spindle).
~ v = A
_,_ a
_ =
At?
When
cylinder is horizontal, then
--
area of return-
ing ram.
215.
AREAS OF PORTS
IN SLIDE VALVES.
= m= A=
v
velocity of load in feet per second.
area of
ratio of multiplying power. ram in square inches.

-^-
Area of pressure port = Area of exhaust port =
(opening side, V-shaped).
98m
216.
DIAPHRAGM REGULATOR FOR HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
is
When a hydraulic crane or hoist works too quickly, and it desired to reduce the speed to a safe limit, it is usual to
partially close the stop valve ; but when there is a risk of this being interfered with, a brass diaphragm, ^th diameter
thick and about ^ inch at edge, is placed in a pipe joint near the working valves. The hole in the diaphragm should be To find tapered, the small side being next to the machine.
size
:
91
A
s
m=
= p = a =
area of lifting ram, square inches. ratio of multiplying power.
speed of lifting chain with, full load foot second. accumulator pressure, Ibs. square inch. area of small side of hole (large side = twice dia-
meter of small
~
side).
As
217. COUNTERWEIGHTS FOE
CRANE CHAINS.
The overhauling weights should be oval, i. e. egg-shaped, with small end on top to avoid catching under beams, &e. Hole for chain should be inch larger than cross section of links, and interior should be cored out to J- inch clear all
-J-
round.
is
t
The approximate weight
of counterbalance required
218. MECHANICAL
VALUE OF FLUIDS UNDER PRESSURE.
U = units of useful work in foot-lbs.

Q = quantity used in cubic feet. M = modulus of machine, or coefficient
arrangement.
p =
pressure in Ibs. per square inch.
of effect found
by
experiment, and varying with class of machine or
219.
MECHANICAL VALUE OF WATER UNDER ACCUMULATOR

PRESSURE.
Theoretically the mechanical value of water under Acer. pressure of 700 Ibs. per square inch (549 78, say 550 Ibs. per circular inch) is 100,800 foot-lbs., or 45 foot-tons per
cubic foot of water, irrespective of the time in which it is consumed or 3 0545 H.P. per cubic foot per minute ; or 1 H.P. requires 32738 cubic feet per minute.
;
92

;
Approximately this equals 1 H.P. from 2 gallons of water but practically, allowing for all losses, about 3J gallons are required, or 4 cubic feet will give out 100 foot-tons in
work.
220.
POWER REQUIRED TO WORK HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
In hotels, wharves, &c., with several machines, allowance must be made for f of the machinery working to half the full
height every 1J minute.
.*.
power per minute
-|
total capacity of
machinery.
full lift,
At wharf with
several cranes,
f machinery
every
1J minute. .*. power per minute = f capacity of machinery. At railway goods stations, docks, &c., where many machines are idle at one time, say 1 machinery full height,
every 1J minute.
capacity of machinery. cranes are rapidly worked, all machinery, full height, every 1J minute. of machinery. .*. power |- capacity
.
.
power
-jL.
At small wharves where
221. PACKING FOR

Cup-leathers
FORCE PUMPS.
If single,
may
be single, double, or treble.
the open end should be turned towards the delivery end of the pump. If double, they may be back to back or both turned towards delivery end of pump. If treble, two should
"be
back to back, and the third put as a duplicate to the one turned towards delivery end. In all cases the back of the leather should be closely supported by a washer curved to
the shape of the leather.
Double leathers back to back are
generally used, and last from 2 days to 4 months, average say 1 month. Only the middle of the back of best oil-
dressed hide
is
used.
Spun-yarn
is
sometimes used the same as for glands of

hydraulic machinery generally.
93
It is plaited and formed into rings by splicing, soaked in tallow, and screwed up in a mould to form solid rings of exact size to fit pump.
Hope is sometimes used in the same way, being selected of the exact diameter required. The two latter methods are said to last from 4 to 6 months, but there is probably more
leakage than with leathers.
222. EFFICIENCY OF
PUMPS AND ACCUMULATOR.
E=
r
rise of
any number of revolutions of engine. accumulator in inches for same number of

revolutions.
D = diameter of accumulator. ram in inches.

d = diameter of pump in inches (piston
if
double-acting,
ram
8
if single-acting).
stroke of
pump
in inches.
n = number of pumps.
Efficiency
=
{(tfsn'R)
Loss per cent of working 1

capacity of
= 100
pumps
. .
d2
- (D R
2
r)}
When
all parts are in
good order, the loss in the pumps
averages 5 per cent.

223.
POWER AND SPEED OF HYDRAULIC HAULING MACHINES.

Strain on
Hauling Speed,
ft.
Hope.
per nrin.
Railway capstans..
.. Barge .. Ship Railway traversers
.,
20001bs.
..
180 120 80
..
.. ..
1 J tons
2Jto5
J
[
Lock
gate machines
..
75 Ibs. per ton of load. 375 * PCT f 0t

ol entrance.
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.. ..
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.
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..
.
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. .
11
11 and 12
.. ..
Engines, Varieties
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..
44,
1
12
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..
..
43,44 45 and 2
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..
. .
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15 and 16
.
.
..
16
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..
..
16 Boot-making Machinery .. 16 to 19 Boring and Blasting 19 and 20 Brake 20 Bread Machine 20 and 21 Brewing Apparatus .. ..21 Brick -making Machines ..
. .
. .
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File-cutting
. .
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..
.. ..
74,75 89,90 91,92 45,46 .. 46 .. 46

47,
..
Fire-arms
Flax Machinery Float Water-wheels

Forging
46,47 48
48 48 50
..
..
..
..
Bridges Buffer
21 to 28
Founding and Casting

Friction
Friction,
..48 to 50
..
..
28 28 and 29
Cables
Angle of
. .
..
.. ..
..
3
50
51
Cam
Canal
Candles
29
29
29 and 30
Fuel Furnace Fuze
..
50,51
..
..
..
..
Cement Chimney
Coal, Cutting
30
30
Gas
Gearing Gearing Belt
.. ..
..
51
and Washing Ma31

..
chinery Coast Defence
..
31 and 32
Compasses
Construction
..
..
32 32 and 33
Geodesy Glass machinery Gold Governor

Gravity Grindstone
51,52 .. 10,11 52 and 53 53

.
Cooler
Copper
Cork- cutting Machine
Corrosion
. .
. .
34 34 34 34 and 35 35
35 to 37
. .
. .
Gun
Gun-carriage Metal
53,54 54 54 54 54 54
54 to 56
Cotton Machinery
Damming
Details of Engines
Gunnery Gunpowder
56
56,
37, 38
Displacement
Distilling Apparatus
. .
38
Gun Machinery Hand Tools

Hanger
Harbour
57
38 and 39 39 Diving and Diving Bells Docks 39 and 40 40 and 41 Drainage

. .
57,58 58
58
Haulage Hinging
58,59 59
Drawbridge Dredging Machine
41
41
Hydraulics and Hydraulic Ma59 to 63 chinery
Nos.
Nos
Ice-making Machine
India-rubber
Indicator
Injector
63
Ovens
Over-shot Water-wheel
..
.. ..
80
80, 81
..
.63
63 and 64 64
64 to 67
67 67 and 68 6S 68
Iron
Paper Machinery Permanent "Way Piles and Pile-driving

Pipes Planimeter
81
Iron Ship Building

Irrigation
81,82 82 and 83 .. 83, 84 84 .. ..

84 and 85
.. ..
Isomorphism
Joints
Pumps
Quarrying
85
86
87
Keels and Coal Shipping 68 and 69 69 Kiln 69 Knitting Machine
Kailway Engineering Retaining Walls

Kivers
85 and 86
.. .. ..
86,87
..
Kyanising
69
Eivetted Joint
..
..
..
Lamp, Safety Lead

Lifts, Hoists
69,70
70
Koads
Roofs
.. .. .,
..
87,88 88,89
.. ..
70,71 Lights, Buoys, Beacons 71 and 72 72 Limes, Mortars, and Cements

. . . .
Rope-making Machinery
Scaffolding
89
89
Screw Engines
Signals Silver
Stationary Engine
. .
Locks and Lock Gates

Locomotive
72,
73
73
89,90 ,. 90 90,91 91, 92

92 92
Machine Tools
73, 74
. .
74 and 75 Materials of Construction 75 and 76

.
.
Manganese Marine Engine
74
. .
Stave-making
chinery
Steel
and Cask Ma-
Measuring and Folding Mechanical Movements
. .
. .
76
. .
76,
Mercury
Metallurgy
77 77
77
Meter
Metric System Mills
77, 78
78
92,93 Sugar Mill Surveying and Surveying Instruments 93,94 94,95 Telegraphy 95 Testing 95 Turbine
Ventilation
78,79
79
Molecule
Oblique Arch Ores
Waterworks
Zinc
95,96,97 96,97
96,
79
Wood-working Machinery
97
79,80
90,97
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Treasury of Domestic Eeceipts and G-uide
Home Management.
PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
a good house as
with
Hints for selecting a good House,

1
pointing out the essential requirements for
to the Site, Soil, Trees, Aspect, Construction, and General instructions for Reducing Echoes, Waterproofing Walls, Curing
Arrangement
Cellars.
Damp
Damp
should constitute a good Sanitary Arrangement ; Examples (with How to Test Drains Ventilating Pipes, etc. illustrations) of Well- and Ill-drained Houses Water Supply Care of Cisterns Sources of Supply Pipes Pumps ; Purification and Filtration of Water. Ventilation and Warming-. Methods of Ventilating without causing cold draughts, by various means Principles of Warming Health Questions Combustion Open Grates Open Stoves Fuel Economisers Varieties of Grates Close-Fire Stoves Hot-air Furnaces ; Gas Heating Oil Stoves Steam Heating Chemical Heaters ; Management of Flues and Cure of Smoky Chimneys. Lighting*. The best methods of Lighting ; Candles, Oil Lamps, Gas, Incandescent Gas, Electric Light ; How to test Gas Pipes Management of Gas. Furniture and Decoration. Hints on the Selection of Furniture; on the most approved methods of Modern Decoration on the best methods of arranging Bells and Calls; How to Construct an Electric Bell. Thieves and Fire. Precautions against Thieves and Fire ; Methods of Detection Domestic Fire Escapes Fireproofing Clothes, etc. The Larder. Keeping Food fresh for a limited time Storing Food without change, such as Fruits, Vegetables, Eggs, Honey, etc. Curing- Foods for lengthened Preservation, as Smoking, Salting, Canning, Potting, Pickling, Bottling Fruits, etc. Jams, Jellies, Marmalade, etc.
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Sanitation-
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modern style Cheesemaking and Curing. The Cellar. Building and Fitting Cleaning Casks and Bottles Corks and Corking Aerated Drinks Syrups for Drinks Beers Bitters Cordials and Liqueurs Wines
Fitting of Dairies in the most approved
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The Dairy.
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The Building and
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The Pantry. Bread-making Ovens and Pyrometers Yeast German Yeast Fancy Breads; Buns. Tile Kitchen. On Fitting Kitchens a description of the best Cooking Ranges, close mnd open ; the Management and Care of Hot Plates, Baking Ovens, Dampers, Flues, and Chimneys; Cooking by Gas; Cooking by Oil; the Arts of Roasting, Grilling, Boiling,
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Stewing, Braising, Frying. Beceipts for Dishes Soups, Fish, Meat, Game, Poultry, Vegetables, Salads, Puddings, Pastry, Confectionery, Ices, etc., etc. Foreign Dishes. The Housewife's Room.. Testing Air, Water, and Foods Cleaning and Renovating Destroying Vermin.
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REESE LIBRARY

NOTES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

THE USE OF STUDENTS ATTENDING THE LECTURES

AT THE CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE

SPON, NEW YORK

All rights reserved.

City and Guilds of

Institute for the

ment of Technical Education" having, in the year 1880,

the Institute, and delivered a series of lectures in that

enabled him to devote some time to the preparation

of others specially applicable to the circumstances of the

However, the very abundance of the information

a drawback, as the majority of the students,

course of thirty lectures was illustrated

by one hundred besides blackboard sketches, and yet diagrams

embraced only the

by a large amount of home work

If they could only be sufficiently impressed

with the fact that science cannot be absorbed, but must

labour of teaching would be considerably

more undivided attention

and descriptions of mechanical

and operations put before him in the

cases the authority is given, in others the information

original or has been derived from sources of

QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.G.

properties of materials used in mechanical engineering

of materials under strain

the strength of beams,

action of chisels, hammers, punches, planes, shears, drills

Operations of tempering, welding, riveting, caulMng,

and screwing machines

Founding, moulding, and pattern-making

pattern-maker, founder, blacksmith, and turner, in connection

with shafting and gearing

Pumps, centrifugal and other

turner, in connection with hydraulic machinery

Force and matter

Mass and weight Work and energy Inertia and momentum

Effect of carbon in iron

11. Pig-iron 12. Classification of pig-iron

15. Qualities of 16. Defects in 17.

wrought iron wrought iron

18. Varieties of steel (No. 1)

(No. 2) (No. 3) (No. 4)

Notes on cast iron

24. Qualities of cast iron 25. Chilled 26. 27.

and malleable cast iron

31. Brass alloys 32. Antimony alloys

Melting points of various metals

Weight of various metals in Use of wood in engineering

37. Fir, deal,

Testing wrought iron

41. Factor of safety 42. Proof strength Moments of transverse strength

45. Safe load

Usual allowance for dead loads on structures

50. Specification tests of cast iron

and girder work)

and stiffness of timber

wrought-iron flanged girders

70. Deflection of 71.

beams Notes on torsion and shafting

72. Ultimate torsional strength of various metals