ESD vs Anti-Static vs Dissipative vs Conductive vs Insulative

by ANDY on JULY 9, 2007

In order to distinguish the differences between these five terms, you need to know what each one means. ESD (as defined in the previous post) is an acronym forelectrostatic discharge. Many times it is used incorrectly as a term for something that is electrostatic discharge safe . The terms anti-static, conductive, and dissipative are all terms that subdivide ESD into more detail. Somethinginsulative is not considered ESD safe. Materials are divided into these terms based on their individual surface resistance. Surface resistance is a measurement of how easily an electric charge can travel across a medium.Conductive materials are materials that have a surface resistance of less than 1 x 10 5ohms/square. Dissipative items have a surface resistance of more than 1 x 10 5ohms/square but less than 1 x10 11 ohms/square. Anti-static materials are generally referred to as any material which inhibits triboelectric charging. This kind of charging is the buildup of an electric charge by the rubbing or contact with another material. An insulative material is one that has a surface resistance of greater than 1 x 10 12 ohms/square. For more ESD products and ESD information, visit the AllSpec website or the Electrostatic Discharge Association website.

Giving electrical hazards the boot

inShare As I speak with people from different industries about their PPE, I frequently hear disparate views on what safety footwear should be worn to provide protection against various hazards. When it comes to electrical hazards, some say antistatic boots should be worn, while others say non-conductive boots are the way to go. So, which is the right boot to protect against electrical hazards? Electricity can be a serious workplace hazard, where a safety incident can cause electrocution that often results in death. Just 3 mA can be enough current to cause serious injury. Most people are well aware of its dangers and treat it with due respect. But its an invisible hazard and the risk is typically not that obvious, especially in places likeconstruction sites where temporary electrical cables can be severed or exposed. To help protect workers from this invisible threat, many safety work boots are expressly designed to insulate wearers from exposed electricity. These types of boots are standard attire for electrical tradespeople, but workers in other trades and occupations are becoming increasingly more conscious of the need for this protection. However, many non-electrical people are getting confused by the jargon used by footwear manufacturers and retailers to describe their products, potentially confusing their customers, or worse - leading them to purchase unsuitable and potentially unsafe boots. To help sort out the confusion, I spoke with Steel Blues Global Sales Manager, Ross Fitzgerald, and Blundstones Group Sales and Marketing Manager, Phil Dewis, who both shared some valuable information with me. When it comes to categorising safety footwear from an electrical conductivity perspective, there are three general classifications - insulating (also known as non-conductive), antistatic and conductive footwear, states Fitzgerald. Its really not that complicated, but people can often get them mixed up if theyre unsure about the terminolog y. We have a policy to market footwear on a basis of fitness for purpose and this means advising clients on the right boot for the right job. So lets address each of the categories to help your readers better understand the issue. Non-conductive footwear In discussing non-conductive footwear, Fitzgerald refers to the design philosophy of Steel Blues Hi-PA EH (electrical hazard) safety footwear: These shoes are rated as insulating, designed to reduce dangers from accidental contact with live electrical circuits or parts of electrical apparatus of 600 VAC or less. However, these shoes are not suitable where antistatic properties are required. This is probably where some people get mixed up. Antistatic shouldnt be confused with insulating or non -conductive. In fact, in some cases they can be quite the opposite. By definition, anti-static means to reduce or eliminate the buildup of static electricity. Interestingly, to manufacture an insulative boot, Steel Blue removes the antistatic properties of the foot bed, insole, midsole and outsole. For example, a Hi-PA EH series boot is supplied with a nitrile rubber outsole only.

Our EH series is non-conductive, in compliance with the ASTM F2413-05 Electric shock resistant footwear standard, continues Fitzgerald. Theyre tested at 14,000 V for one minute, with no current flow or leakage current in excess of 3 mA allowed under dry conditions. Theyre marked with distinct yellow plugs in the black rubber sole so you can easily identify them as non-conductive. It should be understood that non-conductive footwear is intended for use as secondary PPE, to be used in conjunction with primary protective equipment, in environments where theres a need to reduce the risk of electric shock from accidental contact with live wires. Anti-static footwear Anti-static footwear is designed to dissipate the accumulation of excess static electricity by conducting body charge to ground while maintaining a sufficiently high level of resistance to protect the wearer from electrical hazard due to live electrical circuits of up to 240 V, states Fitzgerald. Typical applications include working with electronics and petro-chemicals, powder coating, spray painting and fire fighting. This footwear is marked AS/NZS 2210.3 Class 1A on a label inside the footwear. Conductive footwear Conductive footwear is intended to protect the wearer in an environment where accumulation of static electricity on the body is a hazard in applications such as handling explosives or similarly volatile m aterials, explains Fitzgerald. Its designed to dissipate static electricity from the body to the ground to reduce the possibility of ignition of sensitive explosive mixtures or volatile chemicals. Conductive footwear should not be used by personnel working near open electrical circuits and should be worn only in environments for which they are intended. Steel Blue doesnt produce this type of footwear. Metal in the boot Some people have the misconception that any metal in a shoe, such as a metal toecap or sole plate, renders the shoe conductive and therefore unable to protect against electrical hazards. Under normal circumstances, thats completely wrong. Dewis explains: Electricity conducts through metal when its in contact with it. But metal toecap s and sole plates, whether theyre steel or aluminium, are enclosed by non -conductive materials - usually leather uppers and rubber soles. So even if someone wearing non-conductive safety boots with steel toecaps accidentally trod on a live circuit, the metal is completely isolated from the electricity. Having said that, the condition of the boot has a lot to do with its insulating properties. To ensure they provide the protection theyre designed for, boots need to be kept in good condition. That applies not only for electrical protection, but for all facets of physical foot protection as well. People need to make sure the soles and the uppers arent worn or in such poor condition that their safety attributes are compromised. Regular checks to make sure the boots are in good condition are essential. Dont wait until you see exposed metal before replacing them. Safety boots are often worn in harsh conditions, such as construction sites and industrial facilities, so they are likely to take some abuse. Under such conditions, its worth sourcing footwear tough enough to endure such harsh conditions. Its not just a matter of longevity, but more about maintaining the protection for the wearers. Blundstones philosophy is to make safety footwear as safe as possible, no matter what the environment. We figure the boots are

likely to be subjected to some fairly rough treatment, so we make them tough enough to withstand it and still provide the protection, whether its from electrical or other physical hazards. Fitzgerald qualifies Steel Blues approach to metal in its boots, stating: Steel Blue manufactures a wide range of safety footwear, some with steel toecaps and others with composite (non-metallic) toecaps. Our Hi-PA range has a composite safety toecap and, because its completely non-metallic, we believe it offers advantages over the traditional metal toecap boots. So, for example, if the leather on the front of a boot happens to be worn off, exposing the toecap, it wont conduct electricity if it comes in contact with a live wire, say if a wearer is working on his knees and his toecaps touch whats on the ground beneath him. It should be understood though that non-metal composite materials dont have the same cut and penetration resistance as steel toecaps and should not be used around powered, cutting or grinding devices such as nail guns or demo-saws. Precautions Steel Blue issues a number of precautions that wearers should be aware of, when it comes to protection against electrical hazards: Insulative (non-conductive):

Electric shock resistance deteriorates rapidly in a wet environment; and Excessive wear will decrease electric shock resistance.

Antistatic:

The introduction of another foot bed may reduce or eliminate the antistatic properties of the boot; The boot will not perform its intended function when worn in wet conditions; The wearer should test the boots regularly; and Ensure that the correct flooring is in use so as not to negate the properties of the footwear.

Informed choice Dewis is a strong advocate for empowering purchasers to make informed choices: When it comes to safety, especially for hazardous environments, people purchasing PPE cant assume things about a boots protection. Do some homework to get the best information on whats right for your specific applications and environments. Most manufacturers have good technical information on their websites. Many also have technical support specialists who can be contacted by phone or email. The supply channel also needs to be able to provi de reliable advice, so buyers can make informed decisions at the point of purchase. Since a large proportion of safety footwear is sold through retailers and wholesalers, this is where many questions are asked about whats best for specific applications and environments. Thats why its so important for branch sales staff to be well versed in these technical issues. Blundstone is committed to educating the channel. We invest a lot of time and resources into keeping branches up to-date on what protection is provided by our footwear and whats best for what situation.

When youre looking to buy safety footwear, dont assume things. Ask questions, even if you think you already know the answers. At the end of the day, there are no short cuts for safety. Whethe r youre buying footwear just for yourself or for the entire workforce, you must choose the safest option. And because there are so many options to choose from - non-conductive, antistatic, conductive - there is no better approach than to do your homework. Ask the questions and get factual answers on whats best for your specific environment.

GLOBAL FOOTWEAR STANDARDS REFERENCE GUIDE

Work Environment Hazards
Every work environment exposes workers to different types of hazards. Each employer is required to perform a workplace assessment to determine the presence of work hazards and the need for personal protective equipment (PPE). In the case of foot injuries, common potential hazards include falling or rolling objects, electrical shock or piercing of footwear soles with sharp objects. There are countless situations and hazards that occur in the workplace everyday that can cause serious foot injury. The best protection from the work hazards that you can and cannot anticipate is quality PPE. For footwear, Red Wing Shoe Company is committed to providing quality, safety footwear for every worker every day. The footwear protection guidelines shown on this page were gathered to provide a general overview and quick comparison of global footwear safety standards. This guide is not a definitive standard and we encourage you to refer to the official safety standard for clarification.

Testing Methods
1. Impact Resistance This is a test of a shoe's capacity to protect the toe area of the foot against falling objects. For Impact testing, a weight is dropped onto the protective toe cap area of the footwear. Each standard identifies the atmospheric conditions of the test, the shape of the striker, the amount of weight and distance from which the weight must be dropped, the velocity of the drop and the impact energy delivered. The clearance remaining inside the cap after impact is then determined. 2. Compression Resistance This is a test of a shoe's capacity to protect the toe area of the foot against heavy rolling objects. For Compression testing, the toe cap area of the footwear is compressed between parallel platens at a given rate of speed until the required compressive force is reached. The clearance remaining inside the cap after the compression is then determined. 3. Metatarsal Protection This test measures the level of protection provided to the upper foot (metatarsal bones) and toe areas. Footwear offering metatarsal protection is designed to prevent or reduce injuries when the toe and metatarsal areas of the foot are exposed to "drop" hazards. Metatarsal protection safety shoes may be constructed with either internal or external metatarsal guards. For testing, a wax form is fit into the footwear and a weight is dropped onto the protected metatarsal area of the footwear, similar to the impact test. The height of the wax form after impact is then determined. 4. Puncture Resistance PR footwear reduces the possibility of sharp objects (nails, glass or metal) penetrating through the outsole causing injury to the foot. Protection is provided by a steel or puncture resistant material imbedded in the insole of the footwear. Puncture resistant devices are tested using a sharp steel pin forced into the device at a given speed. The force required to puncture the device is measured. The devices are also tested for flexibility and corrosion resistance. 5. Electric Shock Resistance This type of footwear is designed to provide a secondary source of protection against accidental contact with live electrical circuits, electrically energized conductors, parts or apparatus under dry conditions, reducing the potential of electric shock. Protection is severely deteriorated in wet environments. To test electric shock resistant properties, the footwear is placed on a metal mesh platform acting as a large electrode. The footwear is filled with small metal spheres and a second electrode is placed within the spheres. A specified high voltage is applied to the footwear through the metal platform for a given length of time. Resistance is determined by the current flow (or leakage) through the footwear. 6. Static Dissipation This footwear is constructed to reduce excess static electricity by conducting the charge from the body to the ground. The footwear allows for limited protection against incidental contact with live electrical circuits and should not to be worn around highly charged electrical equipment. It is recommended that static dissipative footwear be worn only in clean environments and worn in conjunction with static dissipative flooring.

Test methods for Static Dissipation vary by standard, using either human subjects or metal spheres inside footwear that are placed on either a wet or dry base electrode plate. A specified voltage is applied for a prescribed time and the electrical resistance is measured. Test conditions also vary in specified atmospheric conditions. 7. Conductivity Conductive footwear is designed to facilitate/ discharge static electricity from your body through your shoes into grounded floors. The floors must be grounded so that a charge can be dissipated properly, minimize static electricity and reduce the possibility of ignition of volatile chemicals or explosives. To test for conductivity, the footwear is placed on a base electrode plate. Depending on the standard, it is tested dry or in water. The footwear is filled with small metal spheres and a second electrode is embedded in the spheres. A specified voltage is applied for a prescribed time and the electrical resistance is measured

Comparison of Footwear Safety Standards

Standards compared in this section include Impact, Compression, Metatarsal, Puncture Resistance, Electric Shock, Static Dissipation and Conductive requirements.

Impact Requirement
ASTM

Class 75 (I) footwear for men shall demonstrate a minimum interior height clearance of (75 ft-lbf). Applies to both
steel and composite protective caps.

Class 75 footwear for women shall demonstrate a minimum interior height clearance and 11.9 mm (0.468 in.)
during impact exposure of 101.7 J (75 ft-lbf). Applies to both steel and composite protective caps. CSA

Grade 1
Footwear for men and women must withstand an impact energy of 125 joules (the equivalent of a 50 lb. object dropped at a height of 22 inches) with no cracking through the thickness of the cap wall. Samples must be conditioned and tested at both 70 and 0 degrees Fahrenheit. The minimum interior height clearance varies according to shoe size (ranging from 10.7 mm for a womans size 3 to 14.2 mm for a mans size 14). Protective toecaps must show no signs of corrosion when exposed to a 5% salt solution for 24 hours. EN Safety footwear must be tested in accordance with EN ISO 20344:2004. After an impact energy of 200 joules is delivered, the clearance under the toe cap shall be the following: Sizes: French < 36 37-38 39-40 41-42 43-44 45+ English < 3.5 4-5 5.5-6.5 7-8 8.5-10 10.5 + Min. Clearance 12.5 mm 13.0 mm 13.5 mm 14.0 mm 14.5 mm 15.0 mm

SINGAPORE Tested in accordance with SS 513 : Part 2 : 2005 Singapore test methods and requirements are identical to the EN Standard.

Compression Requirement
ASTM

Class 75 (C) footwear for men shall demonstrate a minimum interior height clearance of 12.7 mm (0.50 in.) during
exposure to a compressive force of 11,121 newtons (2500 lbf). Applies to both steel and composite protective caps.

Class 75 footwear for women shall demonstrate a minimum interior height clearance of 11.9 mm (0.468 in.) during
exposure to a compressive force of 11,121 newtons (2500 lbf). Applies to both steel and composite protective caps. CSA There is no compression standard for CSA. EN Safety footwear must be tested in accordance with EN ISO 20344:2004. The clearance under the toe cap at a compression load of 15,000 newtons shall be the following: Sizes: French < 36 37-38 39-40 41-42 43-44 45+ English < 3.5 4-5 5.5-6.5 7-8 8.5-10 10.5 + Min. Clearance 12.5 mm 13.0 mm 13.5 mm 14.0 mm 14.5 mm 15.0 mm

SINGAPORE Tested in accordance with SS 513 : Part 2 : 2005 Singapore test methods and requirements are identical to the EN Standard.

Metatarsal Requirement
ASTM Metatarsal (Mt) protective footwear must first meet the Class 75 requirements for impact and compression resistant footwear. The height of the wax form used to measure metatarsal protection of mens footwear shall be a minimum of 25.4 mm (1.0 inch) after exposure of impact energy of 101.7 J (75 ft-lbf). For womens metatarsal protection there shall be a minimum of 23.8 mm (0.937 in.) after exposure of impact energy of 101.7 J (75 ft-lbf). CSA Metatarsal protective footwear must meet the Grade 1 Toe Cap requirement for impact resistant footwear. The Metatarsal protector must overlap the protective toe cap. Metal metatarsal guards must show no signs of corrosion when exposed to a 5% salt solution for 24 hours. EN Safety footwear must be tested in accordance with EN ISO 20344:2004. The minimum clearance at the moment of impact shall be: Sizes: French < 36 37-38 39-40 41-42 43-44 45 + English < 3.5 4-5 5.5-6.5 7-8 8.5-10 10.5 + Min. Clearance 37.0 mm 38.0 mm 39.0 mm 40.0 mm 40.5 mm 41.0 mm

SINGAPORE Tested in accordance with SS 513 : Part 2 : 2005 Singapore test methods and requirements are identical to the EN Standard.

Puncture Resistant Requirement

ASTM Puncture Resistant (PR) footwear must also meet the Class 75 requirements for impact and compression resistant footwear. The puncture resistant insole must withstand a puncture force of 270 lbs., will not crack after 1.5 million flexes and show no signs of corrosion when exposed to a 5% salt solution for 24 hours. CSA Footwear with protective sole inserts must also meet the Grade 1 requirement for impact resistant footwear. The protective insert shall cover the sole including the heel area. The puncture resistant insole must withstand a puncture force of 1200 newtons, will not crack after 1.5 million flexes and show no signs of corrosion when exposed to a 5% salt solution for 24 hours. Footwear is labeled with a green triangle. EN Penetration Resistant Footwear must be tested in accordance with EN ISO 20344:2004. The force required to penetrate the sole unit shall not be less than 1,100 newtons. The metal insole must not crack after 1 million flexes and show no more than 5 areas of corrosion smaller then 2.5 mm2 when exposed to a 1% salt solution for 7 days. Non-metallic penetration resistant insoles will be tested according to EN 12568:1998. SINGAPORE Tested in accordance with SS 513 : Part 2 : 2005 Singapore test methods and requirements are identical to the EN Standard.

Electric Shock Resistance Requirement

ASTM Electric Shock Resistant (EH) footwear shall also meet the Class 75 requirements for impact and compression resistant footwear. Must withstand the application of 14,000 volts at 60 Hz for 1 minute with no current flow or leakage in excess of 3.0 milliamperes under dry conditions. CSA Electric Shock Resistant (ESR) footwear must also meet the Grade 1 requirement for impact resistant footwear. ESR footwear must withstand a test potential of 18,000 volts at 60Hz for 1 minute without disruptive discharge to ground. Under dry conditions, the leakage current shall not exceed 1 milliamperes. Footwear is labeled with an orange omega on a white rectangle. EN Electrical Insulation is determined according to the method described in EN 50321:1999. Footwear must comply with electrical class O or OO. SINGAPORE Tested in accordance with SS 513 : Part 2 : 2005 Singapore test methods and requirements are identical to the EN Standard.

Static Dissipative Requirement

ASTM Static dissipative (SD) footwear shall also meet the Class 75 requirements for impact and compression resistant footwear.

SD footwear shall reduce the accumulation of excess static electricity while maintaining a level of electrical resistance between 106 ohms (1 megohm) and 108 ohms (100 megohms). CSA Static dissipative footwear may or may not meet Grade 1 impact resistance. It is tested in water and the electrical resistance shall fall within a range of 106 ohms (W) to 108 ohms (W) for a period of 5 seconds. Footwear is labeled with a green SD on a yellow rectangle. EN Antistatic Footwear must be tested in accordance with EN ISO 20344:2004 after conditioning in both wet and dry conditions. Electrical resistance shall be above 100,000 ohms (105 W ) and less than or equal to 1,000 megohms (109 W). SINGAPORE Tested in accordance with SS 513 : Part 2 : 2005 Singapore test methods and requirements are identical to the EN Standard.

Conductive Protection Requirement

ASTM Conductive (CD) footwear must also meet the Class 75 requirements for impact and compression resistant footwear. Footwear shall dissipate static electricity from the body to reduce the possibility of ignition of volatile compounds. Electrical resistance must range between 0 to 500,000 ohms. CSA Conductive footwear must meet also the Grade 1 requirement for impact resistant footwear and must electrically ground the foot. The footwear is tested in water and the electrical resistance shall fall within a range of 0 to 500,000 ohms (W) for a period of 5 seconds. Footwear is labeled with a black C on a red rectangle. EN The electrical resistance of Conductive footwear must be tested in accordance with EN ISO 20344:2004 after conditioning in a dry atmosphere and cannot be greater than 100,000 ohms (W). SINGAPORE Tested in accordance with SS 513 : Part 2 : 2005 Singapore test methods and requirements are identical to the EN Standard.

Other Requirements
ASTM ASTM safety footwear must be tested by a third party laboratory. The footwear does not need to be retested unless the standard is revised or the platform construction changes. CSA CSA safety footwear and the factories that produce the footwear must be certified by CSA International. CSA performs regular audits of both the factory and the footwear. One pair for every 500 pair produced must be tested by the manufacturing facility. EN EN safety footwear must be tested by an EN certifying body. EN certification encompasses far more than just the safety aspects of the shoe. All components are individually tested as well as the fit and comfort of the footwear. EN has several categories of safety footwear depending on performance and the footwear is labeled accordingly. The footwear does not need to be retested unless the standard is revised or the platform construction changes.

SINGAPORE Singapore safety footwear and the factories that produce the footwear must be tested by an approved certifying body. Singapore certification encompasses far more than just the safety aspects of the shoe. All components are individually tested as well as the fit and comfort of the footwear. Singapore has several categories of safety footwear depending on performance and the footwear is labeled accordingly. Singapore performs regular audits of the factory and each batch of footwear is inspected upon entry into Singapore.

The Standards For Footwear Protection

ASTM The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International, a preeminent source for technical documentation for industries world wide announced that the former ANSI Z41 Standard for Personal Protection Protective Footwear was withdrawn in 2005. It was replaced by two new ASTM standards, titled F 2413-05 Standard Specification for Performance Requirements for Foot Protection and F 2412-05 Standard Test Methods for Foot Protection. These new standards provide safety and performance standards previously put forward by ANSI since 1967. ASTM website WWW.ASTM.ORG

CAN/CSA-Z195-02 Protective Footwear A National Standard of Canada approved March 2003 The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) was chartered in 1919 and is a non-profit, voluntary membership association engaged in standards development and certification activities. The standards are used widely by industry and commerce and often adopted by municipal, provincial and federal governments in their regulations. CSA Standard Z195, Protective Footwear, covers the design and performance requirements for protective footwear, including toe protection, sole puncture protection, electric-shock resistant soles and other requirements relating to metatarsal protection and general stability of the footwear. CSA website WWW.CSA.CA EN ISO 20345:2004 The European Standard was approved by CEN (European Committee for Standardization) on 2 January 2004 and supersedes EN 345. This European Standard specifies basic and additional (optional) requirements for safety footwear. The European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French and German). A version in any other language made by translation under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the Central Secretariat has the same status as the official versions. CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom. EN website www.iso.org

Singapore Standard SS 513:2005 (ISO 20345:2004) This Singapore Standard was prepared by the Technical Committee on Personal Safety and Ergonomics under the purview of the General Engineering and Safety Standards Committee. This standard, comprised of Part 1 and Part 2, supersedes SS 105: 1997 Safety footwear. Part 1 specifies basic and additional (optional) requirements for safety footwear and Part 2 specifies methods for testing footwear designed as personal protective equipment. Part 1 of SS 513 is identical with EN ISO 20345:2004 Personal protective equipment- Safety footwear. Part 2 of SS 513 is identical with EN ISO 20344:2004 Personal protective Equipment- Test Methods for Footwear. Singapore Standard website www.standards.org.sg

Disclaimer
Red Wing Shoe Company, Inc. expressly states that this guide does not represent the actual formal standard it only provides a quick comparison and general descriptions of testing methods and requirements. Refer to the actual published standards for specific requirements.

This general standards reference guide does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of these standards to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. The standards are subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee(s). ASTM standards must be reviewed every five years and if not revised, either re-approved or withdrawn.

References
ASTM Web Site: WWW.ASTM.ORG Canadian Standards Association (CSA):WWW.CSA.CA European Standard (EN): WWW.ISO.ORG Singapore Standard (SS): WWW.STANDARDS.ORG.SG American National Standards Institute (ANSI): WWW.ANSI.ORG International Organization for Standardization (ISO): WWW.ISO.CH Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): HTTP://WWW.OSHA.GOV

Basics of Electrostatic Discharge

Part Three

An Overview of ESD Control Procedures and Materials

by The ESD Association Special to Compliance Engineering Magazine May 5, 1998

In our previous column we introduced you to four principles of static control and nine key elements of ESD program development and implementation. In this column, we will cover some of the primary specific static control procedures and materials that become part of your program. First, a quick review.

Basic Principles of Static Control

We suggested that static control programs become more effective and less complex if we focus on just four basic principles of static control as follows: Design In Immunity by designing products and assemblies to be as immune as reasonable from the effects of ESD.

Eliminate and Reduce Generation by reducing and eliminating static generating processes, keeping processes and materials at the same electrostatic potential, and by providing appropriate ground paths to reduce charge generation and accumulation. Dissipate and Neutralize by grounding, ionization, and the use of conductive and dissipative static control materials. Protect Products from ESD with proper grounding or shunting and the use of static control packaging and materials handling products. In most facilities, our static control efforts center around the last three principles. In this column we will concentrate on the primary materials and procedures that eliminate and reduce generation, dissipate and neutralize charges, or protect sensitive products from ESD.

Identifying the Problem Areas

You may also recall from our previous article that we suggested that there were at least nine critical elements to successfully developing and implementing an effective ESD control program. Selecting appropriate static control materials and developing and implementing effective procedures begins with two of these critical elements: Identifying and classifying ESD sensitive items used in your facility. Evaluating your facility and processes to determine the areas that need to be protected. One of the first questions answered with this information is "Which areas of our facility need ESD protection?" Often you will find that there are more areas that require protection than you originally thought, usually wherever ESDS devices are handled. Typical areas requiring ESD protection are shown in Table 1.

Personnel and Moving Equipment

In many facilities, people are one of the prime generators of static electricity. The simple act of walking around or repairing a board can generate several thousand volts on the human body. If not properly controlled, this static charge can easily discharge into a static sensitive device-a human body model (HBM) discharge.

Even in highly automated assembly and test processes, people still handle static sensitive devicesin the warehouse, in repair, in the lab, in transport. For this reason, static control programs place considerable emphasis on controlling personnel generated electrostatic discharge. Similarly, the movement of carts and other wheeled equipment through the facility also can generate static charges that can transfer to the products being transported on this equipment.

Wrist Straps
Typically, the primary means of controlling static charge on personnel is with a wrist strap. When properly worn and connected to ground, a wrist strap keeps the person wearing it near ground potential. Because the person and other grounded objects in the work area are at or near the same potential, there can be no hazardous discharge between them. In addition, static charges are safely dissipated from the person to ground and do not accumulate. Wrist straps have two major components, the cuff that goes around the person's wrist and the ground cord that connects the cuff to the common point ground. Most wrist straps have a current limiting resistor molded into the ground cord head on the end that connects to the cuff. The resistor most commonly used is a one megohm, 1/4 watt with a working voltage rating of 250 volts. Wrist straps should be tested on a regular basis. Daily testing or continuous monitoring is recommended.

Floors, Floor Mats, Floor Finishes

A second method of controlling electrostatic charge on personnel is with the use of ESD protective floors in conjunction with ESD control footwear or footstraps. The combination of floor materials and footwear provides

a ground path for the dissipation of electrostatic charge, thus reducing the charge accumulation on personnel and other objects to safe levels. In addition to dissipating charge, some floor materials (and floor finishes) also reduce triboelectric charging. The use of floor materials is especially appropriate in those areas where increased personnel mobility is necessary. In addition, floor materials can minimize charge accumulation on chairs, carts, walking stackers, lift trucks and other objects that move across the floor. However, those items require dissipative or conductive casters or wheels to make electrical contact with the floor.

Shoes, Grounders, Casters

Used in combination with ESD protective floor materials, static control shoes, grounders, casters and wheels provide the necessary electrical contact between the person or object and the floor material. Insulative footwear, casters, or wheels prevent static charges from flowing from the body to the floor to ground.

Clothing
Clothing is a consideration in some ESD protective areas, especially in clean rooms and very dry environments. Clothing materials can generate electrostatic charges when they contact and separate from other objects and the clothing itself. These charges may discharge into sensitive components or create electrostatic fields that may induce charges on the human body. Although a person may be grounded, that does not mean that insulative clothing fabrics can dissipate a charge to that person's skin and then to ground. Clothing usually is electrically insulated or isolated from the body. Static control garments are intended to minimize the effects of electrostatic fields or charges that may be present on a person's clothing.

Figure 1--Typical ESD Work Station

Work Stations and Work Surfaces

Worksurfaces and work stations are important parts of an ESD protective program. Many ESDS devices and assemblies are handled, assembled or repaired at work stations. An ESD protective workstation refers to the work area of a single individual that is constructed and equipped with materials and equipment to limit damage to ESD sensitive items. It may be a stand-alone station in a stockroom, warehouse, or assembly area, or in a field location such as a computer bay in commercial aircraft. A workstation also may be located in a controlled area such as a clean room. The work station provides a means for connecting all worksurfaces, fixtures, handling equipment, and grounding devices to a common point ground. In addition, there may be provision for connecting additional personal grounding devices, equipment, and accessories such as constant ground monitors and ionizers. The key ESD control elements comprising most workstations are a static dissipative work surface, a means of grounding personnel (usually a wrist strap), a common grounding connection, and appropriate signage and labeling. A typical work station is shown in Figure 3. Static protective worksurfaces with a resistance to ground of 106 to 109 provide a surface that is at the same electrical potential as other ESD protective items in the workstation. They also provide an electrical path to ground for the controlled dissipation of any static potentials on materials that contact the surface. The work surface also helps define a specific work area in which ESD sensitive devices may be safely handled. The worksurface is connected to the common point ground.

Production Equipment and Production Aids

Although personnel generated static is typically the primary ESD culprit in many environments, automated manufacturing and test equipment can also pose an ESD problem. For example, a device may become charged from sliding down the feeder. If the device then contacts the insertion head or another conductive surface, a rapid discharge occurs from the device to the metal object--a Charged Device Model (CDM) event. In addition, various production aids may also pose an ESD problem. Production aids are those materials, tools and fixtures that help to produce finished products but do not become part of the finished product. Some examples are hand tools, soldering irons, tapes, solvents, and so forth. Grounding is the primary means of controlling static charge on many

production aids and equipment. The metal chassis or conductive enclosure of equipment that uses utility power is required by the National Electrical Code to be connected to the equipment ground (the green wire) in order to carry fault currents. This ground connection also will function for ESD purposes. All electrical tools and equipment used to process ESD sensitive hardware require the 3 prong grounded type AC plug. Hand tools that are not electrically powered, i.e., pliers, wire cutters, and tweezers, are usually grounded through the ESD worksurface and the (grounded) person using the conductive tools. Holding fixtures should be made of conductive or static dissipative materials when possible. If a conductive fixture is not sitting on a ESD worksurface or handled by a grounded person, a separate ground wire may be required. For those items that are composed of insulative materials, the use of ionization or application of topical antistats may be required to control generation and accumulation of static charges.

Packaging and Materials Handling

Direct protection of ESDS devices from electrostatic discharge is provided by packaging materials such as bags, corrugated, and rigid or semi-rigid packages. The primary use of these items is to protect the product when it leaves the facility, usually when shipped to a customer. In addition, materials handling products such as tote boxes and other containers primarily provide protection during inter or intra facility transport. The main ESD function of these packaging and materials handling products is to limit the possible impact of ESD from triboelectric charge generation, direct discharge, and electrostatic fields. The initial consideration is to have low charging materials (antistatic) in contact with ESD sensitive items. For example, the antistatic property would control triboelectric charge resulting from sliding a board or component into the package or container. A second requirement is that the material provide protection from direct electrostatic discharge as well as shield from electrostatic fields. Many materials are available that provide all three benefits: antistatic, discharge protection, and electric field suppression. The inside of these packaging material has an antistatic layer, but also has an outer layer with a surface resistance generally in the dissipative range. A material's antistatic properties are not necessarily predicted by its resistance or resistivity. However, resistance or resistivity measurements help define the material's ability to provide electrostatic shielding or charge dissipation. Electrostatic shielding attenuates electrostatic fields on the surface of a package in order to prevent a difference in electrical potential from existing inside the package. Electrostatic shielding is provided by materials that have a surface resistance equal to or less than 1.0 x 103 when tested according to EOS/ESD-S11.11 or a volume resistivity of equal to or less than 1.0 x 103 ohm-cm when tested according to the methods of EIA 541.

Dissipative materials provide charge dissipation characteristics. These materials have a surface resistance greater than 1.0 x 104 but less than or equal to 1.0 x 1011 when tested according to EOS/ESD-S11.11 or a volume resistivity greater than 1.0 x 105 ohm-cm but less than or equal to 1.0 x 1012 ohm-cm when tested according to the methods of EIA 541. Be aware that the very wide range of resistance and resistivity results in a wide range of performance.

Grounding
In our discussion to this point, we have seen how important grounding is to effective ESD control. Consequently, effective ESD grounds are of critical importance in any operation, and ESD grounding should be clearly defined and regularly evaluated. ESD Association Standard ANSI EOS/ESD 6.1-Grounding recommends a two-step procedure for grounding ESD protective equipment. The first step is to ground all components of the work area (worksurfaces, people, equipment, etc.) to the same electrical ground point called the "common point ground." This common point ground is defined as a "system or method for connecting two or more grounding conductors to the same electrical potential."

Figure 2 - Common Point Ground Symbol

This ESD common point ground should be properly identified. ESD Association standard EOS/ESD S8.1-1993 recommends the use of the symbol in Figure 2 to identify the common point ground. The second step is to connect the common point ground to the equipment ground or the third wire (green) electrical ground connection. This is the preferred ground connection because all electrical equipment at the workstation is already connected to this ground. Connecting the ESD control materials or equipment to the equipment ground brings all components of the workstation to the same electrical potential. If a soldering iron used to repair an ESDS item were connected to the electrical ground and the surface

containing the ESDS item were connected to an auxiliary ground, a difference in electrical potential could exist between the iron and the ESDS item. This difference in potential could cause damage to the item. Any auxiliary grounds (water pipe, building frame, ground stake) present and used at the workstation must be bonded to the equipment ground to minimize differences in potential between the two grounds.

Ionization
As we have seen, the primary method of static charge control is direct connection to ground for conductors, static dissipative materials, and personnel. However, a complete static control program must also deal with isolated conductors that cannot be grounded, insulating materials (e.g., most common plastics). Topical antistats often are be used to dissipate static charges from these items under some circumstances More frequently, however, air ionization can neutralize the static charge on insulated and isolated objects by charging the molecules of the gases of the surrounding air. Whatever static charge is present on objects in the work environment will be neutralized by attracting opposite polarity charges from the air. Because it uses only the air that is already present in the work environment, air ionization may be employed even in clean rooms where chemical sprays and some static dissipative materials are not usable. Air ionization is not a replacement for grounding methods. It is one component of a complete static control program. Ionizers are used when it is not possible to properly ground everything and as backup to other static control methods. In clean rooms, air ionization may be one of the few methods of static control available.

Clean Room Requirements

While the basic methods of static control discussed here are applicable in most environments, there are characteristics of the semiconductor manufacturing process that require special considerations. Many objects integral to the semiconductor manufacturing process (quartz, glass, plastic, and ceramic) are inherently charge generating. Because these materials are insulators, this charge cannot be removed easily by grounding. Many static control materials contain carbon particles or surfactant additives that sometimes restrict their use in clean rooms. The need for personnel mobility and the use of clean room garments often make the use of wrist straps difficult. In these circumstances, ionization and flooring/footwear systems become key weapons against static charge.

Identification

A final element in our static control program is the use of appropriate symbols to identify static sensitive devices and assemblies, as well as products intended to control ESD. The traditional symbols traditionally used to identify ESDS parts or ESD control materials have been replaced with newer, more appropriate symbols. ESD Association Standard ANSI ESD S8.1-1993 - ESD Awareness Symbols provides two symbols for ESD identification.

Figure 3--ESD Susceptibility Symbol

The ESD Susceptibility Symbol (Figure 3), consists of a triangle, a reaching hand, and a slash through the reaching hand. The triangle means caution and the slash through the reaching hand means Dont touch. Because of its broad usage, the hand in the triangle has become associated with ESD and the symbol literally translates to "ESD sensitive stuff, don't touch." The ESD Susceptibility Symbol is applied directly to integrated circuits, boards, and assemblies that are static sensitive. It indicates that handling or use of this item may result in damage from ESD if proper precautions are not taken. If desired, the sensitivity level of the item may be added to the label.

Figure 4-- ESD Protective Symbol

The ESD Protective Symbol (Figure 4), consists of the reaching hand in the triangle. An arc around the triangle replaces the slash. This "umbrella" means protection. The symbol indicates ESD protective material. It is applied to mats, chairs, wrist straps, garments, packaging, and other items that provide ESD protection. It also may be used on equipment such as hand tools, conveyor belts, or automated handlers that is especially designed or modified to provide ESD control. Neither symbol is applied on ESD test equipment, footwear checkers, wrist strap testers, resistance or resistivity meters or similar items that are used for ESD purposes, but which do not provide actual protection.

Summary
Effective static control programs require a variety of procedures and materials. In this column, we have provided a brief overview of the most commonly used elements of a program. Additional in-depth discussion of individual materials and procedures can be found in publications such as the ESD Handbook published by the ESD Association. Your program is up and running. How do you determine whether it is effective? How do you make sure your employees follow it? In our next column, we will cover the topics of Auditing and Training.

For Additional Information

EOS/ESD S1.0-Wrist Straps ANSI EOS/ESD S3.-Ionization ESD STM 4.1 (Revised) ESD Protective Work Surfaces-Resistive Characterization ANSI EOS/ESD S6.1-Grounding -- Recommended Practice ANSI ESD S7.-Floor Materials -- Resistive Characterization of Materials ANSI ESD S8.-ESD Awareness Symbols ESD S9.1-Resistive Characterization of Footwear ANSI ESD S11.1-Surface Resistance Measurement of Static Dissipative Planar Materials ANSI ESD S11.31-Evaluating the Performance of Electrostatic Discharge Shielding Bags ESD-DS1.1, Evaluation, Acceptance, and Functional Testing of Wrist Straps. ESD STM2.1-Garments ESD SP 3.3-Periodic Verification of Air Ionizers

ESD ADV53.1- ESD Protective Workstations ESD ADV2.0--ESD Handbook EIA-541, Packaging of Electronic Products for Shipment

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Information - Anti-Static Floor Installations In Industrial Building

w article helps you to understand why anti-static (or static control) flooring solutions are absolutely critical to incorporate in partic /process areas and how the presently available solutions (such as the anti-static flooring solutions installed by ATB Indust duce the risks associated with unwanted electrostatic discharge in factory/production areas.

s covered in this article include:

e causes of electrostatic discharge (ESD) in the workplace dustrial environments where static discharge presents a serious safety risk ow anti-static control flooring systems work e options available for anti-static industrial flooring rther considerations for anti-static flooring systems

auses of static build-up/discharge

tic charge is commonly created by the friction of two materials, so that an imbalance of (an electostatic field) is created on a material surface. An electrostatic discharge (ESD) is s the transfer (spark) of electrostatic charge between objects at different electrostatic potentials y direct contact or induced by the electrostatic field.

an body is perhaps the most common ESD source, although a person will not feel these tic discharges until the body is charged to approximately 3,000 - 4,000 volts - a tiny fraction of ge is sufficient to cause major damage to sensitive electronic components. One method for remove static electricity from a persons body (and thus reduce the risk of electrostatic ) is to provide a floor surface that allows charge from shoe soles/heels to dissipate to the ground".

an static discharge be dangerous?

al environments wherever chemicals are used, there can be a potential risk of explosive vapour/ air mixtures forming - an elect can provide sufficient energy to ignite such a mixture. In addition, the presence or attraction / adhesion of dust may also prese

c electricity problems. Typical industrial areas which carry such risk include:

hemical processing areas in factories mi-conductor and electronic assembly areas armaceutical/biotechnology clean rooms, hospitals and similar medical environments od processing areas (particularly those processing powdered foodstuffs) omputer & server rooms

e industrial areas will have requirements for an antistatic flooring system.

oncept of anti-static flooring coatings

ory or production environments use a concrete-based flooring surface - typically the water in the pores of the concrete would be sufficiently conductive to dissipate any electrostatic n the surface. However, the concrete floors of many factories require an epoxy or polyurethane ing treatment in order to make the surface sufficiently hard wearing, hygienic, chemical or ure resistant to be suitable for the particular processes/activities taking place on-site.

n coatings introduce a natural insulation to the concrete floor surface of the factory - this tes the selection of a static controlled grade of resin flooring for the commercial/industrial ns mentioned above.

ptions for anti-static resin flooring systems

no inherently conductive flooring resin bases - therefore static controlled flooring coatings are generally derived from normal re ades which incorporate a small proportion of conductive additives (carbon powder or metal fibres).

two main grades of anti-static floor - "static conductive" and "static dissipative" - the difference is the measured electrical resist e floors are in the range 103 to 106 Ohms - dissipative floors are in the range 107 to 109 Ohms. A static conductive floor has a m stance than a static dissipative floor (carrying static charge to ground much more efficiently) and is usually specified in areas w high risk of explosion or contain extremely sensitive electronic equipment.

g environments dealing with high test voltages, a dissipative floor should be installed so that the static charges can be gradually d to ground, protecting personnel from electrical shock while at the same time protecting sensitive electronic equipment

ng of anti-static floors

ct earthing of any anti-static flooring system is critical - it may not be possible to lay the flooring rectly on top of a ground concrete layer and guarantee proper electrical earthing. Therefore rthing strips can be used to guarantee electrical continuity between the flooring and the grounding point. This is normally achieved by the use of adhesive copper tape, laid below the ation of conductive flooring layer and connected to earthing points - care should be taken to at all sections of the floor are linked together i.e. concrete expansion joints bridged with copper ovide electrical conductivity.

ng to install an anti-static flooring system in your building?

nterested in using an anti-static flooring system in your factory or production area? contact us today to get a FREE nd quotation for your project!