Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 39 (1993) 21-31 Elsevier

21

A review of abrasive jet machining

N. Ramachandran and N. Ramakrishnan

Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Powai, Bombay-400 076, India (Received August 13, 1991; accepted June 20, 1992)

Industrial Summary
Abrasive jet machining is one of the unconventional machining processes which, using various operations such as deburring, polishing, cutting etc., can be carried out effectively and efficiently, to close tolerances. In this paper, a comprehensive review of work done in this field is given and complex analytical findings that have been made are highlighted. The considerable scope for research and the implementing of it for commercial purposes are also pointed out.

1. Introduction Abrasive jet machining is the process of material removal from a surface due to the erosive action of fine-grained abrasive particles impacting at high velocity. To attain this high velocity, the particles are allowed to pass through a nozzle with compressed carrier gas, usually air. This has the advantage over conventional machining processes of enabling the accurate control of the material removal rate. The development of better and newer designs, the availability of tine-grained hard materials, and the invention of better quality, high strength, but costlier materials have called for precise and accurate machining processes. Works done so far in this area are reviewed and ideas regarding unexplored areas are discussed in this paper. The potential of the technology is outlined and assessed. 2. The process Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of an abrasive jet machine as developed by Kumar et al. [l], in which dry compressed air from a compressor reaches the mixing chamber through a dehumidifier and a pressure regulator,

Correspondence to: Dr. N. Ramakrishnan, Mechanical Institute of Technology, Powai, Bombay-400076, India.

Engineering Department, Indian

0924-0136/93/$06.00 0 1993 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

22

N. Ramachandran/ A review of abrasive jet machining

Fig. 1. Schematic lay-out of an abrasive jet machine. (1 compressor; 2 pressure gauge; 3 valve; 4 dehumidifier and filter; 5 - pressure regulator; 6 - flow meter; 7 to mechanical vibrator; 8 - mixing chamber; 9 pressure gauge; 10 - working chamber; 11 workpiece; 12 work holding fixture; 13 - to vacuum cleaner; 14 - nozzle; 15 - secondary abrasive chamber; 16 ~ abrasive metering tube; 17 - main abrasive chamber; 18 abrasive metering venturi).

a flow m e t e r b e i n g used to c h e c k the flow. T h e a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s f r o m the m a i n a b r a s i v e c h a m b e r r e a c h the s e c o n d a r y a b r a s i v e c h a m b e r t h r o u g h an a b r a s i v e m e t e r i n g tube. U n d e r the a c t i o n of a m e c h a n i c a l v i b r a t o r , the a b r a s i v e particles flow t h r o u g h an a b r a s i v e m e t e r i n g v e n t u r i into the m i x i n g c h a m b e r . Here, the a b r a s i v e and the c o m p r e s s e d a i r b e c o m e mixed. T h e a b r a s i v e flow r a t e c a n be c o n t r o l l e d by a d j u s t i n g the a m p l i t u d e a n d f r e q u e n c y of the vib r a t o r . T h e m i x i n g c h a m b e r , the s e c o n d a r y c h a m b e r and the m a i n a b r a s i v e c h a m b e r are a t the s a m e pressure: thus, v i b r a t i o n c o n t r o l s the a b r a s i v e flow rate. T h e m i x t u r e r a t i o c a n be v a r i e d by v a r y i n g the nozzle pressure. T h e m i x t u r e , in the form of fine jet, t h e n e m e r g e s from a c o n v e r g e n t - p a r a l l e l nozzle, as s h o w n in Fig. 2, a n d s t r i k e s the w o r k p i e c e m o u n t e d on a fixture inside a closed w o r k i n g c h a m b e r . A v a c u u m c l e a n e r c o n n e c t e d to the w o r k i n g chamber r e m o v e s the swarf. T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s e m p l o y e d a r e listed in T a b l e 1. T h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the nozzle tip a n d the s u r f a c e of the w o r k p i e c e , t e r m e d the stand-off distance, is c o n s i d e r e d to be one of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r s to be c o n t r o l l e d in this process, the o t h e r c o n t r o l l a b l e p a r a m e t e r s b e i n g the m i x t u r e r a t i o (defined as the r a t i o of the m a s s flow r a t e of the a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s to the m a s s flow r a t e of the air and a b r a s i v e mixture), the size of the a b r a s i v e particles, the c h a m b e r p r e s s u r e , and the nozzle exit pressure. C o n s i d e r a t i o n of the a n g l e of i m p i n g e m e n t of the j e t o n t o the w o r k p i e c e a n d the effect of the feed rate, e n a b l e the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n of the jet r e l a t i v e to the workpiece. F r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l studies, it h a s been o b s e r v e d t h a t a b r a s i v e jet m a c h i n i n g is highly suited for d e b u r r i n g , finishing and c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s , w i t h micro-drilling and m a c h i n i n g of t o u g h e n e d glass also b e i n g possible. It is

N. Ramachandran/ A review of abrasive jet machining t_ ~9

23

.J

I-

I-

Fig. 2. Nozzle description (see Table 1, dimensions in mm) [1].

Table 1 Experimental conditions [1]

Nozzle Material

Hardness (HRC) Length (mm) l Diameter (mm) d Entrance angle () fl

Carrier fluid Carrier gas Inlet gauge pressure (N m-Z) Flow rate (ml min-1) Mixing ratio Solid particles Type Size (~tm)

High carbon high chromium tool steel (2.15% C; 12% Cr; 0.35% Mn; 0.2% Si; 0.8% Mo) 5O 8.16, 10.16, 12.5, 16.18 0.8, 0.9, 1.17, 1.62 60, 90, 120 Dry air 37.278 x 104 3534.863 0.096, 0.252, 0.332 A1203 30, 38

e x p e c t e d t h a t w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r o l of t h e v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s , q u a l i t y s u r f a c e s to v e r y close t o l e r a n c e s c a n be obtained: in d e b u r r i n g especially, w h i c h still h a s u n s o l v e d p r o b l e m s in m a n y p r a c t i c a l fields, A J M m a y p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t role.

3. Applied research
F u n d a m e n t a l , a n a l y t i c a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k s s u b s t a n t i a t i n g t h e app l i c a b i l i t y of the e r o s i v e a c t i o n of h a r d m a t e r i a l s in r e m o v i n g m a t e r i a l f r o m

24

N. Ramachandran/ A review of abrasive jet machining

a softer surface have enabled the development of a set-up for abrasive jet machining. Erosion is described as the attack on a surface by solid particles entrained in a fluid stream. This erosive cutting action is experienced in systems where particles move at high speeds, such as in coal turbines, hydraulic turbines, coal hydrogenation equipment, regenerators, air mills, etc. Whilst in these former instances the phenomenon is not desirable, it has wide applications in sand blasting, abrasive deburring, erosive drilling of hard materials, magnetic polishing of surfaces and electrolytic processes. The experimental set-up shown in Fig. 1 was used by Kumar et al. [1] to study nozzle wear during the flow of an air-abrasive mixture, where parameters such as nozzle length, diameter and entrance angle, mixture ratio, and grain size, could be varied. The results, as shown in graphical form in Fig. 3, indicated that increase in nozzle length, decrease in nozzle diameter, and decrease in the entrance angle of the nozzle increased nozzle wear. Later, for pre-decided set conditions and considering the effects of various parameters, based on erosion models, the erosion rate, diameter of eroded cavity, and depth of penetration were studied by Verma and Lal [2], their results being presented in the form of graphs in Fig. 4. It was observed that there is an optimum stand-off distance for maximum material-removal rate, this aspect being attributed to the inertia of the suspended particle. For the penetration rate to be optimum, the stand-off distance is different from this, since the penetration rate is essentially a function of the impingement velocity and not of the impingement area. Considering the impingement angle and the feed rate as additional parameters to the above, studies conducted by Venkatesh [3] provided results, shown in Fig. 5, supplementing earlier theoretical works. However, these studies did not attempt to make use of the experimental observations to justify fully the analytical treatment. The conclusions from the experiments were not sufficient to enable the authoritative prediction of the effects of various parameters and an optimum particle size could not be arrived at. A new surface finishing operation using abrasives in magnetic fields has been tried successfully by Shinmura et al. and a spindle finish type apparatus has been developed [4-10]. This process has been found to be very effective in edge finishing, plane finishing, deburring operations, etc. Experimental works using loose abrasives mixed in an aqueous solution of sodium nitrate has been found to be surprisingly successful in mirror finishing to very close tolerances [11,12] in stainless steel. Hashish [13] has carried out extensive work on abrasive water jet machining. Abrasive water jets are found to be very effective in metal cutting: cutting aircraft composites, metals, circuit boards, etc. This has already found wide applications in the fields of automotives, aerospace, defence, building supplies, fabrication shops, food, glass, job shops, mining, oil and gas wells, packaging, paper, rubber, shipyards and material service centres in the United States. The use of high energy abrasive water jets in machining a wide variety of non-metals and metals across several industries has been reported by Manson [14].

N. Ramachandran/ A review of abrasive jet machining

0.30

25

~_
f

16,6~
12.88

0.20 x

8.41
x
C

0 .20

7
0 "10

0.10

~
i 5.0 I I 10"0
I

38~m 30 pm

5.0

10,0

I 1'5.0

I 15'0

Time, rain

Time,

rain

0,40

0.Sin m

030

0,30 0-20 0'Z0

3 0,I0

o.lo

/
r

J
, 5 "0

~
I

1
Ii
I

1
:
I

7 mm ~ 1 " 6 2 mm
I 15"0

~
I

60
90

120

10"0

Time, min

S'O 10-0 Time, rain

15.0

0.20 'o c
0.10 t~

~
5.0 10'0 Time,rain

0'332 0.252

0"096

15.0

Fig. 3. V a r i a t i o n i n n o z z l e w e a r w i t h o p e r a t i n g t i m e for v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s : (a) r a t i o s o f n o z z l e l e n g t h to n o z z l e d i a m e t e r ; (b) p a r t i c l e size; (c) n o z z l e d i a m e t e r ; (d) e n t r a n c e a n g l e ; (e) m i x i n g r a t i o s . T h e t e s t c o n d i t i o n s a r e : (a) d = 0.97 ram, fl = 60 , p a r t i c l e size = 38 pm, m i x i n g r a t i o = 0.252; (b) d = 0.97 m m , l = 8.16 m m , ,8 = 60 , p a r t i c l e size = 38 pm, m i x i n g r a t i o = 0.252; (c) d = 12 m m , # = 60, p a r t i c l e size = 38 pm, m i x i n g r a t i o = 0.252; (d) d = 0.96 m m , l = 5.28 m m , p a r t i c l e size = 38 pro, m i x i n g r a t i o = 0.252; (e) d = 0.97 m m , l = 8.16 m m , fl = 60 , p a r t i c l e size = 38 pm. ( T h e w e a r i n d e x is t h e r a t i o o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e f i n a l a n d i n i t i a l v o l u m e o f t h e n o z z l e flow c h a n n e l to t h e i n i t i a l v o l u m e o f t h e n o z z l e flow c h a n n e l , d e t a i l e d in Fig. 2 [1].)

26

N. Ramachandran/A review of abrasive jet machining

12

10
i

q,i

'2F Z'=
o ~
~

1ram
U 6

E x
v

0"148

0'095
~ E 8 E 2

4
Stand -off distance,ram

12

16

20

24

S t a n d - o f f d i s t a n c e , mm

32

32

c o
~

o ~ x
v

, O

2~

O" 268
16

c
:3

x
u

16

~
4

25)J m

E
u

:0::

11 0

S'tand-off

distance,

turn

Stand-off distance, mm

Fig. 4. Effect of parameters on the material removal rate and the penetration rate with the pressure constant at 147.15 k N / m 2 (gauge): (a) penetration rate, volumetric material removal rate, hatched triangles denote the profiles of the machined cavity (particle size = 30 pm, mixing ratio = 0.148, cutting time = 60 s); (b) mixing ratio (particle size = 30 ~m); (c) mixing ratio (particle size = 30 ~m); (d) particle size (mixing ratio = 0.148) [2].

A brief summary of the fundamental and analytical works undertaken by numerous eminents into the cutting action of fine-grained hard materials will enable greater appreciation of this non-traditional machining process.
4. T h e o r e t i c a l works

4.1. Particle impact The first study of the problem of particle impact onto different shapes was done in Germany in 1931 in connection with the collection of smoke and dust particles, as reported by Finnie [15]. Later studies in 1940 by Taylor and many

N. Ramachandran/A review of abrasive jet machining

4.

27
~m

Surface

finish

Material-removal

rate
I..4

Surface

f i n i s h prn rate
8.6

Grit size : 180mesh(85).tm).

Material-removal

13 Z, 7.8 12 ..4 1.2 11 .,4

"r"
v

".

u
"r"

(21 E

.0

10 '.4 9".4

/
Abrasive g r i t size Grit size:
320 (#-0,~lm)

1.0

"~ Z

7'0

0'8

0.3

I Feed

019

? I, S

rate (ram/see)

Grit

size :180

(851am) Q

8.4

~A
o E ; c

F-

~ 0

A C

7.8

~ E Z ~

1
z. 0 '

6'6

s!0

'

G'.0

'

20

410

6=0

8J0

Pressure

(bars)

Spray a n g l e

(degrees)

Fig. 5. Effect of various parameters on the material removal rate [5]: (a) grit size; (b) feed rate; (c) nozzle pressure; (d) spray angle. (Stand-off distance = 5 ram, d = 3.5 ram, spray angle (a-c) = 90).

o t h e r s w i t h respect to specific aerofoils, inlet ducts and o t h e r shapes, gave i n s i g h t into m o r e problems on particle i m p a c t i o n . The report by F i n n i e s h o w s that a s u r v e y of the literature on e r o s i o n up to 1946 could n o t t h r o w light o n t o t h e m e c h a n i s m of m a t e r i a l r e m o v a l by erosion. Further, results of s o m e experim e n t a l studies c o n d u c t e d w e r e n o t in a g r e e m e n t w i t h practical findings. Later, e r o s i o n tests w i t h different a n g l e s of i m p i n g e m e n t carried o u t by W e l l i n g e r and his c o l l e a g u e s [16-20], as referred to by F i n n i e [15], w e r e c o n s i d e r e d as the first a t t e m p t to c o l l e c t data on the process o f e r o s i o n under v a r i o u s c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s , a t t r i b u t i n g t h e loss of w e i g h t in e r o s i o n to t w o processes, called

28

N. RamachandranjA review of abrasive jet machining

rub erosion and shock erosion. However, the data could not be correlated with the physical properties of the materials or with the material removal. The type of erosion prevailing was dependent on the mechanical properties of the eroded material, but it was generally accepted that it was some of the factors of the wear process that were responsible for the material removal. 4.2. Wear The process of wear is the loss of material removal when two surfaces are in sliding contact. Even though the Coulomb laws of friction have been known for over two hundred years, it has not been possible to deduce any general laws of wear. A survey of the possible wear mechanisms has been conducted by Burwell [21]. This, and various other studies conducted, were further modified and classified by Shaw [22]. Of these classifications, adhesive wear and abrasive wear are of great importance in mechanical systems. Using theories by Holms [23], experiments have been conducted to investigate the laws of adhesion [24]. Adhesive wear studies have also been made by Shaw [22]. On abrasive wear, much study have been done by Rabinowicz and Mutis [25], Dunn and Russel [26] and Richardson [27, 281. Emphasising the wide range of variables that can influence the abrasive wear of materials, a review of twobody abrasive wear was carried out by Moore [29], where only the sliding of particles on a surface was considered. When the movement of particles relative to one another and rotation whilst sliding across the wearing surface is to be treated, the study of three-body abrasive wear must be considered. In abrasive jet machining, this theory has great significance, since the various abrasive particles in a jet striking a surface will be subjected to both rotation and sliding. A classification of three-body abrasive wear has been made by Misra and Finnie [30], followed by a generalized review of abrasive wear [31]. These studies throw more light onto the theories of abrasive wear, and make use of the past works of Richardson, Rabinowicz et al. 4.3. Ultrasonic machining Various authors have applied the adhesive and abrasive properties of wear in developing ultrasonic machining to its present state. In ultrasonic machining, the high velocity impact of free moving abrasive particles onto the workpiece with direct hammering of the abrasives by a tool is employed for material removal. The works of Shaw [32], Kainth et al. [33], Kremer et al. [34], Vijayan Nair [35], Sundararajan, and Radhakrishnan [36] are notable in ultrasonic machining. Recent studies by Matsuo [37] on the grain-wear characteristics of general and super-hard abrasive grains, including diamond and cubic boron nitride (CBN), against hard materials such as stellite, sintered alumina, ferrite, etc., at high speeds and small loads, have made it possible for the relative wear ranking of grains. An expression for wear mass per unit distance moved by a particle along a surface, in terms of maximum flow pressure and the hardness of the metal, the abrasive particle shape and the total coefficient of friction has

N. Ramachandran/A review of abrasive jet machining

29

been obtained by Goddard and Wilman [38]: this theory may be of some help in computing the volume of material removed in the abrasive jet machining process.
4.4. Erosive wear

Studies on the next important classification under wear, i.e., erosive wear, have been dealt with in detail by Finnie [39]. The erosion problem was divided into two major parts: (i) determination, from fluid-flow conditions, of the number, direction and velocity of the particles striking the surface, which is a two-phase-flow problem; and (ii) calculation of the amount of surface material removed. Finnie found that the erosion of ductile and brittle materials is dependent on abrasive properties such as the size, the shape, the hardness, the strength and the angle of impact of the particles, empirical relationships for material removal being arrived at. In 1963, Bitter [40, 41] brought out a detailed report on studies made on wear and derived expressions for erosion as functions of the mass and the velocity of the impinging particles, the impingement angle and the mechanical and physical properties of both the erosive particles and the eroded body. Modification of the empirical relationships by applying the theories of three-body abrasive wear, the determination of the distribution of particles and the distribution of velocity of particles may lead to an exact expression for material removal rate in abrasive jet machining. Another aspect of erosive wear by solid particles was explained by Finnie and Kabil [42]. Similar to the ripple patterns appearing in sand deserts and in river beds, when abrasive particles strike ductile materials at small angles of impingement a gradual transition from a surface with random roughness to one in which well developed ripples are formed takes place. The formation of surface ripples during the erosion of various specimens was observed by these authors, thus confirming their theory. In subsequent work on the mechanism of material removal by an energy approach, in which the volume removal was taken as a function of the kinetic energy of the eroding particles, Finnie and Sheldon [43] predicted the volume of material removed and its applicability over a range of particle sizes and velocities. In abrasive jet machining, these works will be of much help in estimating correctly the distribution of particles and the distribution of the velocities of the particles. 5. Fields of application In various processes where material removal rate is important, abrasive jet machining has an important role to play. The polishing of surfaces, deburring, and finishing operations can be carried out effectively using abrasive jet machining. Ordinary, optical and toughened glass are machined easily by this process. Brittle materials, for which conventional machining processes may cause practical difficulties and vast changes in material properties, can be machined easily and successfully using abrasive jet machining.

30

N. Ramachandran/ A review of abrasive jet machining

6. Concluding remarks
C o n s i d e r i n g the possibilities of a b r a s i v e jets to cut and m a c h i n e v a r i o u s m e t a l s a n d n o n - m e t a l s , studies r e l a t e d to the m a c h i n i n g of c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l s c a n n o t be overruled. H o w e v e r , r e p o r t s on the s t u d y of g e o m e t r i c a c c u r a c y , s u r f a c e finish, s u r f a c e h a r d n e s s , s u r f a c e errors, etc., w h e n e m p l o y i n g this process are y e t to be p u b l i s h e d a n d the v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s to be c o n s i d e r e d are n o t y e t c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d . In a b r a s i v e w a t e r - j e t m a c h i n i n g , m o r e t h a n twenty-five p a r a m e t e r s h a v e b e e n identified, w h e r e a s in a b r a s i v e jet m a c h i n ing, only v e r y few h a v e b e e n identified. E m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s to d e t e r m i n e the m a t e r i a l r e m o v a l r a t e r e m a i n un-modified, since a n a l y t i c a l w o r k on the effects of the p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n in the a i r - a b r a s i v e m i x t u r e stream, of the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e p a r t i c l e s and of this c o m b i n a t i o n , on the m a t e r i a l r e m o v a l rate, etc., are y e t to be conducted. F u r t h e r , the w e a r of the nozzle and the m e a n s of r e d u c i n g the l a t t e r by u s i n g sapphire, unidentified ceramics, etc., are y e t to be studied. Thus, m u c h scope exists for f u r t h e r w o r k in the field of a b r a s i v e j e t m a c h i n i n g , w h i c h is still in the e a r l y stages of d e v e l o p m e n t . It m a y be a s s u m e d safely t h a t once a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the process is achieved, A J M will b e c o m e a v e r y a t t r a c t i v e c o m m e r c i a l process for use in d e b u r r i n g , cutting, polishing, etc.

References
[1] R. Kumar, A.P. Verma and G.K. Lal, Nozzle wear during the flow of a gas - particle mixture, Wear, 91 (1983) 33-43. [2] A.P. Verma and G.K. Lal, An experimental study of abrasive jet machining, Int. J. M. T. Des. Res., 24(1) (1984) 19-29. [3] V.C. Venkatesh, Parametric studies on abrasive jet machining, Ann. CIRP, 33(1) (1984) 109-112. [4] T. Shinmura, K. Takazawa, E. Hatano and T. Aizawa, Study of magnetic abrasive process -o Process principle and finishing possibility, Bull. JSPE, 19(1) (1985) 54-55. [5] T. Shinmura, K. Takazawa and E. Hatano, Study on magnetic abrasive process - Application to edge finishing, Bull. JSPE, 19(3) (1985) 218-220. [6] T. Shinmura, K. Takazawa and E. Hatano, Study on magnetic abrasive process Application to plane finishing, Bull. JSPE, 19(4) (1985) 289-291. [7] T. Shinmura, K. Takazawa and E. Hatano, Study on magnetic abrasive finishing Effects of machining fluid on finishing characteristics, Bull. JSPE, 20(1) (1986) 52-54. [8] T. Shinmura, K. Takazawa and E. Hatano, Development of spindle finish type finishing apparatus and its finishing performance using a magnetic abrasive machining process, Bull. JSPE, 20(2) (1986) 79-84. [9] T. Shinmura, K. Takazawa and E. Hatano, Study of magnetic abrasive finishing Effects of various types of magnetic abrasives on finishing characteristics, Bull. JSPE, 21(2) (1987) 139-141. [10] T. Shinmura and T. Aizawa, Study on internal finishing ofa nonferromagnetic tubing by magnetic abrasive machining process, Bull. JSPE, 22(1) (1989) 37-41. [11] H. Maehata and H. Kamada, Studies on electrostatic abrasive mirror finishing (ii). Roughness of finished surface, Bull. JSPE, 19(2) (1985) 131-132.

N. Ramachandran/ A review of abrasive jet machining

31

[12] H. Kamada, K. Tamiya, S. Honda, H. Maehata and Y. Kimoto, A study of electrolytic abrasive mirror finishing - using loose abrasives mixed in the electrolyte, Bull. JSPE, 16(2) (1982) 109-110. [13] M. Hashish, Turning with abrasive water jets A first investigation, Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Ind., 109 (1987) 281-290. [14] Frederick Manson, Water and sand cut it, Special Report 807, American Machinist, (1989) 84-95. [15] Iain Finnie, Erosion of surfaces by solid particles, Wear, 3 (1960) 87 103. [16] K. Wellinger and H.C. Brockstedt, Gluckauf, 78 (1942) 130. [17] K. Wellinger and H.C. Brockstedt, Stahl Eisen., 62 (1942) 635. [18] K. Wellinger, Metall Kunde, 40 (1949) 361. [19] K. Wellinger and H. Uetz, Ver. deut, Ingr., 96 (1954) 43. [20] K. Wellinger and H. Uetz, Forschungsheft, (1955), 449, Wear, 1 (1957/58) 225. [21] J.T. Burwell Jr, Survey of possible wear mechanisms, Wear, 1 (1957/58) 119-141. [22] M.C. Shaw, Fundamentals of wear, Ann. CIRP, 19 (1971) 533-543. [23] Ragner Holms, Electric Contacts - Theory and Applications, Springer, New York, 1967. [24] J.T. Burwell and C.D. Strang, On the empirical law of adhesive wear, J. Appl. Phys., 23 (1) (Jan 1952) 18-28. [25] E. Rabinowicz and A. Mutis, Effect of abrasive particle size on wear, Wear, 8 (1965) 381 390. [26] E. Rabinowicz, L.A. Dunn and P.G. Russel, A study of abrasive wear under three body conditions, Wear, 4 (1961) 345-355. [27] R.C.D. Richardson, The wear of metals by hard abrasive, Wear, 10 (1967) 291-309. [28] R.C.D. Richardson, The maximum hardness of strained surfaces and the abrasive wear of metals and alloys, Wear, 10 (1967) 353-382. [29] M.A. Moore, A review of two body abrasive wear, Wear, 27 (1974) 1 17. [30] A. Misra and Iain Finnie, A classification of three body abrasive wear and design of a new tester, Wear, 60 (1980) 111 121. [31] A. Misra and Iain Finnie, A review of the abrasive wear of metals, Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Mater. Technol., 104 (1982) 94-101. [32] M.C. Shaw, Ultrasonic grinding, Microtecnic, 10(6) (1956) 257. [33] G.S. Kainth, A. Nandy and K. Singh, On the mechanics of material removal in ultrasonic machining, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res., 19(1) (1979). [34] D. Kremer, S.M. Saleh, S.R. Gabrial and A. Moisan, The state of the art of ultrasonic machining. Ann. CIRP, 30(1) (1981) 107 110. [35] E.V. Nair, Mechanics of material removal in ultrasonic machining and improvement of performance characteristics, Ph.D Thesis, Dept. of Mech. Eng., IIT Kanpur, India, (1983). [36] V. Soundararajan and V. Radhakrishnan, An experimental investigation of the basic mechanisms involved in ultrasonic machining, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res., 26(3) (1986) 307-321. [37] T. Matsuo and K. Okamura, Wear characteristics of general and superhard abrasive grains against various hard materials, Ann. CIRP, 30 (1981) 233 236. [38] J. Goddard and H. Wilman, A theory of friction and wear during the abrasion of metals, Wear, 5 (1964) 115-135. [39] lain Finnie, Some observations on the erosion of ductile metals, Wear, 19 (1972) 81-90. [40] J.G.A. Bitter, A study of erosion phenomena, Part i, Wear, 6 (1963) 5 21. [41] J.G.A. Bitter, A study of erosion phenomena, Part 2, Wear, 6 (1963) 169-190. [42] Iain Finnie and Y.H. Kabil, On the formation of surface ripples during erosion, Wear, 8 (1965) 60-69. [43] G.L. Sheldon and lain Finnie, The mechanism of material removal in the erosive cutting of brittle materials, Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Ind., (Nov 1966), 393-400.