Topic 5.

4 Instrumentation Systems

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this topic you will be able to; describe the use of the following analogue sensors: thermistors and strain gauges; describe the use of the following digital sensors: slotted discs (for sensing rotational speed), encoded discs (for sensing angular position); recall the Gray code (3 bit) and explain its use in encoded discs; design and analyse sensor sub-systems which incorporate thermistors and strain gauges in bridge circuits; recall the ad antages of a bridge circuit compared to a simple oltage di ider circuit; recall, and explain the significance of, the ideal properties of an instrumentation amplifier ! high input impedance and high commonmode re"ection ratio; analyse and design instrumentation amplifiers based on the op-amp difference amplifier circuit; select and use the formula: #$%& ' #()** (+* , +-); design a logic system to process the output of slotted and encoded discs to meet a gi en specification.

Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications. !nalogue sensing units: An analogue signal can ha e any oltage alue, limited only, usually, by the oltages of the power rails. /ome de ices ha e a resistance which responds to changes in their surroundings. *or example, a 0(+ (0ight (ependent +esistor) has a resistance which decreases when more light falls on it. &here are two 1inds of thermistor (temperature dependent resistor). &he ptc (positi e temperature coefficient) thermistor has a resistance that increases as its temperature rises. &he ntc (negati e temperature coefficient) thermistor has a resistance that decreases as its temperature rises. &his course considers only ntc thermistors. &he simplest form of sensing unit is made by connecting one of these de ices in series with a resistor. &he output signal is ta1en from the point where the resistor is connected to the de ice. &he diagram shows this arrangement used in a temperature sensing unit. &he analogue output signal changes as the temperature changes.
#/ & h e r m is t o r $ utput # a r ia b le r e s is t o r 3#

*or example, suppose that: the thermistor has a resistance of -1. at a temperature of 2334; the ariable resistor is set to a resistance of 21; the supply oltage #/ ' -2#. &he output oltage is obtained from the oltage di ider formula: #$%& ' #/ (+- , +- 5 +2) )n this case, at 2334, #$%& ' -2 x (2 , 2 5 -) ' 6#. "ercise # (&he solutions are gi en at the end of the topic.) At -3334, a thermistor has a resistance of 3.71. &he ariable resistor is unchanged. 4alculate the output oltage of this temperature sensing unit at 6334.
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Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems ! strain gauge 8hen truc1s dri e o er a bridge, or someone stands on bathroom scales, the structure is s9uashed slightly. /train is defined as this change in length di ided by the original length, and strain gauges are used to measure it. &he layout of a typical strain gauge is shown in the picture. )t is often glued to the structure, and so is distorted when the structure is distorted. &his changes the resistance of the strain gauge. *or example, when a straight wire is stretched, it gets longer and thinner. As a result, its resistance increases.

:y measuring the change in resistance, we can monitor the strain that #/ produced it. &he strain gauge could be incorporated into a oltage di ider circuit, shown opposite, which beha es li1e the one "ust considered for a temperature sensor. ;owe er, there are problems with this 1ind of sensor:
/ t r a in gauge $ utput # a r ia b le r e s is t o r 3#

-. &he resistance of the sensor may change because of some factor other than the one you are trying to measure. *or example, the resistance of a strain gauge changes if the strain gauge gets hot. &his has nothing to do with any forces applied to it. 2. 0oo1 at the oltage di ider formula again: #$%& ' #/ (+- , +- 5 +2) As this shows, the output oltage depends on the supply oltage. )n many situations, the supply oltage will fluctuate. &he system may be battery-powered and using batteries that are going flat.
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Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications. &he system may be using a mains power supply, which does not ha e good line regulation. &he power supply cables might be sub"ect to electrical noise, which changes the instantaneous alue of the supply oltage. )n other words, you cannot 1now whether a change in the output indicates a change in the factor you are trying to monitor, or is the result of a change in some other factor in its surroundings. ! better sensing circuit: :oth of the problems outlined abo e can be o ercome or reduced by using a bridge circuit, (though this title does not refer to the bridges that truc1s dri e o er<) &his can be drawn in two ways, but the circuit is the same. &he following diagrams show a bridge circuit for a temperature sensing unit:

)n a bridge circuit, there are two sensing de ices, each connected in its own oltage di ider. &he output is the oltage difference between the outputs (: and A) of the two oltage di iders. )n the case abo e, there are two thermistors, = and >. $ne is sub"ected to the temperature changes under in estigation. &he other is not. &hat is the only difference. $therwise, both thermistors are exposed to the same conditions.

Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems $ull measurement tec%ni&ue: %sually, the bridge is ?balanced@ initially. )n other words, the ariable resistor is ad"usted until #$%& is Aero. )n this condition: +esistance of = ' +esistance of > +esistance of ariable resistor +esistance of + Bxercise 2 will show that in this condition, the power supply oltage ma1es no difference at all. Any alue can be used, but two conflicting issues need to be considered: the higher the supply oltage, the more sensiti e the output oltage is to changes in temperature (for the temperature sensing bridge circuit.) the higher the supply oltage, the greater the self-heating effect of all the resistors in the circuit. Any changes in the condition being monitored, e.g. temperature, ma1es the bridge unbalanced, meaning that #$%& is no longer Aero. %sing this null measurement ma1es it possible to detect ery small changes in conditions, by connecting the bridge circuit to a high gain oltage amplifier, as outlined below. ! strain gauge bridge circuit:

As in the temperature sensing bridge circuit, there are two sensing de ices. )n this case, they are labelled ?/train gauge@ and ?(ummy strain gauge@, though their positions in the bridge can be re ersed.
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Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications. &he ?/train gauge@ is glued to the structure in such a way that it is distorted by mo ement of the structure. &he ?(ummy strain gauge@ is glued nearby so that it is exposed to the same conditions, except for the distortion. $ften, the two strain gauges are formed on the same substrate, as shown in the diagram. "ercise ' (&he solutions are gi en at the end of the topic.) A thermistor bridge circuit is shown opposite. &he power supply oltage #/ ' -2# &he ariable resistor is ad"usted until the bridge is balanced, i.e. the output #$%& ' 3#. )t then has a resistance of exactly 2.71. &hermistor > is found to ha e a resistance of -.21.

(a) 4alculate the resistance of thermistor =. (b) &he power supply oltage is changed to -3#. 4alculate the new output oltage #$%&.
"ercise ( (&he solutions are gi en at the end of the topic.) )nitially, the strain gauge bridge circuit is balanced by ad"usting the ariable resistor, which then has a resistance +- ' C-3. 0ater, a force is applied to strain gauge /, and its resistance becomes 3DD. &he dummy strain gauge, (, is unaffected, and still has a resistance of 373. +2 is a fixed resistor, with resistance C33. %se the oltage di ider rule twice to calculate the oltages at A and : when the force is applied, and hence calculate the output oltage #$%&. (All your calculations should be 9uoted to two decimal places.)
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Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems Instrumentation ampli)iers: &he output from a bridge circuit is usually only a few milli olts. )t is usually amplified by a high gain oltage amplifier 1nown as an instrumentation amplifier. )deal characteristics: ;igh input impedance ! &his ensures that as much as possible of the oltage signal from the bridge circuit is transferred to the instrumentation amplifier. &he current flowing in the wires connecting the two sub-systems is ery small, and so the oltage dropped across the output impedance of the bridge circuit, (and so not transferred to the amplifier) is 1ept to a minimum. ;igh common-mode re"ection ratio !on both inputs. &here will be steady (4 oltages on the outputs of the two oltage di iders that ma1e up the bridge circuit. (Eou calculated these earlier.) =art of this (4 oltage will appear on, ( be common to) both outputs. A high 4F++ ensures that the instrumentation amplifier ignores (re"ects) these, and amplifies only the difference between these oltages signals. &he diagram shows the circuit for an instrumentation amplifier, used in the 8GB4 specification. )t is based on an op-amp difference amplifier. 8ith careful design, it can match the ideal characteristics ery well. )t consists of two pairs of resistors, labelled +- and +* and an op-amp. )n practice, the circuits for instrumentation amplifiers are more complex. 8hen used to amplify the output of a bridge circuit, input - is connected to output A, and input 2 to output : of the two oltage di iders that ma1e up the bridge circuit.

Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications.

&he next section is H$& examinable< )t shows you how to analyse the difference amplifier circuit, using the rules for op-amps de eloped in earlier modules. )f you can follow this, it will help you to understand the way the circuit wor1s.

*+ules, )or op-amp be%aviour: )f the output is not saturated, the two inputs sit at the same oltage; &he input impedance of the inputs is so big, they draw negligible current; &he circuit shown will be used for this analysis. &he siAes of the input oltages are much greater than we would expect from a bridge circuit, but will ma1e the arithmetic easier< Step # ! 4alculate oltage #2 at the non-in erting input. /ince the op-amp input draws negligible current, we ha e, in effect, a oltage di ider, sharing the oltage #: between the two resistors +2 and +3. %sing the oltage di ider rule: #2 ' #: x +3 , (+3 5 +2) ' 3 x 23,33 ' 2# Step ' ! (educe the oltage at the in erting input. Assuming that the output is not saturated, the oltages #- and #2, at the inputs of the op-amp, are e9ual, so #- ' 2# Step ( ! 4alculate current )-. 0oo1ing at resistor +-, the oltage at the left-hand end of +- ' #A ' 7#. &he oltage at the right-hand end of +- ' #- ' 2#. &he oltage drop across this input resistor ' #A ! #- ' 3#. %sing $hm@s law, the current )- through this resistor is gi en by: )- ' #,+- ' 3,-3 ' 3.3mA Step 4 ! 4alculate the oltage drop across the feedbac1 resistor. As no current flows into the in erting input, all of )- flows through the feedbac1 resistor, +I. %sing $hm@s law, the oltage drop across +I ' ) x + ' 3.3 x 23 ' D#
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Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems Step 5 ! 4alculate the output oltage. 0oo1ing at resistor +I, the oltage at the left-hand end ' #- ' 2#. &he oltage at the right-hand end ' #$%&. 8e ha e calculated that there is a D# drop across the resistor, with current )- flowing from left to right through it. ;ence the right-hand end must be D# lower then the left-hand end. )n other words, #$%& ' 2 ! D ' -I#. Eou are expected to calculate the output oltage using the formula: #$%& ' #()** (+* , +-); )n the circuit explored abo e, #()** ' #: ! #A ' 3 ! 7 ' -2# (&a1e care to subtract these in the right order: #()** ' non-in erting input oltage ! in erting input oltage) ;ence: #$%& ' -2 x (23 , -3) ' -I#. "ercise 4 (&he solutions are gi en at the end of the topic.) 4alculate the output oltage for the circuit shown below.

Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications. .igital sensing units: A digital signal has one of only two possible oltage alues. (igital signals are usually identified as either ?logic -@ or ?logic 3@. &he corresponding oltages are set by the designer of the system, but are usually alues close to the positi e supply oltage and the negati e supply oltage. &he simplest digital sensor is the switch, which has two positions ! ?on@ and ?off@. 4ombined into a oltage di ider, it becomes a digital sensing unit outputting either logic - (which we will define as a oltage e9ual to the positi e supply,) or logic 3 (which we will define as a oltage e9ual to 3#.) &he diagram shows one form of this arrangement. &he sensing unit outputs logic 3 when the switch is pressed. &o output logic - when the switch is pressed, swap the positions of the switch and the resistor. &his unit loo1s at two more complicate digital sensors, used to monitor rotation. $ne, the slotted disc, is used to measure the number of rotations made by a shaft, or to measure the speed of rotation. &he other, the encoded disc, is used to indicate angular position of a rotating shaft. T%e slotted disc: &his can ta1e a number of forms, but a common one is shown in the diagram.

&he greater the number of transparent slots in the disc the greater the angular resolution, (meaning that it will sense smaller angles of rotation.) $ften infra-red radiation is used instead of isible light.
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Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems T%e encoded disc /also called absolute encoders0: &he slotted disc shown abo e can measure the angle a shaft has rotated through, and by combining that information with the time it too1 to do so, can measure rotational speed (angular elocity.) ;owe er it has two limitations: although it can measure the angle the shaft has rotated through, it cannot pinpoint its current (angular) position; it cannot distinguish between cloc1wise rotation and anticloc1wise rotation. $ne way to o ercome both of these limitations is to use an optically read, encoded disc. 8e need to consider two ersions, the binary encoded disc and the Gray code encoded disc. &he only difference between these is the pattern placed on the disc. &he following diagrams show these.

&he discs are ?read@ by a series of reflecti e optoswitches. An optoswitch consists of an infrared 0B( and a phototransistor combined in a single pac1age. &he phototransistor is arranged so that it can detect the infrared from the 0B(.

8ith a reflecti e optoswitch the infrared beam is only detected by the phototransistor if it is reflected by a white surface close to the switch.
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Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications. :inary encoded discs can cause problems. &he extreme case is illustrated in the diagram. &he disc is rotating cloc1wise. 4urrently, all four optoswitches are on white. /uppose that this causes an output of ?3333@. /hortly, segment J will be under the optoswitches, causing a reading of ?----@. )t is the changeo er that causes the problem. &he optoswitches cannot be in a perfect line. &he pattern on the disc cannot ha e an absolutely straight boundary between the segments. $ne of the optoswitches must mo e off the white onto the dar1 area before the others. &his will cause a false reading. &he following table shows a possible se9uence of false readings that may occur while segment J is mo ing under the sensors. . 3 3 3 3 +eflecti 1 3 e optoswitch 2 ! 3 3 3 3 3alse 3 3alse 3alse -

$f course, there are other se9uences that may ta1e place instead. =roblems can arise whene er mo ing from one segment of the disc to the next in ol es changing the output of more than one optoswitch. &he solution is to use Gray code to encode the disc. &his is designed so that only one change ta1es place mo ing from one segment to the next. &his is illustrated in the diagram opposite. Eou should study this carefully to con ince yourself that, as the disc rotates, only one bit of the output changes in going from one segment to the next.
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Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems As the Gray encoded disc rotates anticloc45ise, the outputs of the optoswitches will follow the se9uence shown below: +eflecti e $ptoswitch . 1 2 ! 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 &he ?rule@ is ! change the least significant bit (A in this case,) if the result has not occurred before. )f it has, then change the next least significant bit (:,) unless that result has occurred. )n that case change the next bit, and so on. &he resolution of these discs (i.e. the smallest angle of rotation that they can detect,) depends on how many segments, or rings, that there are. &he ones shown abo e ha e a four bit output (four rings, or sixteen segments.) &he resolution is 3D3 , -D ' 22.73. &o measure smaller angles, the number of bits in the output must increase, ma1ing processing it more complex. &he diagram shows an 6-bit encoded disc.
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Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications. 6ractice

1. (a)

"am 7uestions:
A difference amplifier is used to control a fan to keep the temperature constant throughout a pottery kiln !"o temperature sensors pro#ide information a$out the temperature at the top and the $ottom of the kiln
!op te m p e ra tu r e sensor % o tto m te m p e ra tu r e sensor ' u tp u t to re s t o f c o n tro l s y s te m

& iff e re n c e a m p lif ie r

(i) *ach temperature sensor consists of a #oltage di#ider+ using a ntc thermistor and #aria$le resistor &ra" the circuit diagram for a temperature sensor+ designed to gi#e an output #oltage that increases as the temperature increases ,1-

(ii) !he circuit diagram for the difference amplifier is gi#en $elo" / 20 200 k / 10 10 k
1

. .

/ 30 10 k / 40 200 k .
' 1 !

0 V !he !op temperature sensor output #oltage+ .1 0 2 4V !he %ottom temperature sensor output #oltage+ .1 0 2 1V 2alculate the output #oltage .'1! of the difference amplifier 3333333333333333333333333333333333 3333

,1-

3333333333333333333333333333333333 3 14

Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems

(b) ,3-

!he difference amplifier is used to amplify the output of a $ridge circuit containing a strain gauge 4+ t"o e5ual resistors+ /+ and a #aria$le resistor ./ (i) 2omplete the follo"ing circuit diagram+ to sho" ho" this is done

.' 1 !

0V (ii) 6hat is the ad#antage of this arrangement o#er a simple #oltage di#ider and amplifier ,233333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 (iii) 7t is important that the op8amp in this circuit has a #ery high input impedance and common mode re9ection ratio *:plain "hy a high #alue is important for these t"o 5uantities ,233333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333

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Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications.

2.
!he circuit diagram sho"s t"o identical strain gauges connected to precision 100 resistors in a $ridge circuit 12V 4 tra in g a u g e 4 ; & u m m y s tr a in gauge ! < .& 7= = 100 100

0V 1nder test conditions+ the strain gauge+ 4+ is found to ha#e a resistance of e:actly 100 5 + "hile the dummy strain gauge+ !+ has a resistance of e:actly 100 (a) ,233333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 (b) ?odify the circuit diagram $y adding a difference amplifier $ased on an op8amp+ arranged to amplify the #oltage .&7== ,3(c) 2hoose suita$le #alues of resistors to gi#e a #oltage gain of 100 @a$el the resistors "ith these #alues ,333333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 (d) 2alculate the output #oltage of the system under these test conditions 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333 (e) 6hat is the purpose of the dummy strain gauge+ in this circuitA ,1,12alculate the #oltages at points ; and <+ and hence "ork out the #oltage . &7== >i#e your ans"er correct to three decimal places

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Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems

33333333333333333333333333333333333333 33333333333333333333333333333333333333

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Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications.

4. !he po"er supply circuit sho"n $elo" uses a Bener diode to pro#ide good line regulation

A2 mains supply

./
+

.C

.'1!

(a)

*:plain ho" the circuit pro#ides line regulation Dour e:planation should descri$e "hat happens to #oltages ./ and .C "hen the A2 mains supply #oltage increases ,1333333333333333333333333333333 3333333333333333333333333333333333 3333

(b)

A sta$ilised po"er supply circuit is sho"n $elo"

A2 mains supply

7'1! . @oad

'1!

*:plain ho" this circuit keeps .'1! constant as the load current 7'1! increases 333333333333333333333333333333 3333333333333333333333333333333333 3333 3333333333333333333333333333333333 3333 333333333333333333333333333333 3333333333333333333333333333333333 3333 3333333333333333333333333333333333 3333

,2-

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Topic 5.4 Instrumentation Systems Solutions to "ercise #: %sing the oltage di ider formula: #$%& ' -2 x (2 , 2 5 3.7) ' K.D#. "ercise ': "ercises:

(a) &he bridge is balanced, so: +esistance of = ' +esistance of ariable resistor or: +esistance of = ' 2.71 so that: +esistance of = '

+esistance of > +esistance of + -.21 21 -.2 x 2.7 2

' -.71

(b) %sing the oltage di ider formula: new oltage at A ' -3 x (2.7 , (2.7 5 -.7) ' D.27# new oltage at : ' -3 x ( 2 , (2 5 -.2) ' D.27#
#$%& ' oltage at : - oltage at A ' 3#. &he bridge is still balanced e en though the supply oltage has changed. "ercise (: %sing the oltage di ider formula: #: ' 3 x (C33 , 373 5 C33) ' 2.33# and: #A ' 3 x (C-3 , 3DD 5 C-3) ' -.K6# $utput oltage #$%& ' #: ! #A ' 3.32# "ercise 4: %sing the formula: #$%& ' #()** (+* , +-) #$%& ' (7 ! I) x (333 , 223) ' -.7# (&a1e care to subtract the input oltages in the right order ! non-in erting input oltage minus in erting input oltage.)
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Module T5 lectronic Systems !pplications.

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