Varied types of forests are found in the Indian subcontinent.

Primarily, there are 6 major groups, namely, Moist Tropical, Dry Tropical, Montane Sub Tropical, Montane Temperate, Sub Alpine, and Alpine, further subdivided into 16 major types of forests. Evidently, India has a diverse range of forests: from the rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures of Ladakh in the north, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to the evergreen forests in the northeast. While classifying the forests into different types, the main factors are taken into consideration which includes soil type, topography, and elevation. Forests are also classified according to their nature, the type of climate in which they thrive and its relationship with the surrounding environment. One such way is in terms of the Biome in which they exist are combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests predominantly composed of coniferous (needleleaved) trees, broadleaf trees, or mixed. There is no universally accepted or set principle to classify forests. The different types of forests in India are discussed below 2000mm and belong to the tropical wet climate group. The various types of forests in India are discussed below: Tropical Rain Forest in India Tropical Rain Forests maybe called the lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests. . Rainforests are those forests which are characterised by high rainfall between 1750mm and 2000mm. These forests incur heavy showers of 100-600cm a year, and hence the name, Rainforests. For this reason, the soil can be poor because the high rainfall tends to leach out soluble nutrients. These forests experience an average temperature of about 26 degrees Celsius, with no pronounced cold or dry spells. The quantity of life found in these forests and its diversity makes them vital. Some of the strangest and most beautiful plants and animals are found in rain forests. They are also the house to a large amount of natural medicines. Rainforests are dominated by the broad-leaved evergreen trees, which form a leafy canopy over the forest floor. Taller trees, called emergent, may rise above the canopy. Coffee, chocolate, banana tree, mango tree, papaya tree, avocados and sugarcane all originally came from tropical rainforests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forests. Temperate Deciduous Forests in India Temperate Deciduous Forests are those, which consist of predominantly broad-leafed trees. Deciduous forests are of two types: Temperate and Tropical. Temperate deciduous forests occur in areas of moderate temperature and rainfall with chilly winters. Species belonging to these forests drop leaves in autumn. The deciduous forests in tropical areas shed leaves only by December (in the Northern Hemisphere) when water becomes scarce. The tropical monsoon deciduous forests are found in areas receiving an annual rainfall of 100 to 200cms in India, with a distinct dry and rainy season and minimum temperature. The deciduous forest can further be divided into Moist and Dry. Moist Deciduous Forests in India The moist deciduous forests are scattered throughout India except in the western and the north-western regions. They are found extensively on the wetter western side of the Deccan Plateau, the north-eastern part of the Deccan Plateau and the lower slopes of the Himalayan Mountain, on the Siwalik Hills from Jammu in the west to West Bengal In the east. The trees have broad trunks, are tall and have branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the ground. These forests are dominated by Sal and Teak, along with Mango, Bamboo and Rosewood. Dry Deciduous Forests in India Indian Dry Deciduous Forests are found throughout the northern part of the country except in the Northeast. It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The canopy of the trees does not normally exceed 25 metres. The principal trees of these forests are Indian Teak Tree, Sal, Sandalwood, Mahua, Khair, Mango, Jackfruit, Wattle and Arjun, Semal, Myrobalan and Banyan Tree. Moreover, Littoral and swamps are scattered throughout the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as well as the delta area of the Brahmaputra River and the River Ganga. Usually, mangrove dates, whistling pines, bullet wood and royal palm tree are predominant here. They contain roots that have soft tissues so that the plant can obtain oxygen from the water. Geographical Distribution of Indian Forests Eastern zone consists of moist, deciduous and wet evergreen forests. The Western zone forms the other extreme infested with thorn and dry deciduous forests while Northern and Central zones consist mainly of dry and moist deciduous forests. Southern zone incorporates characteristics of both Western and Central zones comprising mainly of thorn dry and eastern highlands moist deciduous forests. Forests are mostly exclusive and they are indispensable in further existence of life. Forests

serve as a home to many species. Deforestation is the reason of global warming. To prevent that problem Government of India has taken many necessary steps for the plantation of trees. TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS Tropical Rain Forest is one of the most spectacular natural wonders and the oldest living ecosystem on Earth. The tropical rainforests are regarded as the most complex biome (structure and species diversity) on Earth and they are actually such a place of wilderness, where lots of trees and few people live together. They are called as tropical rainforests, as they grow in those parts of the world where there is heavy rainfall throughout the year. In India, Tropical rain forests possess a diversity of animals and plant species and the biotic system is regularly stressed by several human activities. Theses forests cover the states of Assam, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Tripura, Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which experience heavy rainfall. These forests can be characterized by high rainfall, with rainfall of 100 to 600 centimeters per year. The soil in these forests can be soft and with less resistance power, because high rainfall tends to leach out the soluble nutrients. These forests flourish in or close to the tropics, the hot regions that lay either side of the equator and the atmosphere in a tropical rainforest is permanently humid - damp and hot. The tropical rainforests are often referred to as jungles in India, which is a Hindi word meaning wilderness. A true jungle is a thick mesh of vegetation, through which people have to force and cut their way. Though the tropical rainforests contain patches of jungle, they are more open. The tropical rainforests have between five and twenty times as many species of trees as one in the temperate zone of North America or Europe. They also provide a home for a number of the most fascinating animals of the world. Tropical rainforests hold a large variety of substances potentially useful to humans. Many of the human foods and medicines and also several useful timbers are collected from them. All the products like coffee, papayas, bananas, chocolate, mangoes, avocados and sugarcane originally came from tropical rainforests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest. The trees in the tropical rainforests are very tall and broadleaved evergreens and the floor of the forests remain covered with the rotting leaves. The tallest trees have buttress roots and wing-like growths that spread out from the base of the trunk to act as props. The other trees have stilt roots that grow down from the branches or trunk, often in graceful arches. All the trees in these forests carry their branches and leaves at the top of long slender trunks, forming a huge umbrella-like green canopy. The dense canopy filters much of the daylight and leaves a shady green world beneath it. The tropical rainforests possess more diverse species of plants and animals than any other part of the world, even more than the oceans that cover nearly three-quarters of the earth. The rainforests give shelters to two-thirds of all the living animal and plant species on the planet. It has been estimated that hundreds of millions of new species of plants, insects, and microorganisms are still undiscovered and yet unnamed by science. The tropical rain forests are also called the `jewel of the earth`, and the `world`s largest pharmacy`, as large amount of natural medicines have been discovered there, so far. A large amount of prescription drugs sold worldwide come from plant-derived sources in the tropical rainforests and the scientists believe that the cures for many more diseases will be discovered there in the future. Various common characteristics can be found in the trees of tropical rainforests. The tropical rainforest species frequently possess one or more attributes not commonly seen in trees of higher latitudes or trees in drier conditions on the same latitude. Some of the most notable plants found in the tropical rainforest include the Bengal Bamboo, Bougainvillea tree, Coconut tree, Curare, Durian, Jambu, Mangrove forests, Strangler figs, Kapok tree and Tualang. While the Bengal Bamboo is found in southern Asia, the Bougainvillea is found in South America and the Coconut tree is found in hot places like Africa and Asia. The Durian is found in southern Asia; the Jambu somewhere in southern India to eastern Malaya, the Kapok tree in the emergent in the South of Asia and the Mangrove forest is found in the south of Asia. While the Strangler fig is found in southern Asia, the Tualang is found in southern Asia. A large number of tree species found in the tropical rainforests have broad, woody flanges (buttresses) at the base of the trunk. Large leaves are common among the trees and shrubs of the forest floor layers and the young trees destined for the canopy and emergent layers also sometimes have large leaves. The large leaves surfaces help intercept light in the sun-dappled lower strata of the forest. The canopy leaves are usually smaller than those found in understory plants and are divided to reduce wind damage. The trees are often well connected in the canopy layer, especially by the growth of woody climbers known as lianas, or by plants with epiphytic adaptations.

The other principal characteristics of the trees in tropical rainforests include exceptionally thin bark. The bark is often only one to two millimeters thick and it is usually very smooth, although sometimes covered with thorns or spines.

Another common tree in tropical rainforests is Cauliflory that flowers and hence fruits directly from the trunk, rather than at the tips of branches. Large fleshy fruits that attract birds, mammals, and even fish as dispersal agents, are also a common characteristic of the trees in tropical rainforests. At present, one of the largest economic values of tropical rainforests comes in the form of tourism. People roam nationally as well as internationally to get a first hand experience of the tropical rainforests. Tourism of the rainforests offers considerable economic benefits which will help in preserving it. The state of Arunachal Pradesh in India is the long surviving tropical rainforest. It is having tremendous wealth of forested land and wildlife. The increase in population, encroachments and hunting caused the destruction of the forest lands in India. Presently, India`s north-eastern states are the only portions where tropical rainforests survive. TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS The temperate deciduous forest has four distinct seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In the autumn the leaves change colour. During the winter months the trees lose their leaves. It usually consists of a cold winter, warm spring, hot summer, and a cool autumn, with a temperature range of -30A C to 30A C. temperate deciduous forest gets about 51-152 centimetres of rain every year. There is an approximately 6 month growing season. The 20 to 60 inches of precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the year. The non-growing season is due to temperatureinduced drought during the cold winters. Many of the same genera, previously part of an Arcto-Tertiary Geoflora, are common to all three of the disjunctive northern hemisphere expressions of this biome. Included among these genera are Quercus (oak), Acer (maple), Fagus (beech), Castanea (chestnut), Carya (hickory), Ulmus (elm), Tilia (basswood or linden), Juglans (walnut), and Liquidamber (sweet gum). Various zones in Temperate Deciduous forest There are five different zones in this type of forest. The first zone is Tree Stratum zone, containing trees like as oak, beech, maple, chestnut hickory, elm, basswood, linden, walnut, and sweet gum trees. The height of trees in this zone ranges between 60 and 100 feet. The second zone is the small tree and sapling zone, having young and short trees. The third zone or the shrub zone consists of rhododendrons, azaleas, mountain laurel, and huckleberries. The Herb zone is the fourth zone containing short, herbal plants. The final zone is the Ground zone containing lichen, club mosses, and true mosses. Oaks are one of the dominant tree species in the deciduous forest. Other important trees include hickories and walnuts (right); formerly the chestnut was a dominant tree until the chestnut blight was introduced and decimated this key species. Maples, beech, sycamores and a host of other trees also play a role in the forest and we will meet some of them later. Wildflowers are also common in the forest, although they need some unusual strategies to survive on the heavily shaded forest floor. Many bloom early in the spring, before the big trees have leafed out, and may shed their leaves and remain dormant underground through the remainder of the summer. The animals have adapted to the land by trying the plants in the forest to see if they are good to eat for a good supply of food. Also the trees provide shelter for them. Animal use the trees for food and a water sources. Most of the animals are camouflaged to look like the ground. Resident bird species also tend to be omnivores. Many, like the several species of woodpeckers and the chickadees, are cavity-nesters. Migratory species tend to be insectivorous and include many so-called Neotropical migrants, including warblers, wrens, thrushes, tanagers, and hummingbirds. Broadleaf trees tend to be nutrient demanding and their leaves bind the major nutrient bases. Thus the litter under this forest is not as acidic as under needle leaf trees and aluminium and iron are not mobilized from the A-horizon. A lot of deciduous forests have lost land to farms and towns. Although people are trying to protect the forests some poachers are trying to kill the animals in the forests. The animals are losing their homes because of people building their homes. It is no coincidence that a good deal of the human population is found in areas that once supported temperate forests. The soils are rich and easily converted to agriculture. The climate is warmer than the boreal forest. That is one of the reasons there aren`t a lot of original deciduous forests left in the world. Other threats to the forest come from logging; most of the trees here are hardwoods, which mean they have a denser wood than most of the coniferous trees. Acid Rain from coal burning is another threat, as is global warming, which in particular may change rainfall patterns. The eco region extends across the Indian states of Bihar, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh. It represents a north-southdirected island of dry deciduous forests in the rain shadow of Eastern Ghats Mountain Range and is completely surrounded by the Eastern Highlands Moist Deciduous Forests. Most of these forests are open scrub influenced by human activities.

The Kathiawar-Gir forests in the main part of the ecoregion comprise the Aravalli Range and the eastern half of Rajasthan state, extending into eastern Gujarat and the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. Like many of the Deccan Plateau dry forest eco-regions, this region does not harbour large numbers of endemic species, nor is it exceptionally rich in biodiversity. EASTERN HIGHLANDS Located in east central India, the Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests is a tropical moist region. The characteristics of these forests are that the leaf of the trees here are broad in shape. The region is spread over an area of 341, 100 sq. km. covering the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra and Orissa and some parts of Bihar. It extends from the Bay of Bengal coast in northern part of Andhra Pradesh and southern part of Orissa, covering the northern portion of the Eastern Ghats range and the northeastern Deccan Plateau, to the eastern Satpura Range and the upper Narmada River valley. Geologically, the forest dates back to the Cretaceous and has Gondwanaland origins. The forests are recognized globally for the rich and varied fauna and ecological processes that they still support. The Bay of Bengal lies in the southeast, which brings the moisture bearing monsoon winds and provides moisture to the forests. On the north and the west it is bounded by the tropical dry deciduous forests, the Central Deccan plateau dry deciduous forests to the southwest and west, the Narmada valley dry deciduous forests to the northwest and the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests to the north and northeast. On the Eastern Ghats range, the Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests surround the drier Northern dry deciduous forests. The ecoregion`s forests are dominated by Sal. The flora of the forests shares much of the features with the moist forests of the Western Ghats and the eastern Himalayas. The fauna of the region consists of tigers, wolf, gaur and sloth bear. The Asian Elephant, which was the largest terrestrial vertebrate, has become extinct from this region. Twenty five percent of the forest area can create large conservation landscape that can support species of animals like tigers. Three hundred and thirteen species of birds inhabit the forest area, out of which two are endangered species the green avadavat (Amandava formosa) and Pallas`s fish eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus). The other threatened and interesting species supported by the forests are Arisaema tortuosum, Cyathea gigantea, Entada rheedii, Gnetum ula, Rauvolfia serpentina, Musa rosacea, Linociera ramiflora, Dioscorea anguina, Litsea monopetala, and Didymoplexis pallens and the endemic Leucas mukerjiana and Phlebophyllum jeyporensis. About three fourth parts of the natural forests of this ecoregion have been cleared. The remaining forests are in several large blocks that exceed 5,000 sq. km. There are thirty-one protected ecoregions, which cover more than 13,500 sq. km. or about 4% of the ecoregions intact habitat. The largest protected area, Simlipal, covers an area of 2,000 sq.km. and Kawal and Indravati are just over 1,000 sq. km. Kanha, is one of the most important tiger reserves in India, covers an area of 1,000 sq.km. But twenty-three of the thirty-one reserves are less than 500 sq km. in extent. The main source of threats to these remaining habitat blocks come from quarries, coalmines, hydroelectric projects and slash and burn cultivation EAST DECCAN DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS The East Deccan dry evergreen forests are an ecoregion of southeastern India. It covers the eastern part of Tamil Nadu and southeastern part of Andhra Pradesh.The coastal region behind the Coromandel Coast on the Bay of Bengal between the Eastern Ghats and the sea is included within the ecoregion. It lies in the rainshadow region of the Western and Eastern Ghats which block the moisture bearing summer southwest monsoons. It receives an annual rainfall of 800 mm. Spread over an area of 25,500 sq.km. much of the ecoregion is densely populated and also a lot of activity like agriculture and grazing is carried on. It extends from the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh to the Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu. Ninty-five percent of the original forests have been cleared. Five percent of the ecoregion remains in forest which is found in scattered fragments. Geologically, this ecoregion has Gondwanaland origins.

A unique feature of the East Deccan dry evergreen forest is that they retain their leaves throughout the year unlike most of the world`s tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests who tend to loose their leaves during the dry season

to conserve moisture. Two important wetlands are located in the forest area, the Kaliveli lake in the north of Pondicherryin Viluppuram district of Tamil Nadu and Pulicat Lake in the north of Chennai. The flora of the forest consists of evergreen trees and an emergent species of canopy of taller deciduous trees including Sal, Albizia amara and Chloroxylon spp. Less than one percent of the ecoregion are protected areas or reserve forests. The Marakanam Reserve Forest is a scared grove near Marakanam, northwest of Pondicherry in Tamil Nadu, which preserves a section of evergreen closed canopy forest.The region is also dotted with temple groves which includes, Puthupet, Pillaichavadi, Mudaliachavadi and Kottakarai. The Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary extend over an area of 117.26 sq. km. and is a protected area. Other preserves in the region include Vettangudi Bird Sanctuary in Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu and Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary on Pulicat Lake in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh. The ecoregion does not contain any prevalent mammals or birds. However, of the sixty-six known mammal species, which inhabit the forests, there are two endangered species, the wild dog (Cuon alpinus) and sloth bear (Melursus ursinus). Other species that need to be preserved include the common leopard (Panthera pardus), and some of the smaller predators such as the jungle cat (Felis chaus) and leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). The other mammals, which also need to be protected, are the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), the chinkara (Gazella bennettii), and the small Indian chevrotain or mouse deer (Moschiola meminna). The grizzled giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura) which also needs to be protected is found in the Sriviliputhur (Kamarajar District in Tamil Nadu) and Amaravathy Nagar (Coimbatore District. There are two hundred and thirty species of bird that inhabit the forest. The Jerdon`s courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus) is endangered, and the spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis) and lesser florican (Eupodotis indica) are some of the endangered bird species. Other birds, which need preservation attention, are the woolly-necked stork (Ciconia episcopus), white-bellied seaeagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster), and Indian grey hornbill (Ocyceros birostris). Like the other ecoregions in the Indian subcontinent, this region is also not free from threats. It has been subjected to heavy deforestation and the stunted scrub vegetation in most parts of the ecoregion is an indication of the long years of grazing practices. This is a growing concern among the environmentalists HIMALAYAN SUB TROPICAL PINE FORESTS Himalayan subtropical pine forests are renowned for being the largest in the whole of the Indo - Pacific areas. It comprise of `subtropical coniferous forest eco region` . It covers areas of India and also other countries like Bhutan, Nepal, and Pakistan. In India, the Himalayan subtropical pine forests stretch across the low hills of the Great Himalayan range and also several states of north India like Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Uttarakhand. Various types of pine trees are found in this region of Himalayan subtropical pine forests Amongst them, the prevalent tree is the Chir Pine. Its scientific name is Pinus roxburghii and is resistant to drought. Fire is quite frequent in the Himalayan subtropical pine forests. All the burnt slopes of this Himalayan subtropical pine forests region shows a rampant growth of grasses like Imperata cylindrica, Arundinella setosa, Themeda anathera, and Cymbopogon distans . Quite a multitude of shrubs are found in several species like Berberis, Rubus, and other thorny bushes. Especially in the Himachal Pradesh, wide-ranging tracts of Chir pine are produced in places like the lower portion of districts like Kangra and Una . This stretches toward the eastern portions of the same state and also in the lower region of the mountains of Uttar Pradesh . According to several dendrologists, Chir pine is strewn here and there and grow usually along with Shorea robusta, Anogeissus latifolia, and Cordia vestita. Comprehensive Chir pine plantations are prevalent in states like Himachal Pradesh and in northwestern portion of Uttar Pradesh. Biodiversity Features Unlike like the adjoining `broadleaf forest`, the Himalayan subtropical pine forests are not ideal abodes for species. However, as per the record of some of the experts , these Himalayan sub tropical forests provide habitation to multitudes of endemic bird species that came to this region from the nearby eco regions . Several mammals too are found in every nook and corner of the region of the Himalayan subtropical forests. It is to be noted that majority of these mammals are also being found in other parts of the region as well. Near about one hundred and twenty species of `mammal fauna` are found here. Some of the characteristic mammals that belong to the family of `focal species` of this region of Himalayan subtropical pine forests are barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), goral (Nemorhaedus goral), and yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula).

Due to deficiency in under woods and crops, the herbivores do not find the eco region of Himalayan sub tropical forests suitable for living. Bird fauna too throng various places of the Himalayan subtropical pine forests . There are about 480 species . Maximum of these birds are not restricted to this eco region of Himalayan subtropical pine forests and also build their nests in other nearby areas. Birds like Chestnut-breasted partridge, Cheer pheasant, Ludlow`s fulvetta, Rusty-bellied shortwing, Elliot`s laughingthrush, immaculate wren-babbler, Snowy-throated babbler, Hoary-throated barwing, Spiny babbler, Mishmi wren-babble and Western tragopana deserves mentioning. Over the years, the Himalayan subtropical pine forests have faced several threats from the modern day society. Overgrazing, cultivation, exploitation for fuel woods etc have brought about degradation of this eco region INDIAN DECIDUOUS OR MONSOON FORESTS The Indian Deciduous forests are the most abundantly found among all the different types of forests in India. Deciduous forests are so called because the trees of these forests seasonally shed all their leaves. The Indian deciduous are found in a range of landscapes from the plains to the hills. They occur as Sal-dominated forests in the Bhabhar tract of the Himalayan foothills and Central India, and continue as teak-dominated forests across the Deccan Plateau. Apart from the extensive space that they cover in the country`s land area, the deciduous forests are further made important by the fact they are home to some of the most endangered wildlife in the country. The largest remaining populations of species such as the tiger, Asian elephant and Gaur in the country occur in these forests. As with all other ecosystems in India, deciduous forests also are under extensive pressures from human resource-use. Features of Deciduous Forests The trees in these forests have quite large and broad leaves and they shed all their leaves for about six to eight weeks in summer. They are counted among the most widely-represented forest types in India. Found in a range of landscapes from the plains to the hills, these forests grow over a wide range of rainfall regimes, occurring as dry deciduous forests where rainfall ranges from 500 - 1,500 mm and moist deciduous forests in wetter regions. Types of Deciduous Forests The Deciduous forests usually cover a wide range of rainfall regimes and they can be classified into two divisions, namely the moist deciduous forests and the dry deciduous forests. Moist Deciduous Forests The moist deciduous forests are situated in wet regions which receive rainfall ranging between 100-200 cms. The moist deciduous forests, among the Indian deciduous or monsoon forests, are most commonly found on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats. They can also be found in the north-eastern part of the peninsula i.e. in the region of Chota Nagpur Plateau, covering east Madhya Pradesh, south Bihar and west Orissa. They are widespread along the Shiwaliks in the northern India. A number of valuable and popular trees can be found in these forests. Some of the important trees found in these forests include Teak, Sandalwood, Mahua, Sal, Khair, Mango Tree, Wattle And Bamboo, Jackfruit, Semal, Myrobalan, Arjun and the Banyan Tree. Teak is considered as one of the most vital species of this region. The trees found in these regions usually shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks during the dry season, generally during the months March to May, in order to prevent the loss of water in the form of moisture through the process of transpiration. Most of the tropical deciduous forests are found in the state of Kerala in India. Apart from Kerala, they can also be found in the eastern slopes of Western Ghats; in the north-eastern parts of the peninsular plateau and in the valleys of the Himalayas. The Indian deciduous or monsoon forests are pretty substantial, cost-effective and they demand a lot of maintenance, as they are less resistant to fire. Dry Deciduous Forests The dry deciduous forests are found in those areas where annual rainfall ranges from 500 - 1,500 mm. Sal is the most significant tree found in the dry deciduous forests. It has been found in studies that the dry deciduous forests are step by step replacing the moist deciduous forests in India. Every species in these forests has its own time of leaf casting. The eco-region extends across the Indian states of Bihar, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh. It represents a north-south-directed island of dry deciduous forests in the rain shadow of the Eastern Ghats Mountain Range in India and is completely

surrounded by the Eastern Highlands Moist Deciduous Forests. The region is not too rich in biodiversity. Among the threatened species found here are the tiger, wild dog, sloth bear and Chousingha. The Indian deciduous or monsoon forests are pretty substantial and cost-effective, but they demand a lot of maintenance, as they are less resistant to fire. The Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF) has taken a lot of initiatives to preserve the Indian deciduous forests. Its programme in the deciduous forests has mainly focused on understanding the interface between people and wildlife. The NCF is also conducting research programmes into the ecology of threatened large mammal species and assemblages INDIAN DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS The Indian dry deciduous forests are actually a type of the Indian deciduous or monsoon forests and they are mainly found in both Northern India and in south Deccan plateau in India. The dry deciduous forests are mainly situated in the areas, where annual rainfall ranges from 500 - 1,500 mm and every species in these forests has its own time of leaf casting. Sal is the most significant tree found in the dry deciduous forests. Several studies have revealed that the dry deciduous forests are step by step replacing the moist deciduous forests in India. The Indian dry deciduous forests are mainly located at tropical and subtropical latitudes. They occur in climates that are warm, year-round, and may receive several hundred centimeters or rain per year. The seasonal droughts in these forests have a great impact on all the living beings, as the trees lose moisture through their leaves, during this time. In spite of being less biologically diverse than rainforests, the Indian dry deciduous forests are home to a wide variety of wildlife. Some of the most notable animals include monkeys, large cats, parrots, various rodents, and ground dwelling birds. The Mammalian biomass also tends to live in higher numbers in dry forests than in rain forests. The Northern Dry Deciduous Forests Ecoregions in India do not have large number of species or they are not high in numbers of endemic species, as well. However, they harbour several large vertebrates, which include the largest and most charismatic carnivore of Asia, the tiger (Panthera tigris). The northern Indian dry deciduous forests are mainly located across the Indian states of Bihar, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh. They can also be found in the rain shadow of the Eastern Ghats Mountain Range. The vegetation in the Indian dry deciduous forests is made up of associations of Anogeissus latifolia, Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Stereospermum suaveolens, Spondias pinnata, Cleistanthus collinus, Acacia lenticularis, Flacourtia indica, Boswellia serrata, Butea monosperma, etc. The dry forests do not harbor large numbers of endemic species, or they are not exceptionally rich in biodiversity, as well. The known mammal fauna in these forests consists of sixty-eight species and there are no eco-regional endemic species. However, the threatened species include the tiger, wild dog, sloth bear, and chousingha. Among the Indian dry deciduous forests, the South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests are not exceptionally outstanding for biological richness or endemism. The South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests are located on the lee side of the Western Ghats Mountain Range. The forests in this region extend across the southern Indian states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and their vegetation is highly influenced by climate. As the tall Western Ghats Mountain Range intercepts the moisture from the southwest monsoon, the eastern slopes and the Deccan Plateau receive very little rainfall. The annual rainfall in these forests ranges from 900 to 1,500 millimeters (mm). The Indian dry deciduous forests in this region have a three-storied structure, with an upper canopy at 15-25 meters, an understory at 10-15 meters, and undergrowth at 3-5 meters. The vegetation in these forests is characterised by Boswellia serrata, Anogeissus latifolia, Acacia catechu, Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia belirica, Chloroxylon swietenia, Albizzia amara, Cassia fistula, Hardwickia binata, Dalbergia latifolia, etc. The forests are also home to several important populations of India`s large threatened vertebrates. One of the most important among them is the elephant population that ranges from the Nilgiri Hills to the Eastern Ghats. Some of the other important species include the Asian elephant, wild dog, sloth bear, chousingha, gaur, and grizzled giant squirrel INDIAN TIDAL OR MANGROVE FORESTS Indian tidal or mangrove forests are mainly situated on the Gangetic Delta and in Coastal Plains in West Bengal, called the Sunderban, which in Bengali, literally translates to Beautiful Forest. The Sunderban have recently been listed in the UNESCO World Heritage List and been named as Sundarban National Park. The Indian tidal or mangrove forests are generally submerged, particularly on river deltas on the east coast and they are considered as the largest mangrove forest in the world. The mangrove forests are one of the most productive and bio-diverse wetlands on earth and they grow in the inter-tidal areas and estuary openings between land and sea. The mangrove forests provide critical habitat for a diverse marine and terrestrial flora and fauna. The healthy mangrove forests are considered as key to a healthy marine ecology.

The Indian tidal or mangrove forests are most luxuriant around the mouths of large rivers and in sheltered bays and are found mainly in areas, where annual rainfall is fairly high. The plants in these forests include trees, shrubs, ferns and palms and these plants are mainly found in the tropics and sub-tropics on riverbanks and along coastlines. The plants are unusually adapted to anaerobic conditions of both salt and fresh water environments. All these plants have nicely adapted to the muddy, shifting, saline conditions and they mainly produce stilt roots that project above the mud and water in order to absorb oxygen. The mangrove plants also form communities that help them to stabilise banks and coastlines and also to provide natural habitat to many types of animals. The Indian tidal or mangrove forests fix more carbon dioxide per unit area than phytoplankton in tropical oceans. The main part of the Indian tidal or mangrove forests, the Sunderban, is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. It presents an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes and is world famous for its wide range of fauna. The most renowned amongst the wildlife present in the Sunderban, is the Royal Bengal Tiger. Other notable animals that take shelter in this Indian tidal or mangrove forest are Grey Mongoose, Fishing Cat, Pangolin, Fox, Flying Fox, Wild Boar, Jungle Cat, Macaque etc. There are also many other species of Birds, Spotted Deer, Crocodiles and Snakes found in the Sunderban. The Mangrove Forests of Sunderbans offer ideal habitat to a range of marine and aquatic life such as shrimps, small fishes and a range of crabs like hermit and fiddler and other forms of crustaceans which feed and reside in the twisted accumulation of roots, called Pneumatophores. The ecosystem of the Indian tidal or mangrove forests is a complex one. The Sunderbans comprises one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world. For its extraordinarily diverse wildlife, the Sunderbans contrasts the other large mangrove forests in terms of biodiversity. It is for this reason; the forest has been designated as a UNESCO`s World Network of International Biosphere Reserves, since 2001. It has also been recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, since 1997. The forest also has immense protective and productive functions. The two most important commercial mangrove species found in Sunderbans, are Sundari (Heritiera fomes) and Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha). Other than these, Poresia coaractata, Imperata cylindrica, Palms, Myriostachya Eightiana, Nypa Fruticans, Keora and Phragmites Karka are widely available. The Indian tidal or mangrove forests are indeed an integral part of the entire ecosystem in India

IndoMalayan IndoMalayan IndoMalayan IndoMalayan IndoMalayan IndoMalayan

Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

Andaman Islands Rain Forests Brahmaputra valley semi evergreen forests Eastern Highlands Moist deciduous forests Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests Malabar Coast Moist forests Maldives-Lakshadweep-Chagos Arcipelago tropical moist forests Meghalaya subtropical forests Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rain forests Nicobar Islands rain forests Northwestern Ghats moist deciduous forests Northwestern Ghats montane rain forests Orissa semievergreen forests South western Ghats semi deciduous forests South western Ghats montane rain forests

Sunderbans freshwater swamp forests Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests Central Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests