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(J
BYZANTINE
FROM DCCXVI
EMPIRE
TO
MLVII
GEORGE
Member
FINLAY,
M
LL.D.
of the American of the Boyal Soeie^ of Llteratare, Member Anttqaarlan of the Axehaolo^lcel Institute at Bome. Society.CorreepondiaA Member Redeemer of the Order of OreOk the Oold CroOT Xn^ht
"OXttos Bans
Urropias rrjs
cN"U
SECOND EDITION
WILLIAM
BLACKWOOD
EDINBURGH AND MDOOCLVI
AND
LONDON
SONS
5?
GIFT
DF
555 .5
190339
PRrWTBD
BV
WILLUM
BLACKWOOD
AKD
SONS,
SDINBUROH.
PREFACE
TO
FIRST
EDITION.
In
the
following pages,
have been
as
a
constant
references order
to
to
the
original
work
historians
serve, not
added,
in
make also
as
the
an
only
who
popular history,but
be
more
index
for
may
familiar
writers.
with
classic literature
with
the
Byzantine
Constantinopolitan era
year
places
on
the the
birth
1st
of
Christ
in
the
5509,
31st
and
commences
September.
Christian
Thus
era,
the
is the
era.
August, of the
first year
5508
of
the
last
day
of the
year
of the
politan Constantino-
The
common
Byzantine
method
of
historians
also
use
the
Indiction mode
a.d.
as
the
recordingthe
the
to 1st
year.
This
of notation
commences no
from is
of
September,
the
312,
but
indication the
given
of
determine
particulartime
1
to
beyond
and
some
year
the
15,
or
then other
recommencing, synchronism
September 1852.
the
world
be added.
Athens,
1st
PREFACE
TO
SECOND
EDITION.
The
as
Illustrations following
have
been better
added
to this
Edition,
their the
tendingto
character
not
make verbal
as
the reader
acquaintedwith
art
than subjects
same are
descriptions. Byzantine
has
merits
very
underrated generally
FRONTISPIECE, Basil
II., the
Heaven
slayer of
the
From Psalter of the tenth a homage from men. its Art in the History of by Monuments^ by Seroui century, given No. 4. d'Agincourt,vol. iii., platexlvii.. and
COINS.
1. Gold
by25antof
and
same
Leo
III. and
his
son
Constantine
"
V.
(Copronymus).
in
This
is the nomisma.
"
The
semissis,or
or
half nomisma
"
^the trimissis, or
one-third
not
the
tetarteron,
quarter
are are on
all found
an
of the
emperor. 17
Their
weights
average
gold,but 68 grains^
34
grains.
PREFACE
TO
SECOND
EDITION.
2. Gold tetarteron of
Theophilus.
3.
Copper coin
of Michael
II. and
Theophilus.
called of John I. (Zimiskes), Byzantinecopper coins, been introduced which appear to have the Macedonian, by Basil I., the o ver original impressions type.
silver coins
duringthe
dynasty. Weight
44
Byzantine grains.
VI
PBBFACB
TO
SECOND
EDITION.
7.
Byzant of
8.
Bjzant of
Constantino VIII.
9.
Byzantof Theodora.
of the
same
weight.
CONTENTS.
BOOK
FIRST.
THB
CONTEST
WITH
THE
IOONOC?LASTa
"
A.D.
717-867.
CHAPTER
I.
THE
ISAURIAN
DTWA8TY.
"
A.D.
717-797.
Page
i 1. Characterigtics
Its divisions, Extent and
of
Byzantine history,
....
10
administrative III.
13 15 16 18
717-741,
Siege of Constantinople,
Circiimstancee Fables favourable Leo
to
Leo's
reforms,
24
28
concerning
III.,
legalreforms.
82 40 48 45 51 58 58
55 59
policy.
in Greece,
(Copronymus),
V.,
a J).
741-775,
of Constantino
of Artavasdos,
war, war^
....
Bulgarian
Internal
61
. "
63 67
"
4.
Policy regarding image-worship. Physical phenomena. Plague at Constantinople, Reigns of Leo IV. (the Khazar), Constantine
Irene
75
76
VI., and
,
Irene,
a.d.
775-602,
82 88
regent,
of Council of
....
Restoration Second
image-worship.
of Nicsea,
85
87
Byzantine
assumes
authority at
the
Rome^
92 94 95
VI. Maria
and
marries
government. Theodota,
VIU
CONTENTS.
Page
"7
..... ....
her son, Constentine VI., of Ck"nstantine and Irene, of Policy goyemment duringthe reigns
.......
Saracen war,
Bulgarianwar,
107
.......
CHAPTER
REIONS
OF
XL
NICEPH0RU8
I., MICHABL
A.D.
I.,AND
802-820.
LEO
T.
(tHE ARMENIAN).
.109 Ill
Rebellion of Bardanes,
.......
.112
.
Oppressivefiscaladministration,
Charlemagne,
...... ......
" 2.
" 8.
Bulgarian war, DeathofNicephorusL, Michael I. (Rhangab6), a.d. 812-818, zeal of liiohael I., Religious Bulgarian war, Defeat of MichaelL, Leo V. (theArmenian), a.d. 818-820, Poli"^ofLeoV.,
.
.
127
128
........
.......
Treadierous attack
over
on
.188
.
Moderation in ecclesiasticalcontests,
favourable to the Iconoclasts,
.
.189
"
148
.146
.
his assassination,
.149
CHAPTER
THE
AMORIAN
DYNASTY.
"
A.D.
II.,
Rebellion of Thomas,
Sicily,
Ecclesiastical policy,
Miohaers
168 169
Anecdotes Anecdotes
170
174
Ecclesiastical persecution,
176
CHAPTER
IV.
STATE
OF
THE
BYZANTINE
EMPIRE
DURING
THE
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
"
1. Public administration.
and Diplomatic
a
Constantinople
was
neither
Roman
The
Greek
race
not
commercial Greek
which
despotic power
of the emperors,
empire, strength, Military Loss of Italy, and Crete, Sicily, Embas^ of John tiie Grammarian Commercial policy,
....... .......
......
248 to
Bagdat,
....
245
248
.
Wealth of the Byzantine empire and the neighbouringstates, in the Byzantineempire during the eighthand " 2. State of society
centuries,
........
.......
255
......
church,
258 260
the
people,
.......
......
Literature,
CONTENTS.
BOOK
SECOND.
BASIUAN
DYNASTY."
A.D.
867-1057.
CHAPTER
I.
CONSOUDATION
OF
BYZiLNTINB A.D.
LBOISLATION
AND
DBSPOTISM.
867-968.
Pftge
867-886,
271 271 276 279 280 288 289 291 293 299 306
....
Panlioian war,
.....
Campaignsin
Asia Minor,
and Italy, Saraoens rayage Sicily Court and character of Basil I.,
.
" 2. Leo YL
Character
307
810 313
314
Legislation,
.....
by
the
Saracens,
.
816
330
Crete,
881
332
Bulgarianwar,
.....
YIL"Romanus
335 386
Reign of Alexander, A.D. 912-918, a.d. 918-920. Minority of Constantino YIL (Porphyrogenitus),
Sedition of Constantine
337
888 342 848 845 346 348 349 849 851 853
" 4.
Byzantine army at Constantinople, Intrigues makes himself emperor, a j). 920-944, I. (Lecapenus) RomanuB Romanus I., against Conspiracies I. dethroned by his son Stephen, RomanoB Romanus a.d. Constantine YIL (Porphyrogenitus), II., 945-963,
Character of Constantino
YIL,
aj".
945-949,
of Constantine
YIL
(Porphyrogenitus),
of Constantine
court. Byzantine
Maniates,
....
CONTENTS.
XI
Sanoen
war,
war
"
.....
868
"
Bulgarian
Character
HungarianinyasionB
....
Italian aflkirs*
868
of Bomanua
872
874
....
878
CHAPTER
n.
PJERIOD
OF
COlXq^VBgr
AND
MIUTABT
OLOBT.
"
^A.D.
963-1028.
John I. (Zimiflkee), a.d. S 1. ^noephoma IL (Phokas), 963-976, Administration of Joseph Bringas, Character of
a j". 968-969, NioephorusU. (Phokas),
and Bulgaria, Sicily, Italy, of Assassination Nicephoms IL, Character of John I. (Zimiskes), a.d. 969-978, A""irB in Russian
war,
....
897
402 415 428
Bepnblioof Cherson,
Saracen Death war, of John
I.,
426
Character Rebellion
488 486
Defeat of Basil IL, founds the kingdom of Achrida, Samuel, king of Bulgaria, Defeats of Samuel, Basil IL puts out the eyes of his prisoners, Conquest of the kingdom of Achrida,
.
487
488 440
445
450
462 454 456
"
"
CHAPTER
III.
PERIOD
OF
CONBEBVATISM
AND
STATIONARY
PROBFBRITT.
"
A.D.
1025-1067.
1025-1028, empire,
aj".
......
458 468
.....
of Constantine administered
YIIL,
469
....
by
his eunuchs,
460
. .
financial administration, Oppressive Many nobles deprived of sight, of Blarriage Zoe with Romanes
.461 462
.....
Aighyroe" death
of Constantine
YIIL,
464
Xll
CONTENTS.
of Zoe, a.d.
.....
1028-1054"
466
.
1028-1034, III.,
466 470
Conspiracies,
Saracen
war"
defeat of Romanus
.......
.....
472
474 476 475 476 477
.
of Maniakee, Exploits
at
.......
Edessa,
.....
operations,
of Romanus
.......
in.,
IV.
.......
aj). 1034-1041, (thePaphlagonian), John the Orphanotrophos, Financial oppression, Anecdotes, Conspiracies, Saracens attempt to surprise Edessa, War in Sicily,
Character
of Michael
.......
........
........
.....
........
........
and
Bulgarians,
491
....
.494
496
. .
1042,
.498
Meetingof
Constantine
Dalassenoe,
....
499
500
...
.
1042-1054, (Monomachos),A.o.
of Constantine IX., empress,
.......
the concubine Skleraina, Lavish expenditure, of Theodora, Cruelty Sedition in Cyprus, Rebellion Rebellion Court of Maniakes, of
.......
.......
.......
Tomikios, plots,
........ ........
.......
Servian war,
Russian
war,
........
Patdnakwar,
War in
........
515 518
619
.......
the
SeljoukTurks,
IX,
.....
....
....
" 3. Theodora
Character
and Michael
and administration
of Theodora, a.d.
1064-1056,
of Michael Incapacity
YI.,
of the
....
household, imperial
681 538
in Asia Minor,
687
538
observations,
BOOK
FIRST.
HISTORY
OF TEA
BYZANTINE
EMPIRE.
BOOK
THE CONTEST WITH THE
FIRST.
ICONOCLASTS. A.D.
717-867.
CHAPTER
THE
L
A.D.
ISAURIAN
DYNASTY.
717-797.
SECT.
"
CHAILACTEEISTICS
AND
OP
BYZANTINE
HISTOBY" DIVISIONS
OP THE
ITS
DIVISIONS" EMPIRE.
EXTENT
ADMINISTRATrVE
The
institutions of
ImperialRome
had
long thwarted
great law of man's existence which impelshim to when the accession of Leo the Isaurian better his condition,
the
suddenlyopened a new Constantinople of the Eastern in the history Empire. Both the era had been intellectual progress of society material and A deliberately opposed by the imperiallegislation. of the of conservatism persuaded the legislators spirit if each Roman empire that its power could not decline, of it" citizens was fixed irrevocably order and profession of their own duties by hereditary in the sphere peculiar made to divide the succession. An attempt was really laws which the political into castes. But population were adoptedto maintain mankind in a state of stationary
VOL. I.
A
to the throne of
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
^'
'"
I.
* ^'
and impoverby these trammels, depopulated prosperity and threatened to dissolvethe very ished the empire, The Western Empire, under their elements of society. fell a prey to small tribesof northern nations ; operation, that it was placed the Eastern ^as so depopulated on the and conquered eve of being repeopled by Sclavonian colonists, by Saracen invaders.
and under his governthe throne, ment b ut the empirenot onlyceased to decline, even of its
vigour.Reformed early of the old Roman modifications new developed authority and still reforms, energy in the empire. Great political mark greaterchangesin the condition of the people, in Roman the eighth centuryas an epochof transition condition of the mass of thoughthe improved history, is in some concealed by the prothe population degree minence to the disputes concerning image-worship given in the records of this period.But the increased strength of the empire, and the energy infused into the administration, that the Byare forcibly displayed by the fact, zantine armies beganfrom this time to oppose a firm barrierto the progress of the invaders of the empire. it seemed as When Leo III. was proclaimed Emperor, if no human power could save from falling Constantinople
much began to regain Saracens considered the of every land, in which any remains of sovereignty Roman civilisation survived, as within their grasp. Leo,
as an
Rome
and an Iconoclast, Isaurian, a foreigner consequently ascended the throne of Constantine, and a heretic, and
of the Mohammedans.
He
completely in accordance with the new of Eastern society, exigencies that the reformed empireoutlived for many centuries
with its establishment. every government contemporary iscalledby The Eastern Roman Empire, thus reformed,
the reorganised
whole administration so
.modem
historians the
the
term
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
Empire duringthe
the foundation of
nine centuries
ch^i.
in Constantinople
as regarded was
330,
to
be
the the
first
He
the founder
the dynasty,
saviour
of
and Constantinople,
state.
He
was
the
improved the condition of his from their religion ; he attemptedto purify subjects with which the superstitious reminiscences of Hellenism, stilldebased,and to stop the development it was of a in the orthodox church. quasi-idolatry Nothing can to assume the right of his empire decidedly prove more than the contrast presented a new name by the condition of its inhabitants to that of the subjects of the preceding the of Heraclius, dynasty. Under the successors Roman of a declining Empire presents the spectacle and its thinly-peopled to were society, exposed provinces
conquest; he
the intrusion of
aspectof improvement
from its lethargy, and
and
prosperity ; the
and
soon
old
revives population
strength,
on
to
such
degreeas
must
drive back
all intruders
its
Leo civilisation,
a as high position,
alwaysoccupy
a a
state
can
efiect even
declining empire. Before reviewing the history of Leo's reign, and recording his brilliant it is necessary to sketch the exploits,
administrative
an
system had
empire.It
would be
instructive lesson to
the progress of the moral and mental decline of the Greeks,from the age of Plato and Aristotleto the time
of the sixth ecumenical 11. ; for the moral in the reign of Justinian council,
society
DECLINE
OF
SOCIETY
IN
THE
ROMAN
EMPIRE.
degradedthe nation,before the oppressive goyemment booki. * ^' of the Romans and depopulated Greece. ^ impoverished When the imperial was established, we authority fully in which the t race the intercommunication manner easily of different provinces and orders of society became gradually of material interests, restrictedto the operations and
''
how
arose
of
munication, com-
with
the
civilisation length decayed. Good have a more direct passage-boats of popular education, development
of Phidias and
the
of Sophocles, than is generally believed. Under writings the jealous tion government, the isolasystem of the imperial and classbecame so complete, of place that even the members received their ideas of the aristocracy highest from the inferior domestics with whom theyhabitually
households
with
"
not
they held
teachers.
experienced and religious class, or with philosophic and slaves implanted their ignorant
where
able and
where existed,
Familyeducation became a more influential prejudices. than public instruction; and though feature in society from the fourth to the seventh century, education, family the morality of the population, appears to have improved it certainly and limited their increased their superstition understandings. Emperors, senators, landlords,and
merchants,were
and
though the church and the law openeda more of fix)m creating circleof ideas, a deeper sense enlarged still the prejudices of earlyeducation responsibility, in each and more circumscribed the sense of dutymore which was successive generation. The military class, in society, consisted almost entirely the most powerful
ICONOCLAST
PEEIOD.
BOOK On.
I.
of
I 1.
resulting degradation, and ignorance, vhich forms from superstition, bigotry, the social feature of the periodbetween the marked of Justinian I. and Leo III., broughtthe Eastern reigns and weakness that Empire to the state of depopulation
mere
barbarians.
The
mental
had
delivered the
fiscal causes
Western
prey
to
small
tribes of
inraders.
of the Roman depopulation volume,as well as empirehave been noticed in a prior had intruded themselves the extent to which immigrants the soil of Greece.^ The corruption of the ancient on took place at the same time, and arose out of language the causes At the acceswhich disseminated ignorance. sion
The
of the
of the
the ravages tion of the Sclavonians and Saracens,had rendered the condiin anarchy of the
intolerable. The Roman government people and seemed incapable of upholding order in society, legal its extinction was event.^ All as a proximate regarded
the between provinces the shores of the Adriatic and the had been abandoned
to
Sclavonian
planted
the rich
was same
Greece of the
became in many
and
of the
and soil,
mountains
effaced the memory of the names of streams, which will be immortal in the all Thrace Bulgarians plundered
Orues under tke Bamani, 60,70, 238. This feeling be traced as earlyas the reign can of Maurice. Theophylactus Simocatta records that an angelappeared in a dream to the Emperor 'HberiaB and uttered these words : " The Lord announces II., to thee, O emperor, that in thy reign the days of anarchy shall not commence." P. 1 1, edit Par. ' Constant Porphyr.,De Them, ii.23, edit Band. Theophanes, 304,305, 864. P. C. 44, edit Par. Nicephorus, * Constant Porphyr., De Them, ii 25. Strabonis Epit. torn, iii 886,edit Coray. Marathon became Vrana; Salamis,Kiluri ; Platea, Kochla ; Myoene, Kbar"ati ; Olympia, Bfiraka ; and Delphi,Kastri.
'
"
CONDITION
OP
SOCIBTT.
7
rebook i.
'"
Thessalonica was ConstaDtinople.^ peatedly besieged by Sclayonians.^ The Saracens inaDdated Asia
to
to the walls of
had
^''
* ^-
were
paring pre-
the
in the East. Such was extirpate Christianity crisisat which Leo was proclaimed emperor by the
m
army,
Amorium,
were
a.d.
716.
features in the condition of the peculiar and an inherent vigour in the prinsurviving population, ciples of the Roman that stilloperated administration, in resisting domination. The people powerfully foreign feltthe necessity of defending the administrationof the law, and of upholding commercial intercourse. The ties of interest ants consequently rangeda large body of the inhabitof every province round the central administration at this hour of diflBculty. The very circumstances which
Yet there
weakened
on
the power
of the court
of
the
an people
increase of
measures
them
to
new
take effectual
energy may and Cherson
for their
defence.
Ravenna The
tyranny of Justinian
as an
additional
the and throughout people, wide extent of the imperial dominions, its influences connected with the general the local feelings of the parish tunes, interestsof the church and the empire. These misforwhich broughtthe state to the verge of ruin, and fiscal oppression relieved commerce from much thus given to trade, Facilities were many monopolies. of the towns additional which afforded to the population of the Eastern of employment. The commerce sources of the barbarians gainedby the conquests Empire had already of union in the classesin the countries, West, for the ruling the Goths
conquered by
trade
^ ' *
and Franks
engagedin rarely
pos-
or
accumulated
820. Theophtnes,
TMi, JOt ThmoUomica tyuique Agro,proL xoiy. of the Jews, and theiroomThis hct ezpUaxiB the inorease in the nombera
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
^'
^
I. * ^'
enforced bj administrationof justice, a systematic sessing attached the commercial classes a fixed legal procedure, and the to^n population to the person of the emperor, whose authority considered the fountain of legal was A fixed legislation, and order and judicial impartiality. the administration of justice, an uninterrupted prevented of that prevailed under the successors political anarchy in the Roman Heraclius from ruining ; empire society of while the arbitrary judicial provincial governors, power secure, in the dominions of the caliphs, rendered propertyinand undermined national wealth. There
was
Empire
was
and theywere more generally populous very great, would than the political lead us to state of the country of the urban expect. Indeed, to estimate the density
with the extent of territory in comparison population, from which it apparently derived its supplies, must we compare it with the
and
Lombardy and Tuscany in the middle ages. This density of population, to joined in the price of the produce the greatdifference of the soil in various places, afibrded the Roman government the of taxafrom itssubjects amount tion an power of collecting in modem times,except in Egypt.^ unparalleled The whole surplus drawn of society were annually profits
or Guernsey,
meroial importance, in the eeyenth century. The conqueredRomans were bound to their corporations by their own law,to which they dung, and ahnost serfs of their corporations to the trades of their fathers;for the Romans were before serfdom was extended by their conquerors to the soil. Compare God. Theodot. lib.x. t. 20, 1. 10, with Cod, Juaiin. lib. xi. t 8, and lib.xi x. 8. One of the three ambassadors Al Rashid was sent by Charlemagneto Haroun a Jew. He was doubtless charged with the commercial businesa ^ The peculiarities in Egypt, which enabled the goTemment of Mehemet of two All to extract about two millions sterling from a population annuiJly the following millions of paupers, were : The in the produceof the surplus country makes the priceof the immense quantity producedin Upper Egypt Gk)yemment either imposea tax on the produce Teiy low. can, consequently, of the upper country equalto the difference of priceat Siout and Alexandria, lees the expense of transport, constitute itselfthe sole master of the or it can the Nile, and make a monopoly both of the right and on of purchase transport The expense of transport is trifling, of freight. carries a loaded as the stream
OPINIONS
ON
BYZANTINE
HISTORY.
into the coffers the inhabitants only of the state, a book leaviDg Ch. bare sufficiencj for perpetuating the race of tax-payers. shows indeed, History, the labourer
of the
to
t.
1.
1 1.
that the
the
landlord, were
unable
to
retain possession
that depreciation to replace sayings required which time is constantly in all rested capital, producing and that their numbers gradually diminished. After
III.,a
new
condition of
is soon society
apparent; and thoughmany old political eyilscontinued to exist, it becomes evident that a greater
of personal for as well as greatersecurity degree liberty, henceforth guaranteed of the to the mass was property, inhabitants of the empire. Indeed,no other gOTernment of which history has preserved unless it be the records, that of China,has secured equal to its subjects advantages and of for so longa period.The empires of the caliphs Charlemagne, though historians have celebrated their cannot, in their best days, praises loudly, compete with the administration organised by Leo on this point ; and continued both sank into ruin while the Byzantine empire to flourish in full vigour.It must be confessed that of different picture eminent historians presenta totally of it to their readers. Voltaire speaks history Byzantine
as a
Even the sagacious bon, Gibmiud.^ to the human graceful with justpride the extent of his after enumerating
boat while the north wind drives an empty one down the river, up steadily of a locomotive engine. The againstthe current, almost with the regularity nature havingconstructed in this manner, all the advantagesof a railway, Nile offers, the locomotive power ; while a monopoly of the road, and supplied their use is vested in the hands of every tyrant who rules the country. Mecreated an almost universal monopoly in with this, hemet Ali, not content at favour of his government. The whole produceof the country was purchased of perpetuating the cultivator beingonly allowed to retain the means a tariff price, in the and the density of population of towns his class. The number which of se* of immense amount the from ages capital arose Byzantineempire and from its cultivation as gardencurityhad expended in improving the soil, Both these facts are easily proved. Und with the spade and mattock. " With this remark, the records note 1. xv. Le PyrrhomUme de Cffittoire, chap. which witnessed the rise and fallof the Caliphsand the Carof an empire, ** J*6terai aax natiom U bandeau dismissed by one who exclaimed, are
loringians,
di terreur.'*
10
''
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
^'''^'
without regret the Greek slaves and their that the fate of the servile had I not reflected historians, abandoned
is passively connected with the most Byzantine monarchy and important revolutionswhich have changed splendid ^ tory, histhe state of the world/' The views of Byzantine in unfolded in the following pages, are frequently direct opposition to these great authorities. The defects and vices of the political noticed, system will be carefully but the splendid achieyements of the emperors, and the ments, establishand ecclesiastical great merits of the judicial will be contrasted with their faults. into divides itself of the Byzantine history empire three periods, marked by distinct characteristics. strongly with the reign of Leo III. The firstperiod commences
The
in 716, and terminates with that of Michael III. in 867. It of the of the predominance the whole history comprises
and of the reaction Iconoclasts in the establishedchurch, It opens with which reinstatedthe orthodox in power.
of the empire people law and the Christian religion from the saved the Roman Saracens. It embraces a long and violent conquering the between the government and the people, struggle hilating to increase the central power by anniemperors seeking of priand even the right vate every local franchise,
the
opinion, among
ing concern-
from tlie prevalence of ecclesiastical image-worship, of this struggle. became the expression Its object ideas, to consolidatethe supremacy of the imperial was as much of the church. The the practice as to purify authority, emperors wished to constitute themselves the fountains of ecclesiastical as completely as of civillegislation.
The
vehement
Dtclme
and
12
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK ^'"
I.
tioch and
Edessa
were
reunited
to
the
empire. The
' ^'
and the Danube Bulgarian monarchy was conquered, became againthe northern frontier. The Sclavonians in Greece were almost exterminated. Byzantine merce comand legitimated filledthe whole Mediterranean, of to the title the claim of the emperor of Constantinople Autocrat of the Mediterranean sea.^ But the real glory consists in the power of the law. of this period Respect the administration for of justice more society pervaded than it had ever done at any preceding period generally of the history of the world fact which our greatest a in historianshave overlooked, thoughit is all-important the history of human civilisation. The third period of Isaac I. extends from the accession in 1057, to the conquest of the Byzantine (Comnenus) This is the true in 1204. empireby the Crusaders, of the decline and fallof the Eastern Empire. It period commenced by a rebellion of the great nobles of Asia, who effectedan internal revolutionin the Byzantine empire the administration out of the hands of by wrenching well-trained oflBcials, and destroying the responsibility created by systematic A despotism procedure. supported ruined the scientificfabric influence soon by personal which had previously The upheldthe imperial power. were over groundto the earth by a fiscalrapacity, people which the splendour of the house of Comnenus throws a thin veil. The wealth of the empire its was dissipated, the administration of justice rupted, corprosperity destroyed, and the central authority lost all control over the when a band of 20,000 adventurers, masked population, as crusaders, put an end to the Roman empireof the
"
East. In the
^
and eighth
De Porpbyr.
empire Byzantine
Kavrayrufov'
Constant
"
rh riv AvroKparopa
VARIOUS
NATIONS
IN
THE
EMPIRE.
13
from the booki. differing there ^^^^^' Greeks in language and manners* Even in religion and many of the to separation, a was strong tendency heresies noticed in history assumed a national character,
continaed
to
embrace
many
natioDs
and
within the
its ecumenical
within its limits Romans, Greeks,Armenians,Isaurians, and Gallo Grecians. Lycaonians, Phrygians, Syrians,
-
The greatThracian race, which had once been inferiorin number only in the first and which, to the Indian, century of our era, had excited the attention of Vespasian by the
extent
of the
it occupied, almost disappeared.^ had now territory The countryit had formerly inhabited was surrived population in the towns,
peopled by
while the
race
the
Danube.
range of Mount
Hemus
formed generally
its mountain
the
Byzantine
were
frontier to
passes
Sclavonian colonieshad garrisons.^ guarded by imperial established themselves over all the European provinces, and had even The into the Peloponnesus. penetrated above the passes in the military government of Strymon, formed to prevent the was plainof Heraclea Sintica,
Orbelos and
Skomios
Sclavonian province. an becoming independent The provincial divisions of the Roman empirehad fallen into oblivion. A new geographical arrangement into Themes appears to have been establishedby Herawhen he recovered the Asiatic provinces from the clius, Persians : it was reorganised by Leo, and endured as
* v. 823. Herodotus, v. 3. Eustathius Thess.,Comm. in Dionys, PerUgetemy The connection between the Vallachian and Thracian races is noticed in the second yolume,p. 277. ' The was only ceded to the country within Mount Hemus, called Zagora, in the reignof Michael IIL 102. SyCont.,Scrip, Bulgarians pat Tkeoph., 440. meon Cedrenus, i. 446 ; ii.541. Log.,
14
ICOKOOLAST
PBBIOD.
BOOK
I.
ciLML
The number of government.^ Byzantine ji^gm^gyaried at diflferent stantino The Emperor Conperiods. about the middle of Porphyrogenitus, writing the tenth century, counts sixteen in the Asiatic portion of the empire, and twelve in the European. in Asia Seven great themes are particularly prominent the Thrakesian, tolic, the AnaMinor,^ Optimaton, Opsikion, the Bukellarian, the Kibyrraiot, and the Arraeniae. In each of these a large force was military permanently under the command of the proof a general maintained, vince in and and the the Thrakesian, Opsikion, ; raiot, Kibyr-
long as
the
naval force
was
officers. The
those Strategoi,
commanders
troops were
called
ordinate sub-
Several Drungarioi.
lines of communication,called Kleisouras. Several of the ancient nations in Asia Minor still continued to preserve
their national has induced the and this circumstance peculiarities, writers frequently to mention Byzantine divisions of the recognised geographical divided into eight nental conti-
their countryas
transmarine
The term thema was first diaappliedto the Roman legion.The military the word then called tkemata,and ultimately were garrisoned tricta, by legions, used merely to indicate geographical administrative diTisions. Ducange, was " Ql4"8aarium med. et inf. GracUatU, " 1. Anatolikon, The Asiatic themes were Lyincluding partsof Phrygia, caonia, Isauria, Pamphylia, and Pisidia. 2. Tht jirmeniae,includingPontua and Cappadocia.8. The Thraketian, part of Phrygia,Lydia,and Ionia. 4. the part of and part of Bithyniaand Phrygia. 5. Opiimaton, Opsikion, Mysia, towards the Boephorus. 6. Bukellarion, Galatia. 7. PapfUagonia. Bith3rnia 9. Mesopotamia^ the trifling 8. Chaldia,the country about Trebizond. possessions try of the empire on the Mesopotamian frontier. 10. Eoloneia, the counbetween Pontus and Armenia near Minor, through which the Lycus flows, Neoccesarea. 11. Sebasteia, the second Armenia. Scrip,post TheopK,112. 12. Lyoandos, nia. formed by Leo VI. (theWise) on the borders of Armea theme 18. The Kibyrraiot, Lycia,and the coast of Cilicia. 14. Cyprus. Caria, 15. Samos, 16. The jEyean. Cappadocia is mentioned as a theme. Scrip.
" " " "
LEO
THB
ISAUKIAN,
717-741.
15
twelve. the
Venice
and
by
The
the Saracens
are
unknown.
empireunderwent modifications ; but after the provinces of Epirus, frequent withdrawn from the jurisdiction Greece,and Sicily were of the Pope,and placed under that of the Patriarch of embraced that patriarchate Constantinople by Leo III., the whole Byzantine empire. It was then divided into 52 metropolitan which were subdivided into dioceses, 649 and 13 archbishopricks, in sufiragan bishopricks, which the prelates but were independent {a{noK""i"aXoi), without any sufiragans. There 34 moreover, were, titular archbishops.^
SECT.
II.
^BBIGN
OP
LEO
IIL
(THE
ISAURUNX
A.D.
717-741."
SaRACEIV
TO AND
"
war
"
SnSOB
"
of
CoSTSTAWTINOPLE
concerning
"
ClBCUMSTANOES Leo
"
FAVOURABLE
Leo's
legal
Fables
"
Miutart,
REBELLION
ECCLESIASTICAL Physical
POLICY
"
IN
financial, QrEECS
Papal
phenomena.
When
Leo
was
raised to the
They
had formed
part of the
pdis.
9.
Dprrachium.
10.
2. Macedonict. 3. Str^f1. Thrace. 8. Nico7. CephalleHia. Pelopovnesut. 12. Cherton. 11. Longibardia {CaiahnBi.). JSicilif. 6.
The islands of the Archipelago, which formed the 16th Asiatic theme, were the usual station of the European naval squadron,under the command of a an and their admiral was Drungariof.They are often called Dodekannesos, officer of consideration at the end of the eighth century. TheophaneSfZ^Z. The listof the themes givenby Constantine Porphyrogenitus is traditional, not from official documents. had been conquered by the Axabs Cyprus and Sicily longbefore he wrote. ^ with the index to the Compare Codinus,Notitias Ortxcorum Episeopatvm, first Oriena Christianua, volume of Lequien, * The most complete work on the history of the Iconoclast periodis that of Schlosser, OeswichU der BildenlUrmenaen Kaiser,1812. It is a work of and original research. learning
"
16
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK!,
^'
''
dethroned
* *"
the space of twenty-one years. Of four perished these, executioner,^ by the hand of the public
within after being of sight,^ and obscurity, deprived in the other was onlyallowed to end his dayspeacefully because Leo feltthe imperial a monastery, sceptrefirmly fixed in his own counter Every army assembled to engrasp.'
one
died in
Europe up to the Saracens ravaged the whole of Asia Minor to the shores of the Bosphorus. of the theme Anatothe principal Amorium was city likon.^ The Caliph Suleiman had sent his brother, the conMoslemah, with a numerous quest army, to complete which appeared of the Roman to be an empire, of no extraordinary and Amorium enterprise difficulty, was besieged by the Saracens. Leo, who commanded the Byzantine time to concert the some required troops, To gain operations by which he hopedto raise the siege. the necessary delay, he openednegotiations vaders, with the inthe conclusion and,under the pretextof hastening of the treaty, he visited the Saracen general in engaged with an escort of only the siege 500 horse. The Saracens invited to suspend their attacks until the decision were
of Moslemah
"
wasted
who
was
the Mohammedan
army
could be known.
In
an
view inter-
which took of
with the bishop bitants inhaand principal place to the profiered Amorium, relating terms, Leo and defence, of
The besiegers, succour. theless, neverspeedy forward their approaches. Leo, after his pressed interview with the Amorians, proposed that the Saracen should accompany him to the headquarters of general
Tiberias III. (Apsimar), Justinian II., Leontius, Philippicus. Anastasius II. " Theodosius III. * Amorium at the ruins called Hergan Kaleh. was Researches in Hamilton, Asia Minor,I 452. Leake's Tour in Asia Minor,86.
*
"
assured them
LBO'S
DIFFICULTIES.
17
an
Moslemah.
raent
The Saracen
would
agreedto readily
to
arrange-
a. d.
which
enable him
deliver The
so
a important
717-741.
to hostage
the commander-in-chief.
wary
Isaurian,
made which
escape. On
had watched, closely from a narrow defile, reaching of his own posts
cross
drew suddenly
for the who were prepared guards, tile the two thousand hossignal, easily openeda way through of the escort,and all reached the Byzantine cavalry Leo's subsequent military dispositions camp in safety. and diplomatic induced the negotiations enemy to raise the siege of Amorium, and the grateful inhabitants united with the army in saluting him Emperor of the Romans. But in his with Moslemah, he is accused arrangements of
by
his enemies
havingagreed to
own
conditions which
his
was
march
to
son
he
met
by the
III.,
crown,
defeated.
a
Theodosius
his triumphal
was
capital by the
717.
Gate, and
by
Sophia
of Leo continued to be one of extreme position The CaliphSuleiman,who had seen one pridifficulty. vate succession succeed adventurer the other in quick on the imperial favourable for throne,deemed the moment the final conquest his of the Christians ; and, reinforcing tinople. brother's army, he ordered him to laysiege to Constanreached its The Saracen empire had now
greatestextent.
Indus
From
the
to the shores of
^ Theodosius where he was huried in the church ended his lifeat Ephesus, but should bear no inscription of St Philip. He ordered that his tombstone
the woKl
YFEIA"
"Health."
B
VOL.
I.
18
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
Spain,the
order
of Suleiman
were
obeyed. implicitly
gana, of Spainin the West, and of Ferch^2. tjj^ recent conquests and Sind in the East,had animated the Cashgar, that no to such a degree confidence of the Mohammedans difficult.The army Moslemah led appeared enterprise that had the best-appointed was Constantinople against
ever
it consisted of
sand thoueighty
announced caliph
his intention of
should person with additional forces, resistance the capital of the Christians offer a protracted
the field in taking
to the arms
of Islam.
The
whole and
have
employedone
if it be
hundred
does not
appear
fleet,
and
the reinforcements
which
before
Constantinople.^ marched to Moslemah, after capturing Pergamys, where he was Abydos, joined by the Saracen fleet. He the Hellespont, then transported his army across and, inyested Leo sJong the shore of the Propontis, marching The strong walls of in his capital both by land and sea. the engines of defence with which Iloman Constantinople,
and Greek art had covered the ramparts,and the skillof the Byzantine rendered every attempt to carry engineers, the placeby assault hopeless, that the Saracens were so
to trust to the effect of a strict blockade for compelled of the city.They surrounded their possession gaining and strengthened it with a strong camp with a deepditch, then sent out large detachments to dyke. Moslemah collect forage and destroy the provisions, which might otherwise find their way into the besieged city. The
* De Adm. Imp. cliap. 21, p. 74, with. Compare Constantine Porphyrogenitus, der Ckalifenf i.566^^571, note, and Price,Makommedan Empire, Woil, GeschicJtte
i. 518.
enable us to estimate the credit due to the Western These numbers chronicles concerningthe plunderingexpedition into France, of Abd-el- Rahman which was Paulus Diaconus, lib. vi. chap. 47, defeated by Charles MarteL thousand Saracens perishedduring the siege of says that three hundred
Constantinople.
20
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
the on encampedbefore Constantinople besiegers Suleiman died before he ch^2. igjjjAugust 717. The Caliph
BOOK
I.
The
was
send any reinforcements to his brother. The The country all round winter provedunusually severe.
to
able
covered with
deep
snow
for
in the camp of Moslemah perished ; numbers of the best died accustomed to the mild winters of Syria, soldiers,
from
to take the requisite having neglected precautions of procuring northern climate. The difficulty a against
Suleiman.
of
time,Leo
and
the inhabitants
having made the necessary Constantinople, for a longsiege, rity. passedthe winter in secupreparations A fleet, fitted out at Alexandria, brought supplies Four hundred transports, escorted to Moslemah in spring. sailed past Constantinople, and, entering by men-of-war, the Bosphorus, took up their station at Kalos Agros.^ Another fleet, almost equally after numerous, arrived soon and anchored in the bayson the Bithynian from Africa, coast.^ These positions rendered the current a protection of t he the o f ople. Constantinagainst fireships garrison
in great were transports and the weak condition of part composedof Christians,
crews new
The
of the
Moslemah's army filled them with fear. Many conspired the boats of their respective to desert. Seizing vessels
numbers escaped to Constantinople, duringthe night, where theyinformed the emperor of the exact disposition of the whole Saracen force. Leo lost no time in taking of the enemy'sembarrassments. advantage Fireships
love of the Theophanes, 882, and NicephorusPat 85, with the ordinary covered the ground for a hundred days. marvellous, say the snow ' and not a place in Bithynia, as Lebeau, xii. 118, and Schloaser, Buyuk*der6, 151, infer from NicephorusPat. 35. See Ducange, Comt. C%rt"r. 177 ; and De Bosph.Throe, ii.chap, zviii. p. 801. Gyllius, ' 882, says this fleetconsisted of 860 transports. It anchored Theophanes, at Satyros, and Kartalimen. Bryas,
*
SARACEN
WAR.
21
were
sent with
favourable wind
while Greek
was
of ships
war,
increased the confusion. This bold attack fire, and a part of the naval force of the successful,
was
Saracens
Some destroyed.
were
fella ships
some
prej to the
were
flames, some
driven
on
shore,and
tured capwas
hj
now
the
blockade
dyingfrom in plenty were want, while the besieged living ; but the Saracen obstinately in maintaining of persisted possession his camp in Europe. It was not until his foraging parties and all the beasts of burden cut off, were repeatedly
at
an were
consumed
as
food,that he consented
were
to
allow the
standard of the
to Prophet
embarked of
in the relicsof
the 15th
of the finestarmies the after ruining one siege, Saracens ever in a assembled, persisting by obstinately The troopswere landed at Prohopeless undertaking.^ and marched back to Damascus, through Asia connesus,
raised the
Minor;
but
violent storm
in
The dispersed passing throughthe Archipelago. ships and so many were pursuedby the Greeks of the islands, that onlyfive of the Syrian lostor captured were ron squadreturned home.
Leo's defence of Constantinople detailsconcerning military have been preserved, but there can be no doubt that it was of the most brilliant of a one exploits warlike age. The Byzantine to every army was superior fortresses. The Roman other in the art of defending have supplied in their best days, could probably arsenals,
Few
no
scientificor
to
the
corps of
of engineers
must
recollect
^ Theophanee, 884. Nicepborua Pat 85, however, says the si^e lasted accounts The Mohammedan report, that of the one hundred thirteen months. who oomposed the expedition, and eighty thousand men onlythirtythousand returned.
"22
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
that the
chm^2. jj^pg
jjj^jijggQ
Trajanand
Constantine. science
We
are
not
by
the de*
of gradation and
was
art, nor by the decayof military power in the field.^ The depopulation of Europerendered soldiers
rare
dear,and
armies
thoughfar inferior in number to that of Mosskill; while in discipline and military lemah,was its equal the walls of Constantinople with engines were garnished in from the ancient arsenals of the city, far exceeding
of Leo,
power and number any with which the Arabs had been The vanity in the habit of contending. of Gallic writers has the success of Charles Martel over a plundering magnified Arabs into a marveUous of the Spanish expedition and attributed the deliverance of Europe from victory, the Saracen yoke to the valour of the Franks. A veil has been thrown the talents and courage of Leo, a who soldierof fortune, throne, justseated on the imperial
over
of
conquest of the
we
It is unfortunate that
The
and danger,
carried on for some languidly from expelled gradually years, and the Saracens were In the most of their conquestsbeyondMount Taurus. embarrassed bellions, by seditions and reyear 726, Leo was caused by his decrees against image-worship.
war was
was
pursue his schemes for reorganising future his dominions against defending
in the time of ConBtantius, obelisk at Rome a.d. 857"that the largest was It stands at St John Lateran, and is said to from Alexandria. transported weigh 445 tons. (?) Sir Gardner Wilkinson makes the greetobelisk at Kamak il 145. weigh less than three hundred touB." Modem Egypt and T/iebe$,
It
DEFEAT
OF
SID-AL-BATTAL,
A.D.
739.
28
and sent two powerful a. d. opportunity, armies to inyade the empire. Csesarea was taken by 7i7|74i. Moslemab ; while another army, under Moawyah,pushing Leo was well pleased to Nicaea. to forward,laid siege their resources in attacking see the Saracens consume a distant fortress; but thoughtheywere before repulsed oflf Nicsea,they retreated without serious loss, carrying immense excursions of the plunder. The plundering Arabs were renewed by land and sea. In one frequently
of these off
an
Hescham
seized the
the celebrated Sid-al-Battalcarried expeditions, individual who was set up by the Saracens as a the
under throne, Byzantine
son
to pretender
he
was
the Tiberius,
of Justinian II.
of
of the than once at the head more caliph appeared In the year 739, the Saracen forces armies. inyading ponredinto Asia Minor in immense numbers, with all their early Leo,who had taken the command of energy. the Byzantine by his sou Constantine, army, accompanied
the
whose great fame rendered marched to meet Sid-al-Battal, him the most dangerous A battle took place at enemy.
but
defeated. The valiant Sid, the most nowned retotally the field; on championof Islamism^perished has filled the fame of his exploits many volumes of
romance,
Moslem hundred
and
furnished
some
have adorned
three of the Cid of Spain, the memory of Leo.^ The Western years after the victory
Byzantine empu:e
of its glory
After this defeat the Saracen power ceased until the energy of the to be formidable to the empire, revived
the Abassides.
* Acrolnon doubtless at Sid-el-aba2d, nine hours to the south of Eskiwas is stillshowu." shehr (Dorylaeum), where the tomb of Sid-al-Battal-el-Ghazi I 638, calls the hero Leake, Afia Minor, 21. Weil, GetchiehU der Chalifen, " calls him Abd Allah ; while d'Herbelot, Batthal," BiblwtUqueOrientaU,voce See also Hammer, Abu Mohammed. Theophimes, 345, calls him simplyBarak, i. 60, 872. UiiUnrt dt V Empire Ottoman,par Hellert,
24
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
BOOK
I.
the Mohammedans
were
an
indiswhich its
rity. authopersonal
are history,
measures new
of administrativewisdom
era
a reign
virtues, ordinary and of talents common in every age ; but the ability to in accordreform the internal government of an empire, ance with the exigencies of society, can onlybe appreciated by those who have made the causes and the progress of national revolutions the object of longthought. The intellectual of Leo may be estimated by superiority of sovereigns in the presentcentury to the incompetence of society. availed meet new Leo judiciously exigencies
the result of himself of many circumstances that favoured his reforms. The inherent vigour and which is nourished by parochial of bound together the remnants municipal responsibilities, the free population in the eastern Roman and empire, in resisting domination. The operated powerfully foreign universal respect felt for the administration of justice, and the general deference paidto the ecclesiastical blishment, estathe with inspired inhabitants energies wanting in the West. that Civilisation was so generally diflPiised, the necessity the civiland ecclesiastical of upholding bunals, triand the channels of defending
a
His
race.
commercial
course, inter-
in every people to the central administration, province by the strongest ties of interest and feeling. The oppressive of the court of Constantinople authority had been much weakened by the anarchy that prevailed the empirein the latter part of the seventh throughout
reunited
powerful body of
the
century. The
inundate the
government had
been
no
able longer
to
with those bands of officials who provinces had previously consumed the wealth of the curia ; and the local authoritiesin each city had been compelled to for its defence by assuming provide powers hitherto re-
CIECUMSTANCES
PAVOUEABLB
TO
LEO.
25
officers. These new duties had ina. d. imperial 7i7-74i. and developed the people with new unexspired vigour, of fiscal pected talents. The destructive responsibility
seired to the
guarantees,and
which of industry its
the restrictions on
individual action
by
fettered the
the ticket-
when the Western Empire fella lightened prey to foreign conquerors, and when the Eastern became filledwith foreign colonists.^ The curiales and the cor-
porter,were
at lastrelievedthemselves [K"rations
from the
a
attempt of
the Roman
dition, constationary
and tliereliefwas
ment. improve-
more clergy
favour. official
,
class of bishops the replaced popular satirisedby GregoryNazianzenos.^ The worldly priests influenceof this change for the bishop, was as very great, the defender of the curia, and the real head of the people in the municipality, extensive authority the over enjoyed of the labouring of artisans and the mass corporations the From a judge he gradually population. acquired
power of a civil governor, and the curia became his senate. The ordinary tribunals beingcut oflFfrom direct judicial communication usages with
better and
the supreme
a
in many of the code of Justhe application tinian. restricting provinces and gained force, The
customary law
its unity preseiTed and its priests continued to be guidedby of character, their conwhich preserved of centralisation, nection principles at Constantinople, with the seat of the patriarchate ance of theirlocalresistthe energetic without injuring spirit to the progress of the Mohammedan out power. Throughthe priestthe wide extent of the Eastern Empire, hood local of the served as a bond to connect feelings
* *
Compare
"
v. Carmen, De EptteopU,
150.
26
L
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
^'"*^
with the general interests of the orthodox parish endeared to a Its authority church. was, moreover, from its language being large body of the population national its from Greek, and holj legends embodying and prejudices. as the lives of the Repulsive feelings saints now of the delight appear to our taste,theywere the millions for many centuries. From the earliest periodto the
wealth of
most
cation. of commercial communipoints The insane fury of the Emperor Justinian II., and in devastating the flourishing citiesof Ravenna because theywere Cherson,failed to ruin these places, tween commercial intrepots then the greatest of the trade beIndia and Europe. The alarm felt for the ruin the of commerce the Christian world,during throughout and that existed in the last years of the seventh, anarchy contributed much to centuries, early years of the eighth
from their importance as render
even men
government of Leo,
a
thoughthey may
considered him
heretic.
in the central the other hand, the anarchy prevailing both from much administration had relieved commerce On The mofiscaloppression and many official ment monopolies. the financialburdens of the commercial classeswere of possessall the advantage lightened, theyexperienced ing enforced of administration a systematic by a justice, fixed legal and consequently they procedure, very naturally became warm of the imperial authority, as, in partisans their opinion, the personal influence of the emperor constituted the true fountain of legal order and judicial solution from dissaved society A fixed legislation impartiality. during many yeara of anarchy. The obscure records of the eighth centuryallow us to discern throughtheir dim considerable a atmosphere increase of power in popularfeelings, and they even afibrd some of this new of the causes glimpses energy.
28
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
ClL
I.
As
long as
with the
was
in onlyplaced
lision col-
f 1
Roman
goyernment and
were
Christian and found everywhere victorious, everywhere in the provinces allies theyinvaded. But when anarchy and misfortune had destroyed the fiscal power of the state, and weakened the ecclesiastical intolerance of the clergy, of comparison between the governments of a new point tention. the emperors and the caliphs itself to the atpresented administered in The question, how justice was the ordinary relations of life, became of vital interest. The code of Justinian was comparedwith that of the Koran. and bishops The courts presided over by judges
were
compared with
which
arose
The
victions con-
of subjects
the The
as
current of events.
conquestwas
and arrested,
long as
and empire, the administered under proper control in the provinces, invaders of the Byzantine unsuccessful. were everywhere territory The inhabitants boasted with a justpride, that theylived under the systematic rule of the Roman and not under the arbitrary law, power.^ sway of despotic Such was the state of the Roman when Leo empire commenced his reforms. to exWe amine must now proceed what history has recorded concerning this great
cultivated in the
reformer.
Leo
was
born
at
in the mountains
the borders of
Syria.2Germanicia
*
taken
mula, confession of faith in a certain forthe coronation oath in'Codinus, De OJkiisConpl. with CorptuJuri*Civ. Cod. L xiv. 4 and 5; Boiiliea, chap,xvii., ii. De Adm, Imp. p. 64, edit. also Constantino Porphyrogenitus, YL 9 and 10; see Band ; iii. 84, edit. Bonn, and the Ecloga of Leo. III. Leunclaviiia and Freher, Jus GrcBCO'Romanum, i. 178,ii.83, tit.ii " 4. ' The family of Leo, being neither Greek nor Roman, was regarded by these nations as foreign. The Isaurians appear to have been the subjectsof the
Every emperor
Kara
was
"
bound to make
t6
FABLES
CONCBRNING
LEO.
29
to
Mesembria
in
A.D.
Thrace.
They were persons of sufficientwealth to make the Emperor Justinian II. a presentof five hundred he was to regainpossession as of his sheep^ advancing throne with the assistance of the Bulgarians. This welltimed gift the gained young Leo the rank of spatharios, favour of the tyrant, and a high command the on personal Lazian frontier. His prudence and courage raised him, the reign of Anastasius II., to the command of the during
Anatolic theme.
of his life, unknown to the early history historians, Theophanes and Nicephorus, though both these orthodox became notice then fables
to
as
^^"^^^'
But
another
writers
were
and
tractors, de-
current
deserves
fed
of the taleswhich us with a specimen presenting the mental appetite of the Greeks.^ Some fortunes his
owe
their existence
were religious opinions regarded us, in all probaby the Greeks. They supply bility, with a correct portraiture of the popular mind, but do not furnish us with accurate materials theycertainly and miracles for Leo's biography.Prodigies, prophecies, believed. Restricted communications were universally education were to an and neglected society conducting infantine dotage. Every unusual event was said to have revelation ; and as the been predicted by some prophetic of futurity belief in the prescience universal, was public the found acting deceivers and self-deceiverswere always It is said to have been foretold to part of prophets. Leontius that he should ascend the throne, by two monks
empire who
Armenians
share of their origiDal bad retained the greatest nationality.The and Syrians, were always regarded as strangers though numerous, BUt. rather than hereditary subjects. Theophanes, 327, 330, and Anastasius, considered himself an Armenian, to have 128, call Leo a Syrian. He seems
^
and he married
his daughter to an Armenian. to calumniate Leo, with 336, who has no objections Compare Theophanes, the later writers,Cedrenus, 450 ; Zonaras,ii 103 ; Const Manasses,86 ; Glyoac^ 280 ; Leo Gramm., 178,edit. Bonn.
30
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
BOOK
I.
and
an
abbot.^
to
The
restoration of Justinian
was
II. had
^'"*^
been announced
to
become emperor
; and
he
was
banished
Tiberius II.
when (Apsimar),
bj publicly
known.^
It is not, therefore, wonderful that Leo should have been honoured with communications from the other from his world; though, as might have been expected heretical of his historians, orthodoxy these communications are represented to have been made regions. by agentsfrom the lower rather than the higher A circumstance which it is believed had happened to the CaliphYezid I.,proved most to the satisfactorily Greeks that Satan often transacted business publicly by and opinions, the
means
of his agents on
earth.
Two
Jews
"
for Jews
are
selected by as generally of the demon themselves to the caliph claiming ^presented the gift of prophecy.They announced that,if he should put an end to the idolatrousworship of images his dominions, fate had predestined him to throughout for forty rich and flourishing a reign empire. years over Yezid was of pleasure and a bigot, a man so that the was prophecy peculiarly adaptedto flatterhis passions. The images and pictures which adorned the Christian churches were and destroyed the torn down throughout dominions. But Yezid was caliph^s carrying occupied
the orthodox the fittestagents
"
he died.
wyah II., soughtthe Jewish of darkness concealed them from his search, and prince them into the heart of Asia Minor, where transported theyhad new services to perform. A young man named his Conon, who had quitted native mountains of Isauria to gainhis living as a pedlar
1 " "
807. TheophaDes,
Pat. Nicephorus
25.
FABLES
CONOEBNING
LEO.
SI
in the wealthier plains, drove his ass, laden with merchanfounto a grove of evergreen oaks near a bubbling dise,
to seek tain, rest
a. d.
7i7-74i.
and count the heat of the daj, during his recent gains. The ass was turned loose to pasture in the littlemeadow formed by the stream of the fountain, and Conon sat down in the shade,by the chapel of St Theodore, to eat his frugal meal. He soon ceived perlike himself, travellers resting and enjoying two their noontide
repast. These
travellers entered
into
conversation with young Conon, who was a lad of remarkable and intelligence. They allowed the strength, beauty,
fact
to
were
who had recently the court of the astrologers, quitted awakened at Damascus, which very naturally in caliph the mind of the young pedlar his future a wish to know for he may have aspired at fortune, becoming a great The two Jews readily or a rich banker. post-contractor satisfiedhis him
and, to curiosity,
that he
a
his utter
formed inastonishment,
was
Roman
empire. As
the prophets proof of their veracity, declared that theysought neither wealth nor honours for but they Conon to promise themselves, conjured solemnly
that,when
to the
he ascended
the
which disgraced in the East. idolatry Christianity If he engaged to do this, they assured him that his the will of Heaven would bringprosperity to fulfilling himself and to the empire. Young Conon, believing had revealed the will of God, pledged that the prophets himself to purify the Christian church ; and he kept when he ascended the throne as Leo the this promise, But as the prophets had made Isaurian. no tion stipula-
creed,and their Leo out the true faith, interest in Christianity pointed of ingratitude, did not consider himself guilty when, as
for the free exercise of their
own
emperor, he
Jewish
with religion
the
32
I.
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
histo* bj which the later Bjzantine Leo*s hostility This j^j^jjg to image-worship. explain caj^s. of the adventure appearedto them a probable origin
BOOK
policy.In
the
the
bright days of
woven
immortal
of St Theodore, its fountain, and itsevergreen chapel Jews his ass with the two unearthly oaks,Conon driving mortal imin the shade,would have formed a picture reclining in the minds monks ignorant and of millions ; but in the hands of it sinks into a chroniclers, purblind narrative. dull and improbable it is almost as difficult to ascertain the Unfortunately, and executive acts by which Leo reformed legislative precise the military, and legal financial, administration, account of hisecclesiastical as it is to obtain an impartial
measures.
establishmentof the empire had gradually military of relost its national character, from the impossibility cruiting The
the army the soldier's son the artisan was
to his
from among Roman citizens. In vain fettered to his father's as was profession,
bound
have
to
his
estate.^ Yet
to
armies
seems
suffered littlefrom
the loss of
national
as as long spirit,
in their ranks.
For many centuries the majority of the drawn from the forces consisted of conscripts imperial lowest ranks of
almost
from the rude mountaineers of society, hired as or from foreigners independent provinces, from the yet the armies of all invaders,
mercenaries ;
^
The tendency of Roman able. to castes is remarkdespotismto reduce society Cod. Theod. vii.zxii. R. This feeling be traced to the last days of may the Byzantine power. Gemistos Plethon, in the projects of reform at the of the fifteenthcentury, by which he hoped to save the Peloponnesus beginning from the Turks, insists on the separationof the classes of soldiers and taxpayers. See his memorial on the State of the Peloponnesus, addressed to the despot Theodore, at the end of two books of Stobacus, by Canter, published
"
222.
MILITABT
BBFOBMS.
33
defeated in pitched a. d. repeatedly which separated the servants 7i^-74i in survived the Eastern people,
Western,and served
as
the
by
The law prevented the citizen incompatible. from assuming the position of a soldier, and watched with the rights jealousy any attempt of the soldier to acquire and feelings of a citizen. An barrier was impassable between the proprietor of the soil, who was the placed and the tax-payer, of the state,who was an after the agent of the imperial power.^ It is true that, lossof the Western armies were the Roman provinces, defender
deemed
recruited from
of the empireto a subjects much greater degree than formerly afterthe ; and that, it became time of Heraclius, to enforce the impossible of the citizen fiscal arrangementsto which the separation from the soldierowed its origin, at leastwith the previous maxims were strictness.^ Stillthe old imperial cherished in the reign of Leo, and the numerous coloniesof Sclaand other foreigners, established in the empire, vonians, ing of seekowed their foundation to the supposed necessity from among the native for recruitsas little as possible These colonieswere governed of agriculturists. population and their most important service regulations, by peculiar of troopsfor the imperial was a number supplying army,
the native
Isauria and
other mountainous
where it districts,
was
' A fixed number of conscripts drawn from each provinceafter the time was of Constantine ; and the proprietors, who were from servingin perprohibited son, had to fiimish conscripts.They were aUowed to hire any freeman, beggar, with youth and strength.When the recruitment beciime stiU or barbarian, the Emperor Valens of the diminished account on more difficult, popuktion, the conscription solidifor each conscript. commuted for a payment of Uurty-siz CW. Tkeod. vii xiii. 7. ' For the Roman Cod, Juit, z. 82, 17 ; to the army, see relating legisUtion zL 48, 18; ziL 88, 2, 4. Dig,zliz. 16, 9, and 18. Colons and serfe were hibited proof public from entering the army even at those periods which calamity the government to admit slaves as recruits. The views of Gibbon dompelled to be modified. (voLiL p. 824, Smith's edit.) require
"
VOL.
I.
34j
iconoclast
pbriod.
also supby a land-tax, plied a fixed military contingent.^ Whatever modificationsLeo made in the military tem, sysrevenue
and however
the the troops,
greatwere
army of
of the organisation
mass
the
use
of arms,
as
been
in the Roman
cause
times
which disposition, from the daysof the Goths is made a standing reproach The state of society to those of the Crusaders. dered engenthis the Western opened policy Empire to the by of Charlemagne and the empire to the northern nations,
the
of that unwarlike
Leo^s great merit was, that without any violent change he infused new energy into the political and organised establishment, a force military Byzantine that for five centuries defended the empirewithout acquiring
Normans. army
to
in the state. As the the power of domineering destituteof patriotic it was was feeling, necessary
This
was
the provinces into themes,appointing a by dividing and grouping of divisionfor each theme, general together stations the various corps of conscripts, in diflferent ject subnations,and hired mercenaries.^ The adoption
done
An anecdote of the time of Theodosius a j). 448,gives a correct idea of II., of the Eastern Empire, the condition of the Qreek population at least until the Phocas. the envoy of Theodosius IL to time of the anarchyunder Priscus, in the Scythianterritory, mentions that, he was addressed in Greek by Attila, in the dross of the coimtry which surprisedhim, as a circumstance a man Latin was the customary language of commimication with foreigners, and few except the slaves brought from Thrace and the coast of lllyria, ever strangers, the Huns. spokeGreek. The man proved to be a Greek who was living among He contrasted his past condition, as a citizen under Uie Roman emperors, with. bis presentposition under Attila. The Roman as a freeman he said, citi^n, because the Roman was compeUed to trust for defence to the arms of others, the use of arms to the citizen. In the time of war, conprohibited sequently, despotism he was a prey either to the enemy or to the mercenary troops of the emperor, while in the time of peace his Ufe was rendered intolerable by and officialinjustice. fiscaloppression Bxc. e Pritei Hutarxii, 190. Corfm" Scrip. Hitt. Byz.pars. L, edit Bonn. ' Leo is said to have had a body of Frank mercenaries in his service during the siege of Constantinopla The authority is too modem to be implicitly relied on." Ck, Arab, 130. Abulpharagius,
"
"
36
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK
I.
immediate
of superinteudence
over
^'"*^
control special
successors,
so
the treasury ; and this retained by his the finances was duration of the
emperors
in
nothing reality
central and
than the
cautious in imposing made him extremely Bulgarians burdens on the distant citiesand provinces heavyfiscal tended inof his dominions. But his reforms were certainly and of municipal to circumscribe the authority institutions. The free citiesand municipalities provincial the been intrusted with which had once duty of and collecting their quota of the land-tax, apportioning of burdens of their district, the public were now deprived transferred to this authority. All fiscalbusiness was tors collechad itsown the imperial officers. Each province of the revenue, its own officials to complete charged all the registers of the public burdens,and to verify still Rome statistical details. The traditionsof imperial of information should be reguthat this mass required larly transmitted to the cabinet of the Byzantine perors, emas
at
the birth of
our
Saviour.^
The
financialacts of Leo's
improvement subjects, by the general prove nevertheless, which took place in the condition of the
that his reformed system of financial tion administrapeople, the weightof the public burdens. really lightened
il Luke, chap,
t.
1.
in the Analecta
The Book of Accounts or tax tariff of Alexius I., lished puband MontGransa of the Benedictins, Pouget,Loppin,
FINANCIAL
REFOBMS
OF
LEO.
37
a. d.
there Still,
measures census
can
be
no
^^J^-
of the
rebellions in those countries, for which his Iconoclastic decrees senred as a more honourable war-cry. In Gala* bria and he Sicily
a
added
one-third to the
; capitation
time he ordered a to Rome, and at the same annually correct register to be keptof all the males born in his dominions. This last regulation excites a burst of indignation from the orthodox historian and confessor Theo-
when bigotry
raoh's He likens Leo's edict to PhaIconoclast emperor. conduct to the children of Israel, and adds that
had never the Saracens, Leo's teachers in wickedness, in his zeal exercised the like oppression forgetting,
"
that the Caliph Abdelmelik had established taxation, against the haratch or capitation of Christians as early the commencement of the reignof Justinian II., as
A.D.
An
induced Bithynia, with the treasury for supplying Leo to adopt measures their fund for restoring them, and keeping a special in a state to resistthe Bulgafortifications rians constantly The which and Saracens. revenues municipal citiesin Thrace had
once
served for this purpose had been encroached Justinian I.,and the policy of Leo led him the
sphereof
action of all
to which
843. Theophanes,
38
I.
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK
and attention;
caused
to meet
^"'"^^
by the
calamitous made
the
of one-twelfth was
This
tax
was
because the payment appears to called the dikeratony in the silver coins called have been generally made
two keratia,
to equal
"
which diminished the gold Byzant.^Thus a calamity In such burdens. increased the public resources public it seems that a paternal a contingency government and a ing of diminishwise despot oughtto hare feltthe necessity the pomp of the court, of curtailing the expenses of ecclesiastical and of reforming the extravagance pageants, before of the popular of the hippodrome, amusements of the burdens on the suffering new imposing population and charioteersought to have saints, empire. Courtiers, been shorn of their splendour, before the groans of the rious increased. Yet Leo was neither a luxuwere provinces avaricious prince; nor an but, as has been said the monarch can no measure already, despotic wisely burden of taxation.
on provincial spirit
the
legislation
Manaasee, 98. Gljcas, 286, and the words GrcecikOU, It is Oioitarivm Med. et Infimoe is the miliaresion, and which the keration, to determine which very difficult the coins of the lower empire we I possess a medallion of among possess. which weighs 100 grains; a.d. Heradius, and HeraoUus Constantino, 613*641, which weighs another of Ck)nstantine IV. (Pogonatus), in bad preservation, reckoned of which twelve were only 88. These would seem to be miliaresia, Yet some think the silver coin of a smaller size is the to a gold nomisma. miliaresion. Of these I possess two, well preserved, of John I., Zimiskes, and of Basil IL, and Constantino YIIL, a.d. 970-1025, weighing each 44 grains. If the keration was the half of thb piece, the commonest fh"m being once silve^ the rarest. become Of twenty-live coin, it has now gold nomismata in my the heaviest is one of Manuel I., The next is a solia.d. 1 143-1180. possession, in fine preservation, dus of Aelia Yerina,a.d. 457-474, but which weighs only coined out of the nomismata were 684 grains. Seventy-two or seventy-four which contained 5256 Englishgrain" Compare the pound weightof gold, Dm observations of Pinder and Friedlauder in their exoeuent dissertation, MUnsen De Ceremoniis AuIcb ByzantincB, 12, with Const Porphyr., Juttinians,jy. i.459 ; iL 497,edit Bonn. The present rarity of Byzantinesilver is no proof of its being rare formerly.It has been consumed in ornaments and base coin. The gold was preserved medium from Scandinavia by its value as a circulating to India.
845. Theophanea, Constan. and Ktp^Tuwin Duoange's "l)6Ka
89
is strongly marked in the history of juris- a. d. empire which had '^^J^^prudence duringLeo's reign.The anarchy communications between the the official longinterrupted and the capital lent an increased authority to provinces
local usages, and threw obstacles in the way of the administration of justice, to the strict regular according letter of the voluminous laws of Justinian. The consequence
was,
were
in and judges, manuals, both by lawyers the provincial where the greatexpense of protribunals, curing
as a
used
its use.
in sanction became the primary '^^//" by its official authority all the courts of the empire. This imperial abridgment is called the Ecloga evidence it affords ing concern: some for the state of society and the classes of the people which it was prepared.Little notice is taken of the of the agriculturists rights ing ; the various modes of acquirservitudes omitted are property and constituting The Eclogahas been censured for its imperfections by Basil I., the founder of a legislative who speaks dynasty, of it as an insult to the earlier legislators; yet the orthodox lawgiver, to reject while he pretended every all his imitated act of the heretical Isaurian, servilely of Leo's and precision political plans. The brevity both by the courts of Eclogawere highly appreciated in spite law and the people, of the heterodox opinions of its promulgator. It so judiciously a want long supplied felt by a large of society, tempt that neither the atportion official it by a new of Basil I. to supplant manual, the publication of the great code of the Basilika in nor of the it of value among the jurisconsults Greek,deprived Byzantine empire.^
^ See the works criticism has shed light of Zacharias, whose enlightened on this obscure period Jurii GrcBCO-Romani Delineatio, of hiaXory. "Hiitaria aucL C.B, Zaekanmt 14-41. O' irp6x'iipos Heidelb.,]887" Svo, p. xviil "c. p6imos, Leonis et ComUiniiin, 1852. Ecloga Leipsig,
40
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PBRIOD.
^'^^^
labours of Leo were not circumscribed legislative to the publication of the Ecloga. He seems to have sanctioned various minor codes, by which the regulations in use relating and maritime law to military, agricultural, The collections order. reduced into systematic were under the which are attached to the copies of the Ecloga, heads of military, and Rhodian laws, cannot, agricultural, The
acts of his reign however,be considered as official ; still, to afiFord us a correct idea of the originals theyare supposed he published. Some abstract of the provisions tained conin the Roman was affairs, on legislation military of maintaining rendered necessary by the practice corps of foreign in code A mercenaries the capital. military
likewise rendered necessary, in consequence of the that took place in the old system, as the Asiatic changes
was were provinces
of Saracens.^
exact
bands cleared of the invading gradually rably The agricultural laws appear to be a tole-
of Leo. The work copy of the enactments bears the impress in his time, of the condition of society and it is not that surprising which the title
perpetuated
was are
suppressed by
the memory of the heterodox Leo The maritime laws orthodox bigotry.
from aflfording of the a extremely interesting, picture state of commercial legislation in the eighth century,
at the
time when
commerce
and
empire. The
not
exact
possess is
we
ascertained.
That Leo
may
he
or
under his government ; whether reviving a code to sanction or enforce his reforms, promulgated whether the task was completed sors, by one of his succesis doubtful
The
whole
of policy
Leo's
has reign
been estimated
been
reforms. These have by his ecclesiastical and they appear judgedby all historians,
^
severely
en-
to have
HUtcin Montreuil,
du Droit
I 898. BtftatUin,
ECCLESIASTICAL
POLICY
OP
LEO.
41
coQDtered
violentopposition from
The subjects.
a. d.
^^^"^^''
images
to
the unitarian-
pages,
however,refute some
for he records that Leo persecuted the calumnies, unitarianism of the Jews, and the tendency to it in the Montanists.^ Indeed, all those who differedfrom the of the Trinity, received acknowledgment Christian charity at the hands of the Isaurian, very little who placed of many of his gold, the cross on the reverse and copper coins, and over the gates of his palace, silver, In his Iconoclast as a symbolfor universal adoration. Leo is merely a type of the more opinions, enlightened the superlaymen of his age. A strong reaction against stitions creasing inthe introduced into the Christian religion by the educated of the people, pervaded ignorance who were anxious to put a stop to what mightbe classes, considered a revivalof the ideas and feelings of paganism. into frequent who were The Asiatic Christians, brought
most
orthodox
and with the followers of Mahomet, Zoroaster, collision of to observe that the worship Moses, were compelled
the
common
people among
themselves
was
when sensual,
with the devotion of the infidels. The worship compared and his service transferredto some of God was neglected, human one symbol. The favourite saint was usually whose faults were found to bear some to the analogy to vices of his worshipper, and thus pardon was supposed
* I in his Ektoire du DroU Byzantin, Theophanes,836, 843. Montreuil, the Jews and Montanists from Bonefidius,Jvri$ OrienS48,cites the law against But most of the laws cited by BonetaHs Libri Tre$, and refers to Cedrenus. fidius from Cedrenus wiU be found in Theophanes and the older Byzantine ; and reference writers,not publishedwhen Bonefidius made his compilation
oughtto
to have
be made to these authorities. In this case, what is called a law seems been a series of edicts. Theophanes say" that the Jews submitted to conscientious Montanists the sacraments ; the more bi^tiam and mocked of worriiip. burned themselTes in their places
42
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
BooKL ^'
'"
on
easier terms
than
accords with
and rice was rendered more consequently justice, The clergy had yielded to the popular prevalent. rance ignowalls of with covered the churches were ; pictures which were to have wrought miraculous cures ; reported their shrines were enriched by paintings with not made ^ hands ; the superstitions of the people were increased, and the doctrines of Christianity were neglected. Pope in that II., 4 letter to Leo, mentions the fact, Gregory men expendedtheir estates to have the sacred histories
Divine
in paintings.^ represented In
a
time of
in
government
of the administrativeofficials
the for Leo to permit impossible in ecclesiastical church to remain quiteindependent unless he was prepared for the clergy a affairs, assuming the gradual being supremacy in the state. The clergy, affairs nected cononly class in the administration of public with the peopleby interest and feelings, was of a powerful sure always popular support. It appeared,
therefore, necessary
there
and
was some
to the emperor
out carrying
to
secure
them
as
sincereinstruments in
reason
to fear that
Rome, and
trol con-
the whole administration throughout imperisd did in the ByzanEastern Empire, as completely as they tine in central Italy. possessions
Leo commenced
726, by an
his ecclesiastical reforms in the year in churches to be all pictures edict ordering
to
so high as placed
^
better prove the extent to which saperstition than the assertion of the Patriarch Qermanos, that had contaminated religion and that miracles were daily wrought by the images of Christ and the saints, hand of an image of the Virgin Maiy. beJsam distilled from the painted and Church (Torrey's translation), Neander, History of the CkriitianReligion iU. 206. t Neander, iii. 212.
Nothingcan ^AxuporroirjTO'
"
44
BOOK 1.
ICONOCLAST
PEEIOD.
^'"^^
unnoticed by historians, Leo, to which localcircumstances, and which the edictagainst imageviolence, gave peculiar of all unanimity zeal in favour of and the violence of the popular classes, the and superstitions, their local privileges suggested Greek on the a Leo, and placing hope of dethroning A naval expedition, throne of Constantinople. composed in the Cyclades, of the imperial and attended by an fleet
worshipfanned
into
flame.
The
fitted out was army from the continent, who commanded the capital. Agallianos,
at placed
to
attack the
was Greece,
forces imperial
of the army destined to assailthe of the new peror emconqueror of the Saracens. The name In the month of April the Greek Kosmas. was It soon appeared Constantinople. in the goodness of their cause, that the Greeks,confiding had greatly valour and strength, overrated their own or the overlooked the resources of Iconoclasts. strangely Leo met the fleet his capital, and completely as it approached with the spirit defeated it. Agallianos, of a hero, when he saw the utter ruin of the enterprise, plunged rather a rmed into than the surrender. Kosmas sea fully with another leader, and immediately taken prisoner, was beheaded. Leo, however, treated the mass of the prisoners with mildness.^
Even if
we
able considerdisplayed
we
in attacking the Isaurian emperor, still presumption must of the populous condition acceptthe fact as a proof of the cities and islands of Greece, and of the flourishing
condition of their trade,at a period generally of and wretchedness as one represented poverty. Though the Peloponnesus filledwith Sclavonian emigrants, was
and the Greek
were peasantry
in many
districts excluded
^ and Cedrenus, i.454, Helladtkoi, Tbeophanes,339, calls the iosurgents Had the insurrection been believed to have copiesthe scornful expression.
in religious the originated feeling, surely have regarded the sufferers as martyrs.
orthodox
confessor
would Theophanes
PAPAL
OPPOSITION.
45
a.d.
from the cultivationof the land in the seats of their ancestors, nevertheless their cities then contained the mercantile wealth and influence, which passed some turies cenlaterinto the possession of Venice,Amalfi,Genoa, and Pisa.
The in his
"^^J^'
encountered it was
increase the power of the centralgovernmentin the provinces. As he was the of attached to sincerely opinions the Iconoclasts, he was led to connect his ecclesiastical
reforms with his
political measures,
In order to
and
secure
to
with additionalzeal.
and administration,
allimage-worshippers from power, he convoked an of the senators and calleda silention, assembly, consisting the
in functionaries highest
manner
solemn removed
it was
decreed that
imageswere
to be
the empire. throughout In the capital the change met with no serious opposition. The population of Constantinople, of its at every period has consisted of a mixed multitude of different history, Greek nations ; nor has the majority been purely ever for any great length of a of time. Nicetas,speaking time when the Byzantine of its at the height was empire than a Greek city more was power, and when the capital at any preceding declaresthat its or subsequent period, of various races.^ The cause of was population composed the popular was, however, generally image-worship cause, and the Patriarch Germanos steadily resisted every change in the actual practice of the church until that change should be sanctioned by a general council.^ The turn now given to the dispute put an end to the power of the Eastern emperors in central Italy.The Latin provinces before their of the Roman even empire,
from all the churches
^ '
Nicetaa
iL 152. Alexius,
Pat. 88, itytv avv6dov Pyypa"l"ov irirtP NioepboroB ovk cjcri3c/uuu. oUoviigpuajs
46
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
had sunk into deeperignoconquestbj the barbarians, jjj^j^ jjjQ Eastern. Civilisationhad
CHj^a. pj^jj^
penetrated
farther into
society among
than among the Italians, Gauls,and Spaniards. Syrians with the Constantinopolitan dissatisfied was Italy already reforms roused when Leo^s fiscal and religious domination, local interests and national prejudices to unite in opposing had longbeen his government. The Pope of Rome regarded by orthodox Christians as the head of the church ; even the Greeks admitted his right of inspection in virtue of the supethe whole body of the clergy, over rior the heads of of the Roman see.^ From being dignity the church, the popes became the defenders of the liberties of the people. In this character, leaders of a as lawful
to the tyrannyof the imperial tration, adminisopposition fluence of immense intheygrew up to the possession in the state. This power, havingits basis in democratic feelings and energies, alarmed the emperors, and many attemptswere made to circumscribethe papal But the popes themselves did more nish to dimiauthority.
influence than their enemies, for instead of the people, of remaining the protectors they aimed
own
their
who making themselves their masters. GregoryII., of the the papal chair at the commencement occupied of sound judgment, contest with Leo, was a man as well He availed himself of all as an able and zealous priest. the advantages chief of the of his position, as political and moderation ; nor did he Latin race, with prudence the power he derived from the circumstance that neglect Rome instruction for all the fountain of religious was and ecclesiastical western Europe. Both his political entitled him to make a direct opposition to any position of the emperor of Constantinople, measure oppressive when the edicts of Leo III. concerning image-worship
at
iii ohap. 8.
PAPAL
OPPOSITION
TO
LBO'S
KEF0EM8.
47
the contest, which soon ended a. d. promptedhim to commence in separating central Italy from the Bjzantine empire. 7i7^. of the Eastern in The possessions were Italy emperors stiU considerable; Venice, Rome, Ravenna, Naples, Bari, of well-peopled all capitals and Tarentum and were Venice and wealthydistricts. The province embracing Rome was or exarch who by an imperial governed viceroy resided at Ravenna, and hence the Byzantine possessions in central Italy called the Exarchate of Ravenna. were the orders of the exarch,three governors or dukes the troops in Ravenna, Rome, and Venice. commanded Under
As
province formed a considerable portion irom the Lombards of the of the Italiansexercised the popular force, military feelings influence over the soldiery. The Constantinopolitan some account of the fiscal disliked, on generally governor was of which he was the agent; and nothing but the rapacity dread of greater the part of the Lombards^ on oppression
to
defend the
whom
the Italianshad not the courage to encounter without the assistance of the Byzantine the troops, preserved
in their central Italy
of people the
feared the Lombards. Greeks,but they II. sent Leo strongrepresentations his Gregory against
the
firstedictson
of image-worship, and afterthe subject silentionhe repeated these representations, and entered decided course of opposition to the emperor's on a more ecclesiastical reforms, beingthen convinced that there his heretical opinions. was no hope of Leo abandoning It seems like the rest of the empire, that Italy, had in some from the oppressive burden of escaped degree the anarchy that preceded taxation during Leo's imperial
tinople election. But the defeat of the Saracens before Constan-
the
to
march to Rome
the supportMarinus,
48
ICONOCLAST
PBKIOD.
BOOK
OH.L
I.
|i.
the against burst into papalinfluence.^ The whole of central Italy its civil rebellionat this demonstration against gious and reliinterests. The exarch was compelledto shut himself up in Ravenna ; for the cities of Italy, instead of obeying elected magistrates the imperial of oflBcers, in some their own, on whom they conferred, cases, the of duke.2 Assemblies were held, and the project of title an electing adopted ; but the emperor of the West was unfortunate resultof the rebellionof Greece damped the named courage of the Italians; and though a rebel, in Tuscany, Tiberius Petasius, assumed the purple really who suche was easily defeated and slain by Eutychius, ceeded Paul as exarch of Ravenna. kingof Luitprand, vaded inthe Lombards, taking of these dissensions, advantage of the imperial and gainedpossession territory, of saving Ravenna ; but Gregory, who saw the necessity wrote the countryfrom the Lombards and from anarchy, to Ursus the duke of Venice,one of his warm partisans, and persuaded him to joinEutychius.The Lombards Ravenna defeated by the Byzantine were was covered, retroops, and Eutychius entered Rome with a victorious died in 731. army.s Gregory Though he excited the Italiancities to resistthe imperial power, and approved of the measures for stopping the remittance theyadopted of their taxes to Constantinople,* he does not appear to have adopted for declaring Rome dent. indepenany measures of That he contemplated the possibilityevents lead him to throw off a turn that mightultimately taking his allegiance to the Emperor Leo, is neverthelessevident,
of his letters to that emperor, in which he boasts that the eyes of the West were fixed on very significantly his humility, to injure the and that if Leo attempted
one
1
to contend
from
The
Latins accused
Leo of
Marinus ordering
* '
*
De VU. Pont Rom. 69. Anastasius, Ann, Ecdes. xii. 348, No. xxvii Baronii, 838. Theophanes,
PAPAL
OPPOSITION.
49
readyto defend him, and a.i". The allusionto the pro- ^^^^^ to attack Constantinople. eyen and Charles Martel tection of the kingof the Lombards in this case, a treasonable threat on the was certainly, of Rome Besides to his sovereign.^ part of the Bishop this, GregoryII. excommunicated the exarch Paul,and all the enemies of image-worship who were under acting to avoid the guilt the orders of the emperor, pretending of treason by not expressly namingthe Emperor Leo in his Pope,he
anathema.^
Leo
was
On
the other
hand, when
we
consider that
to extend the bounds of the imperial fitriving and that his object in an arbitrary was manner, authority the exercise of despotism to sweep away every barrier against must in the church and the state, we acknowledge of Gregory founded injustice, and that the opposition was institutions that he was entitledto defend the municipal and the constitution of the and local usages of Italy, of declaring Romish at the price himself a church, even
rebel
The
election of
confirmed
was
the usual form ; nor that pope consecrated until the mandate from Constantinople This was the last time the reached Rome.
by the
the
papalchair was
solicited to confirm the election emperors of the East were Leo steadily of a pope. Meanwhile pursuedhis schemes his
measures
of ecclesiasticalreform, and
the
to opposition
III. assembled gathered strength. Gregory at which the municipal a council in Rome, authorities, to circumscribe, whose power Leo was endeavouring were with the nobles ; and in this council the present along excommunicated. whole body of the Iconoclasts was Leo
now
Rome
and
1 EitUnre de$ Souveraint Pontifos Bomains, i"r le Chev. Artaud de Montor, i.438. than for historical This work is more remarkable for popish bigofcry Two epistles of Gregory 11. are preservedamong the acts of Uie accuracy. second conncil of Kicsa, yiil 651, 674. * De VU, Pont Bom, 69. 342. Anastasius, Theophanes,
VOL.
I.
60
lOONOOLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK Ch
1.
T.
IS.
With his usnal energy, allegiance. he despatched of Manes, nnder the command an expedition of the Kibjrraiot the general theme, with orders to send the pope a prisoner to be tried for his to Constantinople, treasonable conduct. the lakeAdriatic, conduct of the Greeks in the imperial and serrice, warm of Ravenna, whose municipal the conrage of the people
A
storm
in the
to act in an
man* organised
Leo
venged re-
see in the eastern papal the ecclesiastical by separating government of southern and Macedonia, from the Greece, lUyria, Sicily, Italy, and placing these countries under the papal jurisdiction, of the Patriarch of Constantinople. immediate authority this time,a.d. 733, the city of Rome From enjoyed the a nd under political independence guidance protection of the Byzantine of the popes ;^ but the officers emperors allowed to reside in the city, administere were was justice publidy and the supremacy of the by Byzantine judges, Eastern Empire was still So completely, ever, howrecognised. III. thrown off his allegiance, that he had Gregory with Charles Martel, in order entered into negotiations to take an active part in to induce that powerfol prince The pope was the affairsof Italy.^ more now a much the Exarch of the than for Ravenna, powerful personage citiesof central Italy, which had assumed the control of
relations to political
the
care
of
who Gregory,
thus
held the balance of power between the Eastern emperor and the Lombard king.^ In the year 742, while Constantine V
.,
the
son
of Leo, was
on
the Lombards
^ ' '
were
the
eve
AuMtasiuB, I"" ViL P"mL JUm, 74. CUr. Oallio, iL tl ohap. xriiL Bossuet,jirfenM, Pftulus DiAoonos,Ti. chi^ 54.
52
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
exgradually
BOOK
last a
new
island rose
^'"^^
the joined
older
isletcalled rocky
In the year 740, a terrible destroyed great earthquake the walls of The Constantinople. statue of Arcapart of
and the Xerolophon, the golden statue of Theodosius over gate,were both and thrown down.^ Churches, monasteries, private ruined walls cities in of Thrace : the were buildings many and Bithynia, and Nicomedia, Prsenetus, particularly to require immediate restoration. Nicaea, so injured were as This greatearthquake caused the imposition of the alluded to, termed the dikeration. tax already Leo has been accused as a persecutor of learning. It is by no means that his Asiatic education and impossible rendered him hostileto the legendary puritanical opinions literatureand ecclesiastical art then cultivated by the Greeks ; but the circumstance usually forward in brought column in
supportof his barbarism is one of the calumnies invented and re-echoed by orthodox bigotry. He by his enemies,
is said to have ordered of 33,000 library consisting in the neighbourhood of St Sophia's, to be burned, volumes, and the professors of the university to be thrown into the
a
flames.
seems
to have
the flames
1 Theopbanee, 889. NicephorusPat 37. This addition to Hieron (Palaia du Voloan de SarUorin, et Phinominet Kamlen^) may stillbe traced, ffistoire 186. Ross, JUiten a^f den GrieohUchen Intdn, L 89. The par I'Abb^ Ptfgues, author is reminded he derived from a visit to by this note of the pleasure Santorin in 1837,with Professor Ross of Halle, a most accompli^ed and profotmd scholar, and Professor C. Ritter, the greatgeographer of Berlin. ' H Christiana, Ducauge, CoHstantinopolis 78, 81. Scarlatos Byzantios,
"
The latter is a work of more than value. pretension Manasses, 87. Schlosser,Oe$ekichte der hUdentHrmenden Kaiter,163. Spanheim, HUtoria Jmaginim Re$tituta, 115. Maimbouig (J7i"toirede VHeresie dcs JeonoclatUs, L 58)believes and magnifies the accounts of
Kavs-ayrtvovnoKis,i. 289.
'
1. Constant
CONSTAKTIKB
V*, A.D.
741-775.
53
a. d.
Constantine emperor in the year 720, and married him to the daughter of the Khan of the Khazars, in 733. Irene,
^^*'^^^'
fiBOT. HL-CONSTANTINB
T., (COPBONTMUB,) V.
"
AJ).
741-778.
Character
WAR
"
of
Constantinb
WAR
"
^Reseluon
of
Artayasdos
OV THB
"
Saracen
EMPIRE
" "
BULOARIAN
BBQARDINa
InTBRNAL
"
OOin)mOir
POUCT
AT
IMAGE-WORSHIP
PhTBIOAL
PHENOMENA
PlAQITE
CJONSTANTINOPLB.
Constantino throne
at
ascended the V., called Copronymus/ the age of twenty-two,but he had already
borne the title of emperor as his father'scolleague one and twentyyears, for the Byzantine so empirepreserved
the elective of the Roman strictly imperial dignity, tjrpe that the onlymode of securing the hereditary sion transmisof the empire for the reigning was emperor to obtain his son's election during his own lifetime. Historians tellus that Constantine was a man possessing every vice combined with habits and tastes to humanity, disgraceful and which must have rendered his company disgusting his person contemptible. Yet theyrecord facts proving when his and that, that he possessed even great talents, he found many devoted fortunes appeared desperate, fore friends. The obloquy must thereheapedon his name be ascribed to the blind passion inspired by religious and forbearance The not of one charity. bigotry. age was considered freedom of opinion The wisest generally a of anarchy with religious incompatible feeling, species both and good government; consequently, moral duty, of persecuIconoclasts and image-worshippers approved
in spite of the silence of Leo's earlier enemies. tbe later Byzantine chronicles, had been destroyed of 120,000 volumes to Ephrsemius, v. 1007,a library Iliad the and the MS. of the which firein of in was sey, OdysZeno, reign by This MS. was 120 feet long. skm. written with letters of gold on serpent's ^ Constantine received his name of Copronymus from having defiled the to the Patriarch plunged him into the water according font when baptismal the usage of the Greek Chmrch.
Aooordmg
64
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK
Cv.
I.
sidered con-
{ 8.
Constantino tortured the imagogood cause. the themselves by defaming revenged ^they worshippers which rendered Constantino But the persecutions emperor.
"
in the eyes of the Greeks and Italians, of a elevated him to the rank of a saint in the opinion
a
monster
who regarded of the empire, largo body of the population abhoiTont of pictures of idolatry the worship as a species His religious to Christianity. rage, zeal, success, coupolitical with the prosperity that talents, together military all conspired attended his government, to make him the who regarded his tomb as a sacred idol of the Iconoclasts, shrine until it was destroyed by Michael the orthodox
drunkard.^ Constantino ho
was was
but
not
more
tender of human
The Patriarch are. generally him of driving monks from their monasteries, and converting In modern times, sacred buildings into barrack" orthodox papist have frequently done the same sovereigns without exciting much ecclesiastical thing, indignation. But when the Patriarch assures that the emperor's us mind was his name, we may be allowed to as as filthy instead of suspect that his pen is guidedby orthodoxy find grave historians recording truth ; and when we that ho loved the odour of horse-dung, and carried on with old maids,we are reminded of the Byzantine amours in the anecdotes of love of calumny which could delight and believethat the EmperorJustinian was a Procopius, that ho was not ashamed of such diabolical man principles, for many hours of the night to walk about his palace out withof Constantino by his hoad.^ An account of the reign ifhe represented the emperor even Iconoclast, an intelligent
^
'
BEBBLLION
OF
ABTAVASDOS.
55
as
would be saint,
one
of the
most
raluable illastrations
a.d.
of the eighth history centurywhich time could hare the practice of inspared He was accused of rejecting it is yokingthe intercessionof the Virgin Mary,though
of the
^^|^
of God.
He
was
also
of any man to be called a right saint ; and he had even the audacity to maintain,that ings, thoughthe martyrs benefited themselves by their suffertheir merit,however great it might be, was not a that could be transferred to others. His enemies quality these opinions crimes.^ Few repuas damnable regarded tations, such an ordeal of however,have passed through malice as that of Constantine, and preserved so many
*
undeniable virtues.
after his succession, Constantine lost possession Shortly of Constantinople the treachery of his brotherthrough
Artavasdos
the
Armenian
to mount
rewarded
with the hand of Anna, the Isaurian'sonlydaughter, and with the dignity of curopalates, second only to that of
imperial ing blood. Artavasdos had increased his influence by favouradministrative the orthodox ; his longservices in the highest offices had enabled him to attach many partisans service. in every branch of the public to his personal cause in a civil The manner in which Constantino was engaged
war
rank Csesar, a
then
reserved usually
for the
dishonour
on
pushed their incursions into under theme, where the imperial Opsikian guards,
Artavasdos,were
stationed.
to oppose
Constantine
56
BOOK
I.
iOONOCLAST
PERIOD.
vanced to the
^''^^
of Krasos. Here he ordered Artaplains to joinhim with the yasdos,who was at Dorylaeum, order alarmed The troops of the Opsikiantheme. in who seems to have been already engaged Artavasdos, he assumed Instead of obeying, treasonable intrigues. of emperor, and the title that the
attacked Constantine
so
pectedly unex-
and dispersed, imperial army was easily taken prisoner the young emperor could onlyavoid being horse sank from off alone. When his own by galloping Constantine was compelled to seize a post-horse, fatigue, in order to which he happenedto find readysaddled, continue his flight. He was fortunate enoughto reach Amorium in safety.^ Artavasdos marched to Constantinople, where, it appears from coins, he affected for
of Constantine; and colleague
some
as
the
it is
some
treaty may
the brothers-in-
law.^ The usurper, however, considered himself strong soon stantine with the support of the orthodox,to set Conenough, aside. The
were pictures
the and Nicephorus, collected, troops was eldest son of Artavasdos, crowned as his father's was the second, took the command colleague ; while Niketas, of the Armeniac theme, where the family possessed great
Armenian
influence. All persons suspected of favouring Constantine were to picture-worship. as hereticshostile persecuted
Constantine assembled an following year (742) of the troops of the Thrakesian and chiefly army composed Anatolic themes. With this force he marched to Chrysopolis, (Scutari,) hopingthat a party in Constantinople would declarein his favour ; but, he was being disappointed, the to withdraw to Amorium, where he passed compelled
^
In the
Theophanea, 847.
was a
KrasoB ' Do
xii 190.) NioephoroaFftt 88. Saint Martin, {Lebeam, of Phrygia Pacatiana. "9ai de ClataificoHon dtM SuUet MonStairei Byzantme$, 156. Saulcy,
town
KEBELLION
OP
ARTAVASDOS,
A.D.
743.
57
Artavasdos marched to dislodge him, a. d. spring, his son Niketas to bring ordering up the Armenian troope ^^^^^ All flank of the young emperor. to operateon the right the countryin the usurper's line of march was ravaged, he never as if it was a territory hoped to govern. Conhad been cultivatedby his whose military Btantine, genius formed a daring and executed father, planof campaign,
In
winter.
it in the
most
brilliantmanner.
While
believed that
they were
to advancing
move
attack him
to become the attacking as celerity party,before they could approach ous near enough to combine any simultaneHis first attack was directed against movements.
pline in disciwhose numerous inferior Artavasdos, army was and over which he expected to that of Niketas, an easier victory. A general near engagement took place watered by the the Kelvian plain, Sardis,on quitting
was complete.The usurper was victory from whence he escaped to Cyzicus, by closely pursued to Constantinople. Constantine then moved forward sea to meet Niketas,who was defeated in a bloodybattle at Modrina,in the Boukellarian theme, to the east fought of the Sangarius.The Armenian auxiliaries and the troops of the Armeniac theme sustained their highreputation, and longdisputed the victory. The emperor then marched to invest Constantinople, with one division of his army, the Bosphorus crossing and sending of Sisinnios, under the command another,
Kaister.
The
the the
cross
the shores of
was
theme Kibyrraiot
tions capital by sea. All communicaof the imagewith Greece,one of the strongholds thus cut off, Constantine repulsed were worshippers, made frightful by land, and famine quickly every sally of the capital, where no ravages in the dense population ordered to blockade the
68
lOOKOOLAST
PBBIOD.
BOOK
I.
been made
a
for
siege. Constantine
from He jects; sub-
^'"^^
this occasion in
Artavasdos
feltthat the
and
his own
in his camp.^ to seek refuge population starring of his Niketas quickly reassembled the fugitives
own
an
attempt to
cut off
leftthe camp before defeated himself at the head of the troops in Asia,again Niketas near Nicomedia. Niketas and the orthodox The both taken prisoners. of Gangra were archbishop beheaded as a traitor; was belligerent immediately prelate but Niketas was carried to Constantinople, where he was
exhibited before the walls laden with fetters. Artavasdos
and Constantine at capitulation, the lastordered a general assault, by which he captured the 2d November 743. Artavasdos escaped on by city to called in fortress the sea theme, a Opsikian Pyzanitis, after where he was taken prisoner. His eyes, and soon those of his sons, Nicephorus and Niketas, were put out; and in thiscondition they exhibited as a triumphal were at the to the inhabitants of Constantinople, spectacle chariot races givenby the emperor to celebrate his reall terms of still rejected
establishment
on
the throne.
His
brother-in-law and
in a monastery. Some of then immured were nephews their principal adherents were The head of beheaded. the principal minister of the usurper, was Vaktageios, exhibited for three days in the Augusteon a custom stances perpetuated by the Ottoman emperors in similar circum"
times,the heads of rebel viziers of adorned the gate of the Serail during the reign having
our own
until
The
Patriarch Anastasios
was
par-
Pat Nicephorus
40.
852. Theophanes,
60
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
of Cyprus. conquest
^'"*^'
island appears to have been reconquered by Leo for it had been abandoned to the Mohammedans III., sailed from by Justinian II. The fleet of the caliph and landed Alexandria, but the fleetof the
an
army at the
portof Kerameia
theme arrived in time to Kibyrraiot blockade the enemy's medan and of a thousand Mohamships, The war vessels three onlyescaped, 748. a.d. armies took the continued. In 752 the imperial was but some citiesof Melitene and Theodosiopolis, years later the CaliphMansour recovered Melitene and Germanicia : he seems, however, to have considered the tenure of the last so insecurethat he transported the inhabitants into Palestine. The Saracens invaded the every
summer,
almost empire
to no
permanent
tiers population agricultural alongthe fronnished dimiof the two empires must have been greatly thesesuccessiveravages ; for farm-buildings during and fruit-trees were and slaves constantly destroyed, formed the most valuable bootyof the soldiers. The
conquests. The
tolerant government of the emperor of that name to the began now to be applied (for
to the Byzantine empire^) part of Asia Minor belonging in of in the his celebrated so was East, spite persecution
that many at Constantinople, image-worshippers Christians escapedby sea from the dominions of the CaliphAl Mansour to settle in those of Constantine.^ In the year 769 an exchange of prisoners took place, but without interrupting of hostilities, which the course the frontiers of the continued almost incessantly were on two empires.^ to Constantinople The vicinity of the Bulgarians renAlmighty!
^ "
of the
who holyEternal,
uses
was
cnicified for
us
1"
"
Mosheim.
Murdook's
Theophanes
Ibid. 874.
Romania
in frequently
this sense.
876. Theophanes,
"
BITLGABUN
WAR,
A.D.
61
dered them
more
enemies dangerous
was
Saracens,
a. d.
thoughtheir power
were means
a
much
on
inferior. The
war as
Bulgarians
honourable
^^''^^'
it theyhad long pursued the Byzantine frontiers were with profit : for as long as sions theyobtained bootyand slavesby theirincurpopulous, became depopulated as soon as they by these ; while, enabled to occupy the waste were ravages, the Bulgarians and thus increase districtswith theirown pastoral hordes, To resist Contheirnumbers and strength. theirincursions. allthefortifications of the towns stantinegradually repaired and then commenced fortifying the northern frontier, on found theirpredatory cursions inthe passes, until the Bulgarians attended with lossinsteadof gain. Their king was of the predatory to make the cause bands now compelled and an embassy sent to Constantinople a national question, was
to
demand
payment of
some
under the
to
pretextthat
passes were
tory, terriBulgarian the loss of the plunder to replace but, in reality, which had enabled many of the warlike Bulgarians to live in idleness and luxury. The demands of the king and he immediately invaded the empire were rejected, The Bulgarians carried their with a powerful army. wall ; but thoughthey derived ravages up to the long assistancefrom the
in
own were Thrace,they numerous
guardthe
situated in the
Sclavonian coloniessettled
and driven back into their defeated, with greatslaughter, a.d. 757. territory Constantino carried on a seriesof campaigns, tically systemafor planned, power.
the purpose of weakening Bulthe garian his enemy to make Instead of allowing
he was always readyto any incursionsinto the empire, their into The difficulties of his territory. carry the war
were enterprise great,and he suffered several defeats; but his military talents and persevering energy prevented the Bulgarians from profiting success by any partial they
62
BOOK
Cb.
X.
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
{8.
the superioritj. In the and he soon regained obtained, of 760, 763, and 765, Constantino marched campaigns far into Bulgaria, and carried off immense year 766 of
booty.In
the
he intended to
the conquest of the complete campaignat the commencement consisted of two thousand six
hundred vessels, in which he had embarked a considerable in order to enter the Danube, was assailed body of infantry
by one
the Euxine. would
soon
force which
master
the
render him
of
expected suddenly
ruined.
covered with
and the bodies of his soldiers, ships of conabandoned all thought Constantine immediately tinuing and employedhis whole army in the campaign, and in securing the calamity to the surrivors, alleyiating
the wrecks of his Christian burial and funeral honours
truce
was
to
the dead.
concluded with
the enemy,
to
vices employtheir serhe had as religion, and conquest. been to lead them to the fieldof glory ever him as much popuHis conduct on this occasion gained larity with the with the peopleof Constantinople as troops.* In the year 774 he again assembled an army of thousand men, accompanied eighty by a fleet of two The Bulgarian and invaded Bulgaria. thousand transports,
monarch
concluded
as soon
a as
treatyof peace
was
"
^which,
however,was
the
moment
broken
Constantine returned to
not
the emperor
he heard that the enemy fend of the fortresses he had constructed to deVerzetia, one he quitted the frontier, in the month Constantinople
The
1 368. KioepbonisPat. 47. Theopbanee, of Constantine in the Bulgarian were war DiaconoB, 104,edit. Bonn.
0"OANISSD
BRIGAFDS.
63
a.d.
of
ronted October,and, faUing on the besiegers, suddenly their army with great slaughter. The following year his
was
^^^"^^'
army
tino again readyto take the field; but as Constanit he was attacked by a morto join was on his way tal which compelled him to retrace his steps. illness, in order to reach Constantinople Hayingembarked at Selymbria, with as little he died on as possible, fatigue board the yessel at the castle of Strongyle, justas he readied the walls of his capital, the 23d September on
775.1
carried on was Bulgarians of securing rather with the object to the northern tranquillity than from any desire of a of the empire, provinces barren conquest. The necessity of reducing the Sclayonian colonies in Thrace and Macedonia to complete obedience to the central administration, and of secluding them from all political with one another, communication and Dalor with their countrymen in Bulgaria, Seryia, of maintaining the emperor the necessity on matia,imposed the policy and suggested of strong bodies of troops, and Asiatic coloniesalong a line of Greek towns forming this was the northern frontier of the empire. When done, Constantino began to root out the brigandage, extended itself during the anarchy which had greatly and which Leo had his father'selection, which preceded
neyer
The
long war
with
the
been
able
to
exterminate.
Numerous
bands lived
within the bounds in a state of independence, by plunder, called Skamars, and, like the of the empire. They were confederaciesof outlaws, Bagaudsof Gaul, formed organised of men driven to despair by originally consisting
wiih the Cyolobionor Seyen Towers." Banduri, ihe same OnefU. edit. Ven. ii 530, Ducange, Comt, Chrut. 46, 102. Magnaura was Imp, of the western pointof Constantinople, Zonaras, ii 89 ; though the authority howAnother Hebdomon. the at would it 294, passage, place Theophanes, were and proyes that both Magnaura and (p.831,) eyer, corrects this, towards without the chain which dosed the port at the pointsof the triangle
1
is StroDgyle
Cyolobion
the
(^riti,127. Gylliusseems
wrong"
2"" Topog.
64
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
^"'"^^
of the intolerableburden of taxation, and the seyerity garians the fiscal the incursionsof the BulWhen legislation.^
had wasted the fields of the
ment
the govemcultiyator,
of still called upon him to pay the full amount taxation imposedon his estate in prosperous times : his his cattle, his slaves, and his seed-corn were produce,
oflBcers. He could then carried away by the imperial who had his fellow-subjects, only live by plundering
hitherto
the escaped
calamities by which
he had been
of the imperial oppression ment governthat submitted to it was avengedon the society without striving to reform its evils. Constantino rooted
out these bands.
was
with the greatest executed at Constantinople publicly his living barbarity, body beingdissected by surgeons tual afterthe amputation of his hands and feet. The habiin the Byzantine of legal barbarity punishments of Constantino empirecan hardlyrelieve the memory of cruelty, which this punishment from the reproach to employagainst the enemies of his proves he was ready His whether brigands or image-worshippers. authority, not only laws against was error, therefore, liberty passing
of conscience
"
which
"
was
of spirit
with
the age
a
but in
offensiveto cruelty
Yet feelings.
of humanity, as many occasions Constantino gave proofs well as of a desireto protect his subjects. The Sclavonians
on
the coast
of
some
piratical
carried off many of the inhabitants of Tenedos, vessels, Imbros, and Samothrace,to sellthem as slaves. The emperor hundred
on
two
thousand five
to lower hb own subjects, preferring rather than dignity, by payinga tribute to the pirates, allow those who looked to him for protection to pine
^ Compare Ducange, Olosiarium Med. wit;h Wallon, Bistoirede l'"$davage dam
of his
Bagauda
INTERNAL
POLICY.
65
misery. No act of his reign a. d. away their livesin hopeless shows so much real greatness of mind as this. He also ^^^'^^^'
concluded of
one
the convention
an
change ex"
the
frontiers. Byzantine
for woman,
to
save
woman
child.i
These
conventions tended
innumerable
and prisoners,
of his
gigantic cable. practiOne of his plans tivated unculin for reviving agriculture districts them with coloniesof was by repeopling
on
a
were empire
carriedout
far more
to whom emigrants,
On efficient protection.
of a colony Bithynia,
was
thousand Sclavonians
formed.2
The
Christian
and Doliche,Melitene, Thrace,to watch and restrainthe rude Sclavonians settled in that
tinued province ; and these Asiatic colonists longconand flourish to multiply.^ They are even accused the heretical which they of spreading had brought opinions from the East throughout greatpart of western Europe,
by the
^
extent
of their commercial
relationsand the
ample ex-
It is not honesty.*
to be
this time the slave-trade was very active, and the in Christian with the hammedans. Mocommerce slaves flourishing De Vtt, Pont. Jtom, 79, Evist. Hadriani, L ep. xiL AnastasiuSy Even during the anarchy that prevailedin western Europe at the end of the seventh century, Roman slave-merchants imports slaves from Britain, as we from the anecdote of St Gregory, know repeatedby all our historians. ' Pat 44. 364. Nicephorus Theophanes, " Pat 43. 854, 360. Nicephorus Theophanes, * How "ar the Albigenseswere indebted for their doctrines to these colonies is stilla question. See Schmidt, Hitioir4et Doctrine de la Sectede" Catkares ou 2 vols. 1849. Albigeoii. Venetians
on a
At
VOL.
I.
66
BOOK
Ch.
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
{ 8.
that the measures of Constantine's administrasupposed however greathis political abilities tioD, mightbe,were
competent to
and land
such
as
remoye
was Agriculture
of the socialeyils of his age* still carried on in the rudest manner ; many
were
communications
and difficult
and insecure,
on
As profit.
usual under
in close succession. Yet the bitterestenemy alternating the abbot Theophanes, of Constantino, confessesthat his abundance. It is true,he reof general proaches one was reign him with loading the husbandmen with taxes ; but he also
accuses
him of
beinga
new
Midas,who made
goldso
The
so
common
cheap.
is not confessed,
Nicephorus, is to be believed, another enemy of Constantino, grain that of so abundant, measures was or goldso rare, sixty sold for a of barley, were wheat, or seventy measures severe nomisma, or goldByzant.^ To guard against in its and supply the gardens droughtin the capital, immediate vicinity with water, Constantino repaired the of Valens. The flourishing condition of great aqueduct in Greece at the time is attested by the fact, the towns that the best workmen in cement were soughtin the
Hellenic citiesand the islandsof the
The time and attention of
orthodox
Archipelago.^
whole
in military principally engaged tions. occupaIn the eyes of his contemporaries he was judged andindeabilities conduct* His strategic by his military
As a contrast of barley was
to this
were reign,
cheapness,
twelve while Artayasdos was besieged in Constantinople. ' were Theophanes, 871. Six thousand nine hundred workmen employed. and two hundred One thousand masons were brought fh"m Asia plasterers Minor from Greece and the and Pontus ; five hundred workers in cement labourers from Thrace, with two islands of the Archipelago five thousand ; hundred potters. nomismata
sold
for
68
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
much to the
^''*^
of the emperor to govern the church, as right to the question whether pictures to be worshipped were and archbishops or not, he ordered the metropolitans to hold provincial in order to discipline the people synods, for the execution of the edicts he proposed to carry in a council of the Eastern church.i general This general council was convoked at Constantinople in the year 754. It was attended by 338 bishops, ing formthe most numerous of the Christian clergy assembly which had ever been collected together for ecclesiastical of Ephesus, of Theodosius, son legislation. metropolitan the Emperor Tiberius III., for the patriarchal presided, chair had been kept vacant siuce the death of Anastasios in the preceding Neither the Pope nor the year. of Antioch,Alexandria, and Jerusalem sent patriarchs which was solely to this council, composed representatives of the Byzantine to assume so that it had no right clergy, the rank of
an
all
which it declared to be contrary against image-worship, to Scripture. and picIt proclaimed the use of images tures in churches to be a pagan and antichristian practice, the abolition of which was necessary to avoid leading Christiansinto temptation. Even the use of the crucifix was condemned, on the groundthat the onlytrue symbol of the incarnation was the bread and wine which Christ had commanded to be received for the remission of sins.
of pictures, the council worahip led into the display was of some animosity ing paintagainst itself jects sacred sub; and every attempt at embodying the dead and accursed art, foolishly by what it styled The invented by the pagans, was strongly condemned. thus deprived of a source of ideas, common were people liableto abuse, tended in general to civilise which,though gious and relitheir minds,and mightawaken noble thoughts We may fully aspirations. agree with the Iconoclasts
^
TO
atkhrrta iujQ!* 858,fieXrrcoy v6Kuf r^ XcAp ^ctSc Theopbaneei iicdnpf idtov"f)p6injfta doKiws nrccrdcu.
vp6s
POLICY
BBGARDINa
IMAGB-WORSHIP.
69
of not worshipping religious importance images, a.d. and not allowing the people to prostrate themselves on ^*^^' the pavements of churches before pictures of saints, whether said to be
in the
painted by human
artists or
lous miracu-
time we think that the agency ; while at the same walls of the vestibules of sacred edificesmay or porticoes with
be adorned with pictures propriety representing those sacred subjects of most to awaken feelings likely Christian charity. It is by embodying and ennobling the of feelings to allmankind,that modern common expression artists can
glowof
creativeimagination which
as
diyine stamp to many pagan works. the circle of human affairs so democratic
"
art.
The
Council of 754, however, deemed that it was necessary to art sacrificeart to the purity of religion. The godless
of
"
All who manufactured crucifixes proscribed. in public for worship, sacred paintings or or vate, priordered to be whether laymen or monks, were excommunicated by the church and punished by the state. criminate the indisin order to guardagainst At the same time, and shrinesposdestructionof sacred buildings sessing and jewels, and rich plate valuable ornaments by
paintingwas
"
the council commanded Iconoclasticzeal, or under its pretext, that no alteration to be made in existing was
of the patriarch without the special churches, permission and the emperor a regulation bearing strongmarks of
"
of the central treasuryof the Roman the fiscal rapacity in the of the age was displayed empire. The bigotry three of anathema which thiscouncil pronounced against and virtuous advocates of imagedistinguished Germanos, the Patriarch of Constantinople, worship, and John Damascenus, the lastof the Georgeof Cyprus,
the most
70
BOOK ^'
'"
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
I.
The
^^
cess by the civilpower. The sucof the emperor in restoring to the empire, prosperity tined desto believe that he was induced many of his subjects
basis for
to
as
could doubt men thinking deep into both. In many minds there was a contest and the feeling of picture-worship between the superstitions of
were
who regarded the superstiunconnected with the church, tions them the To of the people with aversion. reverence
to imagessaid to have fallen from paidby the ignorant who heaven,to pictures painted by St Luke, to virgins before the lampsburning wept, and to saintswho supplied with a perpetual fountain of oil, their effigies appeared rank idolatry.^ There were also still of philoa few men sophic minds who exercised the right of private judgment both and and who civil on ecclesiastical, public questions, felt that the emperor was making popularsuperstition the pretext for rendering his power in the despotic His conduct appeared church as in the state. to these law and of Roman men a violation of those principles which rendered the systematic ecclesiastical legislation in the Roman to government of society superior empire rule of Mohammedan the arbitrary or the wild despotism, licenseof Gothic anarchy. The Greek church had not hitherto made it imperative its membei*s to worship on abuse in the reverence images; it had onlytolerated popular paid to these symbols so that the ignorant monks who i*esisted the enlightened Iconoclastsmight, by
" "
liberal-minded of the
men,
be considered
as
benefactors of
^ At Athens is a ohiurch of the blessed Vixigin Mary, which has a lamp that burns always, The Travki "(f and never wants oiL SamU/, 82. Early TraveU Bohn's edit. in Palestine,
"
POLICY
RBGABDINQ
1MAGB-W0R8HIP.
71
eridence that such feelings a. d. positive and theycould not existwithout producing existed, reallj 7^|^influence on society L ess than some generally. forty years
after the death of
numerous
mankind.
There is
so
in the imperial cabinet to struggle heretics from persecution, the ground that the Bare on church had no authority should be conto ask that men demned for death God to matters of belief, as may always turn the mind of the sinner to repentance. Theophanes
that it could
sentiments in
his eagerness to blame them.^ resistedthe edictsof Con* boldly Many of the clergy stantine
to
enforcethe
new
the
void,for a general coun-* were Constantinople cil could onlybe convoked by an orthodox emperor; and of Con** they took upon themselves to declarethe opinions
stantine heterodox. in the The
monks
engagedwith
The
eagerness
which controversy
arose.
the Pope,
patriarchs
and Jerusalem,replied to the of Antioch,Alexandria, excommunications of the council by condemning all its The emperor, enraged to eternal perdition. supporters he met with,enforced the execution of at the opposition and energy of his character; his edictswith allthe activity his views urged him religious and passion to be a persecutor.It is evident that policy the much connected with his violence against were as for he treated as religious feeling, image-worshippers who appeared to be quiet many hereticswith toleration of offering and inoffensive tion incapable subjects, any opposischemes. The and ecclesiastical to his political and the Monophysites the Paulicians, Theopaschites, his whole reign.2 toleration during religious enjoyed
well as political
as
his
'
72
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
In the year 766 the edicts against were image-worship tional extended in their application, and enforced with addich^^s.
of rigour.The use of relics and the practice to saints were praying prohibited. Many monks, and banished ; several members of the dignified were clergy, inflicted lossof the eyes and of the tongue, were stripes, before a picture, for prostration or as legal punishments of the before a relic. Yet, even at this period praying the emperor at times displayed excitement, great greatest forbearance ; when, however, either policy or personal him to order punishment to be inflicted, passion prompted it was done with fearfulseverity.^ Two cases may be mentioned as afibrding a correct elucidationof the personal conduct of Constantine. A himself named Andreas the Kalybite, hermit, presented sension dishim for causing before the emperor, and upbraided in the church. If thou art a Christian, why
^^
dost thou
to
his
be carried
He imperial authority.
to
to
submit he
when
refused
to
admit the
After
and to
obey
the age,
was
cast
sea. a
the Stephen,
monastery near
Nicomedia,
the island of Proconnesus,on account of his firm opposition edicts; but his fame to the emperor's banished
to
for
numerous
votariesto his
to
flocked thither
and seditious
hear
of assembly
of the
^
pious persons roused the anger and Stephen to Concivil was authorities, brought
Bonefidius
870. Theophanes,
edict against
i.849. Mortreuil,
POLICY
EBQABDma
IMAGE-
WORSHIP.
73
to be staDtinople,
more
watched. His eloquence a.d. strictly door of his prison '^^^^ ; and the rever-
shown
much,
"
his followersyexed the emperor that he gave vent to his mortificationby exclaiming " It seems, in truth, that this monk is really
to
him
by
emperor, and I
was
am
in nothing
by some of the Like that of Henry II. concerning it Thomas-a-Becket, caused the death of Stephen. He was dragged from his and cruelly dered. murprison by some of the emperor's guard, The soldiery in dragging and the people joined his body through the streets, and his unburied remains left exposed in the place destined to receive those were of the lowest criminals. Both Stephenand Andreas declared martyrs, in the and rewarded with a place were
calendar of Greek saints.^
a
heard
of the
the Patriarch
to
an
Iconoclast, appears
He was removed from the the conspirators. joined and the dignity conferred on a Sclavowas patriarchate, nian prelate, Niketas.^ The deposedPatriarch named tinos, Constanto death. to trialand condemned was brought with the after his condemnation,and apparently his life spared, a declaration that hope of having signed that he believed the worship of imagesto be idolatry, contained the decrees of the council of Constantinople
Their festivalis celebrated on the 28th November, old style.Menologiwn Jtum Banlii Imp,, 8 torn. fol. Urbini,1727, torn, i 216. ' tion has preservedan anecdote which affords an amusing illustraQlycas (284) not of the "ct that the Greek element in society was at Constantinople The Patriarch Kiketas may have spoken Latin better yot the all-predominant than Qreek, for there was something far from Hellenic in his accent and ideas. of the evangeOne day,reading the New Testament, he pronouncedthe name list
1
"
Qnecorum
McnUaioVf and
of the my
not McrfSialov,
were
One
diphthong
not
to be
pleased dissepamted. The Sclavonian patriarch, round, and said, Don't talk nonsense; angrily
74
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
^''^^
faith of the emperor was This last article was pore. added because the patriarch accused of having tenanced counwas the emperor reportscharging the Virgin. opinions concerning he was mercy by his pliancy,
was
with heterodox
pected extence sen-
manner.
The
head
was
while the mob treated him with capital, his head the amphitheatre, every insult. On reaching when struck off. It may easily be supposed was that, the highest treated in ecclesiastic in the empire was this manner in the capital, of the imperial the severity often fearfully was agents in the distant provinces
tyrannical
of ecclesiastical which has so often spirit bigotry led popes, princes, those who and Protestants to bum differedfrom them in matters of opinion, gave the imagefortitude to resist as it gave their as much worshippers and polito persecute. The religious opponents cruelty tical reforms of the Isaurian emperors were a equally of aversion to the Pope and the Italians ; and all subject the possessions had been of the emperors in central Italy rendered virtually before Constantine even independent, convoked the council of Constantinople. His struggle with the Saracens and Bulgarians his had prevented making any effort in Italy.At Rome, however, the the civil and judicial popes continued to acknowledge after the supremacy of the emperor of the East, even Lombards had conquered the exarchate of Ravenna. But the impossibility of receiving stantine any supportfrom Conthe encroachments of the Lombards, induced against II. to apply to Pepinof France for Pope Stephen The
assistance.
to
Pope Paul I. afterwards carried his eagerness create a quarrel between Pepin and Constantine
76
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
places.The
Palus in the month
Black Sea
of
was
^''^^
MsBOtis to Mesembria.
began
764, immense mountains of Februarj ice were and dashed with the Bosphorus, driven through such violence against the walls of Constantinople as t-o threaten them with ruin. These icebergs were seventy and Theophanes when a mentions that, feet in thickness; of his young he mounted on one of them with thirty boy, companions.^ in the age of Constantino appears One greatcalamity
to have travelled over
was
the
the
of
and Syria,
of the lation considerable portion popuof the Caliph Yezid III. perished From
it visited Egypt and Syria into Sicily. from whence it passed After making Africa, and Calabria, it spread to Greece; great ravages in Sicily and
at
violence in
the most poputhen probably Constantinople, lous in It the universe. t o have been was city supposed and dispersed Christian countries, introduced, through by the Venetian and Greek ships on employedin carrying
a
contraband
and it spreadwherever commerce extended. nations, Monemvasia, one of the great commercial citiesat the of its with the return time, received the contagion and disseminated the disease over all vessels, trading On the Greece, and the islands of the Archipelago. this plaguethreatened to exterminate the continent,
vivid
of picture
us
the horrors
the fabricof
'
865. Theophanes,
PLAGUE
AT
CONSTANTINOPLE,
A.D.
747.
77
a. d.
stitions men's minds,and annihilated every preoccupied of duty. Some appeared to be urgedby a demosense
niacal
to commit impulse
'^^^^
the wildest
matter
were
recklessness. Small
to supposed
on
of
unctuous
invisible hand
engaged
in
narrated of
eyes of the the priest as thus marked
on
pursuits ; examples were ordinary their having visibleto the appeared suddenly the vestments of assembled congregation on
he officiatedat the altar.
out
was
their
The individual
the disease
were
assailed by invariably
soon
his return
home, and
died. and
Crosses
outer
walls of
were
monasteries
as
alike marked,
that
some
This
was
considered
were
an
intimation
immediate paroxyms
plague, many declared that theybeheld hideous spectreswandering about; these apparitions the crowded streets of the city, were seen through flitting into the passengers, at times walking at times questioning houses before the inmates, and then driving the proprietors
from the door. At times it was said that these
spectres
That
had
even
not reported on the delusion of were solely things the fancy of persons rendered insane by attacks of disease, is asserted by a historian who was bom about ten and who certainly his youthat Constantinople.^ passed years later, of Theophanes The testimony is confirmed cities. by the records of similardiseases in other populous punity The uncertainty of life offers additional chances of im-
these
to
of the
law,
is
and
weakens
Danger
are
what generally
^
fears
several
355. Theophanes,
He
was
bora
a.d.
758.
78
BOOK I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD,
chances of escape.
The
bold and
^"'"^^
of pestilence make periods times frequently general panic, of revelry and plunder as ; the very individualscharged order in to preserve themselves finding society, policemen
have been known to assume freefrom control, the disguise of demons, in order to plunder the terrifiedand superstitious
find of all impunity.The predominant passions fiiU scope when the feeling of responsibility is removed avarice the most unfeeling ; shame is thrown aside, the wildest debauchery are But, at the displayed.
with
and
same
time, it is
on
we
see
the noblest courage, the most devoted selfand the purestcharity. Boccaccio and Defoe,in sacrifice,
of examples the describing and at London
scenes
which occurred
The
number
of dead of
was
so
great,that when
the
the bodies to interment transporting the pack-saddles boxes were over insufficient, slung
were
of
cast without
tion distinc-
chariotswere
streets
a
crowd of
who
received
fixed
sum
of money
with each
the walls, hunto serve as graves for dreds and into these the aged beggarand the of bodies,
were
side by side. When all precipitated the cemeteries around the capital and the filled, were shut up in their panickept the mass of the population bodies were interredin the fieldsand vineyards dwellings, Dearest to the city or theywere cast into vacant gates, for a houses and empty cisterns. The disease prevailed whole houses tenantless, exterminated having year, and left
many
families.^ We
1
possess
no
of
PLAGUE
AT
CON"TAKTINOPLB,
we
A.D.
747.
79
of a.d. suppose the population at the time to have exceeded a million, ^^^^' Constantinople lossit sustained, we maj form an estimate of the probable deaths
it
but if caused,
at Milan, in the great plague that, by obserying during in the thousand persons perished 1630, about eightj-six of a year, in a population course one hardly exceeding hundred and fifty thousand souls.^ the After the plaguebad completely disappeared, inhabitants. immense influx of new an capital required To fillup the void caused by the scourge, Constantino
induced many Greek families from the continent and the islandsto emigrate to Constantinople. These new citizens
a immediately occupied
well-definedsocialposition ; for
whether
and of establishedcorporations, knew how to act in their new relationsof life without It was by the perfection of its corporate embarrassment.
they became
societiesand
the
empire Byzantine
cities and
without misfortune or discontent. provinces, the fiscal of the Roman By modifying severity ment, governfrom of the the members by relieving municipality the ruinous obligation for the of mutual responsibility of the land-tax, total amount the laws and by relaxing that fetteredchildren to the profession handicraftof or the Byzantine their parents, administrationinfused new preserved, system. It still energy into an enfeebledsocial inheritancefrom Rome, an intimate knowledge of as an the practical methods of regulating the relativesupplies of labour, in the manner leastlikely and population food, to inconvenience the government, though undoubtedly with little best calculatedto reference to the measures advance the happiness of the people.^
^ dal origifial La PesU di MUano del 1630 dal Canonico G. Ripamonti Latino da Francesco Cusani. Milano,1841. At Florence, hundred thousand are one said to have died of the plague; at London, ninetythousand. ' For the Byzantme system of taxation,as far as direct payment by the
80
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
^'"^^
as greatchanges produced pestilence in the provinces While the population as in the capital. character and lostmuch of its Roman of Constantinople number of Greek traditions by the infusion of a large
This memorable
of its Hellenic
a
large part by
the
itself. The middle classesof the Hellenic cities plague while an inferior classfrom the flocked to Constantinople, and thus a general their place, crowded to supply villages of the population eficcted translocation was ; and though this emigration to may have been confined principally the Greek race, it must have tended greatly to separate from those of an earthe future traditions of the people lier period.The Athenian or the Lacedemonian who lost all local characteristics settled at Constantinople, ; the their f rom who and the emigrants islands, supplied their traditions at Athens and Lacedemon, mingled place and dialectwith the Attic and Doric prejudices of their thus consigned homes : ancient traditions were to new oblivion. The depopulation on the continent and in the also so great that the Sclavonian was Peloponnesus extended their settlements over the greater population
the protection
The
extension greatest
wrote
and the
the
two
caused depopulation
who Emperor Constautine Porphyrogenitus, centurieslater, to have been the whole occupied and the Peloponnesus, and
Zonaras, iL 22i
;
vonians Greece
reduced it to
state
PLAGUE
AT
CONSTANTIKOPLB, emperor
A.D.
747.
81
of barbarism.^
some
The
perhapsconfounded
in
a.d.
the general translocationof the Greek podegree itselfwith the occupation of extensive districts, pulation then abandoned It is
to
^^^'^^^
certain, however, that from this time the oblivion of the ancient Hellenic names of villages, districts, rivers,
and mountains of those became
general ; and
a
inhabitants of
particular spotswith
same came
of the population
new names
The
or
which
into use, whether Sclavonian the loss of ancient traditions.^ the of reign
Constantino V., observe that he deserves praise for the he educated his
family.The
us
most
so
inform bigotedimage-worshippers
mild in his domestic
a protect nun
that he
was
wife to
Anthusa, who
one
was
most
devoted
of images ; and worshipper received from this nun daughters education. The
of the
emperor's
and
both her
was
name
Princess Anthusa
for distinguished
; she is said to have founded piety tian establishedin the Chrisof the first one orphanasylums ob* world; and her orthodox devotion to pictures the saints of the Greek tained for her a place among also to her godmother and church, an honour granted
teacher.^
1 s
De
ThemaUbua, iL
25.
Edit
886.
Menohffium Orcecorum,torn. iii.60-188. The festival and that of the celebrated on Uie 17th April, was daughter
the 27th July.
'
nun
VOL.
I.
82
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
BOOK
I.
CH.I.S4
SECT.
IV."
REIGNS
OP
LEO AND
17.
(THE
A.D.
KHAZAR,)
776-802.
CONSTANTINE
YL,
IRENE,
Leo
IV.,A.D.
woRSHiP AUTHORITY DIVORCES
"
775-780." Irene
Second
AT council
regent of
por
her
"
bon"
Restores
of
dcaob-
Nicjka
Extinction
THE
Btzantinb
"
ROME
and
"
CONSTANTINE
marrif.s
ASSUMES
"
GOVERNMENT
of monks
Maria
of of
Theodota
"
Opposition
dethrones
"
Persecution VI.
WAR"
"
Theodore
reigns war. of
Studita
Irene
Conbtantinx Irene
"
Policy
Constantinb
VL
and
Saracen
Bulgarian
Leo
five.
IV.
His
or
succeeded his father at the age of twentythe daughter of the mother, Irene, was
chagan of the Khazars, then a powerful whose territories the greater through part of the people,
emperor commercial intercourse between
rich countries in eastern from his mother
nor a
the
Asia
was
disposition ;
does he appear to have been destituteof some tion porbut the state of his health of his father'stalents,
him from displaying the same His activity. prevented and his administration lasted four years and a half, reign conducted in strict accordance with the policy of his was The weak state of his health father and grandfather. of the attention fixed on the question kept the public succession. Constantino V. had selected an imperial Athenian of great beautyand accomplishments, lady,
named
Irene,to be his son's wife,and Leo had a son named Constantino, who was born in the year 771. The indefinite of the imperial fancy nature and the insuccession,
of Leo's
child, gave
the two
half-brothersof the
emperor, who had been invested by theirfather with the rank of Casar, some the throne on hope of ascending
Leo conferred
order to
secure
on
his infant
than
son
in Emperor, done in
a
his succession;
more
manner popular
usual,
the desire of the senate, in order to give election. The' ceremony all the character of a popular
at the express
84
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
Cb.l(4.
sessed the power of awakening of moral respona sense of the the officersof state,the intrigaes sibilitj among
court
ended
The
murder,and treason. conspiracies, for power soon selves parties struggling rangedthem-
in
under the banners of the ecclesiastical factions that did many probably, longdivided the empire.Little, in the reli- ^^ of the leaders care what party theyespoused themselves gious question ; but it was necessary to proclaim had members of
an
to secure
The Empress Irene was known to -^ popular following. and a Greek, this favour image-worship : as a woman natural ; yet policy would have dictated to her to was of securing adoptthat party as the most certain manner enough to counterbalance the family support powerful influence of the Isaurian dynasty, which was now wielded The conflictbetween by the uncles of the young emperor. the image-worshippers and the Iconoclasts soon commenced. The Caesar Nicephorus, who was tious as ambias
his
several
to act,seized her five brothers-inprepared them to enter the priesthoodIn law, and compelled order to make it generally known that theyhad assumed the sacerdotal character, to officiate they were obliged the Christmas ceremonies at the highaltar of St during while the young emperor and his mother restored Sophia's, to the church the rich jewels of which ithad been deprived of by the Iconoclast emperors. The intendant-general the general of the Armeniac theme,the commander posts, of the imperial and the admiral of the Archipelago, guard, who had all taken part in the conspiracy, were and in distant immured monks monasteries. as scourged, the of assumed the title Helpidios, governor of Sicily,
emperor
as
soon
as
in the participation
IRENE
BBOBNT,
A.D.
780-790.
was
85
was plot
known
at court ; but he
to compelled
seek
a. d.
shelter among
wards served.
in whose armies he after- '^J^^ the Saracens, Doukas, another conspirator, Nicephorus
formed by the partisans hands,a new conspiracy was of his uncles, then treated were 792.) The princes (a.d. with great severity. prived deThe Caesar Nicephorus was of sight cut ; and the tonguesof the others were
before he lost not long out, by the order of theirnephew, his own eyes by the order of his mother.
The
influenceof the
in clergy
the
to
civilrights, rendered councilsof the legislation regulated church an important feature in those forms and usages that practically circumscribed the despotic power of the and convictions emperor by a framework of customs, opinions, and which he could with difficulty alter, rarely ambition of Irene, oppose without danger. The political the national vanity of the Greeks,and the religious ings feelof the orthodox, tional the sanction of a constiturequired before the laws against imagepublic authority, The Byzantine worshipcould be openlyrepealed. had at this time an ecclesiastical, thoughnot a empire constitution. The will of the sovereign was political alone insufficient to change an law, forming part organic It was of the ecclesiastical administration of the empire. council to legalise imagenecessary to convoke a general for council fitinstrument a worship ; and to render such a the proposed much arrangement was revolution, necessary*
moving endued with greatertalents for rethan and conciliating personal support opposition the empress. The Patriarch Paul,a decided Iconoclast,
No person
was
ever
the admiral of Rhangab^, :^ TheophaneB, was son 883, 884. Theophylactos, of the Archipelago, This ia the earliest of Dodekannesos. or DruDgarioB mention of the twelve islands as a geographical and administratiTe division of Oreece. the empire. It was retained by the Crosaders when theyconquered
86
BOOK
Oh.
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
8 4.
of his and declarethat he repented resign, because ithad cut offthe church to imageworship, hostility of Constantinople from communion with the rest of the out the necesChristian world. This declarationpointed sity in order to re-establish of holding council, a general The crisis Patriarch of that communion. a new required and perfect stainless character, acquaintance greatability,
was
induced to
with the party connections and individual characters of No person could be selectedfrom the leading bishops.
among of the church, who had been generally dignitaries appointed by Iconoclast emperors. The choice of Irene the
a
of the the chief secretary civilian. Tarasios, considerable of noble birth, cabinet a man imperial fellon
"
for learning and a highreputation and propopularity, bity elevated to be the head of the Greek was suddenly rank. of the high and allowed to be not unworthy church, The orthodox would probably have raised a question cerning conit had the legality of nominating not a layman, would favour the interests been evident that the objection
"
of their opponents. The empress and her advisers were not bold enough to venture on an irretrievable declaration
until theyhad obtained a image-worship, of popular of the assurance public support.An assembly of inhabitants of the capital convoked in the palace was in order to secure a majority to the cause Magnaura, pledged of Tarasios. The fact that such an assembly considered was of the rival that the strength necessary,is a strongproof tion and that this manifestawas balanced, parties very nearly of public in order to relieve the was opinion required Irene proposed to responsibility. empress from personal the assembly that Tarasios should be elected Patriarch, and the proposal acclamation. received with general was that he Tarasios, howevei,refused the dignity, declaring would not accept the Patriarchate unless a general council should be convoked for restoring to the church. unity The convocation of a councilwas and the nomination adopted, of Tarasios ratified. Though greatcare had been in favour of
SECOND
COUNCIL
OF
NICJSA,
A.D.
787.
87
a. d.
neverimage* worshippers,
theless several dissentient voices made the proceedings as protesting against of the empire.^ legislation existing The Iconoclastswere
of the the opposition
attack
on
the
and capital, excited by the determination was soldiery of Tarasios to re-establish imageworship. They declared that they would not allow a council of the openly church to be held,nor permit of their the ecclesiastics treated by the court. More than party to be unjustly
the empress held at Constantinople. It was
one
tumult warned
cohorts of The
guardsdevoted
to
the church.
state
of Tarasios experience
ministerof
useful to Irene
threeyears to nearly
which council,
was
787.
of
Three hundred
members sixty-seven
were
few
assumed
by the
Some of the persons presentdeserve to be sovereigns. for they have individually ferred conmentioned, particularly greaterbenefits on mankind by their learned ous than theyrendered to Christianity labours, by theirzealin this council. The of image-worship advocacy
of the secretary
two
commissioners who
the represented
His sketch of the Constantinople.^ from the year 602 to 770, is a of the empire, history of judgvaluable work, and indicates that he was a man ment, not obscured by whenever his perceptions were
Patriarch of
' *
88
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
Two other emiand ecclesiastical prejudices. theological called writers were also present.George, ^^^^ Byzantine CfiuM^4. from the officehe held under the Patriarch Syncellus, Tarasios. He has left us a chronological work, which facts the knowledge of many has preserved important recorded by no other ancient authority.^ Theophanes, has continued the friend and companion of the Syncellus, and Byzantine this work ; and his chronography of Roman of the forms the best picture with all its faults, history, that we possess for a longperiod. condition of the empire the honour of becoming, at a later enjoyed Theophanes worship ; he was day,a confessor in the cause of imageBOOK I.
no
to be regarded Constantinople council of the church. The Pope Hadrian, as a general from the Latin church ; but the indeed, sent deputies
attempt was
a
neverthelessmade
to
deceive the
monks
Palestine
to
present themselves
as
the
of these patriarchs, without scrutinising the syncelli of their credentials. Pope Hadrian, though he validity time to Tarasios, wrote at the same sent deputies, making demands several to establish the ecclesiastical tending in strong supremacy of the papalSee, and complaining that the Patriarch of Constantinople terms had no right the title of ecumenic* The hope of recovering to assume the estates of the patrimony of St Peter in the Byzantine
^
in 800.
His
extends chronography
fh"m
Adam
to
Diocletian.
A.i".
The chronography of Theophanes extends from Diocletian, ".". 285, to 818. It is the best authority for Byzantinehistory after the time of Leo III. His life, is preby Theodorus, abbot of Studion in Constantinople, fixed to the editions of the chronography.
SECOND
COUNCIL
OF
NIC^A,
A.D.
787.
89
and which had been sequestrated a. d. proTinces, by Leo III., of re-establishing the supremacy of the See of Rome, ^7^^ made Hadrian overlook much that was offensive to papal pride.^ of The second councilof Nic"a authorised the worship orthodox practice. as an images Forged passages, pretending
from the earlierfathers, and ine genuthe cited the from favour of in modem, were quotations
to be extracts
evil in the a prevailing practice. Simony was already had purchased Greek church. Many of the bishops their of these naturally lence most preferred doingviosees, and rather than lose their revenues. to their opinions From this cause, unanimity obtained by court was easily that not onlywas the influence. The council decided, of reverence, but also that the imagesof cross an object of angels, and the pictures of the VirginMary Christ, in colours, and holy men, whether painted or saints, in sacred ornaments, or formed in worked in embroidery mosaic in the walls of churches were alllawful objects of worship.At the same time,in order to guard against the accusation of idolatry, it was declared that the worship which of an image, is merely a signof reverence, not be confounded with the adoration due only to must held in 754 was The council of Constantinople God.
" "
and all who maintained its doctrines, declared heretical, anathematised. and condemned the use of images, were and Niketas Constantinos, Anastasios, patriarchs doomed to eternal condemnation. were especially but he the decrees of this council, The Pope adopted because the empress refused to confirm them officially, the estates of St Peter's patrimony. restoring delayed In the countries of western Europe which had formed of the Empire,the superstitions parts of the Western viewed with as much dissatisfacwere image-worshippers The
^
279. Schloeser,
Ada Coleti"
translatioD). (Torrey's
90
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
^''
'"
' *'
tion as the fanaticismof the Iconoclasts; and the council ople of Nicsea was as much condemned as that of ConstantinThe ecclesiastics. body of enlightened by a large mind in the West was almost as much divided as public councilof the Latin church in the East ; and if a general its unbiassed decisionswould pro^ had been assembled, by the bablyhave been at variance with those supported
Pope and the council of Nicsea. a refutationof the doctrines Charlemagne published His of image-worship. of this council on the subject
work,called the Caroline Books, consists of
and of
was
four
parts,
sonal per-
his immediate
doubtless incapable
the
published as tious superstiin cided deof the Greek image-worshippers a bigotry time it onlyblames the manner, while at the same itis a very zealof the Iconoclasts. Altogether, misguided remarkable production, and gives correct idea of a more
it himself.^ writing his
to
which Roman
stillsurvived in civilisation
and society,
In than any other contemporary document.^ assembled a council of three hundred 794 Charlemagne
at bishops
Frankfort
The tiileof the firstedition is Opus lUiui. viri Caroli Magni Regit Franete contra Synodum qucB in Partibus Greed pro Adorandit ImaginQms Stalide tive A rroganUr gestaett,"c. 1549. 16mo. It was published by Jean afterwards bishopof Meaux. du Tillet (Eli There is an edition, with a Phili), learned preface, A. Heumann. Hanover, 1731: 8vo. Alcuin, by Christopher of course, deserves all the credit due to the literary merits of and theological the Caroline Books. * that Charlemagnementions that he had learned from his ambassadors, decorations and paintings, though the Greeks expended largesums on the^ allowed their churches to fallto ruin ; and he contrasts the magnificent dowments enof the Frank It is churches with the meanness of the Greek. how few churches of any size appear to have been constructed really surprising in the Byzantine empire,when we remember that for many centuries it was the richest country in the world,and the one most occupied with ecclesiastical affkirsand church ceremonies. Several small Byzantine churches at Athens said to have been constructed by Irene ; common treiditionsays twelve. are A few exist ; some were destroyed duringthe war of the Revolution ; others were swept away by the Bavarian plansof the town.
eorum
92
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
for slaves then constitutedthe pean export to of the produce countries. The
vessels at
^'"^^
article of Europrincipal and Egypt, in payment of Africa, Syria, from those the East,which was brought Greek Pope seized and burned some
because the (Civita-Vecchia), of the the people accused of kidnapping crews were of Hadrian,in The violent expressions neighbourhood. of the Greeks,could not failto produce a great speaking where the lettersof the popes effectin western Europe, read and formed the literary most generally productions have sunk studied by all ranks.^ His calumnies must on mind, and tended to impress deepinto the public Centumcellse Western nations that aversion increased by subsequently
strife. The
extinctionof the last traces of the supremacy of the most gratifying the Eastern Empire at Rome was
On Christmas the popes. revived the existenceof the day,A.D. 800, Charlemagne from Western Empire, and received the imperial crown Pope Leo III. in the church of St Peter's. Hitherto
resultof theirmachinations
to
a titular acknowledged supremacy in the Eastern Empire, of Patrician and had borne the title of the Roman conferred on of dignity as a mark empire, him by the emperors of Constantinople; raised but he now himself to an equality with the emperors of the East,by the title of Emperorof the West. The assumpassuming tion
had
of the Romans
was
not
an
act
usages, Roman
and prejudices,
Roman
law stillexercised a
most
numerous
minds of the
calumny.
rum
gens
"
odiblles et Deo Nefandissimi Neapolitani of national had III. an example given Stephen He wrote to Charlemagne"** Perfida et foetentissimi Longobardocomputatur, de cujusnatione gentium nequaquam quae in numero
**
et
to extract est.*' It is a task of difficulty leprosorum genus oriri certum from the records of an age when the head of the Christian impartial history church used sudi language.
END
OP
BYZANTINE
AUTHORITY
AT
ROME,
A.D.
800.
98
; jects
his a. d. and lawyers throughout by all the clergy dominions and prerogatives the rights of the Roman ^^^^^ held to be legally vested in emperors of the West were such as it was, and his person by the fact of his election, his coronation by the Pope. The political of allegiance the Pope to the emperor, which was then undisputed,
and
became thus transferredfrom the emperor of the East to the emperor of the West as a matter of course ; while the of papal rights administration over
the former
chate exar-
and the dukedom of of Ravenna, the Pentapolis, of the Franks,the under the protection Rome, acquired,
character of
sovereignty. Many towns of Italy of municipal at this time acquired a degree independence which made them almost independent The republics. influenceof Roman law in binding the together, society weakness of the papal power, and the rapid military in the empireof the decline of the central authority their peculiar Franks,enabled these towns to perpetuate constitutionsand independent down to the jurisdictions
a
decided
French
A
Revolution.^
female regency in an absolute government must liableto be affairs alwaysrender the conduct of public
When Irene wished to gain intrigues. the Iconoclasts in order to deprive as an ally, Charlemagne of any hope of foreign she had negotiated assistance, a of marriage between her son and Rotnid, the treaty eldest daughter of the Frank monarch,a.d. 781. But when the question of image-worship she began settled, was of to fear that this alliance might become the means her from power, and she then broke off the excluding and compelled her son to marry a Paphlagonian treaty, of the court named Maria,whom the young emperor lady with aversion. Constantine, soon however, regarded submitted quietly to his mother's domination until his
directed by court
War
to ike Death
of Con-
94
ICOKOCLAST
PBBIOD.
dissatisfaction twentieth year. He then began to display in which he was gjg^j^ ^f tutelage ^^ jjj^ held,and at his oh^m^4.
BOOK
L
seclusion from publicbusiness. A plan was complete in the administration to formed by many leading men but it was discovered him at the head of affairs, place for execution. Irene on this occasion before it was ripe in her eagerness to retain a violence, displayed unseemly to have resigned. The power she ought immediately and banished. When seized, were scourged, conspirators her
son was
conducted
and overwhelmed
into her presence, she struck him, him with reproaches and insults. The
in the palace young emperor was then confined so strictly that allcommunication with his friends was cut off. This
the
conduct of the regent-mother became unprincipled The of general reprobation. troopsof the object
Armeniac
to the
theme refused to
On the way they to deliver Constantino. capital and Irene found herself were joinedby other legions, hastened to release her son, who immediately compelled A total revolutionwas to the advancing effected aimy.
at court.
The from
creatures
of Irene
were
removed
who
had
glected (a.d. 790-797). But his education had been nein a disgracefrd and his mind was perhaps manner, fickle. Though he displayed the courage of naturally his family for at the head of his army, his incapacity and his inconstancy in his friendships, lost business, soon him the support of his most He devoted partisans. lost his popularity out the eyes of his uncle, by putting and cutting of his four uncles, out the tongues Nicephorus, who were of accused of having taken part in the plots
theirbrother.
He
of the Ar-
893. Theophanes,
CONSTAIITINI
VI.
DIV0ECB8
MARIA.
95
d.
meDian Alexis
means
of
delivering '^J^^
him from
foUj of this last act was than the ingratitude, for it was done to graeven greater tify mother. of his the revengefiil These of acts feelings and ingratitude his influence, and foUy, cruelty, destroyed
confinement induced his sincerestfriends
to
The
make
son
Irene,whom
The
been
cause
it
was
evident her
empire. into which Constantino had unhappy marriage forced by his mother,she at lastconverted into the
of his ruin. The emperor fell in love with Theoand determined one of his mother's maids of honour, dota, divorce Maria in order
to
to
marry
her.
Irene,whose
tered flatambition induced her to stoopto the basest intrigues, him in thisproject, to increase as it seemed likely
her
influence and
was
ruin his
Maria
emperor
induced
to retire into a
to expected
be able to celebratehis
marriage
But the usage of the difficulty. that the Patriarchshould proempire required Byzantine nounce
and this Tarasios, who divorce, and active political was a devoted partisan agentof Irene, of Constantine, longrefused to do. The imprudence involved the and the insidious advice of Irene,soon the sentence of emperor with the whole body of monks,who dispute influencein society. had an overwhelming The Patriarch at lastyielded to the influenceof Irene, so far as to allow his catechist to give the veilto the EmpressMaria,whom the celebraand then to permit tion he pronounced divorced, of the emperor's with Theodota by Joseph, marriage and of the patriarchal of the principal one chapter, clergy abbot of a monasteryin the capital.^ In the Byzantine at this time, constant religious empire, in
a
897. Theophanes,
96
BOOK
Ch.
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
S 4.
the Eastern monks.^ of retreat, monasteries as a place building also adopted was adopted by some from motives of piety, wealth of ttfeir a portion by others as a mode of securing from confiscation, in case of their condemnation for political in reserved the crimes, teries monaspeculiar privileges being .^ founded for members of the founder's family so
1 iL 143, Hittorv (translated Mosheim, Itutitutet of Eeeleticntieal by Murdoch), 198 ; Soames' edit But not to wrong St Eligius, also Arnold, Introductory see Lectures on Modem 102. Maitland (The Dark Ages,102) makes the Bittori/, most of Mosheim's The times, error. however, were not better than Mosheim represents them. ' The abuse of fictitious donations to monasteries had become so great an eyil in Western Europe, The laws to restrain the praotioe. as to require numerous
The habit of
OPPOSITION
OP
THE
MONKS.
97
a. d.
At this time
on
Mount
was a
abbot of the monasteryof Sakkoudion, Plato, and his nephewTheodore, Oljmpusin Bithynia, relation of the
a
^^^^
who
new
the leaders of
abbot
a
(whois known by the Studita,from havingbeen afterwards appointed of the celebratedmonasteryof Studion) had founded
in which he assembled monastery on his own property, and a young sister, his father, pating two brothers, and, emanciallhis household and agricultural established slaves, them
laybrethren on the farms. Most of the abbots round Constantinople of family and wealth, were men as well as learning and piety the sincere ; but theyrepaid with which they were regarded by the people, by respect in that be cannot we so popular participating prejudices, the part of to find them acting surprised constantly himself from all spiritual demagogues. Plato separated
as
communion
to have
whom Tarasios,
he declared
violated the
were
of the emperor. the adulterous marriage His views warmly supported by his nephew Theodore, and monks the began openlyto preachboth against the emperor. Irene
now
saw
many
Patriarch and
movement
was
that the
favourable to her ambition. a turn taking Tarasios for the monks, and prepared She encouraged Plato and Theodore the party of his sovereign. quitting and from their greatreputation enemies, were dangerous and into and ecclesiastical extensive political connections, Constantine rashly contest with these men a personal
plunged.
Lombard nations the faculty of revoking these doto reserve law allowed the grantors and they reserved possessionon paying a smaU during their lives, tions annual sum to the monastery. Charlemagne declared all such donaas rent existed among the The Empress Irene his divorced Constantine, founded the monastery of St Euphrosyne, where her son buried ; and also the monastery wife Maria, and his two daughters were sent after her dethronement, and in Prince's Island,to which she was irrevocable in order to chedc the evU. The
abuse
517.
to Lesbos.
98
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
BOOK
I.
^'"^^
in conplaced who finement under the wardship of the abbot Joseph, had celebrated the imperial marriage.Theodore was whither he was conveyed banished to Thessalonica, by a detachment of police soldiers. He has leftus an account which proves that the orders of the emperor of his journey, not carried into execution with undue severity.^ were seized by the Theodore and his attendant monks were officers at a distance from the monastery, and imperial the first horses their journey to commence on compelled their escort could procure, instead of being to permitted hurried send for their ambling mules. They were forward for three days, the night at Karesting during thara in Liviana,Lefka, and Phyraion. At the last they encountered a melancholy place array of monks, Plato
was
greatmonastery of Sakkoudion after the arrest of Plato ; but with these fellow-sufferers, though rangedalongthe road, Theodore was not allowed to them his blessing on communicate,except by bestowing he rode past. He was then carried to Paula,from as whence he wrote to Plato that he had seen his sister, with the venerable Sabas, abbot of the monastery of
Studion.
but had been They had visited him secretly, in his society. allowed by the guards to pass the evening Next nightthey reached Loupadiou, where the exiles treated by their host At Tilin theywere were kindly but they joined by two abbots,Zacharias and Pionios, The journey not allowed to travel in company. were continued by Alberiza, was Perperina, Anagegrammenps, Parium, and Horkos, to Lampsacus. On the road,the the greatest bishops expressed sympathyand eagerness them ; but the bigoted to serve Theodore declared that
permithim
to hold any
commu-
^ Theodori Studikd Opp, 230. letters of Theodore 319. Some Schlosser, Studita aro given by Boronius. I have extracted the acoount of the journey from Schlosser, Qftohicku der bildentUrmenden Kaiser, for I have not been able to supplymyself with the works of Theodore.
100
ICONOCLAST
was palace
PERIOD.
BOOK
^'^*^
of by liberal promises wealth and advancement : a band of conspirators was but a timely to seize Constantino, then appointed warning He him Triton the enabled to escape to on Propontis. had of the capital, have recovered possession mighteasily doned Abanhe not wasted two months in idleness and folly. at lastby every friend, he was seized by his mother's After being to Constantinople. emissariesand dragged time a prisoner in the porphyry detained some ment apartin the officers
secured
in which he 19th
was
were
put
out
on
the
August 797.^
had
given his
cruel
marks of that affectionwhich he appears public to have feltfor her,and to which he had sacrificed really mother his best friends. He
her had erected
a
statue
of bronze to
of Constantinople honour,which longadorned the hippodrome of proclaimed sovereign time been allowed by her and it administration, affection which
course
Irene
was
now some
the
empire.
his
fidence con-
careless son
was
in her maternal
enabled her
to
work
and
his ruin.
She
of
from and
confinement,
offices. The
their honours
Patriarch Tarasios
the monks
by
his peace with his creature, the abbot excommunicating ordered to make between
Joseph; and the closest alliance was formed him and his former opponents, Plato and
the latter of whom
was
Theodore,
his the
for after rewarded shortly elevated to the dignity of abbot of sufferings by being The
greatmonastery of Studion.
her
five years, during which Empress Irene reigned of her intrigues peace was disturbed by the political
1 QibboD, iz. 88. The authorities which prove that Constantine did not die of the inhuman treatment he receiTed, but was throned livingwhen Nicephorus dehis mother, are, ConHn Const. Porpkyr. Leo Qramm. $c p. Theoph. 83. r-^ r r 202, edit. Bonn. * De Orig. 62. Codinus, ConttanHnop,
CHAEACTBR
OP
IBENB.
101
for a. d. interesting subject ^^^'^^ than for history, for it is more biography striking by its than important in its political effects. details, personal Bat the records of private life in the age in which she and of the state of society at Athens,where she liyed, to be was educated,are so few, that it would require written by a noyelist, who could combine the strange yidssitudes of her fortunes with a true portraiture of human feelings, coloured with a train of thought, and en" riched with facts gleaned from contemporarylives and lettersof Greek saints and monks.^ Born in a private and in a provincial, and popustation, a wealthy though bus city, it must have required a rare combination of personal native grace, and mental superiority, to fill beauty,
more
the rank of empress of the Romans, to which she was suddenly likeher at the court of a haughty raised, sovereign father-in-law Constantino
but vested with
even
with
V., not
as
the regency,
widow
of
an
Iconoclast
firmness of purpose, great talent, emperor, it required and conciliation of manner, to overthrow an ecclesiastical
than half a party which had ruled the church for more century. On the other hand,the deliberateway in which of her son, whose character authority and the callousness she had corrupted by a bad education, his confidence in order to with which she gained him of his throne, and send him to pass his lifeas deprive she undermined the
a
blind monk
in
secluded cell, proves that the beautiful cherished as an orthodox was memory
a
with
of feelings
of Irene's crimes the object of gratified satiety the interest she had
reached,she
She
no
ambition.
took longer
taken in
the conducting
There is a work on the lifeof Irene,by Abb6 Mignot,Hittaire de VImpiraand worthless as biogre^hy. is inexact as history, Ifc 1662. triceMnSf Amst
102
BOOK
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
I.
^'^^*'
abandoned the exerciseof her power to seven she selected to performthe duties of eunuchs,whom and empire, elevationto that her own forgot the throne offered a temptingpremium to successful her the grand treasurer,cajoled treason. Nicephorus, throned, favouriteeunuchs to joina plot, by which she was deministersof
state.
She
and
exiled
to a
bos, Prince's Island ; but she was soon after removed to Leswhere she died in a few months, almost forgotten/
Her
was was
as
as duringher singular
canonised
by the Greeks
and at her native Athens several orthodox saint, churches are stillpointed out which she is said to have
not founded, though
Under the
external relations, followed the course traced out by Leo the Isaurian. To reduce all the Sclavonian colonists who had formed settlements within the bounds of the
the firstobject of
Irene's regency. The extension of these settlements, after the great plague in 747, began to alarm the government.
and
Extensive districtsin Thrace, Macedonia, pendent the Peloponnesus, had assumed the form of inde-
hardlyacknowledged allegiance at Constantinople. Irene naturally than ordinary interest in the took more She kept up the closestcommunicastate of Greece. tions with her family at Athens,and shared the desire of every Greek to repress the presumption of the Sdaand restore the ascendancy of the Greek popuvonians,
to
communities,and
^ Irene must have felttbat there was in the sayingby which some justice the Qreeks characterised the hopeless demoralisation of her "Touritee : " If you have an eunuch, kill him; if you haven't one, buy one, and kill him.** ' It is to St Irene the martyr, and not to the imperial that the presaint, sent cathedral of Athens is dedicated. The festivalof the empress saint is on the 7th August. Mmologium,m, 195.
"
POLICY
OP
THE
BBIGN
OP
IRENE.
IDS
a.d.
lation in the raral districts. In the year 783 she sent Stavrakios at the head of a well-appointed to army
to reduce the Sdavonian Thessalonica,
to
^^5^
tribes in Macedonia
and directdependence,
enforce the
of tribute.^ From
and Greece to the Peloponnesus, throughMacedonia the Sclaronians for the disorders they had punishing and carrying off a number of their able-bodied committed,
men
to serre
as
soldiers or to be sold
as
slaves.
In the
following year
to Tisit the
Sdaronian
mission. which had been reduced to absolute subThessalonica, like several Greek cities, had fallen Berrhoea, into ruins ; it was now of and received the name rebuilt,
were garrisons Irenopolis. Strong
and
to Anchialos,
cut off
all communication
their
the
Sdavonians
the
in the
and empire,
countrymen under
Bulgarian government. The Sdavonians in Thrace and Macedonia, thoughunable to maintain their provindal independence, still took advantage of their position,
when removed
form bands
to the eye of local administration, of robbers and pirates, which rendered the
from
communications with
times insecure both After Irene had
Thessalonica at
the Sclavonian
dethroned her
son,
of dangerous A conspiracy activity. population gave proofs tino formed to place of the sons of Constanone was V.
on
the throne.
carefully being interested in strongly x"f The project of the partisans her cause. supporting to seize Constantinople the exiled princes discovered, was
and it was found
of
party in Greece
1
in placed
the assistance
"
theyex-
884. of Irene's "yoarite eonnoha. Theophanes, Stavrakiofl was one at page "9. See the danger to which Theodore Studita was exposed,
10*
BOOK ^'"^^
L
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
to pected
The populatioD.
sons
chief of Velzetia
to
have
of
covered disConstantine V. from Athens, when the plan was and frustrated by the vigilance of Irene's friends.^ who had already losttheir princes, and exiled with of sight, now were deprived tongues, to Panormus, where they their brother Nicephorus were in the reign of again made the tools of a conspiracy The four unfortunate
Michael L The
varied
war success
was
carried
on
with
VI., and
the reigns of Leo IV., Constantine during Irene. The military talentsof Leo III. and
an
army
under caliphs
even
the
powerful governmentof
afterthe veterans had been disbanded the celebratedHaroun Al Rashid was unable to by Irene, Mansur
;
and
make
thoughthe empirewas any permanent conquests, and in war with the Saracens, the Bulgarians, engaged the troops of Charlemagne time. at the same
the year 782, Haroun was sent by his father, the at the head of one Caliph Mahdy, to invade the empire, hundred thousand men, attended by Rabia and Jahja the Barmecid.
was,
In
The
of object
the Mohammedan
to
prince
and
effect permanent
quests. con-
absence of which
was
engagedin Sicily ing suppressthe rebellionof Helpidios, enabled Haroun to march all Asia Minor to the shores of the Bosphorus, through
and
Byzantine army,
on
Constantin-
It is difficult of Yelzeiaa. The geoto fix the podtion graphical nomenclature of the of the Sclavoniana giTosus the same repetition colonies. Theoflame that we find in our own districts, names, in widely-distant This pas876, mentions Verzetia as a frontier district of Bulgaria. phanes, sage is remarkable for containingthe earliest mention of the Russians in
Byxantine history.
8ABACBN
WAB.
105
a more imposing a.d. presented than Bagdad. Irene was compelled to purchase aspect 775^ peace, or rather to conclude a truce for three years, bj annual tribute of seventy thousand pieces of an paying and Btipnlatiug gold, to allow the Saracen army to retire unmolested ivith all its plunder and his ; for Haroun
which opie,
must
then hare
of which difiSculties,
advantage.Haroun in person agaiust in eight the Byzantine empire him to respect the valour campaigns. Experience taught
and of the Christian armies,whenever able discipline officers nople enjoyedthe confidence of the court of Constanti;
and
when
he ascended
it
the Mesoponecessary to form a permanent army along tamian frontier, the fortifications of the to strengthen towns with additionalworks, and add to their means of defence by planting medan in them new colonies of Moham-
Duringthe time Constantine VI. ruled the empire, several times at the head he appeared of the Byzantine and his fickle characterdid not armies, firmness in the field. His popuprevent his displaying larity with the soldiers with viewed was jealousy by his
inhabitants.^
retard his movements, and vent preThe obtaining any decided success.
to
were
theirsuperiors
in naval afiairs; but in the year 792 theydefeated of Attalia with greatloss. the Byzantine fleetin the gulf
The admiral, and solicited taken prisoner, was Theophilos, and enter his service. to abjure by the caliph Christianity The
admiral
or religion
serve mean
Rashid
was
enoughto
When
order him to be
put to death.
that Constantine had
the
Saracens heard
WeU, Gnckiehte
der
iL 155. CkaJAfen,
106
BooKL
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
^'"^*'
againruled by a whom theyhad already to pay tribute, woman compelled and plundered Asia Minor theyrenewed their inyasions, whose ministers were up to the walls of Ephesus.Irene, with court intrigues, took no measures to resist occupied to pay tributeto the enemy, and was once, more obb'ged The annual incursions of the Saracens into the caliph.^ made principally the Christian territory for the were away slaves ; and great numbers of purpose of carrying the caliph's dominions Christians were sold throughout into hopeless took the field Haroun, therefore, slavery. in his wars with the Byzantine empiremore as a slavebeen
war
introduced speculation,
as spared,^ they would in were they bring price of the better class the firstslave-market ; while prisoners in order to draw from them a higher som ranwere retained, than their value as slaves, them for to exchange or rank who had fallen into the hands of the of equal men This circumstance had brought about regular enemy. of Constantino of prisoners as early as the reign exchanges
v., A.D. 769.2 In the year 797, a new clause was of prisoners, ing bindfor the exchange inserted in a treaty
to contracting parties the payment of a on captives,
the
were
who arrangement enabled the Christians, the greatest to save their friends suflFerers, generally This
or
from death
it added
to
the in-
^ account of the Saracen war, which has Theophanee gives the Byzantine been compared with the Arabian authorities by Weil, Oe$ehiohU der C^alifen, iil55.
"
874. Theophanes,
Three thousand seven hundred prisoners were exchanged, ezclusiye of the additional individuals ransomed cluded by the Christians. A similar treatywas conbetween Haroun and Nicephorus in 805. Notion et ExtraUt tUi MS. viii 198.
"
'
108
ICONOCLAST
PBRIOD.
BOOK
CB.L
I.
fi.
the Mohammedans has arisen rather reputation among his Christian than his yirtues, from his orthodoxy persecuted and at lasthis oppression with greatcruelty, subjects their natiye induced twelve thousand Armenians to quit in the Byzantine Some years and settle empire.^ country, ortho* of Michael III. the drunkard, in the reign later, administration doxy became the greatfeature in the Byzantine Christianorthodoxy strongly ; and,unfortunately, of persecution. in the spirit resembled Mohammedanism The Paulicians were then persecuted by the emperors, as and had previously the Armenians been by the caliphs, fled for toleration to the Mohammedans.
CHAPTER
11.
THE
REIGNS
OF THE
NICEPHORUS
ARMENIAN.
"
I, MICHAEL
^A.D. 802-620.
L, AND
LEO
V.
SECT.
I." NICEPH0RU8
L"
803-811.
His
VAJflLT
AKD
OHABAOIEB
POUOT"
"
RiBBLLION
FISCAL war"
Of
BikRDAHBB
ADMINIBTBATIOir
"
TounUHT
"
XOOLEBIASnCAL
noiro AT WITH
OPPREBBIYB Sabaokn
WAS"
RSLA-
Chablemaonb" BULQABlAir
Dkvsat NlOIPHOBUS.
or
Sclayoniaks
PaTBAS"
DBATH
Of
NiCBPHORUS
snrer, when
He
was
bom
at
Seleucia,
the Christian
in
of Pisidia,
Arabian
monarch
the
in the time
Heraclius, abjured
and embraced of the Roman the allegiance empire, the stem and Mohammedan He carried among religion. and arrogance Moslems the monarchical pride independent of a vassal court. As he was the religious performing rites of the pilgrimage in the mosque at Mecca, an Arab trode on his cloak ; Djaballah, that accidentalljr enraged stmck the a king should be treated with so little respect,
in the
out
some
of his
tion CaliphOmar knew no distincof persons, and the kingof Ghassan was ordered to mit to the injured make satisfactory Arab, or subreparation monarch's pride to the law of retaliation. The was wounded 80 deeply by this sentence that he fled to Conof justice
110
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
and renounced the Mohammedan religion.^ stantinople, jjjQ Arabs, who paid the most minute jjjjgj-jjjg py^m cb^u^i. allow that Nicephorus attentionto genealogy, was lineallj
BooKL
descended.^ of Nicephorus features of the reign were leading His character was order and fiscal oppression. political said to be reiled in impenetrable hypocrisy; yet anecdotes
The
are
no
secret of
His
the whole,he
prince.He in history than worse reputation of greater crimes. many emperors who have been guilty his rapacity. Many anecdotes ai*e recounted concerning As soon as he receivedthe imperial crown, he bethought
treasures
himself of the
to
Irene had
of them. These treasures are conceived possession gain historiansto be a part of the immense by the Byzantine Leo III. and Constantine V. were supposed to have sums of provisions accumulated. The abundance and low price which had prevailed, in the reign of Constantine particularly of specie caused by v.,was ascrib^to the rarity the hoards accumulated by these emperors. Irene was said to know
was
concealed ; and
marked
by
lavish
believed to possess immense sums. himself to Nicephorus story of the chronicles, presented
Irene in
a
and assured her that he had only private garb, assumed the imperial her and save her to serve crown life. By flattery with intimidation, he obtained mingled and then,in violationof his of her treasures, possession banished her to Lesbos. promises,
Chron, Syr.139. Oakley,Bidory of the Saraeem, L 150. Abulpharagiufl, Uist, Arab. MimumeiUis, 171,gives De AtUiquiu. of tUe account an Eichhorn,
same
'
event
from Ibn
Kathaiba. 66.
de VEgj^pUy Conquete par Wakedy, publi^e par Hamaker, liiitoiredu Bcu- Empire, xiv. 893,note 2, edit St Martin.
LebeaU|
REBELLION
OF
BABDANES,
A.D.
803.
Ill
The mother
dethroned
in
Constantine bad
been
of great wealth. possession himself into the confidence of the accnsed of ingratiating blind prince, of these treasures,and possession gaining Loud complaints him. made against tben neglecting were in the reigns the extortion of the tax-gatherers of Constantine VI. and Irene,and Nicepborus established a court of review to revise the accounts of every public But his enemies accused him of converting functionary. this court into a means of confiscating the propertyof the guilty, instead of enabling the sufferers their to recover
by bis is Nicepborus
left
a.ix
^^^^"*
accessionof
held out a hope to every the circleof the administration, of influencethat an emperor, who owed his elevation man
to
of eunuchs and a court intrigue, conspiracy might whom be driven from the throne. Bardanes, easily of the troops of five appointed general Nicepborus
a
this army against Haroun Al Rashid,proclaimed leading himself emperor. He was by Thomas the supported and Michael Sdavonian,^ as well as by Leo the Armenian mounted the throne. the Armorian,who both subsequently of extreme The crisiswas but Nicepborus one difficulty, convinced the world that he was worthy of the throne. soon The rebel troops were discouraged by his preparations, and rendered ashamed of theirconduct by his reproaches. of proLeo and Michael were over gained by a promise motion his army rapidly dispersing, ; and Bardanes, seeing for his own negotiated pardon. He was allowed to retire
to
but monasteryhe had founded in the island of Prote, danes while Barhis estates were confiscated. Shortly after, in seclusionas an humble monk, a band was living
a
^
Thomas, Concerning
see
112
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
of
^"""*^
and put
were
his eyes.
As the
moved evidently by personal cion vengeance, suspithat fellso strongly the he deemed it on emperor, that he had no necessary to take a solemn oath in public and never entertained a thought of the crime, knowledge of violating the safe-conduct he had givento Bardanes. be observed, This safe-conduct, it must had received the ratification of the Patriarch and the senate. Bardanes
himself did
not
appear to
and piety the greatest resignation ; gave up the use of and fish, ley barwheaten bread,wine,oil, on living entirely which he baked in the embers. he In summer cakes,
wore a
in winter
mantle of died
and contentedly,
Leo the Armenian. of Nicephorus reign sent prehe Though a brave soldier,
some was
facts. interesting
a statesman, and his conviction that the essentially the peculiar business of the sovefinance department was reign, and the key of public be traced in afiairs, can many He eagerly the centralising events. significant pursued of his Iconoclastpredecessors, and strove to render policy the civilpower supreme over and the Church. the clergy
forbade the Patriarch to hold any communications he considered as the Patriarch of with the Pope,whom
He
Charlemagne ; and
of the virulencewith which his memory has been attacked and orthodox historians.^ The Patriarch by ecclesiastical
Tarasios bad
shown himself
which the emperor was anxious to conciliate.When state, Tarasios died, made a solemn disa.d. 806, Nicephorus
^
419. TheophaneB,
I
}
TOLBEANT BCCLBSIA8TICAL POLICY.
118
a.d. patriarchal ^^^"' the episco-
playof
his
in the
crowned with the mitre, and seated on robes, to the usage of the East, ported transwas palthrone, according to a monastery founded by the deceased Patriarch
on
the shores of the Bosphorus, where the funeralwas with greatpomp, the emperor assisting, em* performed it with his purple the body, and covering robe.^ bracing in succeeded an able and popular Nicephorus finding his secular to support to views, prelate, disposed worthy succeed Tarasios. This was the historianNicephoros. He had already from public retired and was residing life, in a monastery he had founded, he had not yet though On his election, taken monastic vows. he entered the and took the monastic habit. This laststep was clergy, rendered necessaryby the usage of the Greek church, which now only admitted monks to the episcopal dignity. the ceremony additionalsplendour, To give Stavrakios, the son of the EmperorNicephorus, who had received from his father, the imperial crown was to be deputed at the tonsure. present The PatriarchNicephoros installed than was no sooner the emperor began to execute his measures for establishing the supremacy of the civil power. after Tarasios, Constantino and of the divorce VI., sanctioning allowing had yielded the celebration of his second marriage, to the influence of Irene and the monks,and declaredboth The EmperorNicephorus consideredthisa acts illegal. and resolvedto obtain an affirmation dangerous precedent, of the validity of the second marriage. The new in which the marriage Patriarch assembled a synod, was and the abbot Joseph, who had celebrated declaredvalid, The it,was absolved from all ecclesiastical censure. monastic party, at the emperor seeking cipation emanenraged from their authority, broke out into a furious
^
407. Theophanes,
H
VOL.
I.
114
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
calls this Theodore Studita,their leader, opposition. and ch^jlji. gynod an assemblyof adulterers and heretics, the interests the Patriarch with sacrificing reproached succeeded in bringof religion.^ ing But, Nicephorus having in of monastic ire on a question about this explosion who now the people, which he had no personal interest, the unfortunate Constantino VI. as hardly regarded of his marriagewith Theodota, used on the subject could not be persuaded to take any part in the dispute. also supposed Theodore's violence was to arise from his elected Patriarch. at not being disappointment became so favourable to the empePublic opinion ror's that a synod assembled in 809 ecclesiastical views, to possess the power declared the Patriarch and bishops from rules of ecclesiastical law, of granting dispensations and that the emperor was not bound by legislative sions proviconsidered the enacted for subjects. Nicephorus for compelling the monks to obey time had now come He ordered Theodore Studita and Plato his authority.
BOOK I.
ceremonies with the part in the ecclesiastical he abbots refused, Patriarch;and when these refractory and then deposed banished them to Prince'sIsland, them.
to
take
Had
the
able opposedthe emperor on the reasonhe that the principles was on which ground violating of society vidual security depended, by setting up his indiwill against the systematic the rules of justice, now
the monks
maxims
of Roman
of the
and empire,
found
a
response
doctrines
might have
equity, theywould have the hearts of the people. Such led to some reform in political
the government,and to the establishment of some stitutional concheck on the exercise of arbitrary power;
and
the exclamation of Theodore,in one of his letters is the gospel for kings ? to the Pope, Where now
" " ^
In
letter to the
116
BOOK
CiL
n.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
was
not
of mili-
1 1.
unsuccessful.
restored the duties levied at the entrance Nicephorus which had been and the Bosphorus, of the Hellespont after her cruelty remitted bj Irene to purchase popularity to furnish a He ordered all the provinces to her son.^
stated number
of able-bodied recruitsfor the army, drawn from among the poor ; and obliged to pay each district nomismata a-head for their equipthe sum of eighteen ment"enfo the old Roman of principle mutual for the payment responsibility of any taxes,in
case
the
recruits should possess property liable to taxation.^ Onelikewise added to the dutyon public ments. docutwelfth was
imposed all domestic slaves purchased on beyondthe Hellespont. The inhabitants of Asia Minor who merce engagedin comof to purchase a certain quantity were compelled landed propertybelonging to the fiscat a fixed valuation: and, what tended to blacken the emperor's reputation than anything h e extended the hearth-tax more to else,
An
two
was
additionaltax of
nomismata
the propertyof the church, and charitable to monasteries, which had hitherto been exempted from the institutions, burden ; and he the commencement
which monasteries,
so
enforced the
payment of
arrears
from
private
drew withmultiply,
was
propertyfrom taxation that this measure absolutely necessary to prevent frauds on the fisc;
much
thoughnecessary, it was unpopular. Nicephorus^ the sale of gold and silver plate moreover, permitted dedicated as holyofierings superstition by private ; and, like many modem he quartered princes, troopsin monas1
but
401. Theophanes,
Ws see from this that the indiTidnal "10. is nearly in the ranks was more in ancient than in modern He acted times. expensive also a more then inferior, and less ezpensive. was important part Artillery We must not foigetthat,during the period embraced in this volame, the Bysantine army was the finest in the world.
'
Bighteen nomismata
OPPRESSIVE
FINAKCIAL
ADMINISTRATION.
117
bis goyema.d. accusation against menty that he furnished the merchants at Constantinople in foreign trade with the sum of twelve pounds' engaged
an
"
for which theywere to pay weight of gold, compelled from the state* twenty per cent interest It is difficult,
ments
of the
acts, to form
some
writers concerning the legislative Byzantine idea of the emperor's in a precise object the effectsof the law in others. among establish His
mies ene-
cases, or
colonies in the military waste districts the Bulgarian secured by the on frontier, line of fortresses constructed by Constantino V. His allcommunication between to cut off effectually was object the unruly Sdavonians in Thrace and the population to the north. There can be no doubt of his enforcing every of the with He daim government rigour. ordered a strict who were of all agriculturists not natives to be census vated made throughout and the land theycultithe provinces, domain. declared to belongto the imperial was
He then conyerted
of an old law,which declared that fisc, by the application all who had cultivated the
same were thirty years consecutiyely,
of
to the soil.^
The
cannot
were
formed
evidence of
monarchs were as often victims Byzantine of secret plots the worst. The elective titleto the as empire rendered the prizeto successful ambition one laws the respect due to their country's which overpowered It is in the breasts of the courtiers of Constantinople. that we can judgeof the insurrections onlyfrom popular of humanity The principles sovereign's unpopularity. to religious that rendered Nicephorus averse persecution,
1
Cedreniu,ii 480.
Cod. JntUn.-^De
AgrkolU
118
ICOKOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK ^'
""
I. * ^'
with much less cruelty conspirators than most Byzantine Perhapsthe historians emperors. hostileto his government have deceiyed posterity, giving considerable importance to insignificant see as we plots, their courts by modem continually deceiving diplomatists into dan^ of dissatisfaction magnifying expressions trifling discontent. In the year gerous presages of widespread formed to place was a conspiracy 808, however, really of questor, Arsaber who held the oflSce or a patrician, minister of legislation the throne. Though Arsaber on of an Armenian was family, many persons of rank were with him; yet Nicephorus leagued only confiscated his and compelled him to embrace the monastic life.^ estates, An attempt was made to assassinate the emperor by who rushed into the palace, seized the sword of a man of the imperial of the guards one chamber,and severely caused him
to treat
"
"
wounded criminal
many
was
a
persons
before he
was
was
secured.
to
The
to according ordered him to that he was a maniac, on learning in a lunatic asylum. Indeed, thoughhistorians be placed of of inhumanity, the punishment accuse Nicephorus
the torture, the cruel practice phorus, of the time ; but Nice-
monk, who
put
death,in
The for
a
cases
of treason, was
never
treaty was
concluded
at
in 803, regulating the frontiersof the Aix-la-Chapelle, two empires. In this treaty,the supremacy of the Eastern Empire over Venice,Istria, the maritime parts of Dalmatia, and the south of Italy, was acknowledged ;
1 Axeaber and Bavdanee were both of Armenian Qiamich descent (or Tchamtchian)says, In this age, three Armenians were elected at different throne of the Greeks. Two of them, Vardan and Arto the imperial periods shayir, onlyheld that high post for a few days. The other, Levond (LeoV.), an Prince Manuel, of the tribe seven Arzunian,reigned years. Not longafter,
**
of the Mamiconiansy greatly himself at the court of the emperor distinguished by his undaunted valour and skill in war/' Hiitory of Arwienia translated by Avdall), vol. i 899.
iTheonhilns)
"
RELATIONS
WITH
CHABLBMAGNB.
119
while the
of the authority
Western
exarchate of
Ravenna, and
administra* Byzantine tion afforded so many of guaranteesfor the security in spite of that the Venetians, of the menaces property, to Niceremained firm in their allegiance Charlemagne, the other hand, placed quently itselfsubseon phorus. Istria, under the protection of the Frank emperor, and paidhim a tribute of 354 marks. Pepin, kingof Italy, also charged was by his father to render the Venetians, and the alliesof the Byzantineempire in the north of to the Franks ; but Nicephorus sent a Italy, tributary his fleet into the Adriatic, and effectually protected friends. A body of people, who maintained called Orobiatae, themselyes as an independent communityin the to preserve their allegiance to the Apennines, pretending of Constantinople, plundered Populoniumin emperor how much easier Charlemagne Tuscany.They afford us proof
the
found it to extend his conqueststhan to preserve order.2 Venice,it is true,found itselfin the end compelled
to
purchase peace
of
an
payment
annual
secure
gold,in
order to
interruption ; and
it
was
It
was
Venice Rivalto
became
government,
the residence of the duke and (Rialto) becoming the principal who retired from the continent inhabitants, to escape the attacks of Pepin. Heraclea had previously been the capital In 810, of the Venetian municipality. and Charconcluded between Nicephorus peace was again
1 " *
A. Dandolo. Btr, ItcU,xii. Muratori, Scrip. Eginbard,Ann. Franc a.d. 809. Ck)n8taQtme Porphyr. De Adttk Imp.chap. 28,a.d. 962.
120
ICOKOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK ^
""
I. * ^'
of the in the frontier without makingany change lemagne, two empires. The power of the caliphate more was never actively than under Haroun Al Rashid, but the reputaemployed tion of that prince was by no means so greatamong his in after times. Nicephorus as it became contemporaries
was no sooner
seated
on
the
Irene. The the tribute imposed on pay the caliph Arabian historianspretend that his refusalwas nicated commuto
Haroun
in
an
insolent letter.^ To
resistthe
attacks of the Saracens, which he well knew would follow his refusal, he collected a powerful army in Asia Minor ;
but this army
broke
out
The Bardanes emperor. mentioned, already proclaimed himself of the defenceless state of the caliph, availing laid waste Asia Minor ; and when the rebellion empire, of Bardanes afraid to was extinguished, Nicephorus, of trust any of the veteran with the command generals and was defeated a large army, took the command himself, in
a
great battle
at
Krasos
in
this
the victory
Saracens
laid waste
country in every
his best
and frontier,
new
army.
time to re-assemble gave Nicephorus the affairs in the East were As soon as
the caliph tranquillised, againinvaded the Byzantine at Tyana" empire. Haroun fixed his headquarters where he built a mosque, to mark that he annexed that division of his and
was
to city
the Mohammedan
empire. One
strong, took
Mount
destroyed
also captured,
Taurus
sixteen thousand
the
" '
answer
Weil, OeichkhU der ChaWen^ ii 159,giyesthe letter of the emperor and of the oalipb. I cannot suppose they are authentio. Theophanes, 406. that the Pontic Heraclea was taken in Gibbon, z. 65,adopts the opinion
SABAOEN
WAB.
121
of spite
the
is
to supposed
hare
802-811.
^^^"
envenomed
Haroun, the imperial embassy consisted of the bishop the abbot of Gulaias, of Synnada,
and the
economos
the hostilities of
of Amastris.
were
As
averse
winter
was
proaching, ap-
to remain
longer
beyond
was
sadors ambasTaurus, the three ecclesiastical succeeded in arranging a treaty ; but Nicephorus Mount
and degrading tions. condito submit to severe compelled He engaged tions not to rebuild the frontier fortificawhich had been destroyed armies, by the caliph's and he consented to pay a tribute of thirty thousand of goldannually, pieces addingthree additional pieces for himself, and three for his son and colleague Stavra-
to have
been medallions of
as
offered
direct
to have been
moment
in deficient sadly
ings feel-
of evade
honour,for,the
the
he conceived he could
he of the treaty without danger, stipulations jects the ruined fortifications. His subcommenced repairing The caliph suffered for his conduct. again sent were ; Cyprusand Rhodes troopsto invade the empire to pay compelled ravaged ; the Bishopof Cyprus was
one were
as
his
ransom
; and many
Christians settled in
from
Asia
Minor,
and
Syria.
The from
a
death of Haroun, in 809, deliveredthe Christians barbarous enemy, who ruined their countrylike a conqueror.
an
earlier campaign; but St Martin, in his notes to Lebeau, xii.426, points 860. Weil, it 160. 407. Schlosser, oat that this is not probable. Theophanes, tinian ^ If these medallions like the celebrated medal of Juswere tribnte-piecee the of at one National Paris, sight Library L, which was stolen from the Die the heart of a numismatist" See Finder and Friddl"ider^ would
gladden
ii Iiihu"m JuiUniant,phite
122
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
his liberality his charity, to men valour, persoDal ^f letters, and his religious have secured him interested CM^n^i. zeal, which have drowned the voice of justice. The panegyrics, hero of the Arabian Tales and the ally of Charlemagne is vaunted as one of the greatest who ever ocotprinces murder of the Barmecides, a throne. The disgraceful pied and many other acts of injustice and cruelty, gave him a His plundering cursions incharacter in history. very diflPerent into the Byzantine empiremight have been of courage in some chieftain, glorious proofs petty Syrian but they the ruler of the richest and most extensive degrade slave-dealer.^ on the earth into a mere empire The
Haronn'a
Saracens continued
their
year 811, Leo the Armenian, then lieutenant-governor of the Armeniac theme, left a sum of thirteen hundred which pounds' weightof silver, without taxes, at Euchaites, Leo
a
had
been
collected
as
ordered
was
emperor
ful power-
of rendering themselves project and expelling the Greek masters of the Peloponnesus, in the early The Byzantine expedition, population. these part of the regency of Irene,had onlysubjected intruders to tribute, their numbers without diminishing their power.^ The troubled aspectof public or breaking after Nicephorus induced them seized the throne, affairs, to consider the moment dependenc favourable for gdning their inforce under They assembled a numerous of attack. arms, and selected Patras as theirfirst object
theyformed the
^ The in the Arabian Nightsgives a correct idea of storyof the three apples the violenoe and iigustioe whose hasty temper was of the celebrated caliph, weU known. to the BarmecideB, see For the causes of Haroun's injustice Weil, GetekiekU der OuilVeH,iL 187. ' 414. 6. Theophanes, Script, pott Th4oph. Anon" Ckmt, 7. QenesiaflL, s Theophanes, 885.
124
BOOK ^" I.
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
*^'
which he found the superstition of the accounts, popular that St Andrew, the circulated, peoplehad already had shown himself on the fieldof battle. patron of Patras, the The devastations committed bj the Sclayonians, of the Greeks, and the miraculous appearance victory
of the
all were besieged, announced to the Emperor Nicephorus, whose political views rendered him more to reward the church willing to for St Andrew's assistance, than to allow his subjects
at apostle
the head
of the
valour was
sufficient to defend
their property: he feared theymight discover that a well-constitutedmunicipal government would alwaysbe able
was
to
protectthem, while
was
often
phorus and generally indifierent Niceincapable, too a statesman, with the experienced
Cherson before his eyes, not to fear that such a discovery the Greek population among in the Peloponnesus would tend to circumscribe the of examples Venice and fiscalenergy of the Constantinopolitan treasury. The and not the people, church, profited by the success of the Greeks
:
the
share imperial
of the
taken spoil
from the
on
bestowed
the church of St Andrew; and the bishops of Methone, of the Lacedemon,and Corone,were declared sufiragans
of Patras. This charter of Nicephorus was metropolitan ratified by Leo VI., the Wise, in a new and extended
act.i
were Bulgarians alwaystroublesome neighbours, as a rude people tion. populagenerally proves to a wealthy warlike and Their king,Crumn, was able an he was occupied prince.For some time after his accession, with the Avars, but as soon as that by hostilities of plunderhe seized an opportunity war was terminated, ing eleven hundred a Byzantine chest, military containing
The
BULGABIAN
WAB.
125
a.d.
destined for the payment of the troops pounds of gold, stationedon the 8nd
as
^|^Strjmon. After sarprising the troops, the officers, murdering camp, dispersing the treasure, he extended his ravages capturing
the banks of the
as
far
soldiers. assembled a considerable Nicephomsimmediately army, imd marched to re-establish the security of his northern frontier. The death of Haroun left so large a force at his disposal that he contemplated the destructionof the in Europe Bulgarian kingdom ; biitthe Byzantine troops in a disaffectedstate, and theirindiscipline rendered were the campaignabortire. The resolutionof Nicephoms his life was in remained,nevertheless, unshaken,though from the seditious conduct of the soldiery danger ; and he in the end compelled to escape from his own was camp, and seek safety in Constantinople. In 811, a new of conscripts chiefly army, consisting and raw recruits, and hurried into assembled, was hastily tliefield. In preparing for the campaign, Nicephoms financialseverity, and ridiculedthe extreme displayed of with a degree of those who counselleddelay timidity character of this which paints well the singular cynicism bold financier. Having resolved to tax monasteries, and levy an augmentation of the land-tax from the for the eightpreceding nobility years, his ministers him of the impolicy of his pro* endeavoured to persuade but he only "What can you expect! exclaimed, ceedings; God has hardened my heart, and my subjects can expect from else me.'' The historian nothing Theophanes says that these words were repeated the to him by Theodosios, minister to whom theywere addressed.^ The energy of but it was not Nicephomswas equaJto his rapacity,
ii 124. Theodosios perished ii 481. Zonaras, 414. Cedrenus, Theophanes, while he was a fiiTOurite with his master, therefore these words were repeated minister. It may thence he inferred that some misoonstruction has been put the oLroamstances by the prejudices of Theqphanes. on
^
126
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
^"""*^'
skill. corresponding degreeof military He led his army so rapidly to Markelles, a fortress built by Constantino VI., within the line of the Bulgarian that Crumn, alarmed at his vigour, sent an frontier, was rejected, embassyto solicitpeace.^This proposal and the emperor pushedforward and captured dence resia in of the Bulgarian monarch's near the frontiers,
supported bj
which
considerable amount
of treasure
to
was
found.
accept any
of peace
but
with the existenceof his independence, compatible would agree to no terms but Nicephorus
absolute submission.
The is in
eyents onlycontemporaryaccount of the following and it leaves us in the chronicle of Theophanes, whether the rashness of Nicephorus the treason or
doubt
Even
success
of his disastrousdefeat.
Crumn give
to his own, could not have superior army greatly in been achieved without some treasonable co-operation
It is certain that an officerof the enemy's camp. household had deserted at Markelles, emperor's canning and the wardrobe hundred pounds' one emperor's away in and that one of the ablest engineers weightof gold, the Byzantine fled to Bulgaria. service had previously It seems of these officers that by means not improbable,
the
were
maintained
with the
Byzantine army. When entered the Bidgarian Nicephorus territory, Crumn had a much larger force in his immediate vicinity than the emperor supposed. The Bulgarian troops, in the defeated advance, were though consequently
of the invaders, allowed to watch the movements and intrench at no great distance without any attempt to
894. Theophanes,
DEFEAT
AND
DEATH
OF
NIOEPHORUS
I.
127
them. dislodge
to work for two
It is eren
was
allowed
a.d.
to cir- "^^' a strong palisade days, forming of the imperial comscribe the operations army, while his time collecting the booty was Nicephorus wasting found in the Bulgarian thef palace ; and that, when
he exclaimed, We have emperor saw the work finished, chance of safety no except by beingtransformed into
"
in this desperate the emperor position is said to have neglected the usual precautions to secure
even
his camp
Crumn
Much
of this
seems
incredible.
grandnocturnal attack on the camp of six daysafterthe emperor had invaded Nicephorus, just the Bulgariankingdom. The Byzantine was army taken by surprise, and the camp entered on every side ; the whole baggage and military chest were taken ; the with many and six patricians, Emperor Nicephorus garian ofl^rs of the highest rank, were slain; and the Bulof the skuU of the empekingmade a drinking-cup ror of the Romans, in which the Sclavonian princes of the Bulgarian court pledgedhim in the richest wines festivals.^ of Greece when he celebrated his triumphal have abandoned their strongpaliThe Bulgarians must sade when they attacked the camp, for a considerable of the defeated army, with the Emperor Stavraportion the general who was of kios, wounded, Stephen severely and Theoctistos the master of the palace, the guard, in safety. ately immediStavrakios was reached Adrianople his father'ssuccessor, and the army was proclaimed had he able and willing to maintain him on the throne, health and ability to the crisis. But the equal possessed of his father had created a host of enemies fiscal severity
to the
tine existing system of government,and in the Byzana change empirea changeof administration implied
1
416. Theophanee,
the 25 th
July 811.
128
ICONOCLAST
PKBIOD.
BOOK
I.
of the emperor.
to
The
namerous
statesmen
who
expected
^""'i*'
profit by a revolution declared in favour of Michael who had married Pro* an noble, insignificant Rhangabe, copia the daughterof Nicephorus. Stavrakios was compelled by his brother-in-lawto retireinto a monastery, the where he soon died of his wounds. He had occupied
throne
two
months.
SECT.
IL"
MICHAEL
(RHANGABlC) AJ["*
WAB"
81S-61S.
OV
RlUOIOUB
ZEAL
or
MiOHAXL"
BULGABIAV
DKPBAT
MIGHAXL.
Michael I.
was
crowned
by the
Patriarch
Nicephoros,
defend
and never the church,protectthe ministers of religion, put the orthodox to death. This election of a toolof the
church was a reaction Byzantine of Nicephorus.The new the tolerant policy against all the additional by remitting emperor began his reign taxes imposedby his predecessor which had awakened He was a weak, well-meaning clerical man opposition. ; but his wife Procopia was a lady of superior tions, qualificawho united to a virtuous and charitable disposition of mind. of her father's Michael's reign vigour something the necessity of always a firm hand to guide having proved that complicated administrative machine which the Byzantine the of inheritedfrom Rome. sovereigns empire Michael purchased in the capital popularity by the lavish manner in which he distributed the wealth left by in the imperial Nicephorus treasury. He bestowed large and other sums on monasteries, hospitals, poor houses, charitable institutions, and he divided liberalgratuities of the clergy, members the chief dignitaries among the leading of the state, and the highest officersof the army.^
bigoted party
in the
"
The
soms following
ire
recorded
in detail ^"
Fifty
BELIGIOUS
ZEAL
OF
MICHAEL,
A.D.
812.
129
His
as piety,
veil
as
his
A.D.
in his council ; and he "^^^ place made it an object of political to reconcilethe importance Patriarch Nicephoros with Theodore Studita. But by of his predecessor, the policy after it had abandoning
to a
to admit
seYend monks
become
the law of
gainedby
in
the power of the emperor and the subject of the state to their own ideas. The policy narrow
laboured to
abbot
who had celebrated the marriage of the Joseph, excommunicated, as Emperor Constantino VI., was again the peace-offering which allowed the bigots their to renew communion The with the Patriarch. Studita
soon
counsels of Theodore
gOYemment
zeal for
in fresh embarrassment.
To
the emperor to perse* he persuaded orthodoxy, cute the Iconoclasts; who, duringthe preceding reign, without moleshad been allowed to profess tation. their opinions also proposed, in an It was of the assembly senate, to put the leaders of the Paulicians and Athigans
to
death,in order
them
men couYcrting
to intimidate their
to become
orthodox Christians.
of
on
church excited strong opposition tolerant the of the members the partof senate ;
to the Greek
deserted the cause of but,the Patriarch and clergy having the permanent interests of Christianity were humanity,
sacrificedto the
cause
of
orthodoxy.
While the emperor persecuted a large body of his the northern and eastern frontiers of his on subjects
the he neglected to defend the provinces against empire, who ravaged incursions of the Bulgarians, great part of Thrace and Macedonia, and took several largeand
of those who fell lb. of gold to the widows at the coronation ; five hundred lb. of gold, besides robes and ornaments, to with NicephoruB ; one hundred the Patriarch and clergy, at the coronation of his son Theophylaotus.
YOL.
I.
130
BOOK I.
ICOKOCLAST
PBEIOD.
^""*^
weightof taxation which fell on when the not lightened of the population the mass was from the and the nobility emperor relieved the clergy them by Nicephorus, additional burdens imposed on in a A lunatic girl, Discontent spreadrapidly. placed the the emperor passedthrough as position, prominent Descend from cried aloud streets of Constantinople, for another 1 The and make room thy seat 1 descend,
towns. wealthy
The
"
"
"
were
and the army remember people the prosperous daysof Constantino V., when with regret filledwith their the slave-markets of the capital were the enemies. Encouraged dissatisfaction, by the general of Iconoclasts formed a conspiracy to convey the sons blind and mute, in then* Constantino V., who were living, The plotwas covered, disexile at Panormus, to the army. to be and Michael ordered the helpless princes small island in the Propontis, to Aphiusa, a conveyed where theycould be closely spirators guarded. One of the conhad his tongue cut out. The
sons wars
of Mohammed
of Haroun
dangeron the side of the Saracens. But the soon Bulgarian war, to which Michael owed his throne, provedthe cause of his ruin. The army and the people not to his him, because he owed his elevation, despised but to the accident of his marriage, his populartalents, ity
serious
with the which made
party.
soon opinion empire. The year after the death with a numerous invaded the empire
Public
of
Crumn Nicephorus,
army, and took the
town
of Develtos.
Michael leftthe
by
the
in order to EmpressProcopia,
head of the troopsin Thrace ; but the soldiersshowed so much dissatisfaction at the presence of a female court,
132
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK ^
""
I.
would
be
an
act of
to a
^^
than death,men who had been received as worse slavery that it was an act of ; and Theodore pronounced subjects Christians into the hands to think of delivering impiety of pagans, quoting St John, All that the Father giveth
"
me
shall come
no
to
me,
that cometh to
me
I will
emperor, from motives of Could he have to the advice of The()dore. yielded piety, in wise cast out/*^ of adopted something the firm character of the
abbot,he
terms, or
woidd
secured
either have
to victory
obtained his
arms.
peace
on
his
own
While Crumn
at Constantinople, debating the siege of Mesembria, which November He acquired 812. great
was
commercial
town
of considerable of
he made
himself master
twenty-
Greek fire, propelling with a quantity for of the combustible material prepared this artillery. had Yet, even after this alanning news reached Constantinople, the weak emperor continued to
six of the brazen tubes used for devote his attention to
seems
He military. Roman
to
war
was
utterly
army
in the
ing Bulgarians ; and Crumn, findthat his troops from a severe epidemic^ were suffering retreated. The emperor, proud of his success, returned to his capital. The epidemic which had interrupted the of the enemy ascribed to the intervention was operations
of Tarasios, who
had been
orthodoxy ;
covered
and the emperor, in order to mark his gratitude for his unexpected of acquisition military renown, the tomb of St
Tarasios with
of plates
silver
'
DEFEAT
OP
MICHAEL
I., A,D.
813.
133
a. n. act of piety which added to lb., an weighing ninety-five ^^^^ the contempt the army abready felt for their sovereign's courage and capacity. In the month of May, Michael againresumed the
command
of the army, but instead of listening to the advice of the experienced the who commanded generals
to
be
he listened to the or priests, in There were at the time three able officers timidity. the army Leo the Armenian, the general of the Anatolic theme ; Michael the Amorian, who commanded one wing of the army ; and John Aplakes, the general donian of the Macetroops. Leo and Aplakesurgedthe emperor to triguing inbut the Amorian, who was attack the Bulgarians; Theoctistos the master of the palace, against
"
seems
to have been
disinclinedto
serve
The Bulgarians were sincerity. encampedat Bersinikia, about thirty miles from the Byzantine army; and Michael, his plans than once, resolved at last afterchanging more who commanded donian to risk a battle. Aplakes, the Maceand Thracian troops, of hardy consisting chiefly defeated the Bulgarian division opSclavonian recruits, posed seized a party of the Byzanto him ; but a panic tine
accused was troops;and Leo, with the Asiatic troops, when he to be surrounded and slain, of allowing Aplakes saved his own certainly for the fugitives and made it the rallying-point division, ; does considered not o f he to have been guilty yet appear the themselves. The soldiers by emperor any neglect
might have
saved
him.
Leo
fledto
to
retreated
Michael
and capital,
his crown resigning ; for he deemed his defeat a for mounting the throne of his brother-in-law. judgment him to abandon and his courtierseasily persuaded Procopia
talked of
army in the
mean
134
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK
empire. Leo
the Armenian
^"""'
of the crown. The defeated troops alone worthy appeared saluted him Emperor,and marched to Constantinople, the weak Michael ; where nobodyfeltinclined to support and without opposition, so that Leo was acknowledged the 11th July 813. crowned in St Sophia's on The dethroned emperor was to embrace the compelled
monastic life, and li?ed unmolested in the island of Prote, where he died in 845. His eldest son, Theophylactus, who had been crowned
as as
well
as
his brother
and Ignatius,
tery. monas-
the
of
in Constantinople
SECT.
IU.~LEO
T.
(THE ARMENIAN).!
ATTACK AND OK
A.D.
813-830.
POUOT
RIAN8"
Of
LbO"
TuXAOHBBOUa
OF
CbUMK" MODERATION
ViOTOBT
IN
"
OVTO
BULOA-
AVFAIBS
ItALT
SlOILT"
to
ECCLESIASTICAL
tration adminis-
CONTESTS"
Council
OF justice
"
favoubablb
Iconoclasts LSO"
Impartial
CONSPIRACT
AGAINST
HiS
ASSAaSINAflON.
When
Leo
entered the
the capital,
Patriarch Nioe-
which phorosendeayoured to conrert the precedent Michael I. had given, of signing a written declarationof into an established usage of the empire orthodoxy, ; but the new ment emperor excused himself from signing any docubefore his coronation, and afterwards he denied the it.^ Leo was inclined to favour the rightto require
but he Iconoclasts,
was no
bigot.The
Asiatic party in
^ 481. Contin. Const. Anonymous chronicle at the end of Theophanes, in the 8eriptore$ 13. Porphyr., poU Theophanem, * Leo was of Bardas, a patrician the son Armenian of the distinguished of the Ardzrounians. 16. family Gtenesius, Ghamich,L 899. ' of his Theophanes,426, says Leo gave the Patriarch a written assurance and he is followed by the anonymous orthodoxy, chronicle, page 481, by Leo Orammaticus,p. 445, by Symeon Mag. 402, and Georg. Mon. 499. But the written by the order of Constantino Porphyrogenitus in history anonymous the Scriptoret 18,and Genesius,il,givethe statement in the pott Theophanemt in his life tezt"which is oonftrmed by Ignatius of the Patriarch Nicephoros.
"
POLICY
0?
LEO.
185
a. a
*
were
both enemies to
the
reign. Michael
imother
Amorian, who had warmly supported his election, made a was Thomas, patrician.
who general, is said to have been descended
from the Sclavonian colonists settledin Asia Minor, was of the federates.^ Manuel, an Armenian general appointed
of the noble command
Emperor
conferred Leo
on
son
of Leo, who
then
Constantine.
allowed little time to attend to civil business, six daysafterhis coronation, Crumn appeared before for, the walls of
The Constantinople. in the suburb of St
camped king enBulgarian and extended his Mamas,"^
linesfrom the Blachernian to the Golden Gate ; but he that his army could not long maintain its soon perceived and position, order
was
and dehe allowed his troopsto plunder stroy the property of the citizens in every direction, in
to
of peace. treaty
Leo
from of his subjects possessions ruin,Crumn was eager to retreat without losing any of the plunder his army had collected. A treatymight have been concluded, had not Leo attempted to get rid A conof his enemy by an act of the basest treachery. ference and the to which the emperor was appointed, attended onlyby a fixed number of kingwere to repair, Crumn for assassinating at this guards. Leo laid a plot
anxious to
the
Ada
weighs of the Patriarch Ignatiusfar outMart, 710. The authority 391. Neander, ill 632. The Emperor Leo every other. Schlosser, doubtless made the customary general declaration of orthodoxy contained in the coronation oath,which had appearedso vague as to requirethe written signedby his predecessor. supplement ^ oonolude that Qenesius,3-14. Ck"ntin. Const Porphyr.32. We must Armenian of the parentsof Thomas one a Sdavonian, the other an (see was
Sanet
1568. Porphyr.
Constantinople.
136
BOOK
1.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
with the monarch escaped and the Bulgarian meeting, his chancellor dead, and most cau^s. leaving diflSculty, gj.gj^jgg^ This infamous act was of his attendants captives. so of feelings religious generally approved by the perverted that the historian Theophanes, the Greek ecclesiastics, his chronological in concluding an abbot and holy confessor,
record of the transactionsof the Roman
emperors,
empire by this ambuscade, in consequence sins.^ of the multitude of the people's The Bulgarians on treachery avengedthe emperor's inhabitants of the empire in a terrible the helpless the suburb of St manner. They beganby destroying and private Mamas ; palaces, churches, buildings public burnt to the ground torn from the were ; the lead was domes, which were fire-proof ; the vesselstaken at the bead of the portwere added to the conflagration ous ; numerbeautiful works of art were and many destroyed, mention is made of a carried ofi^, among which particular
was
not
to witness permitted
garians hydra.^The Bulthen quited their lines before Constantinople, and marched to Selymbria, on their way the destroying immense stone bridge the river Athyras, over (Karason,) celebrated for the beautyof its construction.^ Selymbria, Rhedestos,and Apres were sacked ; the country round Ganas was but Heraclea and Panion ravaged, celebratedbronze
a bear,and lion,
resistedthe assaults of the invaders. Men put to the sword, while the young
and cattlewere
were
where every-
women,
dren, chil-
driven away to Bulgaria. Part of the army penetrated and into the Thracian Chersonese, laid waste the country. Adrianople to was compelled surrender
and booty,
^ "
by famine,and
an
plundered,
incredible
427. Theophanes, 427. Leo arammaticiis, 446. Anonym., Lt Theophanee, 168, No. 246, GyUius. Banduri,Imp, OrUtU, I 416. " Steph. Byz. A'^vpw. Plimi,H. N. iy. 11-18.
VICTORY
07EB
THE
BULGAEIANS,
a
A.D.
814.
137
a. d. bodyof 30,000 the winter. They ^^^^ to invade the empire Bulgarians during detained capturedArcadiopolis ; and thoughtheywere for a fortnight, of the theirretreat, during by the swelling river Rheginas, Ijcocould not venture to attack (Bithyas,) tbem.^ the Bulgarian frontier, They regained carrying and immense and t housand fifty captives booty, away ^ behind them a terrible of desolation. scene leaving Emboldened by the apparent weakness of the empire, Crumn made preparations for besieging Constantinople, of in use.^ Leo allthe machines then war by collecting it necessary to construct a new wall beyondthat thought in existence at the Blachemian gate,and to add a deep for in this quarter the fortificationsof the capital ditch, of the appearedweak. Crumn died before the opening exertion at campaign by the greatest ; and Leo, having last collectedan army capable marched the field, of taking the to Mesembria. There he succeeded in surprising The defeat attack on their camp. Bulgarians, by a night lated, The Bulgarian most sanguinary. was army was annihiand the place where the dead were buried was long called the Mountain of Leo, and avoided by the Bulgarians this the a as victory spot of evil augury. After with as which he ravaged invaded Bulgaria, emperor the much cruelty had ever shown in plundering as Crumn concluded empire. At last a truce for thirty years was with Mortagon,the new king. The power of these weakened by the recent was so neighbours dangerous exertions they had made, and by the wetJth theyhad to that for many disposed acquired, years they were
The
success
remain
at peace.
* 81, and Constant. H. N., 11-18. Hierocles, 28. Plinii, Erginusl Scylax, De Them. iL 2, mention Ganos. Porphyr. ' The and brazen clothing, blankets, carpets, bootyconsisted of Armenian 434. of the end at tin. 410. Con Theophanes, Symeon Mag. pans. * Contin. of a curious listof the ancient machines 434,who giTes Theophanes,
then in
use.
138
BOOK Ca.lL
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
the
la.
of the popes, and the formation of two independence in Africa and Spain, Saracen kingdoms neyercontinued,
in consequence of the extensiye to be Terj great, theless, mercantile connections of the Greeks,who then possessed
commerce
of the Mediterranean.
this time
of
the
of Aglabites
a
Africa and
the Om-
miades
Spain ruled
rebellious and
not
ill-organised
races,
which
a
the habits of
sent out
settledadministration. Both
these states
tical pira-
expeditions by sea, when their incursions by land restrainedby the warlike power of their neighbours. were Michael I. had been compelled to send an army to Sicily, both from to protectit from the incursions of pirates Africa and Spain. Lampedosa had been occupied by before Saracen corsairs, and many Greek ships captured, with the joint and Naples, forces of the Dukes of Sicily the vesselsfrom Amalfi and Venice,defeated the plunderers, of and cleared the sea for a while. The quarrels the Aglabites and Ommiades induced the former to conclude with for and truce ten years to jointhe a Leo, naval forces of the Greeks and Venetians in attacking the Spanish Saracens.^ in the East during The disturbances which prevailed the caliphate of Almamun insured tranquillity to the Asiatic frontier of the empire, and allowed Leo to devote
his whole attention to the internal state of his dominions. institution immediately onlypublic of the whole population. connected with the feelings By its conduct the peoplewere interested in the directly of the imperial proceedings government. Ecclesiastical of public the onlyfieldfor the expression aflfairs, oflfering the centre of all political ideas became naturaJly opinion,
was
The
church
the
403. Schlosser,
Pope
Leo's Letter.
Colettl
140
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
members and H
of the
were clergy
; opposedto image-worship
were
^^""^^
of these the
most
eminent
the abbot
John
of the illustrious of the Morochorzanians, jlilas, family from his of Syllaeum. and Anthony, John, called, bishop the Grammarian, was accused by the learning, superior of studying magic; and the nickname of Lekano* ignorant mantis was givenhim, because he was said to read the in a brazen basin.^ The Iconoclasts secrets of futurity of the also supported son were by Theodotos Kassiteras, whose sisterhad been the Michael Melissenos, patrician third wife of Constantino
to
V.
Leo persuade
to
On
was
of the Greek nation the other hand, the majority attached to image-worship was firmly ; and the cause Theodore
and Studita,
The
amicable arrangement and commanded to insure general John Hylilas toleration, to draw up a report of the opinions by the expressed
earliest fathers of the church
on
the
of imagesubject this
worship.
As
soon as
he
was
in
of possession
some
he report,
on
concessions
the
the satisfy
making people
the gross display nessed witof superstitious constantly worship in the churches. But the Patriarch boldly pronounced
formed
of the church on tradition as to the opinion according well as on Holy Scripture. He added that the opinions of the church were as well inspired by the Holy Spirit
MODBBATION
IN
ECCLESIASTICAL
CONTESTS.
141
as
the
The Scriptures.
the two
state
a
emperor
then
a.d.
^^^^'
of the
excitement greatest
his
at
this
of their diyine
Patriarch summoned
the
in night
of safety
the
regardthis as
disorders which
to appealing to
must
both
parties
contro-
the
summoned
spent in
Theodore Studita was one of those who attended rersy. the Patriarch on this occasion, assertion of and his steady
from his worthy, bold and uncompromisiug the views, to have occupied chair of St Peter. He declared plainly to the emperor that he had no authority to iuteifere with the doctrines since his rule onlyextended over the civil of the church, and military government of the empire. The church had fnll authority at this to govern itself. Leo was enraged
ecclesiastical supremacy
rendered him
anathematised
the present
dergy were
assemblies. The and
abstain from
holding public
remove
however,now Iconoclasts,
the churches in
began to
of their
imageover
been
once
imperial palace,
and Isaurian,
which had
by
the
replaced by Irene. The emperor now ordered it to be removed, on the groundthat this was necessary to again disturbance. These acts induced Theodore avoid public
Studita to callon the monks
to
subscribe a declaration
to the doctrines of the church, firmly to image-worship, as then established. The respect
142
ICONOCLAST
PSBIOD.
BOOK
^"""*^
schism a new emperor, alarmed at the dangerof causing himself called upon to resist in the church,but feeling made on his authority, the attacks now determined to relievethe civilpower from the
a
contest with
council of the
in of engaging necessity the ecclesiastical, a general bj assembling and leaving in the the two parties church,
differences. As he was in to settletheir own priesthood ithappened that both the Patriarch doubt how to proceed, in and the abbo^ John Hylilas, were together officiating
and that present, of his duty, had to repeatthe John, in the performance then will ye liken God ? or words of Isaiah, To whom the Christmas ceremonies while Leo
was
"
what will ye compare unto him ? The workman melteth a it over with and the goldsmith spreadeth graven image,
and gold,
most
casteth silverchains."^
A few
In
these pronouncing
words,he turned
days after this scene, a band of mutinous soldiers broke into the patriarchal the pictures of the saints with palaceand destroyed other which the building was adorned,and committing until they were driven out by the regular disorders, in the month of April815, Leo gu^d. At length, ordered a provincial synodto assemble at Constantinople, the Patriarch Nicephoros and before this assembly was for he denied its competency to take brought by force, and conof his conduct. He was fined deposed, cognisance
manner. emphatic
in
he
fully usewe tests con-
time which he
more passed
them passed
amidst the
dignity.^ patriarchal both rendered the moderate o f The bigotry parties attention of the emperor of no effect ; and public policy
^
ffistoricum de Rebui died a.d. 828. His works Bre"Breviarium Nicephoros in the Byzantine Crettii ab Obitu Maurieii ad Constantinum usqve Coprontftnum, annexed of SynceUus, The to the work ooUection,and a Chronographia
'
COUNCIL
FAYOUBABLl
TO
ICONOCLASTS.
148
became
so
that it was
absorbed bj the state of the church, a. d. exclusively for him to remain any longer neuter. 8^^820. impossible
His firstdecided stepwas to nominate a new Patriarch hostile to image-worship ; and he selected Theodotos who held a high Melissenos, mentioned, a laymanalready of the election The example court. post in the imperial
of Tarasios
the votaries of image-worship puting disprevented of the electionof a layman; but they the legality refused to acknowledge the ground that the on Theodotos, of Nicephorus and that he was was deposition illegal, still their lawful Patriarch. Theodotos was consequently neyertheless ordained and
was a man
a.d. consecrated,
815.
He
a
of
his habits as
too
man military
courtierwere
was
his
manners,
and he
accused of
great
and indulging tually habia luxurious table, keeping splendour, in society of too worldly a character. council of the church was now held at ConA general stantinople,
in which the
new
the
son a
ing Leo, presided ; for the emperor declined takin order to allow the personal part in the dispute,
of
to
church
doctrine without any This council redirectinterferenceof the civilpower. established the acts of that held in 754 by Constantino
on
decide
of questions
banishment
quently the party revolutions that had freoccurred in the Greek church had introduced a
;
but
Patriarch Photius,in a letter to the Emperor Basil I.,mentions that Leo treated the deposed Pfitriarch with indulgence.He enjoyedthe use of his books and the society of his friends, the possession of his private as well as fortune." PAofu Eptstolas, 97,page 136, edit. Lond.
14*
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
than their benefices.^ This habitual practheir opinions ^j^ ^" falsehood received the mild name of arrangement, CH^n^s.
BOOK
L
arersion public
to
such
con-
in preaching the acts of the persisted against council, they banished these non-conformists to distant that the civil power with the customary called upon to enforce conformity was The council had decided that images and picrigour.^ tures
monasteries
were
to be removed
from
the
resistedtheir removal,or the clergy placed or monks repeople inflicted for this were them, severe punishments violation of the law. a feature in the Bywas zantine Cruelty of religious without any impulse civiladministration, fanaticism. Theodore who feared neither patriarch nor Studita,
in ecclesiastical authority as the nothing recognised
own no emperor, and acknowledged but the church, aflairs while he
standard of
thodoxy, or-
lowed folthe streets of the capita), openly through proceeded aloft bearing by his monks in solemn procession, which had been removed from the churches, the pictures to give them safe asylumwithin the walls of the a of contempt for monastery of Studion. For this display the law he was banished by the emperor to Asia Minor ; and his conduct in exileaffordsus a remarkable proof of the practical the monks had acquired liberty by their
"
The
hiBtoriao
our
auUior Theophanes,
of the
which Chronography,
has been
only,and often our best, guidein the preceding pages, was a noble wore those who exception to the system of compliance.He was among and died shortly after in exile in Samothrace. banished, ' the word. was O'lKovofila Neander, iiL 641.
at times
"
Pkotii
Ep,,97.
COUNCIL
FAVOUBABLB
TO
ICONOCLASTS.
145
honest and
steadyresistance
as
to
All
monover ploy em-
a.d.
^^t^'
the power he exerted that the emperor did not yenture to public opinion,
the bold monk he had illegal against severity in the Indeed,the administration of justice imprisoned. to have been more seems never Byzantine empire regular and equitable the reign of Leo the Armenian. than during Theodore with from his prison not only corresponded the most eminent bishops and monks of his party,and with ladiesof piety and wealth, but also with the Pope, to whom, though the bold abbot a foreign now potentate, sent if he were himself an as deputies, independent Patriarch in the Eastern church.^ His greatobject to was allthose oppose the Iconoclastsin every way, and prevent whose minds he exercised any influencefrom holding over communion One with those who conformed
to their
authority.
him,and
seems thing
its
The fallacy.
a
could be
martyr for
onlypunished by the usual power for imagesince the question at issue had no connection worship, with the truth of Christianity. Theodore argued that the night darker than that of ignorance, of heresy was and the merit of labouring at least as to illuminateit was to great. The Emperor Leo was, however,too prudent ing give hope of claimany of Theodore's party the slightest the crown of martyrdom. He persisted in his policy ness, the decrees of the council with so much mildof enforcing and balancing his own of personal ion opinexpressions that he excited with such a degreeof impartiality,
the dissatisfactionof the violentof both
parties.^
^ He of the foundation of the monastery to have been the chief mover seems of St Praxedes at Rome, in which the Greek monks who fled from persecution j4n"utani de Vitis Pont, 150. were established by Pope Paschal. * The ness letters of The"Klore Studita furnish information concerningthe mildof Leo*s government that the banished abbot could carry on so The fSact
"
VOL.
I.
146
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
^""*^
most men cormptedand factious societj, rest Inteadministration of justice. the equitable appreciate and ambition may indeed so far pervertthe feelings
Even
in
the administratireor aristocratic as to make class, the equal societiesregard of such priTileged members of
an
of the people to the mass an as justice of their rights engendered ; and the passions infringement zeal may blind those under its iufluence to by religious of different committed agaiust men opinions. any injustice
distributionof
Hence
it is that of
goremment,
to
secure
must justice,
be established on
broader basis
public empire, orthodoxy.In the Byzantine religious found no home among the mass of the population, opinion and enslayed by whose minds and actions were regulated administratiye influence, by the power of the wealthy, and the monks.^ of the clergy One and by the authority is yisible in the violeuce of resultof this state of society matters displayed concerning insignificant party passion in the capital ; and hence itarose at lastthat the political of the empire interests disconnected with were frequently that exercised the greatest the subjects influenceon the
fate of the goyemment. The moderation of Leo, which, had public possessed opinion ought to have any vitality,
with the rendered his administration popular his
of majority
in the provinces, rendered it unpocertainly subjects pular in Constantinople. Crowds, seeking excitement, of the people before deliberation express the temporary feelings has fixed the public opinion.Leo was hated by
extensive a correspoDdence, goanmteed by the lawB proTos that the liberty when these laws were of Uie Roman administered, was not an empire, equitably idle phrase at Constantinople under the Iconoclasts. 1 in the Boman in the Byzantine, as empire,the administration, including the emperor and all his servants,or, as the servants of the state were his called, household,formed a class apart from the inhabitants of the empire, governed under the civil laws of Bome were by different laws,whUe the subjects again whom separatedinto the rich and the poor, oi dvvaroi and ol ircVi;rcf usage , than legislation constituted into separate classes. more
148
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
unprincipled to ce^^s.g^iji^rled hjna to think that he had as good a right that a general the throne as Leo ; and when he perceiyed to the emperor's felt in Constantinople was opposition and his ambition got the better of his gratitude, conduct, It was the throne. to mount ported rehe plotted generally the imperial that Leo had refused to accept crown, at Adrianople, when proclaimed emperor by the army with which he would of the difficulties from his knowledge have to contend,and that Michael forced him to yield either accept the that he must his assent,by declaring
BOOK I.
crown,
or
be
The
put to death
to make
to this anecdote.
share in
and discovered,
to
death.
when at long been seditious, the government a conspiracy against and conhe was tried, found guilty, demned the the chronicles that It is said by
court
of
left it to justice
the emperor to order his execution he might think proper, and that Leo
cast into the furnace immediately baths of the palace, and prepared to
execution in person. It is needless to say the vice of the Byzantine was that, court, though cruelty rank this storyas a tale fitterfor the legends of must we the saints than for the of history the
the
empire. The event took place when the empress, hearing on Christmas-eve, what was about to happen, and moved with compassion for one who had long been her husband's intimate friend, hastened to Leo, and implored him to defer the execution until after Christmas-day. She urgedthe sin of participating in the holy communion with the cries of the dying of his youthechoing in his ear. Leo who, companion cruel not personally to his though severe, was yielded
" "
consented
with
greatreluctance to
LEO's ASSASSINATION,
A.D.
820.
14"
extent
a. d.
conspiracy gave
givingorders
for
him
^'^"^^^
the empress and said," I grant your request : you think only of my eternalwelfare ; but you expose my life tune misforand your scruples to the greatest peril, may bring you and on our children.^' Michael was conducted back to his
on
and dungeon,
the
It was afterwards to Leo. brought told in Constantinople that during the emperor the night turbing disunable to sleep.A sense of impending was danger, him to risefrom his bed, his imagination, impelled himself in a mantle, and secretly visitthe cell in envelop
key of
which
Michael
was
confined.
There
on
lying
alarm emperor's
to
increased at this
measures
He spectacle.
withdrew
consider
what
and the
But jailor.
Michael had
already many
one
prisoner partisans
and palace,
of these had,
nocturnal visit observed the emperor's to the crimihaving There was not awakened Michael. naPs cell, immediately duced confessor had been introto lose. As a friendly a moment criminal into the palace to afford the condemned this priest sent to Theocthe consolations of religion, was unless a blow was instantly tistos to announce struck, that, his own Michael would at daylight pardonby purchase This the names of the principal conspirators. revealing message The caused the
to resolve conspirators
on
fortress
from separated
was
the tice pracand as it was to attend matins in his chapel, of the sultan. It of the best in singers
Constan-
160
I.
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
BOOK
were tiuople
OH.n.fS.
morning admitted at a postem-gate in the celebrationof the in order to join before daybreak,
that
then the admiration of whose solemn chant was Berrice, turn of a religious the Christian world.i Leo, who was roioe his deepsonorous in displaying of mind, delighted in the choir. He
measures
for
securing
the
to the
and chapel,
the themselves of his presence during guised celebrationof divine serviceto execute their plans.Diswith daggersconcealed in their as choristers, availed conspirators
admittance
among
in enveloped furred mantles, which,with the thick bonnets theywore concealed the damp, effectually a as protection against voice of Leo the powerful their faces. But as soon as
were oflBciating chaplain was
ward forthe assassins pressed hymns, the chaplain to stab him. Some, however, mistaking for the emperor, wounded the priest, whose criesrevealed
the
all turned
a
on
time with
was soon
cut
pieces.
the
whom Michael,
theyproclaimed emperor,
revolution for which Few of sovereigns exerted themselves more
he
was
and
thus
consummated
under sentence
of death.
the
^ affected by the solemn music of the Qreek was Charlemagne profoundly service. We may conclude that itbore a closer resemblance to the music of the Russian church of to-day Greek psalmody. than to the nasal melody of modem See the enthusiastic manner in which Joannes Cameniates speaks of ByEan* tine church-music in the tenth century,De Exeidio Tk"$"alonic"nsi, x. ; chap. Soriptora poit Theophanem, p. 826.
LEO's ASSASSINATION,
A.D.
820.
151
the duties of their station, yet few have received less for their good qualities praise ; nor did his assassination
create
^.d.
"^^;^-
any reaction of publicopinionin his favour. Though he died with the crucifix in his hand, he was
as
condemned
wife and
if he had been
children were
life.i
^ For the reignof Leo V.,see the author at the end of Theophanes; anonymous Leo Grammaticus, 445 ; the continuator of Theophanes, by order of Constan-
tme
both in the ScripUfrei and Qeorg. Hon. 500 Qenesius;Cedrenus, po$t Theoph,; 487 ; Zonares, iL 152 ; and the shorter chronicles.
CHAPTER
III.
THE
AMORIAN
DYNASTY,
A.D.
820-867.
SECT.
I.~1UCHAEL
STAMMERER,)
of poliot
A.D.
820-829.
BiBTH SioiLT
OF
"
Michael ^Michael's
"
Thomas
"
"
Loss
of and
Crbtb
death.
aitd
eoclesiastioal
Marriage
with the fetters on proclaimed emperor the the first spectacleof his reign was his limbs ; and him from felon's bonds. When lieved rea jailordeliyering from his irons, he proceeded to the church of St Sophia, where he was crowned by the Patriarch. Michael born in the lowest rank of society.He II. was had entered the army as a privatesoldier in earlyyouth, but his attention to his duties, and his military talents, quicklyraised him to the rank of general. His influence the troops aided in placing Leo V. on the imperial over Amorium throne. his birthplace an important and was inhabited by a mixed wealthy city, populationof various interests.^ and languages, collected together races by trading The the majority,still retained Phrygians,who formed native usages, and ideas adverse to some religious many Greek prejudices.Many Jews had also been established in the cityfor ages, and a sect called the Athingans, who held that the touch of many thingswas a contamination, Michael
II.
was
"
had
1 '
numerous
votaries.^
16, note
**
See The
page
4. their
name
jfh"m
the
allusion
is to
not, taste
not, handle
FAMILY
OP
MICHAEL.
153
of Michael, and the half-suppressed a.". origin Roman pride,"^^^' contempt he disclosed for Greek learning, in and ecclesiastical awakened some tradition, animosity the nobles, and the orthodox the breasts of the pedants, that of Constantinople.^ It is not surprising, therefore,
The
low
the historianswho
mies patronageof the eneshould represent its founder of the Amorian dynasty As he and a stammerer. a heretic, as a horse -jockey, showed no particular faTOur to the Greek party in the church,his orthodoxy was questioned by the Byzantine
wrote
under the
at spoken
calumnywould find credit with the who of Hellenic populace, have always been jealous and eager to avenge, by words,the compliance strangers, to yield by deeds to foreign theyhave been compelled
court,any
masters.
to observe the diflBsagacity in the church and court cultieswhich the various parties his administration. had the power of raising up against he began by conciliating To gaintime, every party. The orthodox,headed by Theodore Studita and the exiled Patriarch Nicephoros, the most were powerful. He flattered these two ecclesiastics, by allowingthem to Theodore to and even return to the capital, permitted
resume
his functions
other
hand,
abbot
He seems to have image-worship. and he was inclinedto religious been naturally toleration, within the paleof the anxious to repress all disputes tranquillity. the public of maintaining church, as the best means for the spirit In order to give a public guarantee reaction in favour of of the civilpower, which
81
So, post Tkeoph. mxi^cwftv btanrwov,Contin. ConBt Porphyr. ^Trjp'EXXiyvHci/v Abulpharagius {Ch.Syr.150) says Michael was the son of a converted Jew. of the Labb, viii.1183), in his Life of Ignatius(ConcU, says he was Niketas, and the both the emperor wish to make modems Sabbatian heresy. Some
.
Athingans gypseys
without
any
reason.
164
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD,
toleration of he held a silentionto announce reign, 1. clared dein ecclesiastical cvjiM questions ; but it was priyi^te opinion laws against the exhibition of that the existing in churches were to be strictly enimagesand pictures his
of Michael to the ecclesiastical forced.1 The indiflference of whose doctrines to many which agitated a church, disputes did not create so violent heart ad?erse, as the sincerer conduct of his predecessors, opposition he
was
at
an
who banished
The
few possessed the hopes of claims to distinction, awakened, as usual, ererj ambitious general A formidable rival appeared in the person of Thomas, the only of eminence who oflScer
eleyation of
new
emperor, who
had remained faithful to the rebel Bardanes,when Leo and Michael deserted his standard. Thomas, as has been of the federates was mentioned, already general appointed by Leo V.,but,owing to some circumstances which are
not
and caliph,
remained
His
for
some
time
on
the borders of
or
Armenia.^
whether origin,
Sdavonian
Armenian,
him in an unusual degree from the ruling by separating classesin the empire ^for he was, like Michael, of a very low rank in societycaused him to be regarded as a friend in the empire of the people races ; and all the subject his cause, which in many provinces took the form espoused
"
"
of of
an
a
attack
on
the Roman
a place new
emperor on the throne.^ This rebellionis remarkable for assuming of the more character of a socialrevolutionthan of an ordinary insur^
^ "
revolutionto
Ecdet, a.d. 821, torn. ziy. QeschiehU der bild. Kaiser, The letter of Michael SchloBser, 437.
le Debonnaire.
art
*
Ann, Baronii,
HiH. Fleury,
2,4. iiL14,with continuator {Scrip, who eays Compare Genesius, post Tkeopk, 6), Thomas born at the lake Qazouraa was The town of Gazotiria, the river near Iris in Pontns,is mentioned by Strabo, lib.xii. chap.ii." 15,p. 647. Hamilton, Re$ectrohe9m Atia Minor, i. 369. He is said to have lived long racens, among the Saand to have given himself out for Constantino VL Some of the reports seem and look as if the history irreconcilable, of two persons had be^i eonfounded.
156
BOOEL
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
^'""'^
of obtaining diflSculty suplies. On the other hand, Constantinople, closely though with all kinds of provisions well supplied inyested, was and the inhabitants displayed and stores, great firmness in opposing an theysaw bent on plunder, enemy whom the while Michael and his son performed Theophilus made to duties of able generals. Two attempts were in 821, storm the fortifications, one duringthe winter, and the other in the spring of 822 ; and both were and entailed considerable loss on unsuccessful, equally the besiegers. In the mean time the partisans of Michael pelago in the islands of the Archicollecteda fleetof 350 ships and Greece ; and this force, plete a comhavinggained the comthe fleetof Thomas, cut ofi* munications over victory of the besiegers with Asia. in order to profit The Bulgarians, by the civilwar, invaded the empire, and plundered the country from which the rebels drew their supplies. Thomas marched
increased ingpropensities
the
to
oppose
them much
with
and defeated, He
was so
lost the
by this defeat that Michael salliedout from Constantinople, again routed him, and the rebel army to retire to Arcadiopolis, compelled For five where Thomas was soon besieged.^ closely months the placewas defended, but at obstinately last Thomas followers; delivered up by his own was and his adopted son, who had been invested with the title of Emperor, was after in Byza. shortly captured Both were after their limbs had been cut oflf.^ hanged, This junction of a son with the reigning emperor as his tion, constitusuccessor, had become a rule of the Byzantine Two which was rarely neglected by any sovereign.
weakened
^
Genesius,19
81, and
Arcadiopolis.
this
Contin.
*
the
446 Schloaser,
note.
Michael's own letter to Louis le Dobonnaire is the historians. Baronius,xiy. 64. as well as the early cruelty,
CAUSES
OF
THE
REBELLION
OF
THOMAS.
157
a.d.
chiefs attached
some
to the
party of Thomas
of Kabala
continued for
and Saniana
time to defend
the towns
^^^'
in Asia
one
who
cesarea^
one
fact recorded
of the This
remarkable
and
rence
empire. The largefleetscollected on both sides prove that the population and wealth of the coasts and islands of the Archipelago had not declined under the administration of the Iconoclasts, this part of the empire though to be least favoured by the central power, as was likely Leo III., and having to dethrone having attempted the party of the image-woralways firmly shippers.^ supported of The most numerous partisans Thomas, and those who gave the strong revolutionary to impulse the rebellionat its commencement, were that body of the Asiatic population which national distinctionsor religious excluded from participation in public and local opinions
and to whom the ecclesiastical courts were affairs, even of their heretical opinions account shut, on ; and to the
ecclesiastical courts
discontent of
alone
recourse
could be had
for the
administration equitable
by
with
excessive
The in some cases. justice these classes, to the povertycreated joined of Thomas the army taxation, supplied of bands of
those
numerous
revenge, who
men
to
and ultimately ruined his enterprise. possessing property, and his incapacity The indiscipline of his troops, and religious applyany remedyto the financiidoppression of the which the population intolerance against
Saniana Const Porphyr. De in the mountainB of the theme Charsianon. 11. De Adm, Imp. chap. 50. Cont. Scrip, 45. Theoph. pott
"
was
Contin. 40.
Genesius,18.
158
ICONOCLAST
PBKIOD.
BOOK
^"^'^^
Asiatic proyinces had taken up arms, alienatedthe minds of all who expected to find in him an instrament for
been a the empire. But had Thomas really reforming of a powerful tion man mind, he mighthare laid the foundaof a new in the Eastern Empire, state of society by out toleration the burden of taxation, lightening carrying for religious administration an impartial securing opinions, and giving of justice to heretics, jects, even every classof subwithout distinctionof nationality or race, equal of the for their lives and property. The spirit security age was,
however,averse
to
sense
of
defective that these equitable was so justice principles could onlyhave been upheld ciplined the of a well-disby power mercenary army.
proving of adopting for ima general measure necessity the condition of the peoplewas not felt by when this rebellion was Michael II., even suppressed ; and thoughhe saw that some reduction of taxation to the lower classeswas required, he restrictedthe boon to theme and Opsikion, the Armeniac because these provinces Thomas in the civil had not joined war;^ and even in them he onlyreduced the hearth -tax to one-half of I. The rest of the the amount imposedby Nicephorus than usual, as a punishment. more was empire oppressed It is certain that this unfortunate rebellion caused immense
no an
The
destructionof propertyin Asia Minor, and was inconsiderablecause of the accumulation of property the estates, which began to depopulate of a new race prepare it for the reception
of inhabitants. under every known government society The seeds of troubled by civil at this period wars. was be soughtin some these convulsions may, therefore, the relationsof the various classes cause affecting general
The
state of
CoDtiu.
LOSS
OF
OBETB
A19D
6ICILT.
169
of
of social progress,and so far a-d. deyelopment it lay beyond the immediate influence of the political ^'^^^ medan laws of the respectiye goyemments, whether Mohamin the Christian. The frame of society or Saracen and Frank empires of as many betrayed signs decay as in the Byzantine. One of the remarkable
men
in the
features of
men,
so
the age
is the
appearance
of bands
of
to set the existing as powerful goyemments in great bands consisted These defiance. at eyerywhere
part of
their
men
of what
may
and
slaye-trade
The
new
afforded preyailed,
forces with in
our
them
the of
their recruiting
which feeling
colonise
and improye uncultiyated lands,in the countries, ninth century led the Saracens and Normans to rayage and capital, eyery country they could enter, destroy
diminish cultiyationand population. consequently Crete and Sicily, of two of the most yduable proyinces the Byzantine inhabited almost exclusiyely by empire, in of and both ciyilisation and state a Greeks, high perity, proswithout the Saracens were offering conquered by the resistancethat might haye been expected from the wealth and numbers of the inhabitants. Indeed,we are to infer that the changefrom the orthodox compelled
sway of the emperors of Constantinople tion to the dominaof the Mohammedans, was not considered by the
of majority as calamity
so Sicily
seyere
belieye. In almost eyery case generally tory hisin which the Saracens conquered Christian nations, reyeals that theyowed their success unfortunately to the fayour with whidi their progress was garded rechiefly of by the mass of the people.To the disgrace
most
160
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
BOOK ^
"'"
^ ^'
than that of the Araoppressive commenced when the rude bian conquerors. Oppression of a ruling the corruptions tribes of the desert adopted welcomed the first followers class. The inhabitants of Syria the Copts of Egypt contributed of Mahomet; their country under the domination of the Arabs; to place administration was
more
aided in the
conquestof Africa.
themsehes under the to place Constantinople, The of the of the Mohammedans. treachery sway made Spain and the indifierence of the people, nobles,
and the south of France The
same
easy prey to the Saracens. be traced to the must conquestof Crete and Sicily
an
mass
of the
indifferent to could
the
had not been people Byzantine government these valuable tian Chris-
of possession
islands.
characteristic of disgraceful
monarchies The
apparent at a much later period. and Vallachians conquest of the Greeks, Servians,
is also Othoman Turks
was
by the
by
effected rather
mass
by
the
luntary vo-
of the
of the Mohammedans.
and
state
must
them
Christian
for it society,
the apportion
of Roman
of ecclesiastical persecution orthodoxy. Crete fella prey to a band of pirates. The reignof Al Hakem, the Ommiade of Spain, disturbed was caliph by continual troubles;and some theological disputes havingcreated a violent insurrection in the suburbs of to Arabs were Cordova,about 15,000 Spanish compelled The greaterpart of these in the year 815. emigrate where establishedthemselves at Alexandria, desperadoes
theysoon
took
an
active
of
Egypt.
LOSS
OP
GBETE,
A.D.
823.
161
a. d.
The
rebellion of
forces of the
left the
Arabs
^^'^^*
on
and establisha settlement invade the island, it,in the year 823.^ Michael was unable to take
measures
anj
soon
and invaders,
an
event
to the happenedin Egypt which added greatly of this Saracen colony. The victories of the strength lieutenants of the CaliphAlmamun the remainder compelled of the Andalusian Arabs to quitAlexandria ; that Abou Hafs, called by Greeks Apochaps, so joined his countrymen in Crete with forty determined to ships,
make
the
new
permanent home.
that
It
is said
by
the
by
of
an
immense
Chandak, now
The
corrupted by
the Western
a new
nations the
into Candia.^
construction of
as city,
of their conquests, was capital part of the Saracen system of establishing The foundation of their domination. the result was Cairo,Cairowan,Fez,Cufa,and Bagdat, tutions, instiand new of this policy. A new state of society, in a new introduced with greaterfacility were
residence.
The Saracen derived pirates
some
towards facilities
their conquestspermanent, from the circumstance rendering that their bands generally consisted of young men, destitute of domestic ties, estawho were family seeking
1 Contin. 85,47. Genesius,21. The Saracens are said to Scrip, post Theoph. ha,ye established themselves first at Suda. " of the Cretans is indicated by the of a portion The favourable disposition that a native monk pointed out to the Saracens the siteof Chandak ; tradition, effectual resistance than and the power of the islanders to have offered a more laws and leave to preserve its own theydid,is shown by one districtobtaining This was bably prousages, without any interference on the part of the Saracens.
Sphakia. Contin.
VOL.
I.
48.
21. Genesius, L
162
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK
I.
blisbments
the nsuallj The
ease,
as
well
as
wealth.
a
It
was
thus that
thej
is
CH^m^i. Yy^^Yne
real
to colonists,
case
much
greaterextent
than
with
moreover,
with the lower orders, rank,formed marriages highest the followers of which reigned and the equality among fewer barriers to the increase of the Prophet, presented in the various orders and than prevailed their number of The native population classesof Byzantine society. if not a declining Crete was in a stationary, at condition,
the
favourable to a rapid increase of their extremely numbers. enables us to mark, however, rarely History, from age to age, the increaseand decrease of the different whose affairsit and nations concerning tribes, classes,
no fact is treats, though more
to important
enable
us
to
form
correct
society,
The of
Emperer Michael
to
II.
was some
at
length, by the
defeat
Thomas, enabled
the command
a
make
of of
theme,
of the
man
high rank
family ;
it
was
also
strengthened by a reinforcement
under
Damianos, count
stables and protospatbarios imperial ; but this defeated. Damianos was slain, was expedition completely and Photinos escaped with a single The to Dia. galley second attack on the Saracens was commanded by Kraof the Kibyrraiot teros,the general theme, who was The accompanied by a fleet of seventy shipsof war. that their army was victorihistorians ous Byzantine pretend in a battle on shore, but that the Saracens, rallying the night, the Christian camp, and capduring surprised tured the whole fleet. Krateros escaped in a merchant
164
BOOK I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
punished by the loss of his nose ; for thoughMichael tino the daughter of Constanchjim ijjnag^jf Euphrosyne, espoused
be
1.
he did VI., after she had taken the veil, that any of his should subjects be
not
a
intend
allowed
similar
license.
in time to
Euphemioswas
save
informed of the
order emperor's
sedition in Syraa cuse, exciting the this tumult, Gregoras slain. Michael then deputed Byzantine governor was to Crete has Photinos,whose unsuccessful expedition the place of Gregoras, been already mentioned,to supply and carry on the war the Saracens of Africa, against tract had already invited into Sicily, to diswhom Euphemios Ziadet the attention of the Byzantine military. of Cairowan, had paid Allah, the Aglabite sovereign that he was well preattention to his fleet, so particular pared the and to to carry on war, delighted gain an for his troops into Sicily. In June 827 his entrance with the ships admiral effected a junction of Euphemios, who had been driven out of Syracuse, and the Saracens his nose, by his native city.^ In
landed
near
at
Mazara.
Photinos
was
defeated in Enna.
battle
Platana,and retreated
ta
The
Saracens
but theywere not strong enough to Girgenti, occupied fleet until the Byzantine offensiveoperations commence of driven off the coast by the arrival of a squadron was and enabled which joined the Aglabites, from Spain, ships fresh reinforcements
was
to
arrive from
Africa.
The
war
taken in : Messina was activity 831 ; Palermo in the following capitulated year; and Enna was besieged, The war for the firsttime,in 836.
on
then carried
with
success,
as
^ The storythat Euphemios carried off a nun is not quitesure, and looks something like an invention of the orthodox,-who wished to point out that the sin of Michael had been punished by a divine judgment. John the Deacon, in. his historyof the Bishops of Naples,only says that he fled to Africa with his wife and son. L pL 2-31 3. Euphemios issaid Eer. Italicarum, Scrip. Muratori, to have been killed before the walls of Syracuse, the inhabitants as he was inviting to change the oppressive government of the Byzantine emperors for the ii 51SL lighter yoke of the Saracens. Cedrenus,
" "
LOSS
OP
SICILY, 827-878.
165
assistancefrom Africa, and the Christians from ConstanThe Bjzantine forces recovered possession tinople. of
^'
'
Messina,which
much
was
not
engaged by his
occupiedby the permanently The Emperor Theophilus too was in Asia Minor military operations
to send
eflFectual aid to the Sicilians ; ^ while his father Michael II. had been too fond of his ease on the throne
to
devote the requisite attention to the business of the distant provinces. Michael III. thought of nothing but
At length, in the year 859, Enna pleasures. was taken by the Saracens. in order to preserve Syracuse, its commerce from ruin, had purchased peace by paying
a
his
tribute of 50,000
byzants ;
and
it
was
not
until the
of reign
Basil I.,in the year 878, that it was to surrender, and the conquest of Sicily was
compelled completed
by
the Arabs.^
Some
by treatyor by force of arms, to preserve their and the exclusive exercise of municipal independence, the Christian religion, within their territory, to a later period.^ The loss of Crete and Sicily to have been viewed seems with strange The apathy by the court at Constantinople. stance of this is probably to be attributed to the circumreason that the surplus was small, revenue comparatively and the defence of these distant possessions a required force which could not always be spared from the military The indifferenceof the of the capital. neighbourhood doubtless increased by of Constantinople statesmen was the circumstance that a portion of the population, both
Alexis Mouscl, Strate* his brother-in-Uw, to have named seems Theophilus merely to send him into exile. Symeon Mag. 418. gos aod Duke of Sicily, ' Chronicon Siculunu 6. Symeon Bibliotheea BitL Rtgni Sioilim a Garutio, which would in the ninth year of Basil I., Mag. placesthe taking of Syracuse be nearlytwo years earlier. ' reviewed by Schlosser, are The authorities for the conquest of Sicily ii. 249. Gttehiehte der Hid. Kaiser, 456 ; and Weil, Qe$6kichU der Chali/en, as the The Byzantine writers who lived nearest to the time conceal the facts, of ultimate loss of the island reflected disgraceon Basil L, the grandfather their patron Constantino YIL, (Porphyrogenitus.)
"
either
166
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
of municipal had acquired a degree Sicily, which rendered it extremely adrerse to CH^nnji. independence, of the imperial cabinet. the fiscalpolicy The bold and indefatigable abbot,Theodore Studita, Btillstruggled to establish the supremacy of the church the emperor in religious and ecclesiastical afiairs. over He appears to deserve the creditof having discovered the of creating trary restraint on the arbia systematic necessity ing of the sovereign authority ; but his scheme for makthe ecclesiastical to the executive legislation superior inasmuch as it sought to confer on power was defective, and dangerous the church a more authority irresponsible than that of which the emperor would have been deprived. sponsible had not yet taughtmankind that no irreExperience or priest, power, whether it be intrusted to king be exercised without in a monarchyor a republic, can abuse. Until the law is superior to the executive government, there is no true liberty pire em; but in the Byzantine the emperor was above the law,while the imperial and the clergy had a law of their own, so that officials the people was doubly oppressed. The conduct of Michael in conducting ecclesiastical
BOOK L
in Crete and
business indicatesthat he
was
not
destituteof statesmanlike
of
to
rather of enjoying qualities, thoughhe generally thought his ease on the throne than of fulfilling duties the his high station.^ Duringthe civil he was anxious war the goodwill of the monks and of the Greek secure
"
He
recalledTheodore
from banishment,
toleration. perfect
far from
to
ecclesiastics.After the establishment bigoted to tranquillity they incited the image-worshippers presenting pictures open violationof the laws against the adoration of the people. Theodore also engaged
the
^ Con"tantine Michael of neglecting aoooses the interests of Porphyrogenitas the empire in Dalmatia as much as in Sicily De A"h%, Imp, chap. and Crete. 29.
"
ECCLESIASTICAL
POLICY,
an
A.D.
820-829.
167
with
fresh zeal in
The
extensive
with correspondence
to be favourable
a.d.
all persons
to
he knew ordered
a
"^^^-
his
party.
him
to
tinue discon-
this
of as correspondence, abbot
to
seditious
tendency ;
Michael himself in
The
of formingfriendly relations with the policy western nations of Europewas every day becoming more the as apparent to the rulers of the Byzantine empire, and the influence of the Popes extended itself, political nations increased. Michael II., power of the western in order to prevent the discontented image-worshippers
receiving support from the Franks, opened negotiations with the Emperor Louis le Debonnaire, in the lar simiof image-worship, a condemnation hopeof obtaining to that of Charlemagne.In the year 824, an embassy, and bombastical letter, bearinga vainglorious the defeat of Thomas, reached the court of announcing the reliLouis.^ In this epistle gious Michael recapitulates which oughtto guide the emperors of the principles
Romans
afikirs. He in their ecclesiastical alludes to the fort, image-worship by the council of Frankand declares that he has not destroyed holyimages tion and pictures, them to such an elevabut onlyremoved as was necessary to prevent the abuses caused by He considers the councils held popular superstition.^ local for the condemnation of image-worship as merely and fully the existence of a higher recognises synods, at the in general councilsof the church, giving, authority
from
condemnation of
same
time,his
own
in confessionof faith,
terms
which he
Paris,1696, lib.il ep. 199. 8, Theod. Stud. EpUt.el alia Scripta Bogmatica, ix. 642; Mann For this letter, see Baronius,torn. xiv. 66; Colet. Coneil,, 419. ConcU, xiv. ' Pictures were and godmothersat the baptism sometimes made godfathers from the mixed with paint scraped of children. The sacramental wine was and the consecrated bread was placed on the hand of the of saints, figures in the sacrament. Keander, ilL 546. hnage to make it co-partaker
* '
"
168
1C0N0CLA8T
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
knew would
the
secure
the assent of Louis and the Frank emperor to induce from the rebellious his protection
had fled from
CH^nMi. ^iQYgy,Ho
Pope
to withdraw
who image-worshippers
the
Bjzantine
empire to
Rome.
synod was
convoked at Paris in
consequence of this communication,which condemned in the same of images terms as the Caroline the worship Books, and blamed the second council of Nicsea for the
it had reverence superstitious the same time, approvedof Eastern emperors,
shown
for
but,at images,
the rebuke
givento
the
removing and
The by Pope Hadrian, a.d. 825. images, destroying ward by the synodto forEmperor Louis was also requested liim to write to a letterto Pope Eugenius, inviting in order to re-establish the Emperor Michael, peace and in the Christian church. But the Pope,the two unity emperors, and Theodore
Studita,were
all afraid of
discussions at this period; into ecclesiastical plunging had been so exercised in these polefor public mics, opinion that it was to foresee the result of the impossible
contest.
Matters
were
thereforeallowed
to go on
during
reignof Michael without any open rupture. The of Methodios, afterwards Patriarch of Conimprisonment and the condemnation to death of Euthystanthiople, of Sardis,were the only acts of extreme mios, bishop with which the image-worshippers could reproach severity from politiMichael ; and these seem to have originated cal and partymotives rather than from religious opinions, of the zeal these ecclesiastics rendered them though eager be considered to as martyrs.^ The marriage of Michael with Euphrosyne, the daughter of Constantino VI.,who had already taken the veil, was for exciting also made a ground reprobation public against is It the emperor. however,that more imporprobable,
the
^
Contin.
23. Geneeius,
THBOPHILUS,
829-842.
a
169
A.D. religion, 829-842. contemporaries.
violationof
it received among The Patriarch absolved Euphrosyue from her vows, and the senate repeatedly himthe emperor to unite self solicited with the last scion of Leo
to second
the emperor with a nun excited the animosity of the monks, who regarded riage marof marriage
as
an
wish.
That the
is very delict,
natural ; and it would, of course, supply a fertile source of calumnious gossip to the enemies of the Amorian
dynasty.
Michael II. died in October
829, and
was
buried in
of green Thessalian marble,in the sepulchral sarcophagus erected by Justinian in the Church of the Holy chapel Apostles.^
SECT.
IL"
THEOPHILUS,
THB
AJ".
830-8^
of
"
AnECDOTBS
HIS ON MABRIAQB THE
CONCBRNINO
"
EMPER0R*8
love
JUBTICB
"
CONCBRNINO
ART
"
ECCLESIASTICAL
Saracen
war
" "
PERSECUTION
LoVE
OP
CoLONT
"
Don
"
Theophilus DbATH
OF
destroys
Zapetra
Mo-
TAS8EM
destroys
AMORIUM
ThEOPHILUS.
No
emperor
ever
Constantinople
philus. than Theowith greaterpersonal and political advantages His education had been the best the age could and supply, The
to
as
he
considerable possessed
talent and
industry.
John well
Grammarian,
one men
of the most
accomplished
the most
learned
62. Contin. Scrip, post Theoph,^ called LekanoJohn Hylilas, as has been dready mentioned, page 140,was basin for the purpose because he was said to use a polished mant by the people, from 832 to 842. He was of divination. He was Patriarch of Constantinople Ck)ntin. 96. of the distinguished a member family of the Morocharzaniana of Armenian Cedrenus, 536. St Martin conjectures that tJiis family was is an Armenian and his brother's name Arsaber,which,at least, was origin, Contin. 97. Lebeau, ziii.14. name."
'
"
170
BOOK
L
ICOKOCLAST
PERIOD,
^""'"^^
and arms, in law and theology, the emperor was well instructed : his taste made him a lover of
equally
poetry,
and architecture ; his courage rendered him a brave music, his sense sound legislator of justice : but his soldier, a made theology virtues from him
a
stem
bigot ;
and
discontented
and his accomplishments temperament of mind prevented ledged union. All acknowa harmonious producing attached to his merit,none seemed affectionately
his person ; and in the midst of his power he was called the Unfortunate. During his father'slifetime he had
an
department.He
rate with fervour ; and though his father endeavoured to modehis influence seems the his zeal, to have produced of Michael, the reign during persecution which were at variance with that emperor's general policy. the the of observed that Theophilus population empire from the defects of the central was everywhere suffering government, and he was anxious to remedythe evil. He attributed the greatestpart of the sufferings erroneously of the people of the administration, stead into the corruption
isolatedacts of
of assumed
theywere
unable
to
execute, and
have performed easily these duties in an eflicientmanner, from attempting to undertake them. believed however,justly Theophilus, that a great reform might be effected by improving the administration of justice, and he set about the task with for enforcing vigour ; still equitable many of his measures conduct on the partof the judges marked were so strongly that his severity, when necessary, .withpersonality, even in the habit of riding was was as cruel. He stigmatised the streets of Constantinople visitto a weekly on through the church of St Mary at Blachern, in order to afford his of presenting such petitions a public subjects opportunity
could
172
BOOK
L
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
lessliable of the emperor's were examples severity to suspicion. the emperor's cujtuii, ApoorwidowaccusedPetronas,
Other
of talents and courage, of having, brother-in-law, an officer in violation of law,raised his house so highas to render
want
of air and
light.
as an were Constantinople alwaysregarded important of imperial ordered the object Theophilus legislation. quently subseto be redressed ; but the complaint was grievance
brother-in-lawhad
orders that the the the and ground,
be
in scourged
Some time after this, Petronas was public highway.^ to the highpost of governor of Cherson, and appointed the reign of his nephew, Michael III.,he defeated during Asia Minor, as will be hereafterrelated. This anecdote illustrates the state of
an
the Saracens in
battle in important
court,by the contrast it presents Byzantine between the servilefeelings and Greeks of the Romans of Constantinople, and the independent of the Franks spirit and Germans of western Europe.In the Eastern Empire, the shame of blows was nothing, and a bastinado inflicted an on who retained his official brother-in-law, emperor's The rank,was not likely to be a very painful operation.
of degradation
nature
at society
the
the
was punishment
of the power that inflictedit. The inherent in mankind is always wounded justice
of
by the infliction of arbitrary or punishment ; cruelty caprice to dictate the sentence ; the public are supposed attention is averted from the crime,and pity is often created
*
rules to be followed in constructing private in the CorputJuris CivUit OxL Jutt, Tiii. D" jEdificitt FrivatU, 10-12, Dirksen has publisheda memoir containing much information explanatory of this law,in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy for 1844 : it is entitled, Dot Polizei-OeaeU du Kaiten Zeno iiber die baulioksAnlage dm* Privalh"uter in ConttantinopU.
The law of
Zeno,givingthe
houses at
is contained Constantinople,
"
THEOPHILUS'S
LOVE
OP
JUSTICE.
173
with
a.ix
vhen
On
deserves really
to
be branded
infamy.
the rode through as occasion, Theophilus
"
''^
his hand on forward, and, laying stepped the horse the emperor was riding, exclaimed, This horse is mine,0 emperor ! the circumstances, On investigating it appeared that tliehorse had really been taken by force from its proprietor by an officerof rank,who wished to presentit to the emperor on account of its beauty. This act of violence was also punished, and the proprietor recieved two pounds' for the of goldas an indemnity weight
a streets,
"
loss he had
hundred
sustained.
The
horse
was
worth about
one
byzants.^ in examiningthe also indefatigable was Theophilus details of the capital, into the state of and looking police the markets. It is true that the abundance of provisions, and their price of great at Constantinople, a matter was to the Byzantine importance government,which,like the of the provinces Roman, too often sacrificedthe prosperity to the tranquillity of the capital ; yet stillthe minute attention which Theophilus the duties gave to performing of a prefect, indicate that he was deficientin the grasp of intellect of the duties of for the clear perception required
an
an was Theophilus age of anecdotes and smothered in tales. It had many poetic aspirations, of saints. Volumes of tales were chroniclesand legends then current,which would have given us a better insight into Byzantine than the foliosof the historians, manners outline of a few of these stories. who have preserved an of Byzantine to have been a kind seems Theophilus the Iconoclasts apHaroun Al Rashid. Unfortunately pear literature of this of embodied have to more species in silly who delighted in their habits than the orthodox,
,
Leo Gramm.
454.
174
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
legends concerning
tures
picimaginative
^""""'^
of the deeds of
; and
while the fables that have been preserved perished, from theirunnatural stupidity.^ are neglected when unmarried he ascended the was Theophilus in choosing At and he found difficulty a wife.^ throne, last he arrangedwith his stepmother, a Euphrosyne, suitable him for enabling to make a or selection, project collection.The at least to make his choice from a goodly invited all the most beautiful and accomplished empress-mother to a fgte in her private at Constantinople virgins of the assembled beauties the gaiety apartments. When their firstshyness, had removed entered the Theophilus rooms, and walked forward with a goldenapplein his of Eikasia, with hand. Struck by the grace and beauty have been already whode features he must acquainted, he had often heard,he and of whose accomplishments The proud beauty felt herself to address her. stopped commenced his conversation an already empress ; but Theophilus is the with the ungallant remark, "Woman of evil ; too promptly to which the young lady source of much good."' But woman is also the cause replied, mind of the captious The answer the tone jarred on or has
'' "
the emperor, and he walked on. the modest features of the young
were
His
eye then
fell on
Theodora,whose eyes
fixed
on
the
ground.
without
a word. risking
apple
had
of
recover
She
of devotion and the cultivation of her mind. practice some hymns,which continued longin use composed
1 I either time or opportunity few persons have now to read much presume of the Acta Sanctorum^fifty-three volumes of which werepuhlished at Antwerp from 1643 to 1793. This onlygoes as far as the I4th of October ; yet much of the middle ages can be sought for in no other source. of the social history ' It he was the age of his daughters.See seems a widower, from probable
page IBZ,note 2.
COMMBBCIAL
AKBCDOTB.
church.^
short time
Euphrosyneretired into the monasteryof Gastria, "^^ the retreat, selected also by Theoctista, agreeable
of
mother
Theodora
the and the
trating illustale,
had been imperial family in the habit of drawinglarge from evading the profits custom-duties to which other traders were liable, by the emperor-colleague or the empress in commercial engaging adventures.
commerce
The
revenue
of the state
and the
knew of
aristocraticmode the
abuse, learned
that the young empress had been her name of these trading to one
a
laden ship,
with
valuable cargo
in her name, was about to arrive at Constantinople. In order to put an end to these frauds by a striking he example, the
took
care
to be
informed
as
this vessel arrived, it displayed the port. When and stood proudly towards the public standard, imperial warehouses who had led Theophilus, the port, to be the court to a spot overlooking pretending struck by the gallant demanded appearance of the vessel, and whence she with what military stores she was laden, with
a
fair wind.
came.
a
The
truth
was
soon
he obtained
ordered
be
never
landed heard
and that
said,it
Roman
emperor
or
Orient Banduri,Itnp,
of exile, not selected as a place Contin. 56. Gastria was as modem certainly have been writers have supposed,or Euphrosyne would, in all probability, which she had quitt^to ascend sent bock to the monastery in Prince's Island, the throne. ' Contin. 55. Zonaras, ii. 143. The reference to Syriaby Zonaras is,as in the cf ovpias of the elder historian. Schlosserobserves, a mistake originating
176
BooKT.
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
^'""'^
of toleration which had guided the principles administration during the preceding reigns imperial laid aside and not were entirely by Theophilus, though his religious he preferred was bigotry punishing strong, the image-worshippers for disobedience to the civillaws for their ecclesiastical them to persecuting opinions. in The emperor's divine favour of the own prejudices of kings were as intolerant as his aversion to imageright have acted as much on so that he may really worship, as religious grounds. His father had not political removed from the walls of churches when they pictures in elevated situations ; and had Tlieophilus were placed followed his example, Iconoclastsand image-worshippers the compromise, and dwelt might at last have accepted in the Eastern church. The monks, peaceably together allowed considerablelatitudewithin too, had been wisely forbidden the walls of their monasteries, were they though in favour of imageto preachpublicly to the people inclined to imitate the policy was worship.Theophilus of Leo the but he could Isaurian, and
not venture to dissolve
The
the monks. The imprison an on government of the earlierIconoclastsreposed army and all their enforce to themselves, organised by ready the army neither orders ; but in the time of Theophilus, it equally the same nor was possessed power over society,
the
monasteries refractory
devoted
to the emperor.
In the year 832, an edict was issued prohibiting every of that and the display picture-worship, commanding word
name
lettersof
gold before
was
the
at
and oppressive arbitrary and caused discontent and opposition.^ A celebrated manner, of ecclesiastical named Lazaros, subjects, painter who acquired of Michael fame duringthe reign gi'eat
514. CedrenuB,
ECCLESIASTICAL
PERSECUTION.
177
III., was
dora.^ Two
released from
^^'^^
and Theodore the Singer monks, Theophanes much tion for,in additreated, were more cruelly Graptos,
to other tortures,some
verses were
branded
on
the
ceived re-
arch. John the Grammarian was elected Patriimage-worship, he Though a decided opponent of image-worship, and more intellect tolerant disposiof a larger a man was tion than his imperial whose mind, however, over pupil, he fortunately retained considerable influence.^ Still,
when
the emperor
the
he unavailing,
a
pelled com-
synod,which was As induced to excommunicate all image-worshippers. it to these violentproceedings, the Patriarch was averse niuch eflFect be supposed that theyproduced can hardly tended within the pale of the church ; but they certainly to inflame the zeal of those marked out for persecution, the minds of the orthodox to perform and strengthened what theyconsidered to be their duty, armingthem with The spirit of religious faith to resistthe civilpower. strifewas awakened, and the emperor was so imprudent in controversies with monks to engage as personally These discussions ruffledhis temper and and priests.
Patriarch
assemble
^ while he was enfferiDg of St John the Baptist LazaroB paioted a picture which was from the stripes he received, reportedto have performedmany miraculous cures. ' Geschtchte der bild, Kaiter,523. Schlosser, ' Schlosser diflBculties. The chronology of John's patriarchate some presents Banduri in 882. his election in 883 see his note, page 486. Pagi and places is given differently in the of his patriarchate Imp, Orient, ii.908. The length various listswe possess. Some fix it at nine years. Zonaras, ii.153, says he was only six years Patriarch. Symeon Mag.,421, says he was elected the eighth year of Theophilus. These two writers consequentlyplacehis election in 837. The continuator {Scrip, 76) says he was elected on Simday, poit Tkeophaneniy day le$ Date* that Easter Sun21st April. Now it appears from L*Art de Virifer fell on the 21st of Aprilin 832 and 838, and not in any intermediate year. The embassy of John to Bagdat preceded his election. It is placed by Symeon ii Mag.,419,in the fifth year of Theophilus.Weil, Gesekkhte dtr Ckalifen, 297) considers that it ooonrred at the end of the year 833.
" "
VOL.
1.
178
BOOK
I. 8.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
cauM
the lofty pretensions severity, by exposing and talents to be wounded h^ entertained of his dignity their contempt for in displaying by men who gloried aU earthly Theophilus soughtreyenge for his power. in publicly playing disThe monks who persisted injured vanity. driven from tlieir and pictures teries monaswere images members of the clergy, distinguished ; and many beloved for and for learning and were virtue, imprisoned of his resentment^ the height Yet,even during scourged. of those who the emperor winked at the superstition of tolerated the prejudices kept their opinions private, releasedMethothe EmpressTheodora,and at her request from prison.^ the future Patriarch of Constantinople, dios, The wealth of the Byzantineempirewas at this in the most flourishing period very great,and its industry in expensive condition. Theophilus, thoughengaged and disastrous wars, found the imperial revenues so much increased by the augmented commerce of his that he was able to indulge inordinate an subjects, for pomp and display. His love of art was passion gratified by the fantastic employmentof rich materials in luxurious ornament, rather than by durable works of useful grandeur.His architecturaltaste alone took a direction at times advantageous to the publia The walls of Constantinople towards the sea were ened, strengthand their height increased. He founded a hospital, increased his which
the
^
remained
one
of the most
useful institutionsof
to city
the cruelty of the Qibbon, Decline and Fall,ix. 12, has exaggerated 524, remarks that he has puniahmentsinflicted by Theophilus.Schloaser, of ezoessive tyranny. Even found no authority to authorise the reproaches the Jesuit Maimbourg,UUtoire de VHiritie dei leonodaitet, ii.238, mentions of Methodios with a dead robber, the imprisonment and the branding on yerses the latter suffered this punishthe foreheads of Theodore and Tbeophanes, (if ment), inhuman acts of Theophilus.Contin. 65. as the most her husband to believe that some The storythat Theodora persuaded images of saints in her possession were onlydolls for her children'samusement, is a in the duU Legends of the Saints popular anecdote more deservingof a place than in the Bysantine tales.
'
il 648.
180
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
BOOK
I.
of which tales,
we
still see
^'""*^
Nights.!
Two laws of
exhibits him in
Roman
the
to
which
elements adverse
that
and Greek
is,
of the empire to wear theirhair cropped subjects under the painof the bastinado. Theophilus short, tended pre-
that he wished to
him ashamed
restore
old Roman
but fashions,
of others rendered The
other law
did of Persians and Romans marriage of those who were in no way derogate from the rights citizens of the empire ; and it shows that a very great of Persian Christians from the dominions of emigration have taken place, must such a law would the caliphs or of the have become not necessary. Theophobusone leaders of the Persians, who claimed most distinguished
descent from
Helena, the
peror's em-
sister.2
The wide
Europe. To secure allies his great of Bagdat, he renewed against enemy, the Caliph the ancient alliance of the emperors of Constantinople with the sovereign of the Khazai's ; but this people was too much in defending its own territories now occupied of intruders, called Patzinaks, to renew a new race against their invasions of the northern provinces of the Mohammedan empire. The progress of the Patzinaks alarmed of the Byzantine for the security commerce Theophilus with the northern nations, from which the imperial trea1 Contin. 107; Leo Oramm. 292; Ce460; Const Manasses, 107; Glycas, drenus, Zonaras, and the later writen. Many of these works were executed
and Hylilas
See ixMt
COLOKY
ON
THE
DOK.
181
sury drew immense duties ; and he sent his brother-in-law a. d. ^^-^'-^ Petronas (whom, have mentioned, he had condemned as we
to
be
to Cherson,which scourged)
was
a
then
free
city
the
Sar-
lite Venice, with orders to construct banks of the Don. This commercial
fortress on
called colony,
kel,was
and
trading depotwith the north.^ A intercourse was kept friendly up with Louis le Debonnaire
as
used
the
The
Venetians
were
of
the Italyagainst
of Africa.^
of II., the caliph embassywas sent to Abderrahman to secure the commerce of the Greeks in the West Spain, from any interruption, and to excite the Ommiad caliph to hostilities the Abassides of Bagdat.^ against When the Byzantine ascended the throne, Theophilus and Saracen empires soon enjoyed peace ; but theywere
mvolved in
a
some
resemblance
and Persian
to the mortal
the Roman
in the time of Heraclius. Almamun, who ruled empires the caliphate and from 813 to 833, was a magnificent liberal for his love of science and sovereign, distinguished and eager literature, and the Romans in
to surpass the
Greeks in
knowledge
a
arms.
Though
not himself
soldier,
his armies
by several celebratedgenerals. of oflBcials of a moral check on the highest The want the existence of a prevents arbitrary governmentsusually and hence rebellions of dutyin political relations, sense mamun, of AlIn the reign become prevalent. and civil wars the disturbances in Persia reduced the population, to despair whether fire-worshippers Christians, or ;
were
commanded
It
no
was
Cherson then
and importance as Sebastopol. is now its ancient celebrity regaining and governed by a presidentand senate, elected by the citizens,
"
succeeded in reducing Theophilus governor was sent from Constantinople. Porphyr. De it to completedependence. See post. Contin. 76. Constant. near Adm, Imp. ii.chap. 42. Sarkel is supposed to have been at Bielaveja, ewr Cossacks. Lehrberg, Untertuchungeu of the Don the capital Tcherkask, 1816. Cedrenus, 415. OesohiehU Ruttlands. der UUem Petersburg, triOmterung
*
"
Empire in Spain,93
a-d.
889.
182
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
BOOK
I.
and
greatnumber,unable
8. and establishedthemselves into the Byzantine CH^tM empire, escaped to have conat Sinope. This immigration sisted seems who feared equally of Christians, the gOYemchiefly and of the rebel Babek, who, though ment of Almamun of all mankind, was accused of the equality preaching followers. The Persian allowing every licenseto his own placedunder the command of troops at Sinopewere tion and their number was increased by an addiTheophobos, of of seven thousand men, when Afshin,the general the Caliph Motassem, defeated Babek, and extinguished
the civilwar
The
in Persia.^
from to refugees protection granted by Theophilus the caliph's to invade the dominions,induced Almamun Abu in the year 831 ; and the Saracen general, empire defeated the Byzantine manded Chazar, completely army, comThe emperor repaired in person. by Theophilus this disgrace in the following a victory year by gaining
over
great pomp
the revenged
defeat of his
at by and capturing Heracleia. Cappadocia, The armies of the Byzantine empireat this period consisted in great part of foreign mercenaries. Some of connected with the development causes, secondary which have escapedthe notice of historians, society, than to render the recruitment of armies more operated
is said by the Byzantine historiana to have fled into the thousand followers, was a differentperson from the oertainly celebrated leader of the rebellion. The arrivalof this refugee before the is placed commenoementof the war between Theophilusand Almamun, a.i". 881. The great rebel Babek sustained an important defeat in 833, when many of his foUowen fled into Armenia torians and the Byiantine provinoes, accordingto the Arabian hisin Adzerbgao. Compare Ck"ntin. 70 ; ; but he stiU continued the war 415 ; Cedrenus, n. 523 ; and Weil, Ge$ekichU der ChtU^eH, u, Symeon liCag. 239. ' Constant Porphyr. De Certmoniii Aula ByMHtinas, 290, edit.Leioh ; torn, i 503,edit Bonn. Reiske considers that this account of the triumphof Theophilus refers to his return after the destruction of Zapetra." Tom. iL 590.
*
generals ravaging
The
Babek who
seven
empire with
"
SABACBK
WAB.
183
mankind,
a.d.
of the age to ^^^ powerful soyereigns exdude their natire subjects from the as much as possible In the Saracen empire of arms. this feeling led to use the transferenceof all military power into the hands of Turkish mercenaries ; and in the Frank empire it led to
without defence, the exposure of the country, to the incursions of the Normans. It is true that jealousy of the Arab in one aristocracy
case, and
of the Romanised
in population
saved from
civilisation. of political by a higher degree The distrust of Theophilus shown by for his generals was with which he treated them. the severity Manuel, one of the best officers of the empire, at his suspidisgusted cions, and served with distinction in fled to the Saracens, their armies against the rebels of Chorasan.^ Alexis
similar fate
Mousel,an Armenian, who received the favourite daughter in marriage, of Theophilus with the rank of Caesar, was
d^raded
and
in scourged
consequence death of
of his father-in-
Almamun, the
on
an
em*
John
the
Grammarian
embassy to
The caliph. lasting peace, fame in the
as
and at
^
See
the romantic
of the exploits of Manuel, which, as they set be receiyed as historicaL" Contin. 74 ; Cedrenus, been married before his other's death.
11627.
'
It would
seem
that
had Theophilus
and her marriage, the youngest of five daughters, was Maria,the wife of Alexioe, even acconlingto Symeon Mag., who says she was the daughter of Theo* (417,418). We dora,took placein the third year of the reignof Theophilus named Theodora, and must suppose that both the wiyes of Theophilus were that he was a widower at his fSeither's death,after which he married the second. is of this period But even then difficulUes will be found, and the chronology received the of Theophilus, oonfused. Thekla,the eldest daughter tio^olarly titlefrom imperial her father before the birth of Michael IIL
184
^^
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
BOOK
cr
I.
"'%^'
to of Chorasan had reached the ears of Theophilus, the negotiations With the caliph return home. appear
successful as the emperor expected, The magnisucceeded perfectly. but with Manuel they ficence
not to have been
as
this occasion gave rise to many and the Greeks were tales^ longamused
on
of John
derful won-
accounts
ambassador. priestly Not very long afterthis embassy, availing Theophilus, ions dominhimself of the troubles occasioned in the caliph's out of the heretical opinions by the civilwars arising the of the Koran, which conceming human composition had been favoured by Almamun, invaded the caliph's dominions. The Byzantine the country troopsravaged called Commagene, to the south of Melitene, anciently defeated the Saracens with greatloss, captured Zapetra, far and penetrated which as Samosata, as Theophilus also took and destroyed.Zapetra, or lay Sosopetra, about two days^ to the west of the road from journey Melitene to Samosata.^ The Greeks pretended that it of Motassem, the birthplace and that the caliph sent was him to spare the to the emperor entreating an embassy to ransom philus at any price town, which he oflFered ; but Theoand razed Zapetra dismissed the ambassadors, to the ground.2This campaign able to have been remarkseems for the cruelty with which the Mohammedans were and the wanton ravages committed by the Persian treated, in the Byzantine service. The Saracens repeated emigrants of in the tales connection with this expedition one which was current among theircountrymen, and applied, from the banks of the Guadalquivir to as occasion served, those of the Indus. In Spainit was told of Al Hakem, in Asia of Motassem. A female prisoner, when insulted
^ *
2.
of Motassem's mother. Genesiua, 81,says it was the birthplace the destruction of Zapetra in the seventh year of Symeon Mag.,421,places
Theophilus.
THE0PHILU8
DESTROYS
ZAPETEA,
A.D.
836.
186
by a
stance
same
Christian
"
in
a. d.
her agony,
was
Oh, shame
Motassem
"
The
circum-
"^^^^'
to repeated
the
who caliph,
woman
learned at the
was
of the tribe
to the clannish Hashem, and consequently, according tassem Moof the Arabs, a member of his own family. feelings
of
swore
by the Prophethe
time
would do
ever
in j thing
to revenge her.
mean
of his easy victories, Theophilus, proud and instead of strengthening returned to Constantinople, his frontier, and placing the mountain-passes, near stronggarrisons his to brought best troopsto Constantinople attend on his own As he entered the hippodrome person. in a chariot drawn by four white horses, wearing the colours of the blue faction, his happy return was hailed by the people with loud shouts. His welcome was
more
like that of
torious vic-
general.
The Persian
to
now
creased in-
in winter-quarthousand,were placed thirty ters where they and Amastris, at Sinope beganto display could neither trust his a seditious spirit ; for Theophilus the confidence of his soldiers. These nor generals acquire
mercenaries
to
into
Persian
They proclaimed
that oflBcer had
no
ambition
to
ances a doubtful sceptre ; and he sent assurby grasping that he would remain faithful to his to Theophilus in his power to put an and do everything allegiance, fore, thereend to the rebellion. Without much diflBculty, this army of Persians was gradually dispersed obthe diflFerent was themes, but tranquillity through
medan Mohamas told of Motassem, is givenby Price, QibboD,X. 68. The story, the Mohammedan it 147 ; as told of Al Hakem, by Murphy, History "(f History, 90. Empire in Bpain,
186
ICX)KOCLAST
PBRIOD.
BOOK
I.
tained
GiLifi. f 2.
of the best of one the efficiencj bj sacrificing armies in the empire. in the alsore-established Motassem, having tranquillity
turned his whole attention to interiorof his dominions, the war with the Bjzantine empire. A well-appointed
suparmj of yeterans, composedof the troopswho had pressed assembled on the the rebellion of Babek, was himself at the of Cilicia, frontiers and the caliph placed in the head of the army, on the banks of the Cydnns, thousand men, A second army of thirty year 838.^ under Afshiu, at a considerable advanced into the empire
distance to the north-east of the immediate orders of the the rebellionof Babek
and On
was
after it had
twenty years,
that the army of Afshin had invaded Lykanhearing intrusted the defences of the Cilidan dos, Tbeophilus to advance, to proposed passes, by which the caliph the general of the Anatolic theme, and hastened Actios, to stop the progress of Afshin,whose army, strengthened by a strong body of Armenians under Sembat the native governor of the country,and by ten thousand Turkish mercenaries, who
were
in Asia, was Theophilus, Cappadocia. troops overrunning and that this army might turn his flank, apprehensive alarmed lest the Armenians and Persians, of which it was part composed, might seduce those of the same nations in his service, anxious to hasten an engagewas ment
The
battle
Byzantine army,
Saracens.
orders of
The fieldwas
^ Contin. 78. the defeat of Theophiliis Symeon Mag. 428. This last places of and the deaUi of Manuel in the ninth year of Theophilus,and the taking commenced in October 829. Amorium in the tenth. The reignof Theophilus occurred in one campaign, and the Arabian historians give tha They evidently 23d September888 as the date of the captureof Amorium. Weil^ii 815.
"
188
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK Gh.
m.
L f 8.
and Bosphorus, But all the Asiatic suburb of Constantinople. plundering with his attempts to storm Amorium, thoughrepeated defeated hy fresh troops on three successive days, were who had thrown himself into the city with the Actios, best soldiers in his army, and the caliph found himself to commence a now siege. Theophilus obliged regular and the leading sued for peace. The bishop of Amorium for the numerous citizensoflFered to capitulate, army within the walls soon But exhausted the provisions.
arms
of carrjiDg his
Motassem
neither conclude
peace
what
capitulation ; vengeance was Amorium was victory. valiantly defended for fifty-five at length days,but treachery his passion, to gratify enabled the caliph as he was just assault. to try the fortune of a fourth general preparing
nor
grant terms
of
he
not sought,
both
accounts
ingthe
success
of the
to treason besiegers
by
The
of Amorium city burned to the ground, and the walls destroyed. The was ambassadors sent by Theophilus to beg for peace had been detained by the caliph, to witness his conquest Tell your They were now sent back with this answer, that I have at last discharged master the debt contracted
were spared
"
slaves. The
at
Zapetra.''
that Motassem, however, perceived
a
considerable
changehad
in which the
taken
81. ConUnuator,
DEATH
OP
THEOPHILUS,
A.D.
842.
189
a. d.
did not
consider it prudent to attempt adrancing to the shores of the Bosphoms,but returned to his own
eren
^'^^
with him Aetios and forty officers of dominions, carrying rank in Amorium. For seven captured years these men were faith ; yainly urgedto embrace the Mohammedan at last theywere put to death by Vathek, the son of Motassem, and they are regarded as martyrs by the orthodox church.^ Theophilus is said to have offered the CaliphMotassem the sum lb. of gold to of 2400 purchase peace, and the deliverance of all the Christians who had been taken prisoner duringthe war ; but the in addition that a Persian refugee caliphdemanded named
not to
Naser, and
have
Manuel, of whose death he appears been assured, should also be given up.
himself by delivering disgrace up off. Naser broken was was shortly treaty
to
refused Theophilus
Naser,and the
after killed in
an
The
manner,
arms.
war
was
years in
and The
success
languid Byzantine
a
taken
Meli-
and
tene
plundered by a
was as ravaged
Greek
far
as
fleet; the
of province
Marash
; Abou
defeated and
and taken
slain Naser,was
in turn
himself defeated
to have been At last a truce seems prisoner. took place.^ of prisoners but no exchange concluded, recovered from the wound his pride never Theophilus defeats he sustained received at Amorium. The frequent in those battles where he was trasted conengaged, personally rankled in his with the success of his generals, His sensitive temperament and melancholy disposition. his health. To undermined the fatigues of his campaigns for building his passion diverthis mind, he indulged ; and of the Byzantine the resources 80 great were treasury,
Their No
martyrdom is celebrated
on
It occurred
in 845"
843. until September 845." Weil^ ii. took place exchangeof prisoners
190
ICONOCLAST
FEBIOD.
BOOK
that
eren
at
sums
^"''*^
enormous
of thiswealth at erected a
an
the diminishing
new
burden
of the
calledTriconchos, chapel pering a whisa circusfor public races, a staircasecalled Sigma, tain founand a magnificent called the Mystery, gallery health continued calledPhiala.^ But the emperor's not yery that his end was and he perceived to decline, land-tax. He
now
dbtant.
for death with prudenceand prepared Theophilus his character. which disgraced courage, but with that suspicion dora. councilof regency was named to assist TheoHis habitual distrust induced him to exdude
A
from this council He feared lest TheoTheophobos phobosmightseize the throne by means of the army, or establishan independent kingdomin the Armeniac theme on by means of the Persian mercenaries. The conspiracy after the defeat at Dasymon had augmented the night with which the emperor regarded the jealousy hisbrotherin-law oyer
of the Persian troopsat Siafterthe rebellion He now resolyed to secure his son's nope and Amastris. and ordered throne at the expense of his own conscience,
to Theophobos
be beheaded.
the Recollecting
fortune
manded com-
of his
to brought his bedside. The agitation of the emperor^s mind, after this order, increased his malady; and when issuing greatly the lifeless head of his former friend was before placed his him, he gazedlong and steadily at its features, mind doubtless wandering the memory of many a oyer battle-field in which they had fought At last together.
Contin. 62, 86. Sjmeon Mag. 424. An account of the buildings of Theophilus will be found in the Historyof Art, by Dr Carl Bohn9"ae.~-Oe$ehickte der bildendm EUntU im MUtelalter. AUchristlickeund Mokammedanitdk
*
KuntLuUl.
REGENCY
OF
THEODORA,
A.D.
842.
191
exclaimed, Thou art no longer slowly Theophobos, a.d. ^^^^ and I am no more ;" then, Theophilus turning away his and never head, he sank on his pillow, again openedhis lips.
he
"
SECT
IIL"
BnCHAEL
m.
(THE
and
of
DRUKKARD),
rilioious
the OF in the
A.D.
843-867.
REOEif CT OF
or VESU8
Theodora
war
"
^Moral
rkactiok
in
"
Restoration
the
"
ncAOE-woRSHiP"
"
Rebellion
"
Sclavonians
THE
Pblopon^PERSONAL
"
SaRAOXN
OF
^PERBEOUnON
"
PaULXOIANS
"
CONDUCT
TIOS AND
Michael
"
IIL
^Wealth
OF
treasurt
^Bardas
THE war
" "
^Igna"
PhOTIUS
council
"
OrIQIN 861
"
PAPAL
AUTHORITY war
"
IN
CHURCH
General
OF
in
Bulgarian
attack
Saracen
Victory
of
"
Petronas
Russians
"
CJonstantinople
of the the tale of
State
the
court"
Assassinations
OF
Origin
Beusarius
sination ^Assas-
Michael
III. by
Basil
Macedonian.
Michael the
son
of
was Theophilus
between
His mother
own as a
regent in her
with her, joined
press em-
statesman ; and
uncle of the
Bardas,her brother.^ Thekla, an elder sister of Michael, had also received the title of Empressbefore
her father'sdeath.
The
terminated during the regency of was image-worshippers Theodora,and she is consequently dox regarded by the orthoof excellence, as a pattern thoughshe countenanced the vices of her son, by beingpresent at his most disgraceful of debauchery. The most remarkable scenes at the termination of this longreligious circumstance, test, conis the immorality which invaded all ranks of society. The moral and religious and strictness which, sincerity the government of the early had raised Iconoclasts, during
^ Theoktistos was of the dromos, a eunuch, and held the officeof logothetes kind of postmaster-generaL He was made kanicleios, or keeperof the purple ink,with which the emperor signed. The postmasterwas a most important officerin the Saracen as weU as in the Byzantine empire at this time.
"
192
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
to dignity from the verge of socialdissolution empire 3. gree been supplanted had subsequently j^jjj by a destrength, CB^nM that became at lastintolerable. of cant and hypocrisy in theirearly of both the ecclesiastical The sincerity parties, of the people obtained for them the respect ; but contests, of the subjection when the political concerning question to the civilpower became the principal the ecclesiastical ambition of dispute, official tyranny and priestly object for the veil of religious phrases onlyused a hypocritical their interestedends from popular purpose of concealing much farther than As usual,the people saw scrutiny. both and the consequence was that, their rulers supposed, of hypocrisy, the influenceof true being suspected parties weakened, and the most sacred tiesof society was religion The Byzantine showed themselves rent asunder. clergy readyon all occasions to flatterthe vices of the civil tinction, disgovernment : the monks were eager for popular and acted the partof demagogues ; while servile ferent indifand seditious monks were both equally prelates the people's burdens. to alleviating that it was at last proclaimed Every rank of society discussion and domestic strife. Inweary of religious difiference to the ecclesiastical so longpredominant, questions and the indifi^erence to religion itself, produced dormant ; enjoyment was power of conscience became under the considered the object of life; and vice, soon of pleasure, became the fashion of the day. In name this state of society, of which the germs were visiblein of Theophilus, the reign to be more was sure superstition than religion. It was easier to pay adoration powerful to a picture, to reverence a relic, or to observe a ceremony, than to regulate one's conduct in life of by the principles and the doctrines of religion. Pictures, morality images, and ceremonies became consequently the great relics, of veneration. of the The Greek population objects had identified its national feelings with traditional empire
BOOK L
the
MORAL
AND
BELIGIOUS
REACTION.
193
a. d.
and itsoppousages rather than with Christian doctrines, of the Isaurian, sifcion to the Asiatic puritanism Armenian, the reverence emperors, ingrafted and the worship the adoration of pictures, of and Amorian the
for
^^^'^'
fabricof the Eastern church, of as essentials religious the church has gained Christian worship. Whatever in this way, in the amount of popular to have devotion, seems been lost to popular morality. The senate at thistime possessed considerableinfluence in administrative business. It was called upon to ratify and a majority the will of Theophilus, of its members to the party of the empress, who was were over gained known to favour image-worship.^ of Constantinople The people had alwaysbeen of this party ; and the tired of the persecutions Iconoclasts of the higher ranks, which had been the result of the ecclesiastical quarrel, than victory. desired peace and toleration more The John the Grammarian, and some of the highest Patriarch, in the church,were, nevertheless, tiously consciendignitaries of devotion which they opposedto a species and from them no resembled idolatry, too closely thought could be expected. Manuel, however, compliance public of the regency who had been a fervent the onlymember abandoned the defence of his Iconoclast, suddenly that it was was so unexpected ; and his change opinions he had been converted by a miracle. A sudden reported illnessbroughthim to the pointof death, when the of the monks of Studion as suddenly prayers and the images restored him
to
health. Such
was
and it must have been a belief of Constantinople, people to the monks. extremely profitable council in order to It was necessary to hold a general efiect the restorationof image-worship ; but to do this remained Patriarch was as long as John the Grammarian
^
85. CoDtinuator, N
VOL.
I.
194
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
^'"*''
ordered him The regency, however, impossible. evidently and and invite to it allthe bishops to convoke a synod, abbots sequestered or elseto resign as image-worshippers, John refused both commands, and a the patriarchate. in which he was wounded by the disturbance occurred, a reportthat guards. The court party spread imperial he had
"
wounded
himself in
a
an
attempt
to
commit
suicide the
crime greatest
of John, and his studies The greatmechanical knowledge in natural philosophy, considered by the were already
as ignorant
criminal in
an
lumnious ca-
like that already circulatedof his accusation, credence among the orthodox magical powers, found ready Greeks. The court seized the opportunity of deposing him.
He
was on an
firstexiled
to
accusation that he
cause
pickedout he was and saint, scourged, His mental superiority was of his persecution his as
Methodios,who had been released from imprisonment of Theodora,was named at the intercession by Theophilus and a council of the church was held at Constantinopl Patriarch, in 842, to which all the exiledbishops, abbots,
themselves as confessors distinguished in the cause of image-worship admitted. Those were who remained firm to their Iconoclastic bishops opinions from their and were Sees, expelled replaced by the most eminent confessors. The practices and doctrinesof the Iconoclastswere formally and banished for anathematised,
ever
crowd of monks
cended des-
Olympus,Ida,
in Athos, to revive the enthusiasm of the people relics mains ; and the last reinterwoven carefully
of traditionalidolatry were
196
BooKL
8.
ICONOCLAST
on Sophia,
PERIOD.
cborch of St
the 19th
^^^ ^^ ^jjj^f
the feast
the firstSunday of Lent.^ on orthodoxy of the regency was to reThe firstmilitary press expedition a rebellionof the Sclavonians in the Peloponnesus* of Theophilus. which had commenced duringthe reign On this occasion the
to
mass
reduced Mount
the
regular system of
taxation ; but two tribes settled on succeeded in the Ezerits and Melings, Taygetus,
of independence, a certain degree retaining governing to their own themselves according only usages, and paying
a
fixed annual
to
tribute.
For
the
amounted
three hundred
Melings to
was
the
who commanded
of gold, and for the pieces of sixty. The sum trifling general the Byzantine troops on this occasion
pathario8.2
mean
of power degree from as in the Roman was Byzantine empire, inseparable took the command of a great experenown, n)ilitary dition into Cholcis, to conquer the Abasges. His fleet was destroyed by a tempest,and his troopswere defeated In order to regain the reputation he had by the enemy. he made an attempt in the following lost, conquer year to rethe island of Crete while he
was
obtain that
from
the Saracens.
Chandax
But
in engaged
a
the
of siege
the reportof
^
revolution at
The Patriarch Methodioe did not note zv. his had been employed by his partisans against predecessor. An accusation of adultery was brought againsthim, but the to the assembled oleigy Patriarch is said to have proved itsfalsity in a singular escape the
calumny which
99. Continuator, 50. This Theoktistos must not Porphyr. De Adm, Imp, chap. be confounded with the regent" who never returned successful from any expedition."
manner. * Constantine
"
Contin. 126.
SARACEN
WAR.
197
inte- a. d. quithis armj, hi order to look afterhis personal ^^^^' rests and political suffered severely The troops intrigues. after tliey whom abandoned by their general, were they at last to follow.^ were compelled The war with the caliph of Bagdat stillcontinued, and the destruction of a Saracen fleet, of four consisting hundred galleys, in the by a tempest off Cape Chelidonia, theme, consoled the Byzantine Kibyrraiot government for its other losses. The caliph of had expected, by means
to
this great naval force, of the the command to secure and assist the operations of his armies in Archipelago,
Asia Minor.
The hostilities on
without any decided advantage to either party, prosecuted until the unlucky Theoktistos placed himself at the head of the Byzantine a on brought troops. His incapacity in which the imperial pletely general engagement, army was comthe called Mauropotamos, at a place defeated, near
range of Mount
Taurus.^
After this
officerof an battle,
from Ferganah,) with reputation, disgusted (Theophanes, and blunders of Theoktistos, the severity deserted to the At a subsequent Saracens, and embraced Islamism. vice serhowever,he againreturned to the Byzantine period, and the Christian religion.^ effected In the year 845, an exchange of prisoners was the banks of the river Lamus, a day's to the on journey This was the firstthat had taken place west of Tarsus. of of Amorium. since the taking The frequent exchange between the Christians and the Mussulmans prisoners
About
threatened to blockade
* ^
that
Cretan fleet
Oeorg. Mon. Scrip, post TheopK 629. Leo Oramm. 457, 461. Georg. Mon. 688. Guards from Fergana {"l"apy6poi L, Mp"s) are mentioned as having been sent to Italyin the time of Romanus Aulce ByzatUincBf A.D. 881, 484, edit 935." Constant Porpbyr. De CeremoniU Leich. It must be observed,however, that there was a country called FerPolabia. the Sclavonians in Schafarik gunna, and Fraganeo Civltates, among the I'elationsof the Slawische AUertkUmer, ii. 607, 630. So extensive were Byzantine empire, that it is not easy to decide between the SclaToniaos of the
"
of the Eafit
198
ICONOOLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK ^-
I.
'""*'"
cruelty which inflictedmartyrdom on the forty-two prisoners of this year, in the beginning of rank taken at Amorium of the to have been connected with the interruption seems these which had preriously so oftenfacilitated negotiations exchanges.^ A female regency was supposed by the barbarians to be of necessity The Bulgarians, of weakness. a period hostilities under this impression, threatened to commence unless the Byzantine goremment consented to pay them dora, annual subsidy. the partof TheoA firm answer an on of a considerablemilitary accompanied by the display force on the frontier, however,restrained the predatory Peace was of King Bogoris and his subjects. disposition re-establishedafter some an hostilities, exchange trifling between of prisoners the commercial relations took place, who the two states became closer; and many Bulgarians, had lived so long in the Byzantine quired as to have acempire the arts of civilised tianity, of Chrislifeand a knowledge their countryto their homes, prepared returning men and for receiving of social culture, a higher degree with it the Christian religion. under the The disturbed state of the Saracen empire, would have enabled the Vathek and M otawukel, Caliphs pelled zeal not imhad religious tranquillity, regency to enjoy
tended always
of war; to soften the miseries the orthodox to the inhabitants of the persecute Minor. of the
and the
empirein
The
the south-eastern
regency
bigoted party,which regardedthe extinction of heresy the most important as duty of the rulers of the state. A numerous with body of Christians were persecuted much driven to rebellion, that they were so cruelty and compelled for their lives and to solicit protection
property from the Saracens,who
"
seized the
opportuBysanHncs,
829.
PBB8ECUTI0N
OP
THE
PAULICIANS.
199
a.d.
the Byzantine
at this time
were
irritatedthe enemies of
and showed little respectto image-worship, the authority of a church establishment, for theirpriests
formingthemselves into a separate order of to establish or attempting a hierarchical society, tion. organisaTheir social and political viewed were opinions with as much hatred and alarm by the ecclesiastical sellors counof Theodora,as the philanthropic of the principles Christianshad been by the pagan emperors of Rome. early The
same
without
calumnies
were
circulatedamong
the orthodox
the Paulicians, which had been propagated against amongst of the heathen against the Christians. The populace was Constantinople taughtto exult in the tortures of those accused of manicheanism, of Rome as the populace had been persuaded in the cruelties committed to delight
on
the
Christians as early
race.
From the time of Constantine V. the Paulicianshad erally genof toleration some enjoyed degree ; but the regency
of Theodora resolvedto consummate the
doxy, of orthotriumph
by a
to the ceremonies
Imperial
commissioners
were
every individual who either conresistedthe invitations of the clergy demned was
enforce ecclesiastical union, and
to death
or
his
propertywas
confiscated. It is
cians the boast of orthodox historiansthat ten thousand Pauliin this manner. Far greater numbers, perished of Melitene,where into the province however, escaped them protection, and assisted the Saracen emir granted them to plan schemes of revenge.^
1
103. Ck)ntinuator,
200
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
of the Byzantine administration at last cruelty 8, to resistance within the empire ch^^oM ; gQ^^Q^ tjjg oppressed of the governand the injustice displayed by the oflBcers ment
BOOK
L
The
induced the
many, who
were
themselves indifferent
on
to take up arms against oppression. religious question, officers on the staff of Karbeas,one of the principal the general of the Anatolic theme, Theodotos Melissenos, for his adherence that his father had been crucified hearing to
fled to the emir of the doctrines of the Paulicians, and collecteda body of fivethousand men, with Melitene,
which
were
Argaous and
a
increased
so
that they formed much, by the arrival of fresh emigrants, third establishment at in the districtof
of difficult access,
and dwelt in of
a
calledTephrike place (Divreky), Sebaste (Sivas), in a secluded country constructed a strong where they fortress,
a
state
of
Omar, independence.^
of
a
the emir
with
the brother empire. They were opposed by Petronas, of Theodora,then general of the Thrakesian theme. The to defence ; while Byzantine army confined its operations and been defeated, Alim,the governor of Tarsus,having civilwar breaking out in the Saracen dominions in consequence of the cnielties of the Caliph Motawukel,the incursionsof the Paulicians were confined to mere dering plunIn the time considerable mean a forays. body of Paulicians continued to dwell in several provinces of the to empire, persecution escaping by outward conformity the Greek church,and by payingexactly all the dues leviedon them by the Byzantine clergy.The whole force
^ *
the
of PArnUnie,i. 188. The secluded position almost independent band of Kurds when it was visited by Otter in 1743. Vouage en TurguU "t en Perse,ii.306. It contains at present about two thousand houses,situated in a fertilevalley amidst luxuriant gardens. Ainsworth, TraveU and Beseareha in Ana Minor, ii 7.
sur
Divrekymade
it the seat of
an
"
MICHAEL
III.
201
of the
In
empirewas
years
not
directed
the against
PaiUicians
a. d.
until some
842w.
flicted the year 852, the regency revenged the losses inthe maritime districts of on by the Saracen pirates
landed fleet Egypt. A Byzantine by invading empire, and a body of troopsat Damietta,which was plundered and six hundred burned ; the countryround was ravaged, female slaves were carried away.^ Irene, Theodora^ like her female predecessor displayed the considerable talents for government. She preserved and increased its prosperity of the empire, in tranquillity of her persecuting she neglected ; but, like Irene, policy spite her dutyto her son in the most shameful manner. from Leo III. (the In the series of Byzantine sovereigns unfit to Michael III., Isaurian) onlytwo provedutterly
the for the duties of their been and both appear station,
to
have
by the education theyreceived from their corrupted and the heartambition of Irene, less mothers. The unfeeling the original of the of Theodora,were causes vanity of Constantino VI. and the vices of Michael III. folly at the time The system of education generally adopted well adapted to form men to have been singularly seems of ability, V., see in the instances of Constantino as we who were all educated as Leo IV., and Theophilus, and heirs to the empire. Even if we take the princes shall find extended view of Byzantine most we society, in that the constant supplyof great talents displayed have been the result of careful the public service must cultivation and judicious systematic study. No other such a longsuccesmonarchical government can produce sion of able ministers and statesmen as conducted the Byzantine and tenth the eighth, administration during ninth, of original centuries. The remarkable deficiency genius
"
ill 248.
'
Mosheim, Soames' edit. iL 251. Neander, see Conoeming the Paulicians, 168. x. Gibbon, to the Arabic Ckronicle of Abul" the knowledge of this expedition We owe
pharagius, p. 170.
202
BOOK
L
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
^^"''*^
that the thisperiod onlyadds an additionalproof daring mind was disciplined by a rigid system of education. Theodora have been With abandoned the
care
bauched but of whose dejudge, very incompetent she must hare seen and heard too much. manners
a
to arrogated
self her-
and administration, public the course of idlenessand profliviewed with indiflFerence gacy of her son the principles by which Bardas corrupted
in his endeavour to
secure a over mastery
his mind.
Both
mother and uncle appear to have vices. Bardas the young emperor's he favourite, as
not
onlyafforded the young emperor for gratifying but supported his passions, eveiy facility with the regency that originated him in the disputes on Michael at last came account of his lavish expenditure. He had fallen in with his mother. to an open quarrel love with Eudocia,the daughter of Inger, of the great dora of the Martinakes, a connection which both Theofamily and Theoktistosviewed with alarm, to create as likely influence.^ To to their political a powerful opposition Theodora succeeded in compelling prevent a marriage,
then in his sixteenth year, to marry the daughter of Dekapolitas. named Eudocia, another lady who Michael, The
was
debauchee, however,made Eudocia Ingerina bestowed his mistress, and, towards the end of his reign,
young
her in
on marriage
as
mark
of
his favour.
EmperorLeo
A
a
the emshould give that this fiunily pire the Amorian dynasty. Continuator,
"
75. firstson, after her marEudocia Ingerina*s There seems riage a doubt whether named Constantine. with Basil, was Symeon Mag. 449 ; Lea Gramm. at page 468, 472 ; or Leo George the Monk, 540 ; and Leo Gi*ammaticus himself, edit. Par. This child, whether the one or the other, was genenJlysupposed to be the child of Michael II L
"
'
204
BOOK
L
ICOKOCLAST
PERIOD.
Cb.111. fS.
EmpressTheodora contiDued to livein the imperial after the murder of Theoktistos, until her regency palace, her son attaining the age of eighteen.^ Her on expired,
residence there was, mind of her from
The
however,rendered
The
torture
to
her
the debauched
ciates asso-
livered eagerness of Michael to be deher presence at length caused him to send his sisters to reside in the Carian the Patriarch attemptpersuading After her banishment still hopedto
recover
Palace,and
even
to
her influence with her son, if she could separate him from Bardas ; and she engaged in intrigues with her brother's whose enemies,
was conspiracy
secret
was object
increase
He was now raised to the dignity the power of Bardas. of Michael were of curopalat. Theodora and the sisters
removed
to the
were
secluded she
Bardas, however,
her
son
was
and it was
of St Mamas, apartmentsin the palace partyin her rural residence at the Anthewas
assassinated.^ Theodora
of Basil L ; and Thekla, died in the first year of the reign the sisterof Michael, who had received the imperial title, and
was as
debauched
in her
manners
as
her
brother,
MICHAEL'S
DEPRAVITT.
205
a. d.
well
as
the Eastern
842-867.
placein
the Greek
by the counsels and exampleof Bardas, Encouraged obtained Michael plungedinto every vice. His orgies of the Drunkard of his for him the name ; but,in spite
vicious his devotion conduct;
to
the of festivals gave him considerable popularity among The people of Constantinople. amused by were people his and the citizensprofited follies, by his lavish expenditure.
Many
anecdotes
but theyare preserved, of the great demoralisation then existing at as proofs it is profor, as facts concerning Michael, Constantinople, bable from the flatterers theyhave received their colouring of his assassin. Michael's unworthy of the dynasty duct, conrendered him contemptible to however,ultimately
allclasses. Had
ing as
to
confined himself to appear* charioteer in the Hippodrome, itwould have been but he carried his extravaganceso far as
the emperor
pardoned easily ;
and caricaturethe ceremonies of the orthodox church, the religious of the clergy. to burlesque processions publicly The indifibrenceof the
to people
when strange,
which the
we
reflecton
the state of
had fallen, and on the important Constantinopolitans place occupied by the Eastern church in Byzantine however, the endeavours which had Perhaps, society. been made, both by the church and the emperors, to render of public church ceremonies an attractive species mind for amusement, had tended to prepare the public this irreverent caricature. It is always to imprudent
with especially At thistime, and religious music, feelings. singreligion triflewith
a
serious
and subject,
more
Qeorg.Mon.
545.
Leo
Qramm.
471.
206
I. BOOK ^'^**'
IC0K0CLA8T
PERIOD,
of costume, and scenic effect, magnificence iDg, eloquence, tion decorablended with architectural had all been carefully of the richest kind
to Sophia,
in the
church splendid
and engage
of St
the attention.
the thing was consequence was, that religion when theyassembled toof by the people, gether least thought
The
at
was object
to
enjoythe music,view the pageantry,and criticisethe criticsby the supercilious Michael gratified performers. entertainments and givevariety his caricatures, to the public sity bythe introduction of comedyand farce. The necesof this was
to preventthe groundbeing authorised similar saturnalia, by opponents. The Emperor Michael exhibited occupied
caricatureof the ecclesiastical clever but very irreverent of the Patriarch and clergy of Constantinople. processions
a
consisted of an excellentbufibon arrayed masquerade in the patriarchal attended by eleven mimic metropolitan robes, in full and costume, embroidered with gold, bishops followed by a crowd disguised as choristersand priests. This cortige, accompanied by the emperor in person, as if in a solemn procession, walked through the streets of ridiculous songs to psalmtunes, and the capital singing the of debauchery, mingling burlesque hymns in praise
The
most
of Greek
exhibitionwas disgraceful
This
one
the buffoon of
saluted with ribald courtesy, without from the pious Greeks.^ indignation The
most
a burst exciting
in of society depravity
the head
124. If the fable of the female Pope Joanna provee anything, Continuator, be received
at
as
it may
at society
Rome
was
was
than
pope
supposed
little better to be a
IGNATIUS
DEPOSED,
A.D.
867.
care
207
to conceal his
a. d.
of the
no
Tices ; he
his son's
accused of
an
^^^^'
highoffice the of the Europeantroops.^ of generalissimo Ignatius of the highest Patriarch was a man character, eager to
held the obtain for the church in the East that moral supremacy which the papal in the West. to itself power now arrogated with Disgusted
was
the vices of
to him
Bardas, he refused
on
to
nister admi-
holy communion
from
the hands
of the
Patriarch, a.d.
mark public
Bardas, to revenge
himself for
of recalled to the memory infamy, had made to the young emperor the resistance Ignatius the veil, Theodora's receiving and accused him of holding self himcommunication with a monk who had given private out to be a son of Theodora,bom before her marriage As this monk was widi Theophilus. known to be mad, and many senators and it would have been Ignatius,
as
there
such
an
Michael
was,
however, persuaded
to arrest acts of
him
on
of various charges
to
havingcommitted
to
and sedition,
banish him
the island of
Terebinthos. necessary to look out for a new Patriarch, of Ignaand the circumstancesrequired that the successor tius
It
was now
highcharacter as well as talent, for the deposed Patriarch had occupied no ordinary tion. posiHis father and his maternal grandfather (Michael
a man
should be
of
I. and
stantinople both filled the throne of Conand piety his his devotion
to the
cause
But
partyzeal
208
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK
had
raised already
^^"^^^
in the bosom
the contest
cerning con-
ing bring-
whose church,
did the work of its own degradation. spirit of the the Leo Armenian, a son V., Emperor Gregory, was by Bishopof Syracuse,He had been suspended the Patriarch Methodios for consecrating out of a priest his diocese. During the patriarchate the of Ignatius, of the sons of two rival emperors had hereditary hostility the quarrel, and Ignatius availed had probably perpetuated of the opportunity himself with pleasure offered him of excommunicating Gregoryas some reyenge for the loss of the imperial throne. It was pretended that Gregory had ayersion to image-worship, and the suspia hereditary cions of Methodios were of magnified by the animosity into absolute heresy.^ had been This dispute Ignatius referredto Pope Benedict III., and hisdecisionin favour of Ignatius had induced Gregory who and his partisans, and powerful, the legato call in question numerous were lity of the electionof Ignatius. himself Bardas,availing of thisecclesiastical and strained threats, contest, employed the influence of the emperor to the utmost, to induce the patriarchate to resign Ignatius ; but in vain. It was, decided that Photius should be electedPatriarch therefore, without of the a formal resignation obtaining whose electionwas declared null. Ignatius,
from office
the chief secretary of state, who was thus suddenly Photius, raised to the head of the Eastern church, was a man of highrank,noble descent, and great learning, profound influence. If we believe his own declaration, personal and frequently he publicly repeated,
*
was
elected against
gory,
QeneriuB, 47. Symeon Mag. 443. Schloeser, out that Orep. 692,points of the sons of Leo the Armenian, was the same one person with Gregory of Syracuse."Ck"Ieti, Asbestas, Concil. archbishop x. 698. Nioetas,Vita IgnatH
PHOTIUS
ELECTED
PATRIARCH,
no
A.D.
867.
209
a. n.
selectionof the emperor without forfeiting ^^^' all rank at court,and perhaps danger.^ incurring personal His popularity, and his intimate acquaintance with civil
opposedthe
canon
and his family alliance with the imperial house, law, him
in his new rank. Like bis advantages celebrated predecessors, Tarasios and Nicephorus, he was his election took place.On the 20th a layman when December 857, he was consecrated a monk by Gregory, of Syracuse ; on the following archbishop day he became an a sub-deacon ; next day he anagnostes; the day after, deacon ; and on the 24th he received was appointed elected Patriarch orders. He was then formally priest's in a synod, consecrated and on Christmas-day solemnly
gave
many
in the church of St
Sophia.^
election of Photius, which was evidently illegal, in increased the dissensions only existing the already church
in drew off the attention of the people they from political and enabled Bardas to some abuses, degree constitutethe civilpower judgein ecclesiastical matters* and the leading of hispartywere imprisoned men Ignatius and ill treated ; but even of the party of the clergy insulted and carried bePhotius could not escape being fore refused to comply the ordinary if they with tribunals, the iniquitous demands of the courtiers, or ventured to of the government officials. Photius oppose the injustice rendered himself the agent soon bitterly having repented
;
The
but
of such
men
as
and
as
he knew
" Photiiis the gnnd-nephew of the Patriarch Tarasfos, who like himself was had been raised from the post of secretaryof state to rule the church. Letter of Photius to Pope Nicholas in HUUnrt de PkcHut, par I'Abb^ Jager,448 ;" a sister of the Empress Theodora, and not very accurate work. Irene, prejudiced Fam, Aug. Byt.135. married to Sergius, the brother of Photius. was Ducange, 109. who Continuator, Cedrenus, 545. The Abb6 Jager says that Arsabcr, married another sister of Theodora, (Kalomeria), uncle to Photius. was * jinnal^s EeeUs. ziy. ; Coleti, Conoiliorum CML ix. and z. ; Pkotu BaroniuSy of ecclesiastical for this London, 1651,are the chief sources Sputola, history De ByumUnarum period. The account of Photius in the work of Haukins, Herum Seriptorifnu Orwoii, p. 269, deaenreB attention.
" "
VOL.
I.
210
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
"""'"*^
their conduct and charactersbefore his election, we may believe tlieassertionhe makes in his lettersto Bardas
and which he repeats that to the Pope, himsdf, In the
mean
he
was
his wish.^ to acceptthe patriarchate against compelled allowed so much liberty was time, Ignatius ment Bardas,whofoundPhotius a lessdocileinstrubythe crafty than he had
that his partisans assembled expected, church of Irene for forty days. In this
and his adherents
were
ed. excommunicat-
the emperor
that his
own
Photius
must
have felt
former
with intimacy
deep stain
now
on
the election of Photius, necessary to legalise obtain the ratification of the deposition of Ignatius
was
by
no
general
Emperor Michael consequently despatched ambassadors to Rome, to invitePope Nicholas I. to send for the purpose of holding to Constantinople, a legates Pope.
^ Fkotii 602. EpiMce, iil and yl SchloBser, the Abb^ Jager,givesa letter to Pope Nicholas pp. 34 and 43.S. ' 603. Schlosser,
212
BOOK
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
I.
^"'**'
increased as the civiland military bishops power of the Western Empire declined ; and when the imperial the of the Eastern Empire, became a provincial city city and chiefs of Roman society, popes became the political of the influence formerly small portion inherited no administration over the provinexercised by the imperial cial could Rome ecclesiastics. is the It of true, Bishops in the opinion not exercisethispower without control, but, of the barbarian conquerors of the subjects of a majority of in the West, the Pope was the legal representative of imperial Rome as well as the legitimate the civilisation of St Peter,and the guardian of the rock on successor founded. Unless the authority which Christianity was of the popes be traced back to their original as position and patriarchs of Rome of the Western archbishops Empire,and the institutionsof the papalchurch be viewed as they existed in connection with the originally claims the realvalue of the papal administration, imperial founded on traditionalfeelings, to universal domination, imitated the estimated. The popes only cannot be justly Roman ; emperors in their most exorbitant pretensions and the vicious principles while he was of Constantine, stilla pagan, continue to exert their corruptinfluence the ecclesiastical of the greaterpart of institutions over
Europeto
assumed that Constantine had conThe popes early ferred ecclesiastical the of on Bishop Rome a supreme minions, the three European of his dodivisions over jurisdiction
indeed, many factswhich tended to support this claim. Africa, in so far as it belonged to the jurisdiction
were,
the Europeanprefectures, acknowledged of the Bishopof Rome after the authority ; and even finaldivision of the empire, Dacia,Macedonia, Thessaly, and from the Epirus, Greece,though theywere separated
"
of the
Zosimiis,iL 38.
OEIGIN
OP
PATKIARCHATES.
213
of lUyricum, and formed a new province of the prefecture Eastern Empire, continued to be dependent the eccleon siasticaljurisdiction of the Pope, The Patriarch of
a. d.
"^2^.
Antioch East
as
was
Egypt formed
had its
districtin peculiar
the ecclesiastical,
Constantinople
creations.
The
had been
the Patriarch of Antioch, received the honorary title of Patriarch at the councilof Nicaea, and the Emperor Theodosius II. conferred on him an independent
on dependent
over jurisdiction
the three
the Palestines,
not
two
but it was
acknowledged
restricted to
by
the
body of
then
Palestines, a.d.
of Byzantiumhad been dependent the on bishop or exarch of Heraclea before the translation metropolitan of the imperial residence to his See,and the foundation of Constantinople. In the council held at Constantinople in 381, he was first because he was ranked as Patriarch, the bishop of the capital of the Eastern Empire,and of Rome in the ecclesiastical after the Bishop placed immediately and his successors St Chrysostom cised exerhierarchy. both in Europeand Asia, the patriarchal jurisdiction, the Eastern Empire, over as the popes of Rome cised exerjust in it in the Western, yielding a precedence merely ecclesiastical of St Peter .^ honour to the representative In spite of the opposition of old Rome, the of the bishops of power thus attained an equality of new Rome bishops the popes tremble for their supremacy, and rather the Patriarchs of Constantinople theyregarded
which made
as
rivalsthan
1
as
rulersof joint
23.
the church.
Their
am-
Cod.
214
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
^^'"'*^
to the aspiring bitiousjealousy, joined arrogance of their tween becaased all the evilstheyfeared. The disputes rivals, of and Photius now Ignatius gave the Pope hopes
the whole the supremacy of Rome over re-establishing the Patriarchs of the East church,and of rendering See. of the Roman merely vicegerents sent by Nicholas were The papallegates presentat in the year 861, council held at Constantinople a general attended by three hundred and eighteen which was bishops.Bardas and Photius had succeeded in securing of the majority of the Eastern clergy.They the goodwill the support of the representaalso succeeded in gaining tives it. if the did of not purchase Ignatius, Pope, they of Posis,was who was residing in his mother's palace himself before the council. He was to present required and to the Pope's legates, thoughhe appealed deposed, in protesting that the council did not possess a persisted It is said that a pen was to deposehim. legal right between his fingers, and a cross drawn placed forcibly He with it,as his signature to the act of deposition. then ordered to read his abdication, the day of was on in the Church of the Holy Apostles Pentecost, ; but,to in the disguise of a slave he escaped avoid this disgrace, and concealed himself among to the Prince'sIslands, innumerable monks
to galleys
the
in
who
those deliciousretreats.
examine
sii^
every in order to arrest the fugitive in succession, ; but the vain. After the termination of the council, search was returned privately where to his maternal palace, Ignatius he
^
was
allowed
to remain
unmolested.^
The discussions
said to have been indebted to an earthquake was for this mild treatment Bardas was and Photius was looked upon as impious for frightened, from the pulpit that earthquakeswere declaring causes produced by physi"^ and not from divine wrath to awaken actingupon the waters under the earth, mankind to a sense of their sins. Symeon Mag. 445. Photius, like his predecessor, John the Grammarian, was too learned for the populace, and his Knowledge attributed to personalintercourse with demons, who in that age was He
"
GENBBAL
COUNCIL,
A.D.
861.
to
215
by its enemies
hare been
as
con-
a. d.
but
the papal and the by the Patriarch, legates, it is not likely that any confiiadministration, imperial allowed within the walls of the council, eyen was though the party of Ignatius by the supported
fflon
was
faroured
EmpressesTheodora and Eudocia, and by the great body of the monks. The Emperor Michael,with great refused to throw the whole weight of his impartiality, in eitherscale. The truth is, that, what somemithority being of a freethinkeras well as a debauchee, he laughed that Ignatius of the patriarch at both parties, was saying Photius the patriarch the people, of Bardas,and Gryllos his own Nevertheless, imperial (the buflFoon) patriarch.^ and the acts of the council were was deposed, Ignatius ratified legates.^ by the papal of the Pope certainly to improper The legates yielded the measures of the influence, for,besides approving Byzantine government with reference to the patriarchate, the recognition of the spiritual to demand theyneglected of the papalSee in the terms prescribed by authority disavowed their instructions. They were consequently The partyof Ignatius on their return to Rome. appealed that concessions could be to the Pope,who, seeing no embraced the gainedfrom Michael,Bardas,or Photius, A synod Patriarch with warmth. ^ause of the deposed
was
convoked
case
at
Rome
; Photius was
excommunicated,
in
of the patriarchal possession decision in favour of after receiving the papal chair, the archbishop of Syra863. a.d. cuse, Ignatius, Gregory, he should dare to retain who had ordained
was Photius,
and anathematised,
were
some of Hellenic literature. Symeon gives supposedto act as professors of Photius. oorioos anecdotes to the disadvantage ^ received the emperor had employed to enact the patriarch, whom GryUofl, of the hog, from his low debauchery. the name from the people * been from having and second, This council is called by the Greeks the first that it re-enacted the acts ot series of sossioDS. It seems held in two separate
by
Photius in 857.
216
BOOK
I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
schismatic, as well as all those who held comthe sacerif 1j0continued to perfoiin dotal nmuiQu ^ijjh IjJu^^ CH^mj^a.
declared
a
synod were the indignacommunicated to Michael by papal letters, tion considered of the emperor was awakened by what he in the affairs the insolentinterference of a foreign priest ing in a violent and unbecomof the empire, and he replied
functions. When the acts of this letter. He
him to send
had invited
to legates
from
ople, council at Constantingeneral in the church,not wish to maintain unity of the Bishopof Rome was participation Eastern the validity of the acts of the
was
Church.
because
This
to treat the
all very reasonable ; but he went on and the Latin clergy barbarians, as
Greek.
however,the emperor received a rebuke from Pope Nicholas,who asked him why he the himself Emperor of the Romans, if he thought styled
of language church the
a
the Roman
one.
empire and
It
was
a
of
the Roman
barbarous
in greaterdisgrace,
of tlie Pope, for the Roman opinion emperor to be ignorant of the Roman than for the head language, of the Roman of Greek. church to be ignorant Nicholas had nothingto fear from the power of that he acted without the restraint so Michael, imposed his TI. in with Isaurian.. the Leo contest on Gregory Indeed, the recent success of the Pope,in his dispute with Lothaire, king of Austrasia, gave him hopes of in a quarrel with the Eastern even comingoffvictorious, He did not sufficiently understand the effect emperor.
of
more
education
on
called on therefore, Nicholas, Byzantine society. boldly Michael to cancel his insolent letter, that it declaring would otherwise be publicly burned by the Latin clergy ; and he summoned the rival Patriarchs of Constantinople in person before the papal court, that he to appear bear might and decide their differences.
BULGARIAN
WAK.
217
a. d.
This
master
of the Pope to make himself absolute pretension of the Christian church, of awakened the spirit
and caused Photius to respond Constantinople, claims for his See. He insisted new bj advancing that the Patriarchs of Constantinople in rank were equal and authority of The disputes to the Popesof Rome. which the goyemthe clergy the onlysubject on being of the Eastern Empire allowed any expression of ment the whole attention of society soon was public opinion, directed to thisecclesiastical Michael assembled quarrel. a council of the church in 866, at which pretended sentatives repreof the patriarchs and of Antioch,Alexandria, Jemsfdem were ; and in this assembly Pope present of his See, and excomNicholas was declared unworthy municated. this senof rendering There was no means tence
resistance at
of excommunication
of any
the emperor of the West, could be induced, by the hatred he bore to Nicholas, to put it in execution. Ambassadors
were
sent
to urge him
to
the death
with
of Michael The
not
suddenly put
between
end
the and
to the contest
party of Ignatius.
Rome
Patriarch Photius.
between
other causes
of difference
as
the
two
much
Not to mention
over jurisdiction of the Byzantine which had been those provinces empire conflicthad arisen dissevered from her authority, a new the When for supremacy over the church in Bulgaria. after the Bulgarian king Crumn invaded the empire, defeat of Michael I., he carried away so many prisoners made considerable that the Bulgarians, who had already course advances in civilisation, were by their interprepared, A with these slaves, to receive Christianity. who remained long Greek monk, Theodore Koupharas, in Bulgaria, converted many by his preaching. a prisoner
to
recover
her
218
ICONOCLAST
J^EBIOD.
BOOK
I.
^^'""*^
bj Leo V., a sisterof Daringthe inTasion of Bulgaria carriedto Constantinople as a prisoner, was King Bogoris The Empress Theodore exand educated with care. changed for Theodore Koupharas, thisprincess and on into her her return she introduced the Christian religion brother's palace. broke out between the Bulgarian War subsequently and Michael and Bardas made monarch and the empire, the Bulgarians in the year 861.^ an expedition against
The circumstances of the
war are
not
of Michael
To
from
the
this peace, howeyer, purchase allthe the Byzantine emperor ceded to the Bulgarians the range of Mount Hsemus, called by the countryalong of which Greeks Sideras, and by the Bulgarians Zagora, Debeltos is the chief town.^ Michael pretended that the cession was made as a baptismal donation to the of the Bulgarian king. The change in the religion monarch caused some but discontent among his subjects, their opposition with the assistance was soon yanquished of Michael, and the most refractory to were transported where the wealth and ciyilisation of Constantinople, such an impression their on Byzantine produced society minds that theyreadily embraced Christianity.^ The Bulgarian lest the influence of monarch,fearing his Christian subjects the Byzantine on clergy might render him in some the emperor^ on degree dependent openedcommunications with Pope Nicholas for the purpose of balancing the power of the Greek clergy by of the ecclesiastical affairs his kingdomunder the placing
Symeon Mag. 440. In the fourth year of MichaeVs sole gOYemment. The ContiDuator, 102,attributes this treatyto the Empress Theodora, but the date seems more 440, Qeorg. Mon. precisely givenby Symeon Magister, 584. This district had been ceded to the Bulgarians by Justinian IL, but recovered by Constantine V. ' Leo Gramm. 462. For the conversion of the Bulgarians, Contin. 101 ; Cedrenus,ii 540 ; Zonaras,ii 156.
'
^
220
BOOK L
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
himself constrained to appear Michael felt ConstaDtinople, The tie between at the head of his armies. cejiMs, frequently the emperor and the soldierswas strengthened perhaps that the but it can hardly be supposed by these visits, personal presence of Michael added much to the efficiency of military operations. of the Byzantine and Saracen The war on the frontiers carried on by Omar, the emir of Melitene, was empires incursions without interruption, in a seriesof plundering at times reyenged scale. These were a gigantic on by In on the partof the Byzantine generals. daring exploits inthe year 856, Leo, the imperial commander-in-chief, AnaTaded the dominions of the caliph. After taking he crossed the Euphrates at Samosata, and advanced zarba, with his army into Mesopotamia, the country as ravaging far as Amida. themselves by The Saracens revenged severalplundering incursions into differentparts of the Michael put himself empire. To stop these attacks, at the head of the army, and laid siege to Samosata without effect. Bardas accompanied the emperor rather influence at court than to assist his sovereign in obtaining military glory.The following
to
over own
watch
his
year Michael In
was
engagedin
an
the
the campaignagainst
tioned. menalready 40,000 European
of Bulgarians,
army of Omar of Melitene, who had carried his troopsagainst incursions up to the walls of Sinope.^ A plundering battle took place in the territory the of Dasymon,near
and spot which had witnessed the defeat of Theophilus,
860, he led
the overthrow of Michael was as complete as that of his father. The same in the groundwhich had difficulties
The Arabian hietorians pretendthat Omar carried off 17,000 slaves, and Karbeas,with his Paulicians, Ali Ibu Tahia,governor 5000 in one expedition. of Tarsus,was equally successful. Abulpharagius (Bar Hebrrous)says that in a previouscampaign the Byzantine Weil, 20,000 prisoners." army had made OescMchte der Okali/en, il 863, note % and 565. These devastations deserve as causes of the depopulation notioe, of the country.
^
SABACBN
WAR.
221
fayoured
of the
the retreat of
A.D.
The
of Michael,to save the army.^ generals with vigour still both war was on prosecuted entered the Armeniac
842^.
large and took Amisus. the emperor's force, Petronas, uncle, who had now considerable military acquired experience and reputation o f the Thrakesiau as theme,was general the head the of .^ at He collected placed Byzantine army his forces at Aghionoros, and when bis near Ephesus, reinforced by a strong body of Macedonian army was
a
In 863, Omar
theme with
marched towards the frontier in troops, several divisions, which he concentrated in such a manner as to cut off the retreat of Omar, and enclosed him with an force. The troops under Nasar,the general overwhelming of the Boukellarian theme,strengtliened by the Armeniac
and
and
Thracian
the troopsof the theme enclosed the Saracens on the north. Petronas Koloneia,
and Paphlagonian legions, the
with himself,
the passes and advanced from the west ; while the troopsof the Anatolic, and CappadoOpsikian, secured legions, cian
themes,with the divisions of the Kleisourarchs of Seleucia and Charsiana, secured the passes to the having
south,cut off the direct line of Omar's
range of rendered escape of Petronas headquarters situated on place Armeniac from
retreat.
An
passable im-
broken into precipices, mountains, rocky The to the eastward impracticable. established at Poson, a and the frontiersof the Paphlagonian
were near
themes,
to
the north
south.
encamped in
1 110. Gcneeins, 44. It is evident that the details of the ContiDiiator, battle of Theopbilushave been mixed up with those of this battle. The exploits fusion attributed to the two Manuels arc a mere transcript.There is so much conthat in the narrative and chronology of Michael's war with the Saracens, its details. See Weil, ii 365, it would space to examine occupy too much
"
note
*
I.
Ck. Syr. 209. Abulpharagius, For the date,see Abulfeda,Annal. Muss. ii. 171,249th year of the Hegira,from 23d February863 to 12th February864. Also Weil, il 880, note 6.
222
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
ch
in its rugged the dangerlurking without suspecting plain 111.53. found himself enHe suddenly to the east. closed boundary sions by the simultaneous advance of the various diviblockaded. He of the Byzantine army, and closely each division of the to escape by attacking attempted of the positions but the strength in succession, enemy officersrendered all his attacks selected by the imperial vain. Omar at last fell in the desperate struggle ; and to attack the fresh troopsinto the plain Petronas, leading the destruction of their army. weary Saracens,completed
L
The
son
of Omar
was
contrived
to escape from
the fieldof
but he battle,
and pursued
taken
by prisoner
had
the
Kleisoumrch
crossed the
Halys.^ When
Was
he Constantinople,
with greatpomp and victory The Byzantine writers estimated the public rejoicings. at 40,000, while the Arabian destroyed army that was Public historiansreduced their loss to only2000 men. in the empire of the caliph, however,considered opinion the defeat as a great calamity ; and its real importance seditions that alarming may be ascertained from the fact, i*eached the government when the news broke out against too, the eastern frontier Bagdat.2After this victory, for some time. tranquillity enjoyed
allowed
to
celebrate his
In the year 865, a nation hithertounknown made its firstappearance in the history of the world,where it was
unimportant part. Its entrance into the political system of the Europeannations was marked which it a project by an attempt to take Constantinople,
no
destined to act
^ It is not easy to detenniDe the spot where this battle was fought Gkmesius calls the placeAbysiaDos,and says it was five hundred miles u'om AminA valleyin the vicinity called Qyris. Coutinuator,113. was 808, page 46. iL 308,placesthe valleyMer^j Aluskuf twenty-fourmiles north-west Edrisi, of Baranda (Laranda), the road from Tarsus to Abydos. This would place on it in the Anatolic theme, among the Lycaonian counter-forts of Taurus, and would lead to the supposition that Omar to gainTarsus, in order was retreating to placehis booty in security." See Weil, il 881. " Weil, ii.381.
"
RUSSIANS
ATTACK
CONSTANTINOPLE,
now
A.D.
865.
223
no
a. d.
cirilisation seems
to indicate must
be realised at
very distant date,unless the revival of the kingdomto the south of the Danube create a
Bulgarian
new
^^^^'
Scla-
vonian power in the east of Europe capable of arresting its progress. In the year 862, Rurik,a Scandinavian or and laid the first arrived at Novgorod, chief, Varangian
foundation of the state which has grown into the Russian under Varangian tion, dominaempire. The Russian people, increasedin power, and reduced many of their rapidly the princes to submission.^ Oskold and Dir, neighbours of Kiof,rendered themselves masters of the whole course and itwould seem of the Dnieper, that eithercommercial
or jealousy
of ambition produced lision colsome rapacity with the Byzantine settlements on the northern shores of the Black Sea ; but from what particular cumstances cirthe Russians were led to make their daring attack on Constantinople The Emperor is not known.^ Michael had taken the command of an army to act against
the
the Saracens, and Oryphas, admiral of the fleet, acted as his absence. Before the during governor of the capital
fleet a military operations, of two hundred Russian vesselsof small size, vantage adtaking of a favourable wind, suddenly through passed the Bosphorus, and anchored at the mouth of the Black River in the Propontis, miles from Constantinople.^ about eighteen This Russian expedition had already plundered
Emperor had
commenced
his
the shores of the Black Sea, and from itsstationwithin it ravaged the Bosphorus the countryabout Constantinople,
and
the plundered
well
as
the other
Photii EjAUoUb, p. 58. La Ckronique traduite par L. Pari?, de Nettor^ i.22. ' is the bay at the mouth of the Athyras, K6Km}i fjLOios Buyuk TchekiDadj6. The Rttfisian vessels are called fiov6$v\a'y they must have been onlydocked to each will be an ample allowance. They cannot boats,and twenty men when therefore have carried more than 4000 men theypassed the Bosphorus. The expedition not unlike those against which, about this time,Alfred soems had to contend in England, and Charles the Bald in France.
*
224}
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
^'""'^
emperor, informed by Oryphasof the his capital, hastened to its defence. Though cruelenemy, the Russians
were
by no means of the Byzantine formidable to the strength and discipline forces. It required no great exertions on the part of the imperial officersto equip to attack a force sufficient and put to flight these invaders ; but the horrid cruelty of their Varangian of tliebarbarians, and the wild daring made a profound the people leaders, on impression of Constantinople, rendered spectators of the suddenly miseries of war, in their most hideous form, during a We need not, therefore, of perfect moment be security. to find that the sudden destruction of these surprised dreaded enemies by the drunken emperor, of whom the citizensof the capital more may have entertained even
contempt than he merited
the miraculous
as a
and daring
soldier, was
ascribed to
of the Virgin of the Blachern, interposition rather than to the superior tacticsand overwhelming military forces. How far this numbers of the imperial be connected with the of the Russians must expedition band of warriors and of that vigorous enterprising spirit from Scandinavia, of Danes, who, under the name pirates of Normandy, became the sovereigns Normans, and Varangians, and Russia,is still a England, Naples, Sicily, of learned discussion.^ subject About the same manned time a fleet, by the Saracens of Crete, and ravaged the Cyclades, the coast plundered of Asia Minor, carrying and a number of off greatbooty slaves.^ It would seem that the absence of the Emperor
die Verhaftnitte der Btmem sum Byzant\ni$eken in the Wilken, V'ber Rexche, Transactions of the Academy of Berlin. Hiti. Fhilolog. Klaue, 1829,p. 88.
^
For the date of the expedition, De Runorum Prima Bxpeditione Consee Bayer, Aead. ScietU. Peiropolitance, Forthe torn. vilL) Mtantinopolitana. {Commentarii
"
Leo Gramm. 463 ; Georg. Mon. 535 ; the Life of the Patriarch Ignatius, ikcts, by Nikctas David,annexed to the acts of the eighth ecumenic council, and Nestor's Rustian
3
yaXcW,and
fleet consisted of twenty KOvy.tapt"", seven aarovpas ; but it would perh^"8be difficult to determioe the sixe and class of these different vessels.
some
Continuator,122.
Chronicle, This
STATE
OP
THE
IMPERIAL
225
Michael from
sian attack Saracens.
at the Constantinople
time
of the Rus-
a.d.
was
connected
with
this movement
of the
^^^^*
in which the Byzantine of the manner conceptions will become Michael's reign, empirewas governed during if we enter into some details concerning more the precise and personal conduct of the rulers of the court intrigues The crimes and assassinations, which figure state. as the prominent events of the age in the chroniclesof the
Our
time^were
fate of the
events
excited less interest people ; and theyprobably who lived beyondthe circle among contemporaries of court favour, than history would lead us to suppose. Each rank of society robberies and murders had its own its attention. The state of society to occupy at the court of Constantinople not amenable to public was of what passed for few knew much within the opinion, walls of the greatpalace ; but yet the immense machinery of the imperial administration gave the emperors' power the to vices a solid basis, of alwaysopposed temporary the courtiers.
secure, and
The
order
which
rendered
property
the through
a
prosper, the administration of Roman law, equitable when of the empire, vitality the drunkenness of
a
enabled the
industrious classes to
nourished the
Nero and
the madness
of
Michael
order with ruin. The political and almost without any secluded from public business, of the proceedings of their government, were knowledge in all probability littlebetter acquainted with the intrigues and crimes of their day than we are at present. real suflfering ginary when or imasome therefore, They acted, home to directly broughtoppression grievance their interests or their feelings. Court murders were to in the amphithem no more than a tragedy a scene or theatre, which at theywere not present.
threaten
226
BOOK
L
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
he had great natural talents and jet,with allhis crimes, He had the of beinga reputation
after he
good lawyerand
judge; just
and
obtained
cial power, he devoted his attention to watch over the juditheless, Neveras the surest basis of popularity. department
we
find the
for the purpose of filling the wealthy, merely persecuting of their property. the public treasuryby the confiscation
fiscal resource, which had existed and whose exercise since the daysof the republic, ever under the earlier emperors calls forth the bitterness of This
was an
old Roman
After Barvigorous pages. his mature elevated to the dignity of Caesar, das was of ambition interest in projects age gave him a deeper of his nephew. He devoted than in the wild debauchery and less time to public business and grave society, more boonand the imperial feasts. New to the wine-cup assembled round Michael, and, to advance companions
Tacitus in
some
of his most
their own
of the jealousy the Caesar in the breast of the emperor. They solicited of spies oflBce to watch the conduct of one who, they said, voted Bardas deto the crown. was Michael, seeing aspiring to improving the administration of justice, ing reformabuses in the army, regulating the affairs of the self and protecting felt how much he himchurch, learning, his duties, and naturally neglected began to suspect
strove fortunes, to awaken
some
his uncle.
was
an
act of
seditionagainst the worthless emperor. The favourite parasite of Michael at this time
man
was
named
simple groom
had risen to
of the emperor while still in the sera stable-boy vice of the court. of an officer The young groom had the
wrestler a celebrated Bulgarian good fortune to overcome at a public The impression produced wrestling-match. who had been long over a by this victory foreigner,
228
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
^'
'"'
I. * ^'
authorised throne. The emperor, without much hesitation, to assassinate his uncle. the two intriguers
An for reconquering Crete expedition
was
from
and emperor, the Caesar, of the holysacrament before ]Jasilall partook together in embarking Here that the
the army
a
number sufficient
assembled.
Bardas
one
day,while
he
was
Michael urging
to
orders for the immediate embarkation of the troops, give and Basil, attacked by Symbatios and he was suddenly berlain, feet. Basil,who, as chammurdered at the emperor's had conducted him
him in the back.
to
the
tent,stabbed imperial
The and
Bardas beingrebut unprincipled moved, accomplished the project of invading Crete was abandoned, On entering Michael returned to the capital. stantinopl Con-
however,it
of his uncle had
was
givenuniversal
the best of MichaeFs was Bardas, with all his faults, Crete and the failureof the expedition ministers, against
was
As Michael
passed through
him with this bitter salutathe streets, tion a monk greeted " All hail, : emperor ! all hail from your glorious ! You covered with blood,and it is return campaign
"
your he
was
own
1 '*
arrest the
The
mad.
in spring 866 ; place and on the 26th of May, Michael rewarded Basil by him his colleague, with the title of Emperor.^ proclaiming in his fatherthat his participation expected Symbatios
in-law's murder
^
would
have
secured him
'
the titleof
129. Contmuator,
Probablynear
Halicamaseiis or Cnidus.
ORIGIN
OP
THE
TALE
OP
BBLISARHT8.
229
his own he had injured a. d. perceived fortunesby his crime. He now sought to obtain by open ^^^' forcewhat he had failedto gainby private murder. He succeeded in drawing who commanded the troops Peganes, in the Opsikian The two theme, into his conspiracy. rebels took up arms, and proclaimed that theirobject was not to dethrone Michael, but to depose Basil. Though a considerable bodyof troops, dered renthey drew together
sood
Caesar ; but Le
of
greatextent of country,
their passage to on captured many merchant-ships did not venture to attack the capital. Constantinople, they Their plan ill for beforethe end of the sumwas concerted, mer rounded surtheyhad allowed themselves to be completely taken prisoner was bythe imperial Peganes troops. at Kotaeion,and conducted to Constantinople, where his
eyes in the Milion, placed from the passersin his hand,to ask charity with a platter at Keltizene. was by. Symbatios captured subsequently When he reached Constantinople, he was conducted before Michael out to meet him, was Peganes brought with a censer of earthenware filled with burning sulphur of one insteadof incense. Symbatios then was deprived of his eyes, and his right hand was cut off. In this condition of with before he was the palace Lausus, placed biting his knees, a dish on as a common beggar.After exhiin thisposition hisrebellious for three days, oflBcers in their own Michael allowed them to be imprisoned houses. When Basil mounted the throne, they were as men no longer pardoned dangerous. of the The degrading to which two men punishment made a deep rank in the empire were highest subjected, The figure of Constantinople. the people on impression in of Peganes a soldierof highreputation standing in his with a platter the Milion, for an obolos, asking haunted their imagination, hand like a blind beggar, and, of the age, was borrowed itsway into the romances finding
were
put
out.
He
was
then
"
"
230
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
Cm.
III.
I.
9 8.
and yicissitades of court fayour, greatest of the ingratitude to the strongest pictures colouriug give the to illustrate
and S jmbatios, woyen of emperors. The fate of Peganes in which the into a tale called the Life of Belisarius, torical sentiment was heightened interest of tragic by much hisand
are
This base act was (Copronymus). petrated perof in the to flattera church, powerful party members which the leading hostile to Bardas,on were The precarious of Ignatius. account of his persecution and of Photius after the murder of his patron, position of the Greek ecclesiastical the inherent subserviency nitarie digof made him readyto countenance any display the populace. however bigoted, that pleased orthodoxy, The memory cherished by no of Constantino Y. was still Constantino V. inconsiderablenumber
of Iconoclasts. Common
report
still boasted of the wealth and power to which the empire had attained under the just administration of the Iconoclast emperors, and their conduct served
as a stant con-
of reproach The people, to Michael subject that the greatexploits of however,were easily persuaded Constantine V., and the apparentprosperity of his reign, had been the work of the devil. The sarcophagus in
^ 150, 168), Compare Const Porphyr. Basilias Maoedo {Scrip. po$t Tkeopk, with Symeon Mag. 449 ; Georg. Mon. 540 ; and Leo Gramm. 467 ; and for the resemblance with the foble of Belisarius, the anonymous author of AntiquUie$
in Banduri, Imperium Orient"Ue, i 7, and Joannis Tzetse, of ConftaiUinople, Variarum Chiliades, 94, edit Kiesslingii Mahon, Life of ; also Lord who tries to the fable ; and '* Belisarius ^was he blind T in Belisariui, support Blackwood*i Magazine for May 1847, where the connection of the fable with is pointed It may be worth mentioning,moreover, out. that Zacharias, history Bittoria Jurii GrcRco-Romani Delineation 58 ; and Mortreuil, Hittoiredu Droit ii 499, have both Mien into an error in supposing this Symbatios, Byzantiny who had lost an eye and his right hand during the reignof Michael IIL, to be
Hitt,
"
or Symbatios
Sabbatios who
assisted Leo VL
in the
ASSASSINATION
OF
MICHAEL
III.,A.D.
867.
231
a.i"-
which the
green
of this great emperor reposed vas and of the richestworkmanship. marble, By the
body of
order of the drunken Michael and the Sclayonian groom it was broken open, and the body, lain after haying Basils
for
the
into dragged upwardsof ninety years in peace, was where the bodyof John the Grammarian, torn circus, beside placed
it.
The remains
amuse
"
the the
filthiest often used and the place quarterof the capital, for the execution of malefactors.^ The splendid phagus sarcoof Constantine
to form Michael,
a was
cut
in
a
pieces by
new
order of
was
balustrade in
he chapel
at Pharos. constructing
on brought
delirium tremens, He
highposition
The
EmperorBasil
became
yery differentman
the groom. The change and observed by Michael, was it rendered him dissatisfied In one with his colleague.
of his fitsof madness
panions com-
three emperors, Michael, Basil,and Basiliskian, could hold joint not long soon a race sway. It was probably
who
cases
the
ablest
is
the generally
to
most
tion. deliberaof his benefactor with the greatest assassination The murder was carried into execution after a
^ author of the Ant GeoTg.Mon. "40. Leo Gramm. 467. The anonymous Cotutant. 20)says that the Amastrianon was a fjEiyourite (Banduri, Imp,OrierUale,
resort of demons
: see
il 558.
232
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
BOOK
I.
0MWIM8.
by Theodora to her son supper party given ^f Anthimos, where he had resolved to
in the
Eudocia Basil and his wife, on the Asiaticcoast. hunting invited by the empress-mother to meet her were Ingerina, banished from this most orthodox was son, for all decency carried to his usual habit, court. was Michael, according and Basil intoxication, his colleague to his chamber,of which he accompanied had previously rendered the lock useless. Basiliskian, in a state of the third of this infamous trio, was sleeping, in the imperial the bed placed intoxication, on apartment
state of
on
duty.
not
The chamberlain,on
lowing fol-
bis master, found the lock of the door uselessand the bolts broken,but did
to
secure
think of
the entrance
in the
of Chaldia, a
Constantine Toxaras,his
mediately Marinos,and his cousin Ayleon. The chamberlain imtheir purpose, and opposed their entry guessed into the chamber. Michael,disturbed by the noise, rose from
his drunken
cut
and sleep,
was
attacked
a
by John
of
blow of his
ground. Basiliskian Constantine time by Apelates. was the door and of Basil, Toxaras,with the relatives guarded the corridor leading to the apartment, lest the officers of
emperor slain in the mean
the emperor
or
the servants of Theodora should be alarmed The shouts of the chamberlain and the cries
by the noise.
of Michael alarmed Basil and those in the chamber, and rushed into the corridor to secure their retreat. But they had been often as loud,and the debauchery cries of murder sensation producedno extraordinary where Michael was known to be present. All remaining silentwithout, of the conspirators alarm some expressed
the tumult of
ASSASSINATION
OF
MICHAEL
233
wounded. mortally
John
of
a. d.
^^^^*
to
assure
finished. crossed over to Constantinople, and conspirators secured theirentrance into the imperial having palace bj of two Persians, and Artabasd, who were means Eulogies Basil was immediately sole emperor, on guard, proclaimed and the death of Michael III. was publicly announced. In the morning the body of Michael was interred in a of Antbimos. the palace near monastery at Chrysopolis, The Theodora
the and
son was
whom
had neglect
conducted
to an
early
death. bloody
of Constantinople people appear
to have taken
The
assassination, by which
of mercenary adventurers transferred the from the Amorian of the Romans to a empire dynasty Macedonian
for two groom, whose
at reigned family
small band
ople Constantinand
glory
days
CHAPTER
IV.
STATE
OP
THE
BYZANTINE
EMPIRE PERIOD,
DUBING
THE
CLAST ICONO-
8BCT.
L"
PUBUC
ADMINI8TRATION-DIPLOMATI0
RELATIONS.
AND
COMMERCIAL
CONOTAirriNOPLB
NOT THK
NKITHBR
GrEEK
IN THE
HOR
ROMAN
CITT"
TlW
GrREK
WHIOH strength
DOMINAMT
PBOPLB
POWER"
EMPIRE"
of the
CiRCUMSTANOES
empire" of
DESPOTIC
Extent
Military John
the
Loss
TO
OP
Crete"
policy"
Embassy Wealth.
Grammarian
Baqdat
Commercial
of moral culture, degree highest Hellenic race was assailed almost simultaneously by The victories and TyrrheniansPersians, Carthaginians,
obtained
the and
on triumphs
over
these enemies
are
still as regarded
of the
of Europe, civilisation political of liberty beyond the great dwelling-place which the The age of Leo the Isaurian found
a
is based. Atlantic,
the government of the Byzantine in empire very dissimilar from that of the Greek race of Miltiades. The Athenian
not position
in the time
the
empire of law and administration behind the walls of Constantinople ; the of Militiades secured onlyone hundred and fifty victory to the Greeks,that of the Iconoclast gave years of liberty fivecenturies of despotic nearly power to a systemhostile
for the
civilisation on
political plainof
236
BOOK L
1.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
cmmm
and the empeclaimed to be the mistressof a new world, of the East considered themselres masters of all the YOTB territories of pagan Rome, because the dominion oyer all inherent in the emperor of the Christians was a right founded as an anta^ orthodox. But Constantinople was
has always been to old Rome, and this antagonism gonist itschurch of its existence. As a Christian cit}% a portion stood in opposition and its ecclesiastical always language The of Rome. to the church and ecclesiastical language transferredin their pure of the one were nerer thoughts to the mind of the other. For several centuries conception Latin was of the court, of the ciril the language at Conranks of society stantinopl gOYernment,and of the higher and during the In the time of Leo III., of the administration Greek was the language Byzantine Empire, and the people, as well as of the church ; but
we are
not
considered themselves as Greeks city the term would have by descent. Even by the populace been looked upon as one of reproach, as a applicable national appellation in onlyto the lower orders of society of Constantinople, and the Hellenic themes. The people in their civil capacity, of the Byzantine at large, empire orthodox Christians ; were Romans, and in theirreligious, in no social relation, whether of race or nationality, did theyconsider themselves Greeks. inhabitants of the
At the time of the succession of Leo
race
The
was
in the empire. a very subordinate position occupied administration iofluencein the political predominant in the hands of Asiatics, and particularly nians, of Armewho filledthe highest commands. The military
of family
was
said
to
be
of Armenian
an
descent
Arabian
family ;
Leo
V.
was
an
Michael
II.,the
founder of the Amorian dynasty, of a was So that, for a century and a half, the
POSITION
OF
THE
GREEK
EACE.
237
of pure Greek blood a. d. sovereign appears to be the only who occupied the imperial throne, "^^J^' thoughit is probable
that Michael
numerous
Rhangabe was
assumed
an
Of
the
rebelswho
the Emperor,
greaterpart were
was
Armenians.^
727, was
the
occupy the throne for a century who rebelledagainst half. Artabasdos, hisbrotherto attempted
an
Armenian.
Alexis
Mousel,
strangled by order
I. ;
of Constantino VI. in the year 790 ; Bardan, called the Turk, who rebelledagainst Nicephorus
treason
and
Thomas,
who
revolted
against
Michael II., and most of them Armeall Asiatics, nians. were Another Alexis Mousel,who married Maria,the of Theophilus ther-in-law favourite daughter the bro; Theophobos,
of the
a were
member
emperor
likewiseof
ALrmenians in
to
Asiatic descent. Many of the foreign the Byzantine at thistime belonged empire
most
of these officers, of St Martin on the Armenian See the conjectures origin xii 855,note 3 ; 404, note in his edition of Lebeau, Histoire du Bos-Empire, 8 ; 431, note 2 ; also,The Hi$tory,of Armenia, by Father Michael Chamichj i pp. 895,399. translated by J. Avdall ; Calcutta, 1827 ; yol. s 14. inc Contin. 428. Script, post l%eopk, Theophanee,
^
238
BOOK
L 1.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
CH^nM
^tical reforms of
birth and great wealth,which constituted henceforth a of certainty attended the office. A degree claim to high which transmission of all social advantages
existed in the Roman
never
before alone
dered ren-
property more
circumscribed the
by stricter forms and An amusinginstance of the influenceof aristocratic at Constantinople will appear in the Asiatic prejudices by Basil I.,a Sclavonian groom from eagerness displayed Macedonia, to claim descent from the Armenian royal is given family.The defence of this absurd pretension Constantino VII. (Porphyrogenitus).^ by his grandson, of the Byzantine It is difficult to draw an exact picture for facts can easily be collected, government at thisperiod, to which,if viewed in perfect isolation, would,according
our was
modern
a
warrant ideas,
the
or a mild legal despotism, monarchy. tyrannical exerciseof power by the emperor, in punishThe personal ing his officers and with death and stripes, without trial, his constant interferencewith the administration of justice, with the boldness displayed contrast strongly by in opposing the monks and clergy In order his power. to form a correct estimate of the real position occupied in the Byzantine empire the progressive by improvement
of the human
one
hand,
; and replaced
the other, with the arbitrary ment governthe and of the barbarous administration Mohammedans,
which it resisted. The of the northern nations, of its civil, tion, administraand judicial financial, regularity
the defensive power of its military and naval estab'
Const
STATE
OF
THE
GOVERNMENT.
239
and
a. d.
^^^"^'
offer favourable of the clergy, certainly position of with the brilliantempires of comparison, even points On the other hand, Haroun Al Rashid and Charlemagne. the incurable canker of the Byzantine, fiscal was rapacity
the moral
as
it had
been
of the
Roman
government. From
it
which reduced measures precautionary condition. No class of men to a stationary was society invested with a constitutionalor legal to act authority of the fiscality as defenders of the people's rights against and the imperial administration. Insurrection, rebellion, either reform of obtaining revolution were the onlymeans when the interests of the treasurywere cerned. conor justice,
arose
all those
Yet
even
no
other absolute government ever displayed equal prudence law for the and honesty. Respect was regarded by the emperors
as
who clergy,
by the self-respect ; and the power possessed ings, feelin popular in some degreeparticipated
temper and restrain the exercise of
contributed to
rule. arbitrary it might Yet the Byzantine however superior empire, of rebe to contemporarygovernments,presentspoints semblance,
which prove that the social condition of its in no inconsiderable degree affected by was population
some causes general on operating
the
condition of
The
human
seventh
century was
of disorganisation in the Eastern period and of anarchy in all the kingdoms formed out Empire, of the provinces the of the Western. Even throughout dominions of the Saracens,in spite of the power and the energy of the central administration of the caliphs, nations under its rule were in a declining state. The first step towards the
constitution of modem
which renders all equal in the eye of the law, was society, made at Constantinople about the commencement of the
240
BOOK I.
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
eighth century.
era
The
of Leo reign
III. opens
a new
social
^^1^^
when Much
it the
to be doubt,
but
vigour something may be traced to the infusion of new is cult diffifrom popular of which it into society feelings, the deyelopment. The to trace the causes or of the thoughit regained something empire, Byzantine unable old Roman at the centre of itspower, was vigour
to ; and Basil I. prevent the loss of several provinces
empireof smaller extent than Leo III. reconstituted, thoughone that was far richer and more and powerful.The exarchate of Ravenna, Rome, Crete, imder the dominion of hostile states. had passed Sicily Venice had become completely independent.On the governedan
other
hand, it
Saracens
be
they had been almost entirely before 867. The only conquestof which the expelled could boast was the complete emperors of Constantinople of Cherson to the central of the allied city subjugation administration. Cherson had previously a certain enjoyed of political which had for centuries degree independence secured its commercial prosperity. Its local freedom who was sent his brotherdestroyed by Theophilus,
from Cyprus, in-law Petronas
govern
to
both which
occupy
it with
an
army,
and
The power of the province. imperial increased by the only momentarily emperor was, however, destructionof the liberties declined of Cherson ; the city from the degree of wealth and energy which had rapidly aid to Constantino the Great, enabled it to affordmilitary
as an
it
Historians
the
empire Byzantine
MILITARY
STRENGTH.
241
a. d.
Events
as our
as own
one
^^^'^^
misfortunes in India
massacre
of
of
Cabul,are
Bjzantine government was feeble and unwarlike. The truth is Byzantine army \/ the Byzantine civilised this^ was a highly empire society,
defensive essentially when those of the rest of the world were aggressive. The nations devoted Franks, and Bulgarians Saracens, were to war, and yet the Byzantine resisted empire eflfectually and long outlived these empires of warriors. No contemporary a government possessed permanent military establishment so perfectly the emperor of as organised could any bringinto the field, on nor a Constantinople, sudden exigency, The caliphs a better appointed army. had the power of deluging the frontier provinces with bodies of light from larger troopsthan could be prevented armies were the country,for the imperial plundering to act on the defensive in order to secure the compelled fortified towns, and defensive warfare can rarely protect all the assailable of an extensive frontier. Whole points thereforeoften laid waste and depopulated were ; provinces tories terriyet,under the Iconoclast emperors, the Byzantine The united attacks of the increasedin prosperity. evils and Franks inflicted on Saracens,Bulgarians, trifling the Byzantine tory empire, comparedwith what the predaincursions of small bands
on
that the
and
of Normans
inflicted
the
the
of empire
the
successors
of
or Charlemagne, on
civil wars
caliphs.
and to theirmilitary establishment,
were certainly they Byzantine emperors than
more
242
ICONOCLAST
PBKIOD.
BOOK
Ch.
it.
I.
" 1.
The Saracen troopswere no cessfully. way inferiorto and military in arms, discipline, the Byzantine artillery, mailed from head to foot, each science ; their cavalry was and a bow slung horseman bearing a scimitar, a lance, of the strictest his shoulder. Their discipline was over kind,and their armies moved not onlywith catapultas but also with all for field service, and military engines for besieging cities. the materials and machines requisite Under Kassim
the
a
men
ventured to
tering encoun-
of thought
Byzantine army
numbers
sustained more of theirchosen warriors ; and they signal than from defeats from the emperors of Constantinople The they encountered together. battleswith the armies contests and hard-fought bloody in Asia Minor, entitlethe Byzantine of the caliphs army all the other enemies
to rank for severalcenturiesas
one
has
ever
The
likewise them
no
gave
science ; and the individual soldiers, from their military and powers the greatest habits of life, activity possessed of endurance. In the wars at the end of the eighth and the beginning of the ninth centuries theyfought pletely comand possessed armed in steel, of military engines have the testimony We of a every kind then known. that the armies of Crumn were supplied writer, Byzantine with every warlike machine discovered by the engineering of the Roman s.^ knowledge In allthe scientific of war, in the applidepartments cation of mechanical and and destruction,
chemical skill to
the
art
of the
in the construction of
for engines
can
be
no
doubt
in India, L 512. coDBisted of 30,000 SKoaibrfpoi, See also the list of military engines. ThcophaneSi Inoeri, Con, 484.
244
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
to produced 1. CHjirj^jp^Qgea of
BooKL
and that when the imperial treasury, absorbed all itsrevenues, or its a province that of outlay found to entail a degree was reconquest the emperors were often to be repaid, never was likely the indiflferent to the loss.
empire by Charles with the organisation of Martel very nearly corresponds the Byzantine by by Leo III. The invasion of Italy the conceded and to A.D. 764, temporal authority Pepin, the Byzantine the popes, compelled emperors to enter into with Charlemagne of equality. a on footing negotiations The importance relationswith of maintaining friendly is said by Eginhardto have influenced Constantinople in affecting to receive the imperial crown Charlemagne he wished to be able to from the Pope by surprise; pleadthat his election as emperor of the West was his part. Interest silenced pride both on on unsought relationswere established between and diplomatic sides,
The foundation of the emperors of the East and the West ; embassies and presents sent from Constantinople magne to Charlewere
two
the Frank
and concluded,
some nected condegree
held by the court of still superiority in public is manifest in the Greek salutations opinion, with which the Pope flattered at the commencement Charlemagne
of his letters;
Europe.^ Constantinople
had
Latin at Constantinople itself.^ only lately supplanted The political alliancesand diplomatic relationsof the
court were Byzantine very extensive ; but the most who those with the Khan of the Khazars, were important ruled all the northern shores of the Caspian Sea, and
the AreoII. seut a copy of the works attributed to Dionysius in 824. The regency of Louis le D6boimaire,as a valuable present, Theodora attached considerable importance to the embassies sent to Lothaire and Louis IL" Schlosser, 566. * Constant iL 29. Porphyr. De Ceremon. Aula ByzatUinct,
^Michael
pagiteto
EMBASSY
OP
JOHN
THE
GBAMMAEIAN.
245
of Spain. ScandinaTian ama. d. caliphs ^'^'^' bassadors who had passedthroughRussia visited the court of Theophilus splendid ; but their mission related nishing of furrather to mercantile questions, or to the manner recruits to the mercenary legions nople, at Constantithan to political alliance.^ The remarkable embassyof John the Grammarian, who was sent by Theophilus as ambassador to the Caliph the Motassem, deserves particular notice, as illustrating externalcharacterof Byzantine The avowed diplomacy.^ of peace, of the mission was to conclude a treaty object but the ambassador had secret instructions to employ of the to induce Manuel, one every art of persuasion ablest generals of the empire, who had distinguished in the civil wars himself greatly of the Saracens,to of. John The personal return to his allegiance. qualities well suited for this embassy. rendered him peculiarly attainments he joineda degreeof To great literary of which gainedhim the reputation scientific knowledge, with the and he was a magician, perfectly acquainted All these circumstances insured him Arabic language. which had been at the court of Bagdat, a goodreception and so longgoverned Almamun, so lately by the Caliph
one
of the
ever
greatest encouragers
his
of science and
literature
who
was
^
The
483. Gesckichie der BildtrttilrmenderKaiser, Schlosser, the precise date of this embassy. WeU, in fixing is some difficulty 297. Compare Ck)ntinuator, it at the end of 833, ii. with greatprobability, places 29 ; Leo Qramm. 60 ; Symeon Mag. 419 ; Qenesius, 452, edit Par. ; 218, edit The people of Constantinople Bonn.; also note 8 at page 177 of this volume. of Thessalouica, or magician, a necromancer as Leo, the archbi^op regarded works executed under of the great mechanical well as John, on account as
'
There
"
"
recollect that when we his direction. This need not appear surprising, Sir Francis modem hero so as feats of to a tradition ascribes magic English Plymouth with water. It Drake, for executing the aqueduct that supplies and hence the people relate that was completed with wonderful celerity, in virtue of which the water with the devil, contract Sir Francis made a flowed after his horse's feet as he gallopedfrom the spring to the town. and Roger Bacon, on account of his rare knowledgeas a natural philosopher, with both supposedto have unlawful dealings were Faustus as the firstprinter, the other world.
246
BOOK ^'
""'
ICONOCLAST
PBEIOD.
I.
*^
the Caliph even probably ; and astrology in the and a disbeliever a free-thinker, Motassem, though of the Koran, shared so much of the popular divine origin Domj,
and
belief as to credit the tale that the learned Christian in a brazen basin, could read the secrets of futurity priest who with a man and felt great curiosity to converse of brazen magnetism. this rare gift possessed furnished with John was Constantinople, quitting silk damasked the richest furniture, splendid carpets, and platechased and inlaid with the most hangings, to beautifulornaments, taken from the imperial palaces, which was added 400 lb.of gold for the current expenses of the embassy. to the usage of the East, the ambassador According furnished by the was lodgedat Bagdat in a palace in which the diplomatic caliph.The magnificent style installed himself in the apartmentshe reserved for priest On
his
own use
made
thoughmany
Haroun
then
witnessed the
of splendour
of wealth was display better adapted of Theophilus than the vanity to gi'atify If we to advance the conclusion of a lasting peace. could place confidence in the storiesrecorded by implicit the Byzantine of various tricks to which the writers, lavish
Al Rashid.
to
of
enormous
of John
should be inclined to question the judgment himself. His conduct could only have originated attributed to him would
more
to to excite the Mohammedans likely active warfare, where theyhad a prospect of plundering them to conclude a so rich an enemy, than of persuading
have been
on
with
John
basin
and
ewer,
chased richly
EMBASSY
OF
JOHN
THE
GEAMMARIAN.
247
a. d.
of thishe made
East, and in many partsof EuropeanTurkeyat the where knives and forks are not yet in use, present day,
to practice
a
^^^"^'
it is the
wash
the hands
on
a
commencing
serrant
meal, and
from
pours water
ewer
the hands
of the
state
and informed John, assembled, of great alarm, that his magnificent golden The Saracens
basin was
measures
not to be found.
eagerly ed suggest-
for its recovery ; but John treated the affair with indifference, ordered his steward to give and calmly
Soon
two
slavesappeared, one
and
more
ing bear-
goldenewer,
not
the other
basin,
that
more
if valuable,
than elegant,
had been stolen. These had been supposed hitherto kept concealed, on purpose to attract public trick. attention by this pitifdl the respect of the Saracens by John, however,gained
from
the
caliph.
him with a hundred Motassem,therefore, presented Christiancaptives; but even then he sent immediately to Theophilus, of to beg him to return a like number of Saracen prisoners No general to the caliph. exchange
prisoners, however,appears
time of this
to have
which, with other circumstances, embassy, of the embassy affordsa proofthat the avowed object John returned to Constantinople, failed. When totally he persuaded the Emperor Theophilus to construct the of Bryasin the varied style palace of Saracenic architec-
248
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
have work
seen
^"^'^^
of Owen
the
Alhambra,or
the Alhambra
court at the
of palace crystal
alone form with itsgorgeous ornaments, can Sydenham, idea. an adequate The greatwealth of the Byzantine goyemment at this it derived from the commercial pre-eminence was period then enjoyed merce among the nations of the earth. The comin the eighth of Europe centred at Constantinople and ninth centuries more than it has ever since completely done in any one city.^ of the government, The principles which reprobated and the moderation of its monopoly, favourable to which repudiated were duties, privileges, the extension of trade. While Charlemagne ruined the maximum of internaltrade of his dominions by fixing a under the persuaand destroyed commerce prices, foreign sion ject's he could enable his subthat, luxury, by discouraging to accumulate treasures which he might afterwards extort or filchinto his own bited prohiTheophilus treasury, in merthe persons about his court from engaging cantile lest by so doingtheyshould injure speculations, nishing the regular channels of commercial intercourse, by dimithe profits of the individualdealer.^ Theophilus of the that commerce the principal source was proclaimed wealth of his people, and that as many derived their
means
and drew from it alone trade, the funds for payment of the public ference burdens, any interof subsistencefrom with the
of commerce as well a public was liberty of the The political as a private injury. importance the commercial classes induced Irene, when she usurped the their favour by diminishing to purchase empire,
The short reign of Theodosins III. was distingaished by the conclusion of taken as which was treatywith the Bulgarians, Tery importantcommercial the basis of the fiscal stipulations for a long period. ^Theophanes, 421, not 665; or 118, edit. Yen. * of Charlemagne, duct Compare the Capitularies a.d. 805, art 5, with the conof Theophilus." 65. Continuator^
"
BYZANTINE
COMMERCE.
249
and Bosphorus
the
a.d.
HeUespont.! DoriDg this periodthe western nations of Europe drew their supplies tinople, of Indian commodities from Constanand the Byzantine them with all supplied empire the goldcoin in circulation for severalcenturies.
The Greek navy, both mercantile and warlike, the was the merchantthen in existence. Against most numerous
^^^-^^'
of the Greeks,the piratical of the Egypenterprises tian, ships Arabs were principally ed. directand Spanish African, of the we Unfortunately possess no authenticdetails commercial state of the Byzantine of the nor empire, Greek population duringthe Iconoclast period, yet we transfer to this time the records that exist may safely under the Basilian the extent of Greek commerce proving as the ignorance dynasty.Indeed,we must remember that, and povertyof western Europewas much greater in and the eleventh and twelfth centuriesthan in the eighth commerce was we ninth, may conclude that Byzantine also greater the earlierperiod. during
The influenceof the trade of the Arabians with the East Indies
on
the
supplyof
and that Europe has been overrated, of. This is,in some lost sight generally
attributed
to
the circumstance
that the
better
and the literatureof the with the commerce acquainted Arabs of Spainthan with those of the Byzantine Greeks, and also to the preservation of an interesting account of the extensive voyages of the Arabs in the Indian seas of allrecords when we are deprived thisvery period, during markets drew The Byzantine commerce.^ of Byzantine their supplies of Indian
^
and
Chinese
from productions
401. Theophanes, See Relation des Voyages faiUpar let Arahet et Penant dans VInde eihla Chine dans le 9hne SUde, Traduofcionet EclairciaBements par Reinaud ; AbulBist, Dyn, 284. pbaragius,
"
250
IC0KOCLA8T
PKBIOB.
BOOK
I.
Cb.it.il
north of the caliph's minions dopassing of the Ehazars to the Blsck the territory through This route was longfrequented Sea. by the Christians, of the Moham* to avoid the countries in the possession for medans, and was the highwayof Europeancommerce several centuries. Though it appears at present a far difficult and expensive route than that by the Red more Sea and tiieIndian Ocean,it was really safer, more rapid, and more and tenth cenin the eighth, turies. ninth, economical, This requires to those who are acquainted no proof Central Asia,the trade
with
caravan
reflecton the
the imperfectio
and dangers vessels of any burden are exposed to which sailing delays in the Red Sea. When the Venetians and Genoese began to surpass the Greeks in commercial enterprise, deavoured theyento occupy this route ; and we
have
some
account
of the line it
manner
in which
it was
carried on, after the East had been thrown into confusion in the by the conquestsof the Crusaders and Tartars, travels of Marco citiesof the of the in them
to
Polo.^
For severalcenturiesthe
rous nume-
consumers European
with Indian wares, and itwas of propertyexalone that the necessary security isted preserve
as
was
tinople Constanstores of merchandise. large in the civilised to every city much superior
commerce,
as
London
now
is to the
other
it must
also be borne in
were
not
then in
theyhave
On the
many
merchants found
population ready wealthy East the to trafficin many articles sought after both in and West ; and the single commodityof furs supplied
and
^
The
Travels of Mareo
Murray, FJLS.B.
252
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
BOOK Ch.
it.
1 1.
to
Constantinople.^ at society
of is to be found in the immense amount period hare already noticed that the in circulation. We specie Byzantine empirefurnished all the western nations of and when Europewith gold coin for sereral centuries;
prey
to
gold
small part of
The
sums so
accumulated
that great,
no
by Al
been
Mansur
were Theophilus
extortion could
unless the
had people
wealthy,
was
Al Mansur of the age. It is true that the Caliph twelve remarkable for his extreme parsimony during
he is said to have years of his reign.Duringthis period accumulated a treasure amounting to six hundred millions of dirhems in silver (about and "13,750,000), The "1,680,000 a-year.2 left a
sum large
fourteen
rate
of
which,when
regency of
increased
Theodora, amounted
thousand
centenaries
Orbis
vi. " iii. TerroB, 6. Ji^cherehei et Critiquei, chap. Olograph, par Letronne,23. ^ da la Dominatum et de VEapagnesous Oardonne, Uittaire de l*Afrique Arabea, L 340. ' The name of Abou Dowaneck was given to Al (theFather of a Farthing) Mansur
on
accomit
of his aTarice.
Almamun
is said
to
have
expended
the works of the Greeks,("137,500.)" 300,000 dinars in translating Price,ii 142. Weil, ii.88, note 2, says that,accordmg to Cod. Goth. f. 21, Al Mansur left 900,000,000 dinars and 60,000,000 dirhems ; and also that the treasure loft and twice as many to 900,000,000dinars, by Haroun Al Rashid amounted dirhems. ii.127,note 8. It is needless to say that either there must here be a fault of the copyist or gross exaggeration.
"
WEALTH
OF
THE
BYZANTINE
EMPERORS.
253
of
besides plate and gold embroidery, silyer, that, on melted down, yielded two hundred centenaries of being millions and
as
a.d.
^^^'^^'
be estimated
equalto "930,000
to
a
in
value,the remainder
of the
treasure to
800,000 sovereigns, making the whole equal of 5,230,000 sovereigns, and of course metalliccoinage
far
the
more
in its exchangeable from that sum value, exceeding and the of the precious metals, comparative scarcity
There
does
not
sums
in this account of the appear to be any exaggeration leftin the Byzantine at the termination of treasury
the regency of Theodora, for the historianswho have transmitted it wrote under the government of the Basilian and dynasty,
to
under
afforded
access
official sources
of information.
tino EmperorConstan-
who lived in the third their patron, Porphyrogenitus, after Theodora, would not have authorised generation such a subject.^ on any misrepresentation Some further confirmation of the general wealth of the countries
commerce
on was
in which Mediterranean,
is found degreeof liberty, in the wealth of Abderrahman who is III.,in Spain, of 5,480,000 said to have possessed annual revenue an historians have calculated the whole dinars, some though
income of his treasury at 12,945,000, which would be The povertyof Europe to "5,500,000sterling.^ equal
at
a
laterperiod, when
of the
and
metals,cannot be used as an precious of this wealth having the probability argument against of which we are treating.^ existed at the earlierperiod
^ " "
Contin. 107. Symeon Mag. Scrip, post Tkeoph, 303. Empirein Spain, Murphy's Mohammedan
436.
of the crown of After the conqueetaof Henry V. in France, the revenues Hist, 1431 amounted onlyto "53,000 sterlmg annuaUy."Michelet, de France, iii. 658,edit Brux.
England in
264
ICOKOCLAST
PEBIOD.
BOOK
I.
^"'"*^'
in the the state of commercial society coDtrasting and Saracen empires, must not overlook we Byzantine In the existence of
one
to
the
Byzantine imbued with the old Roman looked prejudices, empire, unsuitable trade of every kind as a debasing on pursuit, called by birth or position to serve to those who were the state, while the Saracens still paid an outward respect maxims of Arabian wisdom, which to the antique of independence inculcated industry to even as a source ranL In deference to this injunction, of the highest men in the habit of learning the Abassid caliphs were some and selling the produce of their manual labour, to trade, in purchasing the food theyconsumed.^ be employed that a Perhapswe may also hazard the conjecture, before the reignof considerable addition had, shortly metals of precious been made to the quantity Theophilus, We in existence by the discovery of new mines. know, that the Saracens in Spainworked mines of gold indeed,
and silver to infer that
a
Mohammedans.
The
we
may
fore there-
theydid
of their
was
vast
dominions.
At
other
portions
to
time,whatever
was sure
done with
by profit
the Saracens
be
Byzantine ment. governThe abundance of Byzantine goldcoins stillin existence leads to the conclusion that gold obtained was in considerable quantities from mines within the drcuit of the Eastern Empire.
^ citizen who became an artisan was expelled from In ancient times a Roman his tribe. OvbtvX yhp i^rjv oihe KcanjKov oCt" \"ifHn'"'xyrp" fiiop *F"fAal"av c^ciy. Dion. Halicar. iz. 25.
attempted by the
"
STATE
OP
SOCIETY.
256
SECT.
IL"
STATE EMPIRE
OP
SOCIETY IN THE
AMONG EIGHTH
THE AND
PEOPLE NINTH
OF
THE
BYZANTINE
CENTURISa
DiOLINB
"
or
OIYIUBATION"
spirit of
iKnUlHOB
thb
OF
"
TBB
QbRK
of
SlATXBT
abt
"
Theologio
pboplb
Statb
LrrBRATUBB.
in a great degree on a, n. depends ^^^"^^' but the health and strength their commerce, of a people is derived from itsagricultural The population industry. into large which is pressed cities by commercial pursuits, or crowded into little industry space by manufacturing with the and the navigators wanderers the caravan even All these of ships ^rarely theirown numbers. perpetuate recruited hunters after riches requure to be constantly from the agricultural of their respective tries. counpopulation This constant change, which is goingon in the in altering the of cities, population operatespowerfully condition of society in each successive Hence generation. find the nature of society in Constantinople we strongly the of to the opposed government. principles Byzantine The imperial mentioned, as has been already government, inherited the conservative principles of Roman society, would have fetteredthe popuand, had it been possible, lation
"
"
to itsactuid castes.
opposedthe laws of in classes The ruling dwindled away. Rome, and society the Western Empirehad expired before their place was nations of the north. In the occupied by the conquering Elastern Empire, the changewent on more ; gradually
The laws of Providence the
towns
and
cities were
far
more
numerous,
but many
of them
walls an agriculwithin their own tural recruitedthe population which not only population, engagedin trade,but also sent off continual colonies embraced
to
256
BOOK L
ICONOCLAST
PERIOD.
^"'^"*^
manners
undergoing great consequently always its peculiar preserving changes, type of a city yet always destitute of any decided nationality, and of homogeneity in its society. It became in turn a Roman, an Asiatic, the the Roman, the Asiatic, and a Greek city, or as the predominant Greek aristocracy influence in acquired
the administration. Under
more an
cidedly deor a
Roman.
Whether
be
Tonians formed
cannot
ascertained.
was aristocracy certainly middle classes and artisans were chiefly the the lowest rabble, the day labourers,
and the domestic servants, when porters, and Macedonia,who, like the with entered the city
to seek their fortuue.
not
slaves, appear
the Macedonian,
Emperor Basil
a
wallet on
their shoulder
similar condition of
steamers
society
be
seen
from
the Asiatic coast of the Black Sea, and and the between Smyrna,Thessalonica,
capital. The causes of decline in society the Roman throughout and the nature of the world have been already noticed, which took place in the Eastern Empire improvement the reigns of Leo III. and his successors has been during It is now out. pointed necessary to examine why the assumed so soon a improvementof society stationary
and arrested the revival of civilisation.We aspect,
not must
in its name, still Roman was empire The trammels,binding and prejudices. the traditions, of the various classes, actionsand even the thoughts were very and relaxed, slightly
that forget
the
people. Men
confined within
STATE
OF
SOCIETY.
257
A.D.
in one Within the imperial spheres the as palacethe incessant ceremonial vas regarded branch of human knowledge.It was multiplied highest
^^^"^^'
into a code,and
treated
as
science.
In
the
church,
and the innumerable guide, forms and ceremonies and liturgies hostile to the were and the use of reason. exerciseof thought Among the at large, people thoughthe curial system of castes had the
been broken down, still the trader was fettered to his where and often to his quarter or liisstreet, corporation, he exercised his amidst calling
men
of the
same
sion. profes-
and the tendencies of The education of the child, both prerented the individual from acquiring society,
more
tion posivirtue
no
could conduct either to distinction unless exeror wealth, cised the to the fixed formulas that governed according
state and
the church.
Hence
even
the
duties he furnished to
supplied government,
ideas to
without
This
of origin of later
an
times,which
inheritance of the
ing jealousy by party contests,in small citiesactproduced as independent certainly governments,was very where add, men natural, we and, quite great, may tutions instiand political violent from their sincerity, were The envy and jealousy rendered law imperfect. and had their times were baser feelings, of modem in meaner interests. Roman crowded men society origin and in some of the same measure together, professions
258
ICOHOCLAST
PSEIOD.
BOOK
^""^
I.
**"
most
of
was existence,
created amongst
in permanent personal tiiose contact Ererj man liying to his himself superior interestedin rendering "as deeply
neighbour ; and as the fixed condition of eyeiyattainable, thingin the empirerendered indiridual progress unthe onlymethod of obtaining any superiority the of moral the or "as professional by depreciation character of a rival, who was alwaysa near neighbour. of the mind which Envy and calumnywere the feelings under the emperors tended to develop Roman society The same with efficacy in every rank. cause produces
nearest
the
town
same
bazaar
of the
present day,where
into the same are crowded profession the merit of to depreciate impossible itis easy to calumniate workmanship, of the workman. The
When
it is
church
on
political
fabric of the empure had been longin operation, yet it had failed to infuse a sound moral spirit into either the
people. Still it may be possible of the secondary to trace some the which prepared causes of justice, way for the reforms of Leo III. to the sense moral respect, and real religious infused into the faith, of the population mass of the doctrines by a comparison
or
administration
the
of
Mohammedanism.
But
the
blindness of the age has concealed from our view many of the causes which impelled wiUi to co-operate society the Iconoclast emperors in their career of improvement That the moral condition of the reorganisation. peopleof the Byzantine empireunder the Iconoclast to that of any equalnumber of emperors was superior the human in any preceding race be can period, hardly doubted. The bulk of society social a higher occupied in the time of Constantine Copronymusthan of position
and
260
BOOK
^
ICONOCLAST
PEBIOD.
real canse
The
of the fallof
one
goyemment after
"''**"
in the moral tone of society superior of its long of the greatcauses one vas empire Bjzantine duration ; it was its true consenratiyeprinciple. The authority exercised by the senate, the powers possessed and coundb of the church, and general by synods often attached by the emperors to the the importance and popular assemblies, of their laws by silentia ratification in strong contrast in the Byzantine mark a change empire The with the earlier military empireof the Romans. highest power in the state had been transferredfrom the army to the laws of the empire no inconsiderable step civilisation.The influenceof in the progress of political which resultedfrom this change, of humanity those feelings
"
are
treatment
of many
unsuccessful
During the reignof usurpers and dethroned emperors. the sons of Constantine V., Bardanes, and I., Nicephorus
Arsaber,were
all and Michael in all living
monasteries, thoughtheyhad
to attempted
occupy the throne. Constantine VI. I. lived unmolested by their successors. feature of ancient
was society
"
The marked
of mankind
the division
into two
The
between proportion
and every considerablevariation produced tinuid variation, which we in the laws of society, alteration a corresponding
are
of
unable to follow. The progress of the mass generally the population retarded until was, however, constantly of
the extinction
slavery.But
was
towards in the
that boon to
mankind, greatprogress
made
pire emByzantine
the eighth and ninth centuries. The causes during that directly tended to render free labour more profitable when applied than it had been hitherto, to the cultivation of the soil, and which consequently diately immemore operated in extinguishing and repressing the slavery, predial most extensive branch of the slave-trade, by supplying
1
SLAVERY.
261
a. d.
It has precision. ^2^tian oughtto attributethe changeto the influenceof the ChrisIf thisbe really religion. true,carillers mightobserye that so powerful in any other case produced a cause never itseflFects so tardily. however,though clesiastical ecUnfortunately, influencehas exercised immense authority over the internalpolicy of European influence society, religious has always been comparatively small ; and though tianity Chrishas laboured to abolish slavery, it was often for
exist in most
The
for the serneither for his own vice service, nor possess a slave, of his monastery, nor for the cultureof itslands ; for a
slave is
man
made
after the
image of
in some from his ^wn derogates degree of his time, of the feelings a correct picture by adding, gives ''and this, like marriage, is onlyallowable in those living
a ^ secularlife."
The foundation of
^
numerous
and hospitals,
other chari-
carried on the slave-trade was hy the Latin IL 52. del Oommereio de' Veneziani, e politica " SancH Theodori Studita JEmstoUB dUaque Scripta Dogmatical in the fifth Tolome of Simumdi Opera Vdria, p. 66. On the subject of Roman and An Inquiryinto the State ofSlavery see Blair, amongst the Byzantineslavery, For the extent
to which
Romans;
The
en Occident;Babmgton, oncten Biot, De V Abolition de VBsdavage the Abolition ofSlavery in Europe; in Promoting ChristianUy Infiuenuaf
262
I0ONO0LA6T
PSBIOD.
BOOK ^'
I.
"""**"
indiTiduals, by emperors and private of philanthropy that feelings is also a proof as well as into men's minds. had penetrated deeply religion which pervaded The theologic society Byzantine spirit
table institutions, both is to be attributed as much
to
material
causes
as
to
the
nation.
Indeed,the
in the ecclesiastical
Greeks had
circumstance
on
at times
church, thoughthe
carried
in the Greek
and speculative, Europeattribute them to a philosophic, A very inherent in the Hellenic mind. polemic spirit is sufficient examination of history to prove, that slight
the
profound religious
of the sions expres-
and that many ideas of the Oriental nations, called hereticalwere, in a great measure, opinions of the mental of the nationality and Persians, and Egyptians, with the Greek Even mind. with the Iconoclasts was and matter between much
Armenians, Syrians,
connection whatever
had
no
the
contest
in which
of mind operations
as
were
concerned,
of artificial necessity the one hand, and the dutyof deveof faitl^ loping on symbols the intellectual faculties by cultivating truth the reason, not the imagination, the other. through on The ablest writer on the Greek side of the question, John and not a Greek. The poliDamascenus, was a Syrian, tical establish to the centralisationof ecclesiastical struggle and political likewise quite as an important power was element in the contest as the religious question ; and as it appeared firmly the emperors soon as established, became much more inclined to yield to popular dices. prejuThe victory of the image-worshippers tended to
contest
the Greek
the
exalt
to ecclesias-
ECCLSSIASTICAL
SPIRIT.
268
a.d.
tical tradition, but littleinclined to cultivate Hellenic literature which it considered or cherish Hellenic ideas, hostile to the
saints. find
a
^^^'^^^
lore contained in the livesof the legendary After the victory of this party,accordingly, we circumscribed circle of intellectual culture
the
more
in began to prevail
Byzantine empire.
John
the
who Photius,
his vast literary attainments as a layman, were acquired and enlightened the last profound scholars: Byzantine theyleft no successors, nor has any Greek of the same calibre since appeared intellectual in the world. A greatersimilarity of thought and action may be traced throughout the Christian world in the eighth tury centhan in subsequent predominance ages. The same and ecclesiastical ceremonials ; the of religious feeling cussions disfor founding monasteries and raising same passion to make lifesubservient ; the same disposition and to to make all amusements to religion, ecclesiastical, of music,painting, and poetryin embody the enjoyment the ceremonied of the church ; the same abuse of the right of asylumto criminals by the ecclesiastical authorities, and the same b etween church and the the antagonism
"
in the East and the West^ state,is visible Greek The orthodox church was originally
the
seven
canons
the popes, when theyrose into importance, framed. could onlyadopta scheme of theology already of Popery, or as a section portion religious theological of the Christian church, is really Greek ; and it is only of and theocratic peculiarities the ecclesiastical, political, the fabric which Latin
can
be considered
as
the work
of the
was,
church.
The*
general unityof
Christians
1 The influence of the monks during the Iconoclast contest became so great into that the monasteries on Olympus, Athos, and Ida formed themselves
of his beloved
451
264
ICOKOCLABT
PERIOD.
BOOK
I.
as
^^^'^^
labours of missionary
the Germans, at the the reflectglory of the eighth on commencement century, in the Latin church,the conversion of the Bulgarians Boniface among
middle of the of Methodios ninth, by the ministry These Byzantine. where they lived Thessalonica,
to
and
two
rounded sur-
is honourable Kyrillos,
the
monks, natives of
"
selves devoted themby a fiercetribe of Sclavonians, to study the language of these troublesome neighbours. Under the regency of the Empress Theodora, of the Sclavonian dialect theyrendered theirknowledge the of propagating the means and advancing Christianity in the character of civilisation, cause Bulgaria by visiting allowed to have of missionaries. They are universally and to have conducted theirmission in a Christian spirit, merited the greatsuccess that attended their labours.^ nistration in the admiThe greatimprovement which took place
reforms eflFected by legal noticed. Leo III. and Constantine V., have been already Leo V. and Theophilus the greatest also gained praise, from their control blished estafor even adversaries, the strict they and the decisionsof the forms of proceeding over the courts of law. The legal of this period, monuments with the extent of the however, by no means correspond administrativeimprovement which took place. The era of legislative under in the Byzantine was greatness empire of and justice,
the
the Basilian
but it was under the Iconoclast dynasty, and infused into the system, was emperors that new vigour the improvements made which laid the foundation of were the stability, and power of the Byzantine wealth, empire.
The scientific attainments of the educated class in the were Byzantine empire unquestionably very considerable.
Many
and
^
were
contributed far
than his
"
the ChriaHan
ii. 280 Soames. Mosheim, HcdesiasticcU JSUtory, MeligUmand Church,iiL 807 Torrey.
"
SCIENCE
AND
AET.
265
the
a.d.
science. The
accurate
seems
measurement
of the
7^^^-
to show at
that astronomical
no
had knowledge
; and if the greaterheight of their learned men, Leo to be credited, are one the Mathematician, who was afterwards archbishop of
attained
Thessalonica, was
he
was
of the be
to universally recognised at
the scientificmen
Bagdat in mathematical
A knowledge.^
some
Greece, studies,
Leo, when
retired layman,
in college
to pursue his
his reputation. After he was by which he acquired of his opposition to image-worship, account on compelled, the archbishopric of Thessalonica, the general to resign feltfor his learning obtained for him from Bardas respect Caesar the appointment of president of the new university, founded at Constantinople of Michael III., in the reign in which
chairs of geometry and astronomy had been well as the usual instruction in Greek established, as
literature.2
astronomers calculated the lengthof the year at 865 days is 865 days 5 hours 48 The true length minutes and 80 seconds. minutes and 48 seconds. Niebuhr has pointed out the exactitude attained by the Etruscans in fixing the length of the solar year. Biat. ofRome, i 274. The Mexican calendar in use before the discoyeryof America was the most perfect before the Gregorian. Humboldt, Vues de" CordilUrea et MonumeM de$ Pevplet de VAmeriqut, of the Arabs to the Byzan125. For the obligations tines Indigines and from the time of Mansur, see Weil, ii.81, 84, 93. Greek physicians Mansur was Greek oooks are mentioned in the Arabian Nights. The Caliph attended by Greek and Indian physicions. ' 115. He was The history of Leo is given at length by the Continuator, called the great philosopher, wrote to Theophilus and it is said that Almamun and him to send Leo to the court of Bagdat. Leo studied grammar requesting and the pure sciences at philosophy, poetry at Constantinople; rhetoric, called Andros. Li the year 869 he was presentin the Church of the Virgin, and aU the Sigma C, when it fellin consequence of the shock of an earthquake, with the exceptionof Leo and a few others, perished."Symeon congregation, 5 hours 46
"
Almamon's
Mag. 454.
266
BOOK
^
'^'
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
I.
^ ''
under the direction of Leo that severalof those remarkable works of jewellery, combined with wonderful
It
was
mechanical contriyances, executed for the Emperor were which hare been already mentioned.^ The Theophilns,
of the telegraph from the frontiers perfection by fire-signals, of the empire and to the shores of the Bosphorus, the machinery communicated to were by which the signals also in the imperial a dial placed council-chamber, were
The
shows Constantinople and art was not entirely us that the love of knowledge extinct; and the relics often found of Byzantine jewellery, buried in the most distant regions of Europe, prove that
artistsand mechanicians at
a
considerabletrade
Even
was
carried on
in these works.
not
the
art
of
statuarywas
neglected, entirely
VI.
noticed
statue
admired, and more however, was Painting, universally There mosaics were easily to private dwellings. adapted in the Byzantine were empire painters many distinguished
at
there is reason
to
think that
some
of
wonderful
credit to the miraculous powers of the giving Methodios is recorded works of Lazaros. The missionary the ten'or of the King of the Bulgato have awakened rians vivid of the tortures of the representation by a the natural portraiture damned, in a painting combining of frightful mixed with horrors supplied from a realities fertile The sombre character of Byzantine imagination. dios well adapted to the subject, and the fame Methoart was from as well as acquired among his contemporaries, those in aftertimes who saw his paintings, may be accepted that theypossessed touches of nature and some as a proof without
' s "
See page 179. 122. Sjmeon Mag. 450. Continuator, 62. CodinuB,De Grig. Con$tpl. Const
Manasses,107.
268
BOOK L
a.
ICONOCLAST
PBBIOD.
chjm
writers of this period Byzantine the Patriarch Nice^^j.^ GeorgeSyncellus, Theophanes, and perhaps John Malalas,in history phorus, ; John Damascenus (who perhaps may be considered as a Syrian) and Theodore Studita,in theology; and Photius, in literature. general writers Daring the middle ages the Greek scientific of became generally known in western Europeby means
most
The
eminent
many
to
better known
popular among
at at
Greeks
affords an
of Ptolemy The Constantinople. Almagest neous exampleof this double translation and erro-
inference.
the son of Charlebetween Alcuin and Pepin, a duputatio wiUi which the he which considers of the as an curiosity example magne, eager human combination views every unexpected mind, while young and ignorant, of ideas. Unfortunately the work he thus characterises is a verbal translation of from Secundus, an Athenian sophist of the time of Hadrian,or a transcript part of an cUUreatio attributed to Hadrian and Epictetua. See Opu$eulaOrai 218. VeUrtm Sententiota et Moralia. eorm^ Orellius, of givesspecimens
"
Google^
BOOK
SECOND.
BOOK
BASILIAN DYNASTY" THE PERIOD BYZANTINE
SECOND.
OF EMPIRE. THE POWER AJ). AND
GLORY
OF
867-1057.
CHAPTER
CONSOLIDATION
OF
I.
LEGISLATION 867-968.
AND
BYZANTINE A.D.
DESPOTISM.
SECT.
I." BBIGN
OP
BAStt
I.
(THE
MACEDONIAN),
A.D.
867-"8".
PjtRflONAL
OIAL
HISTORY
"
OF
BASIL MILITARY
"
"
EOCLESIASTIOAL
ADMINISTRATION
"
ADMINISTEATION
"
FlHAlf"
LEGISIATION IN
PaUUOIAN
and
WAR
PAIGNS CAMCoitbt
Asia
Minor
OF
Saraobns I.
Rayaqe
Sioily
Italy
"
AND
CHABACTBR
BaSIL
of Basil I. has been transmitted to us by history writers who compiled their works under the eye of his VII., and by that grandson,the Emperor Constantine Under such auspices, grandson with his own pen. history conceal than the is more whole to to truth, divulge likely One instance of falsification and nothing but the truth. be mentioned. The would imperialcompilations may fain persuadeus that the Sclavonian of was a man groom noble
The
descent,^and
line of
to
that he could
trace
that descent
ancestors to
through a
or paternal
maternal
to
the
ArsacidsB,and
Alexander
the
Great,
historians claim Basil as a countryman, but it seems they at Constantinople to flatter the emperor. genealogy iuTented Chamich, Hitiory of Armenia, ii 8. Lebeau, xiiL 180, 4, and 479. Gibbon, iz. 48. Hamsa of Sclavonian of Ispahan says he was race. Reiske, Commen-
The
Armenian
the
only
echo
"
"
iarii ad There is
CoTutant
a
Porphyr,
de Ceremoniis
Aula
Byz.
Kara
tom.
confirmation
of this in the
expression
TrSSptCav,Genesius, 52,
Poiphyr.
Ba$iliu8, 138
;
Ck"nstant
EphrsomiuSy
111.
272
BOOK n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
as
poor
peasant
^'"*^
until Basil himself, of Adrianople, neighbourhood of the paternal the cultivation to farm,sought despising his fortune by wandering to the capital We are improve that Basil was a Sclavonian, told by other authorities and
we
was
at
into Bulgaria been carried away captive when at the time Crumn almost an infant, took
of Theophilus, a.d. 813. Adrianople, During the reign of the Byzantine succeeded in taking some captives up and marching who was off into the empire. Basil, arms the governor of Macedonia among the number, after serving
Constanresolved to seek his fortune in tinople.^ for a time, all his worldly He departed, wealth carrying in
a
and reached the wallet on his shoulders, without knowing where to evening with his journey, he sat down Fatigued
near a
summer's
rest.
in the portico
the
Adrianople
in the service of a courtier named as a groom employment where his talent of taming horses, Theophilitzes, unruly and great strength, his large rendered head,tall figure, and intelligence, him remarkable ; while his activity, zeal, notice from his master, and rapid secured him particular in his household.^ promotion sent into the Peloponnesus was on Theophilitzes lic pubbusiness by the Empress Theodora, while she was who accompanied his master, fell sick regent; and Basil, with in the Morea. the fever, still at Patras so prevalent the protection fortunate enough to acquire Here he was of an old ladyof immense wealth, whose extraordinary to the unknown youthinduces us to suppose liberality
that she
' * "
was
She made
Symeon Mag. 434. Porphyr. BaiUius,144. celebrated for his pride, Nikotaa, a Sclavonian of Peloponnesufi^ was
Constant
con-
PERSONAL
HISTOKY
OP
BASIL
273
a. d.
Basil
own
a son
member
of her
John, in
church
on
him with her family, by uniting ties of fraternity those spiritual which sanctions by peculiar rites; and she he
was
^^^""^'
him
able
It would appear that Basil had of some rank,for the widow a position already acquired
to his master.
slaves. The thirty riches Basil acquired of his benefactress by the generosity and in purchasing estate in Macedonia, an were employed in making liberaldonations to his own relations. He but his stillcontinued in the service of Theophilitzes, in wrestling skill and taming horses at lastintroduced him became his who immediately to the Emperor Michael, league, colfriend, patron. His progress as boon-companion, has been already and murderer of this benefactor,
a
train of
recounted.
The
elevationof
man
accident ; but the fact that was a strange Constantinople he reigned still for nineteen years seems more singular, he that of could neitherboast when we recollect military servicenor administrative knowledge. can prove Nothing of the governmental the perfection chine mamore completely
at the time
that into
a
a
man
than the circumstance of his accession, be moulded without education could so easily he could have Personally, sessed pos-
tolerableemperor.
no
either in the army or the administration partisans that he had many is it likely the ; nor among that he was people.We are tempted to conjecture allowed
was
to
establishhimself
known
because less the throne, about him than about most of the other men
on
less evilwas laid of influence at court, and consequently created and less personal to his charge, was opposition his position by his election. He succeeded in maintaining talents foradministration. Able unexpected by displaying he seems line of and unprincipled, to have pursued a
nected See
"
by maniage infra.
L
with Constautiue
Basil.
VOL.
274
BOOK
n.
BABILIAN
DYNASTY.
ctLuu.
the factioDs of the court, the prevented of the army, and the the feelings in tij^church, pj^i^g in opposition to from ever uniting of the people, prejudices His knowledge of the sentiments his personal authority. that financial rendered him aware of the people sion oppresboth to the emperor the most dangerous was grievance avoided increasing and the empire ; he thereforecarefully the public burdens,and devoted his chief attention to the establishment of order in every branch of the public condact which
service. The
Michael
III. had
gusted dis-
that his in order to proclaim people.Basil, seized conduct was to be guided sentiments, by different of his coronation in the Church of St the opportunity of his piety. After the to make a public display Sophia he knelt down at the highaltar ceremony was concluded,
and cried with
crown
loud voice, the me "Lord,thou hast given and dedicate myself I deposit it at thyfeet, to thy
a
service.'^The
crimes and in
keptso longsecret
aware
of courts are often intrigues that itisposdespotic governments, sible since the hypoonlyhad elapsed critical of his
few hours
benefactor.
in the government years Basilmade no changes of the church. Photius, the actual Patriarch, was unpopular from hisconnection with the family of the late emperor, and
the toleration he had shown for the vicesof the court,while his deposed a powerful Ignatius, predecessor, possessed
body
of
partisans among
the
peopleand
the
the monks.
and active
patriarchate ; but at the same time he contrived to avoid exciting any violent the part of Photius, on opposition by keeping up constant communications with that accomplished and able personal
ecclesiastic.Photius
was
in by reinstating Ignatius
at the head of
partypossessed
276
BOOK iL
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
priest was generaUy cm^i. ^^ annulled. The accusation of forgery since it rested only on some as false, slight regarded
to be
as
a
consecration of Photius
which changes
had been letter to the emperor, and these changes Pope's who were sanctioned by the papd legates presentin the council. who expectthe Greeks to tolerate Latins, the Creed,have made a violent outcry them in lengthening for modifying the Greeks,on this occasion, a against The
of letterin a Greek translation. The compliancy papal and the subservient the reintegration of Ignatius, Basil, of the council of 869, induced the Pope to supdisposition pose that the time had arrived when it would be possible to the patriof the estates belonging to regain mony possession pire, of St Peter in the provinces of the Eastern Emwhich had been confiscated by Leo III.,and that the kingdom of the supremacy of the See of Rome over established. He even might now be firmly Bulgaria the ecclesiastical hopedto gainthe power of controlling affairs of the Eastern church. Such pretensions, however, insure unanimous be to revealed to onlyrequired plainly the part of the emperor, the clergy, and the on opposition and the Byzantine people throughout empire. Ignatius Basil showed themselves as firm in resisting pation papalusuras
In the of written
more
time,Photius
was
banished
to the monastery
Skep" ; and we possess several of his\ letters, the period which givea of his disgrace, during
favourable view of his character than would be formed from his public life alone. They afford convincing
of some proofof the falsity him by his opponents. against
was,
of the The
brought charges
was Christian,
that
dominant
been
at
a
the
but
this has
and at Rome, at Constantinople, general that he would have incurred little censure Canterbury,
fault so
GENERAL
COUNCIL,
A.D.
879.
a
277
partisan a. d. and a successful enemy of papal ^^'^^' of his national church, of the Eastern bishops, in spite ambition. The majority
attached
to
himself
deyoted
his
cause,
and it the
was
evident
of
to
was
only
was
church.
ingly, Accord-
when
died Ignatius
878, Photius
and another general reinstatedas Patriarch, council was assembled at Constautinople. This council, which is
council of the church by the eighth general Eastern Christians, attended by three hundred and was eighty-three bishops.The Emperor Basil,the Pope, and Photius, allresolved to temporise, and each played his own in the and tergiversation, game of diplomacy The Pope provedthe hope of ultimately succeediug. for his legates bribed or at least were greatestloser, the Latins say so" to yieldup everything that Basil and Photius desired. They are even accused of having allowed a covert attack on the orthodoxy in of Rome the Creed, by the addition of the words, lengthening "and The the Son,^* to pass unchallenged.^ passion o f and Latin the the Greek churches, displayed clergy by the been Ignatius and Photius,makes during quarrels
"
called the
It appears, however,
Pope John VIII. would have restored the Nicene Creed to itsoriginal the clause which form,by expunging
had been added, if he could have secured the concessions he required from the Eastern church and the Byzantine
this is to Certainly pretensions. emperor to his political be implied from the letter addressed to Photius ; but
since defended
of the council is
a
titheof
880.
in November 879,and terminated 13th March in the coUections of Hardouin and Coletti
278
BOOK II.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
with which theycharge one another,we iniquities exercisedyery little influence jjj^g^ allow that Christianity CB^M^i. character during the ninth century. the priestly on the Emperor Leo VI. succeeded his father When in order to make way Photius was again banished, Basil, brother Stephento occupy the patrifor the emperor's archal
the
throne.
Photius
was
exiled to
monastery in
and Even
to
one
of the last
scholars enlightened
with
in the East.
respect ; and in his letter his exile, the Pope announcing he spokeof it as a
which may, perhaps, be accounted resignation, voluntary the resultof a political that it was a proof negotiation. As this distinguished the of most dangerous man one was ambition prior to the time of Luther, opponents of papal his conduct has been made the object of innumerable misrepresentations ; and the writers of the Romish church discuss his conduct in moderate even now can rarely and with equitable language, feelings.^ of dispute The most interesting to the heads of point the Eastern and Western churches in their quaiTels, for
some
time,was
the supremacy
over
This was momentous a Bulgarians. political question to the Byzantine its of tical ecclesiasemperors, independent for of Constantinople, to the patriarchs importance papalinfluence was sure to be employedin a manner hostile to the Eastern Empire. Besides this,as the claim of Rome to supremacy over Bulgaria rested on the ancient subjection bishopric of the Danubian provinces to the archof
was
the
^ The work of Abb6 Jagermay be cited as a proof"Hiftotrv de PhoHui. is yiolent in its opinions, and inaccurate in its foots.
PINANCUL
ADMINISTBATION.
279
good ground for commencinga strugglea.d. for withdrawing Thessalonica itself from the jurisdiction "^^of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and placing it under the control of the Pope of Rome. The conduct of the in these ecclesiastical emperors of Constantinople tiations negotherefore of and the result sound was policy, it
was
have afforded
marked The
with moderation
and crowned
with
was,
success. on
the
and a gold, sm^dl quantity of silver coin, in the imperial treasury.^ This served as a pretext for a partial of some resumption
that he found
only300
lb. of
of the lavish
grants of Michael
to
worthless favourites,
With
was
enabled
take
the economy effecting necessary to make of the public the demands the ordinary meet revenues service. His personal of the real sufferings experience of the lower orders, and the prudence imposedby his the whole course doubtful position, him,during prevented of his reign, the taxes ; and the adopfrom augmenting tion of this policy insured to his government the power and popularity which constituted him the founder of the stantinople. the throne of Conthat ever longest occupied dynasty Though his successors were, on the whole, far inferior to his predecessors of the Iconoclast period their moderation,in conforming in ability, still to the financialsystem traced out by Basil, tine gave the Byzanof power it had not previously a degree empire sessed. posThe
and systematic
1 Symeon Mag., 486, says thirteen centenaries of gold and nine sacks of in the Life of have been omitted by a copyist so that the ten may miliaresia, 1 59. Baml by Constantine Porphyrogenitus,
280
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
were vras admitted,greatchanges necessity CHM^i. Generations, however, completed. passed gj^jually away how far the had without men they noticing quitted and entered on new of their fathers, ing leadcustoms paths and institutions. to Tery differenthabits, thoughts, of no one The reign emperor, if we except that of Leo
II.
bnt when
the
the
embraces Isaurian,
it is
loses the interest to be derived history Byzantine individual biography. It steps ing markover centuries,
of of generations mankind than
the acts of individual emperors and statesmen, and it becomes a didactic essay on political progress instead of of man's actions. In the days of the picture living of Athens, the life of each leader embraces the liberty and the mind of a single of many revolutions, history often to guideor modify their course individual seems ; but in the years of Constantinopolitan emperors servitude, borne slowly and people onward by a current are certain that we can trace the of which we are not always or followthe direction. These observations receive origin their best development acts by a review of the legislative reserved to Basil I. of the Basilian dynasty. It was the reorganisation of to complete and his son Leo VL the empirecommenced by Leo III. ; for the promulgation in the of a revised code of the laws of the empire, the accomplishment of an Greek language, idea was the Byzantine administration by the great on impressed and of which his own Iconoclast reformer, Ecloga or manual was the first expression. imperfect reforms of the early The legal Iconoclast emperors the exigencies of the moment, to supply suflficient were and disorder to which in the state of anarchy, ignorance, of the empirewere then reduced by the the provinces and Saracens. ravages of the Sdavonians, Bulgarians,
a
But
when
the
administration of vigorous
the Isaurian
had dynasty
BYZANTINE
LEGISLATION.
281
of property, the rapidprogress of ^^^-^ security 867-886. calledfor additional improyements, and for a syssociety tematic reform in the legislation of the empire.Enlarged views concerning which it was the changes necessary to make in the compilations of Justinian were gradually I. and Leo V. (the seem adopted. Nicephorus Armenian) to haye confined theirattentionto practical reforms in the of justice, the forms of prodispensation by improving cedure
in the
order
and
Bardas
was
chargedwith
Michael laws of the
of reign
felt. Bardas [was deeply ambitious of the glory of eflFecting this reform probably throne. The legal the surest step to the imperial as school at Constantinople, which he encouraged, certainly work that the materials for the greatlegislative prepared forms the marked feature in consolidating the power of the Basilian dynasty.^ The legislative views of Basil I. were modelled in conformity the Byzantine to the policy on impressed empire Leo III. all directed to vest by They were legislative
began to empire
power
in the hands of the emperor, and to constitute the the centre of law as much as of person of the sovereign financial and military power.^ The senate had authority
council from time to time legislative and the emperors had often the Iconoclast period, during in order to give invited it to discuss important ordinary extralaws, Such a practice to their sanction. solemnity gested sugand whether 'did the the senate the question people of the emto share in the legislation pire, not still possessa right into a permanent which opportunity mightconstitute in this branch of governcontrolover the imperial authority ment. authoof the The absolutecentralisation legislative continued
to act as a
Continuator. Scrip, post Theoph. 119. Zonaraa,ii.161. Ka\ rovi v6\juovs koI airrhs(Is rh ^arripia ii Toifs TToKiTiKOv? ovrfirjoxu Ifdij ir"7mirfK", "f"oiTStv 'H cHiv iicKeXoarvLas rhs iravrairatriv. eirir^ficis (rx^^v T^ Tovrap yvS(T"(os fuv
*
Koi
'
282
BASILIAK
DTNASTT.
BOOK
^'
*"
iL
' '"
lit which point J in the person of the emperor was the only the goTemment of the Byzantine preyented empirefrom when absolute despotism, an beingtheoretically and he ascended the throne, Basil I.
that centralisation. completed Though the senate consisted of persons selected by the and though it acted generally as a subserrient soTereign,
as agent of the executive power, still, men powerful some
of the most
found among its were usually empire council invested it as a legislative members, its position with a degree of political influence that might have
prived Basil dechecked the absolute power of the emperor. in l^islative and it of all participation functions, its duties restricted
to solely
in the
those of
an
administrative
council^
At the
same
the remains of the by the provincial proprietors, formed municipalities Roman curiae, or of the more recently that had grown up to replace them, were swept away as oflFensive to despotic Cherson had been robbed power. of its free institutions as early of Theothe reign as But the total abolitionof municipal institutions philus.^ edict was rather theoreticalthan by imperial certainly The alterations practical. long series of progressive in society, which had destroyed of the older the efficacy societies and had replaced them by new municipalities, too far corporations havingconfined and local objects, of action of the central administration beneath the sphere to excite any jealousy the part of those deputed on to exercise the imperial lost The bishops now power. their position of defenders of the people, for as they chosen by the sovereign, of the the dignitaries were church were remarkable for their servility to Byzantine
of the Basilika may be considered promulgation the complete union of all legislative, executive, marking
1
"
LeonU LeonU
284
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BooKiL
carji.
anarchythat prevailed ruled by the jjjg was ^^jpjjjg centuryin which the empire of the larger Heraclian dynasty, caused the translations and the writings works to be neglected, of commentators, be generally who had published sulted. conpopularabridgments,to The eyilof this state of things feltso strongly was of order throughwhen Leo III. had restoredsome degree out he have already the empire, mentioned, we that, as handbook of the law,called the official an promulgated reform of legislative Ecloga. From that time the subject the attention of the imperial as well occupied government, in the administration as of those professionally engaged of justice ; and it appears certainthat Bardas had made considerableprogress towards the execution of those legislative Basil reforms which were L, and promulgated by that Indeed,it appears probable completed by Leo VL the project conceived as early was as the time of Theowhose personal of the law was philus, knowledge greater than was have who his a successors gained possessed by in history as law reformers. highplace The precise share which the predecessors of Basil a^e entitledto claim in the legislative labours of the Basilian but that be determined with exactitude, cannot dynasty
decline of and knowledge,
the it is not dence is evident from the internal eviinconsiderable, divine Certainly
never
as
emperor
could
have
dered ren-
the Sclavonian groom, who had qualified for the throne as the boon-companion of Michael the Drunkard,
a
from him was, that he should learn to expected the importance of the subject, and adoptthe appreciate labours of the jurisconsults who had assistedBardas. It that he envied the popularity seems, therefore, probable the Csesar had gained business, by his attention to legal and understood fully that there was mode of no surer the goodwill of all classesthan by becoming acquiring
could be
THE
PBOCHEIRON,
A.D.
870.
285
Basil, howeyer,though eager to obtain the gloryof publishing a new code, remained
a
himself
law reformer.
a. d.
"^^^-
of legislation, and personally utterly ignorant incapable of guiding the work. A consequence of his eagerness to obtain the desired end, and of his ignorance of what was of the task, is appanecessary to the proper performance rent in the firstlegal work published his by authority, of The called the Procheiron, manual law. or primary this of the Ecloga of to supplant was publication object
efface the memory of the reforms of the Iconoclasts.^ The Procheiron appears to have been promulgated as the year 870, and it bears as early Leo
in order III.,
to
marks The
of
havingbeen
from
completely
the earlier
different manner
the texts borrowed from the Institutions, Pandects, titles, in of are Justinian, Code, and Novels arranged regular order,and are followed by the modern laws ; but this planis abandoned in the latter titles, well-arranged parently apbeen
in consequence of a sudden determination having The adoptedto hurryforward the publication.
much-abused
of Leo III. was then adopted as the Ecloga with the most availableguide-book, and, in conjunction Institutesand Novels,became the principal sulted. consource The Pandects and the Code were neglected, for their time and study because theyrequired too much
commission of
had been named as revisersof the law,who jurisconsults from the time of Bardas ; and these had been sitting to compile had systematically a manual proceeded lawyers and a new civil code or revision of the law in forty titles,
of Michael IIL, when the the colleague must recollect that Basil was stroyed, deof the Iconoclasts, was of Constantine V., the saint,so to speak, in which the and we this with the violent manner must connect is criticisedin the Procheiron. liCloga ' For this UUtoire du DroU Byzantin/il 29, 30. date,see Mortrcuil,
*
We
tomb
'
286
BOOK n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
theyhad made harried forward considerable progress, when Basil suddenly chj^i. of the manual in the the prematare publication form it now that the same bears. It is impossible spirit of the work which hare directed the latter portion can dictated the compilation of the earlier. The science of Bardas is visible of Basil in the in the one, the ignorance
books, in sixty
other.
For many
a
which
bis performance as
the
was
years Basil remained satisfiedwith for he was unable to aplegislator, preciate of the his
; but the subject empire attention by the confusion that
wants legal
on
againforced
the
were
in prevailed At
sources
of the
whole
in the year 884, a new code,embracing the length, of the empirein one work, was publegislation lished of the Revision of the Old Law. under the title
The
was
so
new
that people,
claimed
the to be regarded as merely by a legislation aspiring of the Roman jurisprudence, legitimate representative clothed in a Greek dress. The code of Basil was nothing formed from the Greek translations of but a compilation
Justinian'slaws, and
schools. legal forward
the commentaries
on
them
which
tribunalsand Byzantine
was
ried hur-
of some account on publicity special either accidental or reason, suggested by imperial vanity Basil had announced that the policy.In the Procheirou, revised code about to be promulgated consisted of sixty books, it,the work was divided yet,when he published into forty.This prematureedition was, however, again and more revised by Leo VI. ; and it is the new plete comcode published books, as by that emperor in sixty announced,which we now originally possess under the
THE
BASILIKi,
A.D.
884.
287
title of Basilika, or
laws ; bat no perfect manaimpericU a. d. has been preserved.^ script sej^. The object i n the Basilian too was legislation proposed bare been in before the prenot to long agitation simple cise executed was adopted. on which it was ultimately plan The Basilika is merely in one work, of all the a reunion, of Roman law in vigour at the time,without any sources attempt to condense them into clearer and more precise law or maxim of jurisprudence rules. Everypreceding is arranged under its own in force, head in a actually
series of books and their Some
as we use
distributed so titles,
as
to
facilitate
chambers
of counsel.^
modem possess
have
formed
part
text. original of the firstedition of the Basilika, After the promulgation Basil published manual, to serve as a second legal introduction to its study. It is called the Epanaan but it appears never to have attainedthe popularity gog^, and the Procheiron.^ of the Ecloga The Basilika remained the law of the Byzantine empire until its conquestby the Franks,and it continued in use
as
of the
at
and in the Morea, until theywere Trebizond, The want of a system of conquered by the Ottomans. law
growing up
out
people,
and interwoven in its creation with the national institutions, is a serious defect in Greek civilisation.Since the time of the Achaian
a
national
have
never
not
possessed a possessed
tutions insti-
national
system of laws
and
hence
only such
even
as the protection
'
the
new
state in which ithas imperfect by Heimbach, in five quarto volumes. published lately
reached
Leo's edict at the commencement edition of the Rafiilita. of Heimbach's ColThe Epani^og^ with the Ecloga by Zacharia. has been published lectiolibrorwn Jurii Orceco-Romanum. 1852. Lipsise,
288
BASILIAN
DYNAflrr.
BOOK
II.
^^^^
the sabeerrieDt instnniient of the generallj and Turkish governments. The evU Roman, Bjzantine, of Bavarian law and French censtill exists ^thespirit tralisation pal admirable basis for municihave prevented an
chnrch
was
"
institutions,
of the in the spirit development legislative receiving who dingto Byzanof Phanariots, nation. The pedantry tine induced the rulers of liberatedGreece to prejudices, to declare the Basilika, of which no perfect copy exists, be the law of the new Greek kingdom.^ Basil found the army in a much better state than the financialadministration ; for,even amidst the disorders had been taken to maintain of Michael's reign, measures
of the troops. Basil had, consequently, discipline which he on onlyto maintain the army on the footing found it, without augmenting the power of the generals armies. of large he intrusted with the command Being without either military or scientific experience personally for Basil can onlybe considered responsible knowledge, direction of the military affairsof his reign the general ; much this he does have in not to and displayed appear while talent. He allowed the Saracens to take Syracuse, he keptthe marines of the imperial navy employedin and the ships the foundations of a new church, digging materials for its marbles and building in transporting construction.^ Basil, indeed,like all his predecessors, than once at the head of his armies in more appeared the East ; for this was a dutywhich no emperor of Constantinople since Leo III. had ventured to neglect. It is probable, however, that his presence was calculated of his generather to restrain than to excite the activity rals, for any who were to be rendered responsible sure of success, and to be deprived of every merit in want
the
^ and law, see the able sketch of On the Bubject of Byzantiue legislation HUtoriaiJurit GrcBco-Romani DelineaLio, and the valuable and learned Zacharia, work of Mortreuil, Hittoirc du Droit Byzantin, 8 toIb.
"
Leo Gramm.
472,
PAULICIAN
WAK.
289
case
which A. D. yictorj ; while any brilliant exploit personal 867-886. the glory of the emperor, might have the eflfect eclipsed of makingthem objects of jealousy. The principal of Basil'sreign was military operation
of the
war
he carried
on
with
first made
its appearance in Armenia about the middle of the seventh century, in the reign of Constans II., and
it
that emperor. Constantino IV. and Leo III., all endeayoured Justinian II., (Pogonatus), the heresyas one which threatened the to extirpate
was
persecuted by
of the church ; for unity in religious was unity opinions then regarded the of basis the prosperity of the emas pire, and a portion of its political stantino constitution.^ Connumbers v., after taking Melitene,transported into of Asiatic colonists
Thrace,many
of whom
were
verts con-
this emperor
they enjoyedtoleration, and made many converts in Pontus,Cappadocia, Phrygia, allowed them all the rights and Pisidia.^ Nicephorus of and they continued to be loyal until citizens, subjects, Michael I. commenced them in the most persecuting barbarous manner. This circumstance, it affords though the orthodox historian Theophanes mately ultigreat delight, the way for the depopulation of Asia prepared
and his immediate
successors
Minor.*
some
These
crueltiescontinued
under Leo
V., until
in rebellion, slew the bishop Paulicians, rising commissioners engaged and the imperial of Neocs8sarea, in torturing of them, and withdrew into the province From this under the protection of the caliph. Melitene, of the
period theyare
Saracen
often found
the vanguard of the forming south-eastern provinces of the Michael II. and Theophilus
1 The MontanistB, in the edict of Leo III. (Theophanes,336),are supposed for Paulicians. by Baronius to be Manicheans, which was then often an epithet See page 41 of this Tolume. NottB t" Theophcmem, p. 72, edit. Yen. ' Theophanes, S54 and 860. See pages 59 and 71 of this Yolome.
"
" "
VOL.
I.
290
BOOK n.
BAfilLIAK
DYNASTY.
some
^'"'^
and the toleration was restored, d^ree of religious aUowed were Paulicians within the bounds of the empire But their in tranquillity. to hold their religious opinions
the regency of Theodora; recommenced during persecution with which theyw^e treated drove such and the cruelty cabled to found that theywere numbers into rebellion, mentioned.^ as has been already an independent republic, If we believethe friendsof the Paulicians, theywere strict of St Paul,and who reverenced the teaching Christians, and legislator him as their sole guide ; but if proposed credit their enemies, they were Manidieans, who we in their heretical opinions. mergedChristianity founded little The by the Paulicians at republic which the armies of the Emperor against Tephrike, Michael
III. had
contended
thoughit
soon
owed
from the for all frigitives of refuge place the ; and its existence as a state,on Byzantine empire became a frontierof a bigoted and oppressive government, serious to the rulersof Constantinople. Chrysochir, danger became
a
the son-in-law of Karbeas, succeeded his father in the of the armed bands of Tephrike, command and supported the the Byzantine his army by plundering as provinces, selves about the same time maintained themDanes or Normans
in France and England. The by their expeditions number of prisoners taken by the Paulicians was so great that Basil found himself compelled to send an embassy to for the purpose of ransoming his subjects. Tephrike, Petrus Siculus, the ambassador,remained at Tephrike about nine months,but was unable to effect any peaceable arrangementwith Chrysochir.He has,however,left us a valuable account of the Paulician community.^ During
See page 199 of thisTolamfr Petri SicuU Historia Manickasorum Or. and Lat. teu Pamliciaa^arum, Oieeeler. Gotting. 1846. Photii libri vo. contra Mcmiehaoi, published by Ch. Wolf. Aneedota Qrmca mora et prqfana, tains torn. iL Svo, Hambuigi, 1722,conweU as of a refutation of the doctrines attributed to the Paulicians, as those professed by them.
"
292
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
n.
bnt it was
^'"*^
longas the
rear
conld assemble
an
army
to attack the
of the caliph's in the frontier towns besiegers and Bagdat of Constantinople The empires dominions. time been at war, thoughhostilitieshad for some were Basil now resoWed to capture or carried on. languidly which had afforded aid to the towns the fortified destroy of Melitene, the territory Paulicians. After ravaging he with a division of the sent his general, Christophoros, and Samosata; while he himself army to captureSozepetra and laid waste the countryas far as crossed the Euphrates,
of the
his return, the emperor fought a battle who had succeeded in collectwith the emir of Melitene, ing the Asanias.
an
On
army
to
his dispute
so
progress.
as
The
success
of this
battle was
not
decided
or
to
induce Basil
to
beside
and he returned to Constantinople Tephrike, his general the war. to prosecute In leaving the mean unable to maintain his troops time, Chrysochir, without plunder, but was invaded Cappadocia, overtaken where his movements at Agranes, were by Christophoros circumscribed by the superior of the Byzanskill military tine himself found to general. Chrysochir compelled active enemy retreat, with an watching his march. the Paulician camp, and soon surprised Christophoros sent slain in the battle. His head was was Chrysochir that the Emperor Basil might fulfil to Constantinople, he had made that he would pierce it with three a vow and destroyed. taken not long arrows. was after, Tephrike either Melitene
The
town
of
and the Paulician troops, unable to continue campaign, their plundering either reti'eated nia into Armeexpeditions, of entering the or dispersed. Many found means and were in southern Italy service, Byzantine employed the African Saracens.^ against
*
Const
SABACEN
WAR.
293
with the Saracens continued, thoughit was with rigour not prosecuted by either party. In the year The
war
a.d.
^^"^^'
of the fortress 876, the Byzantine possession troops gained of which alarmed the Caliph Lulu, the bulwark of Tarsus, for the of safety his in Cilicia to possessions Almutamid
that he intrusted their defence to his degree, of Egypt.^ In the vassal, Touloun,the viceroy powerful following hopingto extend his year the Emperor Basil, of at the head of the army againappeared conquests, His at Csesarea. Asia,and established his headquarters to drive the Saracens out of Cilicia, but he was object the passes the country beyond onlysucceeded in ravaging
a
such
of Mount and
Adana, Germanicia,
the commander-in-chief of the army, Andrew the continued to ravage the Saracen territory, Sclavonian,
and
an destroyed
army
sent
to oppose
him
on
the banks
soon however,
avenged by the
successor
Mohammedans, who
of
Tarsus. In the thirteenth year of his reign besiege Basil again invaded the caliphate, but failedin an (780), attempt to take Germanicia. The war was subsequently allowed to languish, thoughthe Saracens made several both by the Christians, plundering expeditions against
to
Lulu,and some other the passes of Mount Taurus, castlescommanding remained in the possession of the Byzantine troops. The Saracens of Africa had for some time past devastated the shores of every Christian countrybordering on
sea
land and
; but
the fortress of
the islands of the plundered and the Archipelago as regularly as the PauravagedAsia Minor. Basil was hardly
"
Const Count.
ii.472. 172. WeD, GetchiehU der Chalifen, "Basil,'' Porpbyr., 178. Symeon Mag. 476. Cedrenus, 574. Porphyr.,** Basil,"
294
BOOK
^'
'"
BASILIIK
DYNASTY.
n.
* '"
from the Sdaroembassy his nians of Dalmatia arriyed at Constantinople, to solicit aid against these corsairs. A Saracen fleetof thirtynsix shipshad attacked Dalmatia, in which a few Roman citiesstillexisted, a independence partial maintaining all the who had occupied among the Sclavonian tribes, and country. Sereral towns were taken by Che Saracens^ Ragnsa,a placeof considerable commercial importance, Basil lost no time in sending was closely besieged.^ seated
on
hundred
yes*
prepared
the Saracens,
of his approach, of abandoned the siege hearing hastily Ragusa,after they had inyested it for fifteenmonths. The expedition of Oryphas re-establishedthe imperial
influence in the maritime districtsof Dalmatia, and obtained from the Sclayoniaos a direct recognition of the
Byzantine empirewas purchased by their being to receivea regular tribute from severalRoman permitted
cities, which,in considerationof this payment,
to
were
the
lowed al-
the mainland without the on occupy districts Sclavonians exercising over neighbouring any jurisdiction such property. The Roman the Dalmatian coast had on inhabitants in the islands
to their allegiance preserved
the Eastern emperors, and maintained themselves independent of the Sclavonians, who had conquered onised and col-
They received their governors Wid from the central authority judges at Constantinople.^ As eariy as the year 842, two rival princes^ of Lombard
" 1 79. The towns taken by the Saracens were Basil," BouPorphyr., Rosa, and the lower Dekateras.-- Const Porphyr. DeAdm, 80. Imp.efaap^ Const Porphyr. De Adm, Imp, chap. xxx. The tribute p. U6, edit Bona. cities to the Sclavonians was by the Roman follows r"Aspalathus as paid 200 nomismata (Spalatro), or gold byzants ; Tetrangurium(Trau), Opsara, Arbe, Bekla, each 100; Jadera (nearZara), HO: and Raffosa, for its mnd
the mainland.
Ck"n8t
tuma
"
72. district,
SABJlCENS
IN
ITALT.
295
race, who
of Beneyen-
a. d.
from the Saracens ; and the Infi- ^^^sas. assistance tam" solicited indifferent to the claims of either, bat eager for plundels, der, in the of Saracei"i took A body readily part quarrel.
from
one
bad arriyed for the purpose of of the Christian claimants, resolyed to secure
on Italj
who Sicilj,
assisting
a
firm
establishment in
their own
account.
To effect this
"ey
own
stormed
it belonged the cit to their j of Bari,though At Bari they formed a camp for the purpose of ally.
and made it their station for plundering rayaging Italy, the possessions of the Frank and Byzantine on empires
the
coast of the
Adriatia
Saracens landed
at the mouth
plundered
into the hands of the Mohammedans onlysayed from falling by the troops of the Emperor Louis II. the suburb after, Pope Leo IV. fortified (850.) Shortly the church of St Peter of the Vatican, and thus placed in security in the new quarter of the town called the the rayages of the SaFrom this period Leonine city.^ racens and the proprietors who in Italy were incessant, to build fortified dwelt in the countrywere compelled and towers, strongenoughto resist any sudden attacks, 80 high as to be beyondthe reach of firekindled at their curity base. The manners formed by this state of social inseof Italy with dark stains coloured the history for seyeral centuries. In the year 867, the Emperor Louis II. exerted himself to restrain the rayages of the Saracens. He laid siege to Bari,and sent ambassadors
to
the co-operation of a Byzanto solicit tine Constantinople fleet. The fleet of Oryphas, strengthened by the
ordered
; but
Euai
to assist
of operations
S52.
the Western
emperor
847.
the
lea
pride
Mamrs,
A.1I.
tier
zzTiii. chap.
296
BOOK XL
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
sensitive than usnal)^ Constantinople (more who tijQconclusion of a treaty with a sovereign ch^m^l p^gyguijgj of the court of
ruary In Febclaimed to be treated as emperor of the WesL^ and of Bari by assault, 8 71 Louis carried the city The Franks and Greeks to the sword. put the garrison
9
the disputed
to turn
honour of the
it to their own in
a
war
was
tinued con-
obtaining any
in
the Saracen corsairs, princes, and the German and Byzantine emperors. The Saracens again attacked Rome, and compelled PopeJohn VIIL to pay an their retreat by engaging to purchase
plundered by the
annual tribute of 25,000 marks of silver. The south of of political confusion. The Dukes of a scene was Italy
the Saracens in plunAmalfi,and Salerno joined dering Naples, the Roman but John VIII.,placing territory; Pope both himself at the head of the Roman troops, fought
with Christians and off the heads of his
to the
as
Mohammedans,
of the church.
won
and battles,
cut
the
canons
bold
warrior
as
the
dethroned Pope,
brother,
and
himself with the Infidels had pos; yet,when the bishop sessed himself of his brother'sdukedom, he also keptup
communications with the
Saracens,and
to turn
aided
them
in
the
selves Byzantine empire. The troopsof Basil rendered themand the extent masters of Bari without difficulty, of the Byzantine in southern Italy was greatly province
The and The naval force of the SoIayonianB in the Adriatic was not inconsiderable. Chrovatians alone had eighty (sagenas), carryingeach fortymen, galleys hundred konduras or boats, one carrying twenty,besides merchant-ships. which we know, Though a commercial people, they then abstained from piracy, from Venetian history, addicted to all the Sclavonians in the Adriatic were at a later period. Constant Porphyr. De Adm. Imp, chap. 30, p. 160, edit.
"
Bonn.
WAR
IN
ITALY
AND
SICILY.
297
extended
in which Nicephorus by a seriesof campaigns, of the emperor of the same Phokas,grandfather name, and able himself by his prudentconduct distinguished from all tactics.^ The Saracens were at last expelled their possessions in Calabria. The Byzantine goyemformed its possessions called the ment into a proriuce Theme of Longobardia, but this province was constantly liable to rary in its extent ; and thoughGaeta, Naples, and Amalfi acknowledged to the Sorrento, allegiance often very his authority was Emperor of Constantinople, little in these cities. respected While Basil was successful in extending his power in the Saracens revengedthemselves in Sicily Italy, by the which fellinto their hands in 878, conquestof Syracuse, and placed them in possession of the whole island. The the land side by the Saracens on city, thoughbesieged established in Sicily, and blockaded by a fleet from made a gallant and mighthave been reAfrica, lieved defence, had the emperor shown more or intrusted activity, the force prepared The for itsreliefto a competentofficer. he sent,thoughit was until nothing expedition delayed could be effectedwithout rapidmovements, wasted two months
news
in the
of the fallof
in Sicily was city and on account of itscommercial importance; empire, to it was reported that the news of so great a calamity the Christian world of Greece
was
Syracuse.The loss of the last Greek of the Byzanfeltby the people tine deeply
firstmade
known
of demons,who by an assembly
in the
at forestof Helos,on the banks of the Eurotas,to rejoice witnessed by a Lacothe event, where their revels were
nian
I
to
have treated
cites the campaign tactics, Emperor Leo VI^ in his work on military of able genetook he as an in which example Tarsus, Phokas, Nicephorus U PhUo$ophe, traduites 7nf"iV"HoiM MilUaires de VEmperewr Leon ralship." iL 75. tom. M. de Muaeroy, p. Joly par. The of
*
Constant
ii 685. CJedrenns,
298
BA8ILIAN
DTNASTT.
BOOK
iL
^"'"*^'
than the ruin of a Greek dt j as a matter of lessimportaiioe did Satan. The daring with which the Saraeens carried
on
theirnaval
a
orer expeditions
the Mediterranean
at
this
is period
society.
more
the coasts of
nor
Englandand
terriUe.
France
were
not
more
constant
in order Some of these expeditions deserve to be noticed, and the dis* to point out the greatdestmction of capital, of society caused. organisation they with For
some
years they
Empire
the year
had society
been delivered
the
by
a
Leo
III.
In
fleetof
the theme
of
killedin
an
attempt
pletely com-
Saracen
was expedition
the Saracens of after this, Shortly Crete ravaged the islands of the Archipelago with a fleet of twenty-seven and a number of smaller ves* large ships sels.^ Entering the Hellespont, the island plundered they of Proconnesus ; but theywere feated at lastovertaken and deunder Oryphas. Undismayed fleet by the imperial and recommenced by their losses, theysoon fittedout a new fleet, their ravages, hopingto avoid the Byzantine admiral by doubling the and plundering Cape Tsenarus, western shores of Greece. Niketas Oryphas, on visiting the port of Kenchrees, found that the corsairs were already ofi^ the entrance of the Adriatic. He promptly cruising ordered all his galleys to be transported the isthmus over of Corinth by the ancient tram-road,which had been
often used for the
same
defeated.^
purpose
a
in earliertimes,and
which
was
state of
ii.680. CcdrenuB,
300
BASILIAK
DYNASTY.
BOOK ^^^^
n.
by the disorders introdaced into the goyemment by His endeavours to lighten of Michael III. the neglect without decreasing the burden of taxation, the public then a rare merit But the eulogies which was revenues, his grandson and other flatterers have heaped on his virtues deserve but littlecredit. The court private than in the maintained more outward decency certainly but there are many proofs that time of his predecessor, external. Thekla,the sister the reformation was merely of the Emperor Michael III., who had received the from her father Theophilus, had been crown imperial
for
with the the concubine of Basil, After Basil assassinated the
consent
of her brother.
but she consoled herself with feared the sister, probably other lovers. It happened that on occasion a some in the household of Thekla waited on person employed the emperor, who, with the rude facetiousness he inherited " from the stable-yard, asked the domestic, Who
mistress at
1 present
"
The
individual
was named, for shame was (Neatokomites) immediately in such society. out of the question of But the jealousy Basil was roused by this open installation of a successor in the favours of one who had once a place on occupied and he ordered Neatokomites the throne he had usurped, and immured for lifein a monasto be seized, tery. scourged, It is said that he was base enough to order
Thekla
to be
and ill-treated,
to
confiscate greatpart of
fortune.^ The Empress Eudocia private Ingerina herselfon the throne in a Thekla,by conducting avenged in the mistress of Michael the manner more pardonable
for he had a riralof Basil, his guard againstthe conspiracy by which he lost his life." Leo Gramm. Thekla has been 244, edit Bonn. called the sister of Basil and the concubine of Michael III. Gibbon usaally has adopted this view, for he says, ** Basil was raised and supportedby a diaand the dishonour of his graoeful marriage with a royalconcubine,(Eudocia,) who succeeded to her place."" (Thekla,) sister, Vol. ix. p. 6 1 Lebeau, ziii 284, is more detailed. Geoi^. Men. 545, in recounting the decided, and more
same
"
her
This
Joannes
Neatokomites
attempted
to
THB
WIDOW
DANIBLIS.
301
Drankard
were
When
her
amours
a. d.
^^'^
her by compelling
tery^
The Basil Patra" in the private of episode interesting history is the friendship of Danielis, the Greek lady of
most
As
was
of his wealth
while he
that he she
onlya
was
servant
of
we Theophilitzes, may
seated of
on
eager to see him when she heard the imperial throne. But though the firstto the perceive ever, howBasil,
might boast
been having
must
merits of be
she Basil,
his
and he poverty,
sent
for the
son
raised him
to the rank of
an
also received
see
seated on the throne which,it was son adopted she had longbelieved he was destined by heaven to said, fill been reported that,when Basil first ; for it had entered
was
her
at
Patras,a monk
seized with
was
he
destined
that and proclaimed vision, prophetic This prophecy to become emperor. The invitation must
Danielis had
of as a proof gratification, highest who her own discernment in selecting one possessed and affection and gratitude, well talents as as great divine favour. the possessor of a The old lady was and her wealth indicates that the state fortune, princely of society in the Peloponnesus not very dissimilar was
ctlls Thekla the sister of the emperor, and from this it is anecdote,oertainly Basil ; but a inferred she must haye been the sister of the reigningemperor tion comparison of Leo Gramm. p. 242, edit Bonn., and p. 256 (the Latin translacalls her the sister of Michael,without this being said in the Greek text, where a word has fidlen out),and especially Symeon Mag. 446, and Geoig; Mon. 5S6,prove that she was the sisterof Michael III. ; and though she had her of the titleof to deprive been compelled to adopt the monastic drees, was Empress,by her brother, by him bestowed on Basil.
302
BOOK II.
BASILIAN
BTNABTT.
in the ninth
^'"*''
centuryfrom what it had been in the first oenturiesof our era, under the Roman govemment, when
Caius Antonius
of whole were Eurjkles proprietors richesthat an and Herodes Atticus possessed provinces, emperor mighthave envied.^ The ladyDanielis set off from Patras in a litteror and covered couch,carried on the shoulders of ten slaves; and the train which followed her, destined to rdieve
these When
amounted litter-bearera,
she reached
to
three hundred
she was Constantinople, for of Magnaura appropriated apartmentsof the palace she of princely the reception guests. The rich presents had prepared for the emperor astonished the inhabitants of the capital, monarch had ever offered for no foreign The slaves of equal value to a Byzantine gifts sovereign. that bore the gifts themselves a part of the present, were and were all distinguished for their youth, and beauty, dred Four hundred young men, one hunaccomplishments.
eunuchs,and
one
hundred
maidens, formed
the
of this magnificent A hundred living portion offering. of the richestcoloured drapery, hundred pieces one pieces of soft woollen cloth, two hundred pieces of linen, and hundred of cambric, could be one so fine that each piece enclosed in the joint of a reed. To all this a service of added.^ and plates of goldand silverwas cups, dishes, When Danielis reached Constantinople, she found that the emperor had constracted a magnificent church as an for the murder of his benefactor, Michael III. expiation She sent orders to the Peloponnesus to manufacture of unusual size, in order to cover the whole floor, carpets that theymight protectthe rich mosaic pavement, in
which
1
'
one
who knew Bomethingabout Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the matter, says that the old ladyluiew that eunuohs are collected a^ut the court like blue-bottle fliesround a sheep-fokL P. 1 95. A curious disMrtation might be written as a commentary on the presents.
"
WBALTH
OF
DiJOSLIS.
803
tk
ftfU!
who
beheld it by the
extreme
she settled a Constantinople, quitted of her estates in Greece on her considerable portion and on her adoptedchild the son, the protospatharios, property. emperor, in joint she againvisitedConstantinople; After Basil'sdeath, her
the capital quitting for the last time, she desired that the protospathar ZenobioB might be despatched for the to the Peloponnesus, of her extensive estates a register purpose of preparing and immense property. She died shortly after her return the imperial officers amazed at the were ; and even of her wealth. The quantity of gold coin, amount gold and silverplate, rich works of art in bronze, furniture,
so
she
constituted the
On
stuffs in linen, cattle and slaves, cotton,wool, and silk, palacesand farms,formed an inheritance that enriched
even
of which The slaves, emperor of Constantinople. the Emperor Leo became the proprietor, were so rous numean
to be
enfranchised
the theme of
serfs.
After the
payment of
and the division of a part of the landed legacies, of the testament, to the dispositions according property, farms or villages. the emperor remained possessorof eighty The notice of this inheritancefurnishesa curious glimpse in Greece during into the condition of society the latter which is the period when the part of the ninth century, Greek race beganto recover and a numerical superiority, ascendancy prepare for the consolidationof its political in the Peloponnesus. the Sclavonian colonists Unfortunately, over facts us with no contemporary history supplies that point of the diminution of the out the precise causes crease relativenumbers of the Sclavonians, and the rapidinin the absolute numbers of the Greek agricultural
304
BOOK II.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
of explanations the prolaws which regulate factsin the general chj^. ^Yxqqg gress and the decline of society. of population The stepsby which Basil mounted the throne were and military adventurers, never by the political forgotten who considered the empirea fit reward for a successful of greatwealth, John Kurkuas,a patrician conspirator. to seizethe crown who commanded the Ikanates, expected of the leading and engaged men as a lawful prize, sixty-six in his design. in the public administrationto participate revealed to Basil by some of the conspirators, The plot was could gainmore by a second treachery who perceived they than by persisting Kurkuas was in their first treason. and his eyes were put out : the other conspimtors seized, in the hippodrome; theirheads were shaved, were scourged their beards burned off, and after being paradedthrough the capital and theirestates confiscated. theywere exiled, The clemency these paternal of Basil in inflicting ments, punishthe penalties instead of exacting imposedby the law of treason, islauded by bis interested historians. The fate of Kurkuas,however,onlyclaims our notice, because he was the father of John Kurkuas, a general whom the writers consider as a hero worthy to be compared Byzantine with Trajanand Belisarius. Kurkuas was also the great-grandfather of the Emperor John Zimiskes, of the ablest soldierswho ever occupied the throne one of Constantinople.^ that ruled Though Basil founded the longest dynasty the Byzantine the race proceeded from a corrupt empire, We population.
are
source. was
the Constantino,
son
about the year 879. The loss was felt by the severely an eager desire to be assured that emperor, who expressed
*
" Const. Popphyr., BasU," 172.
ACCUSATION
OP
LEO.
305
eternal felicity. The abbot A.D. eDJojed 868-886. Theodoros Santabaren took advantage of this paternal solicitude to imposeon the emperor's and superstition A phantom, which bore the likenessof Concredulity.
met Btantine,
and hunting, towards him, until it approached that so near galloped Basil could perceive of his son'sface. the happy expression It then faded from his sight; but the radiant aspectof
was son was
the emperor
while he
believed generally to be the son of Michael the Drunkard ; and though Basil had conferred on him the imperial in his crown him he seems to have regarded never infancy (a.d. 870), with feelings of aflfection.It would seem he entertained the common the parentage of Leo. concerning opinion The latter years of Basil were clouded with suspicion of his heir,who he feared might avenge the murder of Michael, even at the risk of becoming a parricide. Whether truly Leo was accused of plotting or not, young Basil's lifebefore he was sixteen years of age.^ against of a dagger The accusation was founded on the discovery concealed in the boot of the young
in attendance
on
while prince,
he
was
his father at
when hunting-party,
Constantine
Theodoros
Santabaren armed
a
persuadedLeo
to
conceal the
weapon
bis
son
was
of deprived
468 ; Zonaras,il 166, indicate that Leo 541 ; Leo Gramm. Mon., at considered the son of Michael XXL Symeon Mag. 455. Geoi:g. speakof Alexander as the Par.), page 544, and I^eo Gramm., at page 471 (edit. child of Basil in opposition to Leo. Lioo was crowned 6th January legitimate 870." Krug. 89.
Georg.Mon.
was
"
VOL.
I.
306
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
rank
his
displayed by cruelty
heir-apparent.^ days
and indicates loosens the tonguesof his servile historians, laid aside the vices of his earlier that he never entirely years. While
in hunting, to engaged
which he
was
sionately pas-
been brought to bay devoted, a stag that had its antlers into his girdle, rushed at him, and, striking
him from his horse. One of the attendants drew dragged his hunting-knife, the girdle, saved the emperor's and, cutting but the suspicious life; an attempt despot, fearing
at
to
be immediately
The shock he received from the decapitated. which terminated his eventful a on fever, stag brought and he ended his reign, he had commenced it, life, as cious by the murder of a benefactor. Though he was a judiable he has and been undulypraised, sovereign,
because he
orthodox emperors of in the opinion of the Latin as well as of Constantinople the Greek church.^
was one
of the most
SECT.
IL"LEO
VL
(THE Leo
war"
PHILOSOPHER),
VI.
"
A.D.
686-811.
Charaotxr
Lboislatiok
war.
and
"
court
of
Ecclesiastical
ov
admiicistratioh
"
"
Saracen
Takino
Thsssalonioa
Buloabian
Philosopher gave
the
son
countenance
to the
rumour
of Michael III.
ordered the
emperor
to be
* of Thessalonica still The people show a tower, in which they say Leo was confined duringthe time he was of the imperial title. I oould not depriyed succeed in obtaining to visitit permission Perhapssome Byzantine tion inscripin the walls has caused the tradition. A priyate who has tnveller, English neither wealth nor title, does not meet with the same fiunliUes in literary searches re-
as *
foreigner.
Basil's determinatioa to keep on good terms with the Pope,his seal in and his eagerness to baptise friends churches, building Jews, made him powerftil in his own have been reflected in modem age, whose opinions history ; but
S08
BOOK
iL
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
^'"*''
influcharacter, however,exercised even greater personal than that the public administration of the empire on ence of his predecessors, for the government was so comnow that the court, rather than the cabinet, pletelj despotic directed the business of the
state.
Hence
it was
that the
empiremet
its force was
with
when disasters at a period disgraceful all its subjects. sufficient to have protected constitution
an
were
now
pressed, sup-
inviolablecourt
nial, ceremo-
of of the institutions preserved earlier and granderperiod.The extinctionof the an Roman and complete consolidationof Byzantine empire, is recorded in the edictsof Leo, suppressing the despotism, old municipal and abolishing The senatus-consulta.^ system, of legislation the acts of became as despotic as language the emperor were arbitrary. Two Patriarchs, Photius and allthat
was
Nikolaos,were
church
on
by
a
the government of the the emperor's tery order. Leo lived in open adulremoved from
throne from
been his
driven for
on venturing was
second
marriagewhile
divorced wife
fourth wife of
the future emperor, Constantino in the purple chamber of the imperial Porphyrogenitus, had been
performed.2
Samonas, was for years the prime favouriteof the infatuated Leo, who raised him to
the rank of
to
Saracen
named renegade,
his
son
and allowed him to stand god-father patrician, Constantine, tained thoughgreat doubts were enter-
of the Christianity, of or perhaps orthodoxy, this disreputable favourite.^The expenditure perial of the imhousehold was greatly increased ; the revenue viously predestined to the serviceof the empire diverted was
^ " t
of the
LeonU NoteUcB, Const, xlvi Ixxviu. " Contiii.Const Poiphyr., Leo," 228. 281. 468. Continiuitor, Symeon libg.
COTJKT
AND
ADMINISTRATION.
809
introwas a. d. corruption duced into every branch of the administration by the ex"^]^who raised money by selling ampleof the emperor, places. The Emperor Basil, had been con* like his predecessors, with a single bank of oars, tented to make use of a galley, in his visits to the country round Constantinople ; but
to
the
of the gratification
court,and
Leo
two
never
condescended
oars, rowed
to
move
unless in
dromon
"
of
and two by two hundred men of these vessels were maintained as imperial constantly recounts an anecdote yachts.^Constantine Porphyrogenitus the corruption at his father's court, which concerning deserves particular rity, the best authonotice, as on proving, that the emperor encouraged the system by sharing in its profits. in holyorders,and Ktenas,a rich man anxious the best public of the time,was extremely singer He rank at the imperial to possess acknowledged court. secured the support of Samonas, the Saracen grand-chamberlain, and hoped to obtain the rank of protospatharios, to make the emperor a presentof forty pounds' by offering the pay of the office amountingonlyto weightof gold, a pound of goldannually.The Emperor Leo refused, transaction his son tellsus, that it was a as declaring, and that it was a thing of the imperial dignity, unworthy The old nuheard of to appoint a clerk protospatharios. of Samonas, increased his however, by the means man, a offers, addingto his first proposal pair of earrings, worth ten poundsof gold, and a richly-chased table of tion silver gilt, also worth ten pounds of gold. This addieffect on Leo's mind, that,according so greatan produced the imperial he disgraced to his own declaration, of the clergy for he made a member a protospatharios. dignity, Constantine then chuckles at his father'sgood of gold, fortune ; for after receiving weight pounds' sixty lived to draw two years' the new protospatharios pay.^ only
1
banks of
De Adm, Imp, chap. 51. Const. Porphyr. Ibid. chap. 50, page 232, edit. Bonn.
310
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL
The Leo
^"'""'
and Basil
directtaxes
were
not
the increased,
to maintain the neglect exercisedby his father, control over the tax-gatherers strict of abuse to creep into this branch allowed every species to the severest of government, and the people were subject also created in favour of were Monopolies oppression.^
the creatures
the
cause
Bulgarians. The state of the church in the Byzantine was empire affordedthe only affairs as ecclesiastical always important, for the expression of public siderable opinion.A conopportunity connected was more closely body of the clergy than with the and interests, with the people, by feelings At this time, however, all classes enjoyeda court. of sensual abundance that rendered society torpid, degree
most
war
disastrous
with the
and The
few
were
inclined
to
of the Byzantine of the subjects majority empire, aversion to the conduct of the feltgreater never perhaps,
matters government,both in civiland ecclesiastical
we
and
may
attribute the
paradeLeo
made
of his divine
right
to the fact that to govern both the state and the church, of the popular class he was fully aware feeling ; but no
their condition, of bettering probability either by revolutionor change, that a bad government so beganto be looked upon as one of the unavoidable evils of
men saw
any
^ Constantine mentioDs the case of an illiterate man being Porphjrogenitus to prepare the a lawyer being joinedwith him asdeputy judge"achniral, appointed in a deciBions. The administration of the kingdom of Greece was organised of Great similar manner protection by Count Armansperg, under the especial a calumniated for following Britain ; and King Otho has since been liberally of bad system,which he has been weak enough to persistin. A good picture
in a civilisedage, even in a country where the freedom the abuses of authority is given by Sir Walter Scott." TAc Chronidet ofthe Catumof the press existed, " The Surgeon's ante Daughter," chap.21. Emigrants are said to fiireoften in the present day. Tet too much littlebetter at Liverpool power ought not its own to be conferred on any central government, for if society cannot cure evils, they will continue to exist.
"
ECCLESIASTICAL
ADMINI8TBATI0N.
311
ad.
of
and as one of the inadyanced state of ciyilisation, evitablecalamitieswhich Heayen itself had interwoyen in
an
^^"^^^'
man's existence.
the Patriarch Photius Emperor Leo VI. deposed wiUiout pretending motiye for the change. any religious The object his brother to confer the dignity on was Stephen,who was then only eighteen years of age. The Photius retired into
a
monastery, where, as
has been
he was treated with respectby Leo, mentioned, already who pretended act. that his resignation was a yoluntary Photius survived his deposition about five years, more and probably than when universally happier, respected, he sat on the patriarchal throne,thoughhe had been Leo displayed excommunicated by nine popes of Rome. the abbot in his eagerness to punish a mean spirit Theodores Santabaren, he regarded whom as the author his father's of his degradation and imprisonment during to procure evidence to convict the abbot reign.Failing and exiled of any crime, he ordered him to be scourged His eyes were to Athens. subsequently put out by the placable, not imorder. But Leo, though was a tyrant, emperor's
and
some
was
recalled to
and received a pension. Constantinople, in religion of ceremonial feelings The predominance acts is shown in a remarkable manner by the legislative of the Byzantine to the observance relating government, of Constantino As early the reign of the Sabbath. as pension the Great,a.d. 321, there is a law commandingthe susment business on Sunday ; and this enactof allcivil is enforced by a law of Theodosius I. in 386.^ society image-worship, During the contests concerning and great attention strictin allreligious observances, was sopher, was paidto Sunday. In the year 960, Leo the Philoof piety, the practice who was far from affecting of ecclesiastical observances, while he made a parade even
^
312
BOOK
II.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
CH.LiS.
which the law had hitherto exemptions made in fayour of the performance of useful labour on and forbade even necessary agricultural work,as Sunday, with Lord's the the bigotry dishonouring day. Arguing that the arbitrary of the predestinarian, will of God, and not the fixed laws which he has reyealed to man, gives abundant harvests to the earth, the emperor regards the of the agriculturist avail. Fate became as of no diligence the refuge of the human mind when the government of Rome had rendered the improvement of pagan society the assumed its place among hopeless; superstition and the stagnation in the Byzantine Christians, empire that in the conduct of their men no persuaded prudence affairs could better man's condition. Ecclesiastical ing affairsgave Leo very little trouble durhis reign, but towards its end he was involved in a with dispute
emperor,
not
mystic.After
Eastern church,enforced by his own which legislation, forbade fourth marriages, installed the beautiful Zoe
of the historianTheophanes, a grand-niece Carbonopsina, Zoe gave birth to a son as his concubine in the palace.^ in the purple chamber,who was the celebrated emperor and
in the Church of St Sophia was baptised by young prince the Patriarch Nikolaos, but that severe ecclesiastic only consented to officiate the at the ceremony on receiving
with that he would not live any longer emperor's promise his concubine. Three days after the baptism stantine, of Conwith the Emperor Leo celebrated his marriage thus keepZoe, and conferred on her the imperial title, ing But his promise to the Patriarch in one sense. with in a at havingbeen paltered Nikolaos,indignant
'
self fourth marriages.Mortrewl, li 280 ; and Leo himBasil had prohibited had subjected Const, xc. third marriagee to eccleeiasticAl censure.
" "
LEO*S double
to Leo.
80
POUETH
MARRIAGE,
A.D.
906.
313
a.d.
sense,
nuptial ceremony,
The
^^|^
emperor
onlythoughtit
to
ceremonies
by
door; private
and
the
when quarrel, laughed wit. Leo, howeyer, so much philosopher showing took measures and when to gain the Pope'sgoodwill, assured of papalsupport, he deposedNikolaos and appointed the syncellus his successor. The new Euthymios Mount Patriarch, on though he had been a monk the validity of the emperor's fourth recognised Olympus, the pretextthat the public on marriage, good required of the the ecclesiastical laws to yield to the exigencies their Patriarch, The populace, believed state. to excuse
a
in had threatened,
case
the
the validity of his marriage recognise to marry a law allowing publish every man
same
time.
This
rumour,
standing notwith-
its absurdity, affordsstrong of the absolute proof with which power of the emperor, and of the credulity the Greeks received every rumour unfavourable to their
ing deserv-
of attentionthan his ecclesiastical skirmishes, though followed in the traces of his father, and made use only of materials already have We to his hand. prepared noticed that he published a revised edition of already the Basilika, to which he added a considerable amount of supplementary law, however, legislation. Byzantine
even
and
Leo, was
illsuited to
serve
of Basil improvements to the as a practical guide Basilika is an inspiration whose detailsfollow the
314
BASILIAN
DYNAfiTT.
BOOK
iL
^'"**'
with Whole titles of public are filled utility. suggestions useless in the altered translations of imperial edicts, of the consequences circumstances of the empire ; and one old code was, of the ill-deyised of adopting an measure that no perfect copy of the Basilika has been preserred. lost. and haye been entirely Many books fellinto neglect, of the Byzantine The soYcreigns exceptwhile it empire, felt that their power rested ruled by the Iconoclasts, was
on own
not administration,
on
their
strength.
The collectionof the edicts or "novels" of
Leo, inserted in the editions of the Corpus has rendered Juris Civilis,
known than his generally These edicts revised edition of the Byzantine code. of for the purpose of modifying were portions published in the Basilika. The greater the law, as promulgated number addressed to Stylianos, who is supposed to are
the
of Leo legislation
more
have been the father of Zoe, Leo's second wife,and it is between the years 887 thoughtthey were published
and
master
of the officesand
logothetes.^ The military of Leo's reign events marked by were but the strength several disgraceful of the empire defeats; affectedby the lossessustained, not seriously was though the peopleoften suffered the severest misery. The Asiatic frontier was defended with success. generally himself in Phokas, who had distinguished Nicephorus the reign of Basil, additionalglory during Italy acquired of the Thrakesian theme. The as general by his activity
continued Saracens, nevertheless, into the
to make
destructive inroads
found impossible to watch as itwas empire, where thoycould assemble an army. In the every point taken, year 887, the town of Hysela in Charsiana was
^ 50. As a proof of the mental movement Zftcharia, Delineatio, throngfaout of Alfred is contemporaiy with Europe, it may be observed that the legislation that of Leo VI. Christian society moved by some was impulseswhich operated both in England and Constantinople.
816
BOOK n.
BASILIAN
DTNISTY.
pursued by the
on
CH.I.IS.
thousands
and the miseries inflicted Saracen fleets, of Christian families in the Bjzantine
Fotdeserre a record in the page of history. empire, what really in describing do not require, we tunately what the imagination to indulge happened, by painting for time has spared the narratiye of occurred, probably
one
of the
and fate,
his own in which the author describes sufierers, with the minute the calamities he witnessed,
pedantry.Many seyere blows inflicted on the Byzantine were empireby the daring of of the Mohammedans, who took advantage enterprises the the neglected state of the imperial navy to plunder
richest cities of Greece. But the most
strophe terrible cata-
Cameniates, an
a
place, of a dangera the assault, and after the capture of his native city he carried prisoner in order to be exchanged to Tarsus, was at one of the exchanges of prisoners which took place
of the order of
Readers,and
He
native of the
fullaccount.
between in that
the Christiansand
Saracens from
time to time
city.^
an
inner basin
the longgulfstretching ward, terminating up to the northmountains between the snowy peaksand rugged of Olympus and Ossa to the west, and the rich shores of the Chalcidice and the peninsula of Cassandra to the east. The bay, which the citylooks down, afibrds a safe on ancient mole anchorage ; and in the tenth century an enclosed an inner portwithin its arms, where the largest
or
as
in
modem
was
the
and south,
of Thessalonica. Archbishop
held the officeof Kubuklesioa or crozier-bearer to the His narrative is contained in the Tolume of the Byzantine historians entitled Scriptorei pott Tkeopkanem,
Joannes
TAKING
OP
THBSSALONICA,
A.D.
904.
317
from it by a wall about a mile in length a. d. run* separated ^^^^ ningalongthe shore. Within,the houses rose gradually, until the upper part of the city crowned with an was from the hills behind by a rugged acropolis, separated This citadelis now called the Seven Towers. precipice. Two from the rocky base of to the sea ravines, running and eastern the acropolis, serve as ditches to the western walls of the city, which to this day follow the same line, the same and presentnearly of aspect as in the reign Their angles Leo the Philosopher. at the sea, where by theyjointhe wall alongthe port,are strengthened of extraordinary size. The Egnatian towers Way, which for many centuries served as the high-road for the communications formed between Rome and Constantinople, the in a straight line through a great street passing from its western to its eastern wall. centre of the city This relicof Roman with its triumphal arches, greatness, forms a marked feature in the Turkish city still ; but the
fallen to
the
water
disfigured
by
of collection of
Yet
and the fertility of the surrounding Thessalonica, still watered by several noble rivers, enables it to country, nourish Nature of upwards of sixty thousand souls. population has made it the capital and seaport of a rich and
a
extensive
not
good government
and largest
most
it could
failto become
of the
flourishing
citieson of the
Leo of
the most He
Saracen
admirals.
born
of Christian
varied fh"in 50,000 to 70,000 dtuiDg the mentions that upwards of 22,000 young men, and children, selected either because they had wealthyrelations to women, redeem them, or strengthand beautyto conmiand a good pricein the slavemarket^ were carried away captiye by the Saracens. Supposing that this was of the whole population" and when the state of society is considered, a tenth it may be doubted whether it formed a greater portion the population of Thesmlonica was then 220,000."De Excidio ThesBol,Ixxiii.
I
The
population is said
to have
"
318
BOOK
n.
BASILIAir
DTJTASTT.
became
renegade,
the
and ^^UlI*"
settled at
be embraced
Mohammedan
Tarsus with hundred The
men,
a
faith. In the year 904, Leo sailed from each carrying fleet of fifty-four two ships,
besides theiroffica? and
were
a
few diosen
troops.
was
of the unusual
that
out fitting
the imperial placed nary in a condition to defend the islands and shores of the Egean ; but thoughtiie sailors the to man of Greece could have supplied commerce the negligence and incapacity of the admiralty force, largest had
were
been
so
to awaken the spirit required necessary which from the condition f leet to Byzantine
the
The
was
now
sent
to
defend
empire
to encounter
the Saracen
ing and leavHellespont, In the mean the whole Archipelago unprotected. who reported that reached Constantinople, time fugitives the enemy proposed to attack Thessalonica. of great The walls qf Thessalonica had been originally in a n^lected but the fortifications were state, strength, of regular and the city almost without a garrison was and parts troops. The sea-wall was in want of repair,
were
so
not
difficult to mount
from the
the
shipsin
such
a
the
port. On
the
falleninto places
that decay,
The interrupted.
fenceless informed of the deemperor, when increased the confusion by his state of the place,
injudicious meddling. He sent a succession of officers from the capital with difierent freshcounsels^ instructions,
TAKING
OF
THBSSALOmCA,
A.D.
904.
819
a. d.
in similar cases, happens powers ; and,as usually arailed himself of his authority each of his deputies to
and
new
^^^^
alter the
plan of defence adoptedby his predecessor. under such circumstances, As might be expected the Saracens arriyed before the fortifications were repaired, for defence were and before the arrangements completed. the The most alarming in defect fortifications the was condition of the wall that ran alongthe border of the
port. It
afford
a
was
depthof
the
admitted
the quay that ran under its battlements. Petronas, the firstofficer that there was sent by the emperor, thinking
not
sufficient time
to
raise the
wall
or
construct
new
the approach for preventing towers, adoptedmeasures he transported of the enemy^s to ships.To effectthis,
immense
blocks
on
that
adorned
Egnatian Way, without the western and and commenced them in eastern gatesof the city, laying the sea at some distance from the quay. His object was to form a mole reaching within a few feet of the surface of the water, against which the enemy mightrun their ships, and leave them exposed, for some to the missilesand time, But the inhabitants Greek fire of the defenders of the city. of Thessalonica showed themselves insensible of danger before it approached, and incapable selves themof defending
when
in placed
not
whole
never
confidence fleetswere
was
"
St
deceived them
every
day defeated.
They
knew
often
the attacks of the Sclavonians in the seventh and repulsed been centuries; they boasted that it had never eighth taken by pagans or unbelievers; and theybelieved that, whenever it had been besieged, St Demetrius had shown himself active in its defence
:
it
was
thereforethe uni-
320
BOOK n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
yersal
a
CB.i.is.
as
patron saint he would now defend had a strong personal interest ; for
earth
so merous, worshipped by so nuThe deroted a community.^
was
in
other
so
spot on
he
and wealthy,
of Leo III. in fate of Thessalonica proTes the wisdom of imagesand to exterminate the worship endeayouring saints.
much
superseded by an of the theme of Thessalonica. Leo, was general appointed that the wall towards the port was not higher finding then in use, than the immense stern-galleries of the ships of Petronas to be suspended, and ordered the undertaking to be strained to raise the wall. Reports every nerve became every day more alarming. At one time it was that the Saracen fleet had pursued announced the Byzantine the Eustathios Argyros, admiral, Hellespont up
as
far
as
Parium.
Afterwards
it became
certain that it
the Hellespont and reached Thasos. The quitted would not, however,shake ofi^ their peopleof the city and their confidence in St Demetrius. apathy, They for building pline discishowed littleaptitude or for military and the militia did not ; the wall advanced slowly, should it be to defend it with alacrity, seem even likely arrived from At thisconjuncture a third officer completed. named Niketas. His arrival of itself was Constantinople, sufficientto produce disorder ; but,unfortunately, some accident that happenedshortly after threw everything an into confusion. the inspect threw his such
a
had
Leo
and
Niketas
met
on
horseback
to
defences of the
that
and rider,
manner was
city ; the horse of Leo reared, and side in his rightthigh injured his lifewas in danger, and for several
to
move.
days he
^
unable
This
accident invested
ThtudL
e^iif-
que
TAKING
OF
THE8SAL0NICA,
A.D.
904.
321
seems
to
bare had
more
and he felt that the citizensof "^^^predecessor, militia, Thessalonica, thoughthey formed a numerous the place.He for defending not to be depended on were therefore endeavoured to assemble a body of troopsaccustomed the general of the theme of to war, by calling on Strymonto send some of the federate Sclayonians from his government ; but the envy or negligence of the general, and the avarice and ill-willof the Sclavonian leaders, from that quarter. the arrival of any assistance prevented
Though Niketas threatened to reportthe misconduct of of Strymonto the emperor, he could obtain no the general nian Sclavoaddition to the garrison, except a few ill-equipped in the plains the city. archers from the villages near The generals seemed all to place confidence too much in human St on preferred relying prudence ; the people
Demetrius
and
heaven.
To
secure
lemn so-
and citizens, of allthe clergy procession accompanied in.Thessalonica, headed by the residing by every stranger visited and the civil and military authorities, archbishop
offered
day
and
when
Joannes
he acknowledged provedunavailing, the destructionof Thessalonica that God permitted to show mankind that nothing renders the divine ear of the saintsbut a pious accessible to the intercession life and good deeds. The Saracens stopped a short time at Thasos to pare pref or and other machines used stones, engines hurling in sieges. At last, as the inhabitants of Thessalonica their houses at daybreak, to attend morning were leaving arose prayer, on Sunday the 29th of July 904, a rumour in the gulf, that the enemy was and onlyconcealed already from view by Cape Ekvolos. The unwarlike city
was
of St Demetrius had
322
BOOK
II.
BASILIAN
DTNASTT.
ch^s.
amidst enrolled in the militiaarmed themselyes, citizens and hastened to the ^iyea and children, ji^gj^^j^ ^f jj^^jj. to wait battlements. The anxious crowd had not long before
were ships fifty-four seen
the rounding
with all sail set. The succession, forward,and before noon theywere at anchor rapidly close to the city. The entrance of the port between the moles was shut by a chain ; and to prevent this chain
from
sea-breezes of the
been sunk
across
the mouth.
immediately Tripolis
ished and examined the unfinreconnoitred the fortifications, work of Petronas,in order to ascertain if it were
beyondits junction with the mole. After this examination was completed, to occupy the attack was made on the place a desultory to show and induce the besieged attentionof the garrison,
alltheir force and
Next
means
of defence.
day the
was sea.
Roma, which
far from the
Saracens landed and attacked the gate and not situated in the eastern wall,
Seven of the
constructed at engines
Thasos
to
and an attemptwas made in battery, placed under the fortifications, scaling-ladders against plant
were
and arrows shower of stones,darts, ; but a the assault of the Byzantine repulsed sally troops vigorous and captured the ladders. In the afternoon the planof
cover
of
changed. It was resolvedto force an entrance down two of the four gates in the eastern by burning
attack was
wall.
Egnatian Way, were and sulphur, covered over by fishingwood, pitch, were boats turned upside down, to preventthose on the wall tered from setting fireto the combustibles at a distance. Shelby these boats,the Saracen sailorspushed the and when they had lighted waggons close to the gates, their fires, with their to their companions theyescaped
the the gate Cassandra, on with dry selected. Waggons filled and
324
BOOK ^ n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
''^^
beyondthe bows of the double ship. These yards were strongenough to supporta framework of containing of wood capable who a small body of men, while were protected by boards on the sidesfrom missiles, shrouds keptup a constant communication with the deck below. These cages, when swung aloftfrom the yards,
as
to
extend far
the
wall sea-
and lowest,
to the
In the morning raised out of the sea. suddenly rowed into their positions, the double ships and the were commenced between the besiegers in their hanging fight
of towers
the ramparts. Stones, arrows, filled with and fire launched combustibles, flaming pots the composition from long brazen tubes, of which had
on
been at
an
earlierperiod a
came soon
secret
known
onlyin
the
zantine Byon
down pouring
from above
driven from
the battlements.
of the Alexandrian ships the first were Ethiopians the wall, and as soon as to make good their footing on they had cleared the whole line of the fortifications towards the sea from its defenders, theybroke open the and the crews of the other ships rushed into the gates, to collectthe booty entered city. The sailorsemployed with their drawn swords, wearing onlytheir trousers,in The order that no plunder mightbe abstractedsecretly. militia fled without a thought of further resistance : the from a gatein the citadel, Sclavonians escaped which they
had secured
as
means
of retreat.
The Saracens divided themselves into bands,and commenced slaughtering every person they found in the and streets, thoughtheyencountered crowds of women who had rushed out of their houses to learn the children,
cause
number
of the inhabitants
endeavoured to escape by the Golden Gate,which formed the entrance of the EgnatianWay into tibe city
from
rendered it
to impossible
TAKING
OF
THBSSALONICA, A
A.D.
904.
325
upon the
a* d.
^^"^^^'
Hundreds
crushed to death
and suffocated,
or
sex.
sparing age
two town
a
John
tower
wall, but
tower
was
between
in
such
As
John Cameniates the enemy paused, favourable to implore moment quickly mercy, and running
a
over
beam
that remained
at
veal re-
treasure
hidden,in
case
his own
and life
His spared.
confidence won
understood
barbarians, one
of whom
taken under their protection was Greek, and the family ; the streets,Cameniates through yet as theywere marching
to Ethiopian belonging On their way to the port the prisoners another band. of Akroullios, where they carried into the convent were seated in the vestibule. found the chiefof the Ethiopians he rose and the promises of old Cameniates, After hearing
received two
wounds
from
an
tians Chrisin which about three hundred entered the church, himself crosshad been collected. There, seating he made a signal to his followers, leggedon the altar, the family who immediately only put all to death,leaving this hideous spectacle From of Cameniates. theywere
conducted to the Saracen admiral had heard what Cameniates had After Leo of Tripolis
to
say, he sent
treasure
to the
326
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK Ch.
1.
II.
the hoard, which contained all the port. Fortunately wealth found unof many members of the family, touched, was for had it not satisfiedthe avarice of the chiefs,
9 s.
the whole
in many
would family
cases. ransom
other
a
onlyas
embarked in
in order to be the
Christians. Cameniates
found
the theme of
Niketas, Thessalonica,
third envoy of the emperor, and Rodophyles, a who had stopped eunuch of the imperial household, as he the
was
a hundred weightof gold to the pounds' conveying all among the prisoners. dophyles RoByzantine army in Italy, before the Saracen admiral, who was brought that he was had learned from the captives intrustedwith The eunuch boldly that he had pertreasure. replied formed his duty to the emperor, by sending away the of the theme of Strymon as soon as goldto the general the enemy approached found ; and when Leo of Tripolis that this was and ordered true, he flew into a passion, to be beaten to death on the spot.^ Rodophyles Several dayswere spent in collecting the booty in the such of the captives in releasing had friends in as city, the neighbourhood able to purchase their liberty by the the exchange payment of a second ransom, and in negotiating
hundred
named
an
oflBcerof
number equal
should captives
was
and succeeded in forcing the city, of Strymonto deliverup the gold for which Rodophyles general in order to save the place had lost his life, from
^
the
Cameniates
means
calls the
sum
intrusted to
he
"
of
course
hundred
pounds.
Symeon Mag. 466. Qeorg. Mon. 558. Leo Gramm. see Concerning the variety of weight in ancient talents, Ancient Weights and Moruy, 28-42.
TAKING
OP
THE8SAL0NICA,
A.D.
904.
327 of
a.d.
daysafter the capture of the city. Ca- ^^^^ meniates was in the ship of the Egyptian embarked who served under Leo of Tripolis. The crew admiral, consistedof two hundred men and eight hundred captives; and children were crowded together the on men, women, lower deck. These unfortunate people, all of whom were of the higher and ranks,sufiered indescribable misery, and suffocationbefore they thirst, many died of hunger, reached the island of Crete, where, after a fortnight's confinement, theywere allowed to land for the firsttime.
The fleethad deviated from its course
in order to avoid in with the Byzantine for it was falling sible impossquadron, when every ship crowded with prisoners. to fight was It had therefore remained six daysat Patmos, and two at Naxos, which was then tributary to the Saracens of
Crete.
The fleetanchored
at
bour island of Dia, which afforded better shelterthan the harof Chandax, and where it could obtain the seclusion the slaves and spoil dividing among different parties t he in composing expedition, order each might hasten home before the autumnal storms
necessary for
the that
menced. com-
The
whole of the
were captives
landed, and
three
dayswere
dispersed,
again separated by the new division. many of which were the fifty-four but also As not only of Leo's fleet, ships
several in the men-of-war Byzantine and
merchantmen, taken
had been filled with prisoners, port of Thessalonica, it is not surprising after the loss that the number, even to twenty-two sustained on the passage, stillamounted of the small with the exception thousand souls. Of these, at Tarsus,all consisted of number reserved for exchange young
men
and
women
328
BASILUN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
II.
of the slaughter
older inhabitants, or
^'"*^
houses,because they
in the slaYe-marcommandinga highprice all the booty had been landed, When kets of the East. divided by lot, and then the fleet dispersed, the spoil was the ships from Crete directly to Alexandria, or to sailing of Syria the difierentports to which they belonged. Many sale the of the unfortunate prisoners, in slaveto exposed the capital of Egypt and Damascus, markets of Fostat, and Arabia, and even to to Ethiopia were transported of the southern
parts of Africa
; the
more
fortunate
were
from those to whose share re-purchased and by them by the Cretans, The island of Crete had become
theyhad
fallen,
in greatslave-mart,
of its Saracen population consequence of the extensive piracies the most ; and at this time the slave-tradewas
branch profitable
of large portion
of
commerce
in the Mediterranean!^
having
tions embraced Mohammedanism, and establishedcommunicawith the Christian slave-merchants in the Byzantine
trade in purchasing carried on a regular empire, tine Byzanof and families, arranging exchanges captives wealthy of prisoners with their relations. As these exchanges and not, likethose at Tarsus, were speculations, private under the regulation the Christians of an official cartel, to pay a considerable sum as were generally compelled deliver in in order to their relatives, redemption-money, addition to releasing After the buya Saracen captive. ing and selling from Thessalonica had been of the captives carried on for several days, their the Saracens embarked for their ultimate destination. The wife of one prisoners of the brothers of Cameniates was purchased by a Cretan
' The preTalence of piracyon the coast of Attica,about the end of the twelfth century, after the Saracens had been long expelled from the Grecian of the Athenians to the Emperor Alexios II L, seas, is proTed by the Memorial Michael Akominatos. A.D. Tafel, 1195-1203,drawn up by their archbishop, daXcrrr/cov where is spoken of. r"f ITieaiolonicaf 468, ri^v X fi/Xacrtav "Kfjc"p, p.
"
TAKING
OF
THESSALONICA,
A.D.
904.
329
but he had the misery of seeing his mother, slaye-merchant, his wife, and two of his children (for the third had died the voyage), embarked during in
a
A.D.
886-912.
and the greaterpart of the Cameniates,with his father, set apart for the exchange at Tarsus,were captives put board a Byzantine on man-of-war,the upper deck of which was occupied while the Christians by the Saracens, crowded on the lower, in filthand darkness. were the passage from Crete to Syria, an event happened which shows that Leo, the Saracen admiral, a man was of energy and courage, well fitted for his daring pation, occuand by no means deaf to the callsof humanity, so in the hour of the most conduct after the
us
On
his ferocious
of taking
mightlead
one
to
believe.
violent
of the in
smaller
middle
extreme
"
it broke
the
their
accident to which
want
were
ancient
from ships,
were
lengthand
on
of
beam,
near was
very liable.
The
Saracens
board
Cameniates
to order
the
crew
of
the admiral's
of-war
them. the
to
throw
all the
was
The
order
overboard and captives the crew allowing given, the violence of the Cameniates of signals
was
quit
had
ship,but sinking
the
a
wind
driven
to such
ship in
which
embarked
were own
the admiral
unnoticed
unheeded.
and as possible, broughtas near the galley not succeeded in saving, only the Saracen crew, but and captives every Christian on board, though the crews to upwards of one of the two vessels amounted Leo and thousand persons. The generals, Byzantine recounted the Niketas,who were on board Leo's ship,
ship,to
be
circumstances
to
Cameniates, and
declared that
their
to contain so greata crowd,and shipwas ill-calculated After refitting at with great difiiculty. was navigated
880
BooKH.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
Ob,
I.
it.
the 14th of the squadronreached Tripolis on Cyprus, before September. The father of Cameniates died there, the prisoners While waiting removed to Tarsus. were
at
the account Cameniates wrote of his sufferings, place, fix"m which the preceding narrative has been extracted ; but and we must pardon what he calls the feebleness, what others are more the inflation of his to term likely matter embalmed in account of the interesting on style, its verbosity. The worthyAnagnostes appears to have returned to his native city, and obtained the office of koubouklesios to the archbishop. efficienc of the inThe taking of Thessalonica affordssad proof which deny the use of of central governments, and unfortified to defend the wealthy to the people, arms of a court citiesof an extensive empire. The tendency of the state on the pageantryof to expendthe revenues churches,and feiesin the capital, power, on palaces, lage without bestowiug the destruction of a vila thought on reveals to us one of the paths or the loss of a parish, tends to degrade the by which despotic power invariably
mass
of human
and civilisation,
cause
at
until empire, at last the public the Emperor Leo, sufferings compelled in the last year of his reigu, to make a vigorous attempt end to the piracies to put an of the Cretans, a.d. 912. who had gained cens the Saraa naval victory Himerios, over fresh attacks
on
the
in the year 909, was intrustedwith the command of his operations ing and commenced fleet, by clearpowerful the
His fleet of the Cretan pirates. Archipelago of the largest dromons consisted of forty or war-galleys manned besides other vessels; and it was size, by twelve thousand who
are
native
besides sailors,
seven
hundred
Russians,
A
considered
powerful army,
the future
332
BOOK n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
^''^^
actire part by the loss of Bari,which was seized bj the Duke of Beneyentum. A Bjzantine army regained session posand revenged the injury the Greeks city, had sufferedby taking Beneventum, which,however,only remained in possession of the imperial troops for four fleet in Italy was subsequently years. The Byzantine defeated by the Sicilian Saracens in the Straits of of that
Messina.
In in
marked by his usual negligence was Italy and incapacity, and the weakness of his enemies alone the Byzantine preserved possessions. The kingdomof Bulgaria had for a considerableperiod and useful ally. It formed a proveda quiet neighbour barrier against the Turkish tribes, whom the ruin of the Khazar empire drove into Europe. Leo, however, allowed himself to be involved in hostilities with the Bulgarians the father of by the avarice of his ministers. Stylianos, his second wife Zoe,established of the Bulgaa monopoly rian
trade in favour of two
Greek merchants.
To
ceal con-
the rise,
removed from was commerce dep6t of the Bulgarian whose to Thessalonica.^ The Bulgarians, Constantinople interest suffered by this fraud, applied to their King the Emperor Leo, Simeon for protection ; and when after repeated took no steps to redress the solicitations, the Bulgarian An monarch declared war. injustice, almost uninterrupted peace of seventy-four years had existed between the sovereigns and of Constantinople had for onlytemporary and trifling hostilities Bulgaria, occurred since the treaty between Leo V. and Mortagan Michael after his baptism, in 814. Bogoris called, and not his kingdom with great prudence, had governed
"
"
and Zoe was At this time Theophano, the firstwife of Leo, was still liTing, the same to w ho be the is to concubine. Stylianos, emperor's supposed only whom the Novellasof Leo are addressed, is called Zaoutzes by the Ck"ntiDuator, in DuSee TCaaa-UH 220. The name is connected with the Turkish Tshaous, OrcBeitcUis. cange, Olottarium med. et inf.
1
"
BULGAKIAN
WAR,
333
to Christianity, but also onlyconverted all his subjects their means of education and wellbeing. His augmented views induced him to join the Eastern own religious
a. d.
^^^^^'
sent
his second
son
Simeon
tinople to Constana
tery, monas-
his eldest
son
Vladimir,
of Vladimir
about the year 885. drew his father from dethrone before and
conduct disorderly
put
his retreat, who was to compelled out the eyes of this unworthy prince, in
a
immuringhim
son
monastery. He
the throne
his second
Simeon
on
then
died a monk, a.d. 907. to his cell, retiring again Simeon His proved an able and active monarch. education at Constantinople had enlarged his mind, but him with some and inspired contempt for the meanness and of the Byzantine court, and for the pedantry luxury of the Greek people. He was himself both presumption warrior and a scholar, but he followed the military a in his native and wrote system of the Bulgarians, attained nation had now language.^The Bulgarian centuries before by the the position some occupied Avars. They were the most civilisedand commercial of all the northern and formed barbarians, the medium for the greater part of Germany and supplying with Scandinavia with
Asia, and
manufactures and gold.^This extensive and Byzantine trade had gone on increasing since a ever flourishing the amount of duties to be levied on the fixing treaty, had been concluded in the year 716, frontier, Byzantine The stipulations of of Theodosius III. the reign during which the that treatyhad alwaysformed the basis on
commercial relations between the two states at the conclusion of every war re-established,
1
had
; but
been
now
to DuSlamtehee AUerthUmer, ii 185, in preference I foUow Schafarick, FamUice ByzarUinoB, cange, ' Simocatta says Xryrrai SicvSucois "P roZr fyvtat tois yiip Theophylactus 175. Theopbanes, 421. t6 T"if *Afidp"iP imtipot "VTpt)("T"erov"f"vKoPf
"
334
two
BASILIAN
DYNASTT.
BooEn.
Greek
merchants,Stavrakios and
Kosmas, bribed
^'^^^
the whole of ordinance for transferring imperial trade to Thessalonica. These Greeks having the Bulgarian tions farmed the customs, feltthat theycould carry on extorat a distance which could not be attempted as long their goodsto Constantinople, as the traders could bring of themselves under the immediate protection and place the central administration.^ The monopoly, thoughit inflicted greatlosses both on the Greek and Bulgarian was traders, supported by the favourite minister of the
an
emperor, who
tions refused to pay any attention to the reclamajects. of the Bulgarian government in favour of its sub-
to submit to disposition that he had no hope of contemptuous treatment, finding invaded the empire. redress bypeaceable means, obtaining and the The Byzantine defeated, completely army was who commanded slainin the firstbattle. two generals were But Simeon tarnished his gloryby his cruelty ; he and to be cut ofl^, ordered the noses of all the prisoners thus mutilated, to Constantinople sent the Byzantine soldiers, sent Leo, eager to revenge this barbarity, Niketas Skleros, to urge the Hungarians, a a patrician, the banks of Turkish tribe which had recently quitted cendants, the Don to occupy the countrystill possessed by its desto attack the Bulgarians. They did so, and defeated them. peror to the EmThey sold their prisoners to deliver Leo, who was compelled, after, shortly them to Simeon, King of Bulgaria, without ransom, in order to purchase feated peace ; for the Magyarswere de-
Simeon, who
was
not of a
in
second
contest.
had conceived too sovereigns, to pay any high an idea of his power and prerogatives to his engagements, when he thought it for his respect
absolute
ALEXANDER,
A.D.
912-913.
336
his promises. to forget He took the earliest a. d. advantage of seeking for revenge, and having assembled ^^^^* opportunity what he supposed invincible army, he sent Leo an was This to invade Bulgaria. Katakalon, his best general, called Bulgaroat a place destroyed army was completely and after this lesson Leo was glad to conclude phygos, peace, a.d. 893.^ About the same time the conduct oppressive perial of the im-
of the governor at Cherson caused an insurrection in which he was murdered. inhabitants, of his titleof Leo, in spite
a man
"
the
mankind can feel much personal history interest. Though his reign undisturbed by rebellion was his life was or civil war, dangers. exposedto frequent His concubine and another became the
was
in whose
Zoe
discovered
revealed
The of his great favour at court. origin and exiled to Athens. was prime conspirator scourged In
902,
a
an
attempt
The
was
made
to
murder
who
was
Leo
in the
church of St Mokios
by a madman,
blow
was
armed
only
a
with
stick.
broken
a
by the
severe
branch of
wound.^
of twenty-five reign
SECT,
in."
ALEXANDER"
MINORITY
OP
C0N8TANTINE A.D.
VII. "12-4"44.
(PORPHYRO-
GENITU8)"
Reiow 920
"
ROMANUS
I," LBCAPBNU8.
OP
Alexander,
of of
a.d.
912-918
"
Minority
"
of
Constantine
army
VII.,913defeated
"
Sbdition
Constantine Bulgaria
emperor,
"
Dukas Intrigues
a.d.
Byzantine
at
"
by
Symeon, King
L
makes himself
Constantinople Conspiracies
Romanus
his
920-944
son
against
QOYiBNMZNT"
Dethroned
by
his
Stephen.
Alexander,who
the
^
"
succeeded
to
the
rather or throne,
to
on the death of his brother government of the empire, There is some tlie chronology of in arranging difficulty the
war. Bulgarian
336
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
n.
Leo
more
^"'"*^
he had long borne the (for in his tastes, and degraded than Michael the Drunkard.
title of
more
was Emperor),
for Fortunately
his
he reigned subjects, only a year ; yet he found time the the empire to inflict a serious wound, by rejecting on the treaty offerof Simeon, King of Bulgaria, to renew concluded with Leo. Alexander,like his predecessor, his other follies had a taste for astrology ; and among that an ancient bronze statue of a boar he was persuaded in the Agora was his own genius.This work of art was treated with the greatest reyerence ; it was consequently adorned with other ornaments, and its reintegration in the hippodrome celebrated as a public was
new
tusks and
gious not onlywith profane festival, games, but even with relito the scandal of the orthodox.^ ceremonies, the Byzantine Leo VI. had undermined system of which Leo III. had modelled on the traditions administration, of
Rome. imperial He
had
used
bis absolute
trust on court power to confer oflScesof the highest favourites notoriously of performing the duties incapable
intrusted to them.
usages which
The
consecrated into laws ; the professional the science of education which had preserved
mass,
and
an
emperor,
called the
is characterised in Philosopher,
Empireto the of an Oriental and arbitrary Alexander carried despotism. this abuse to a great extent, by conferring high and the his commands of on debaucheries, companions
*
reduced having
the Eastern
CoDtin. 234.
Sroix^^ avrov
obairras r^ X^ W
irpootwfve-
flxrci',
REGENCY,
A.D.
913-919.
337
a.d.
of Sclayonian and Saracen origin to men by elevating the highest dignities. The onlyact of Alexander's reign that it is necessary to particularise, is the nomination of a regency to act the minority of his nephew Constantino. The during Patriarch
was
912-944.
who Nikolaos,
one
had
been
reinstated in
office,
made
of its members
; but Zoe
the Carbopsina,
it. old when
young
he
by Alexander
two Patriarch,
Sclawhom, named Basilitzes and Gabrilopulos, were who had attained the highest and vonians, employments accumulated greatwealth
The
by the
favour
of Alexander.^
obtained the highwith which all foreigners est facility of officesat Constantinople, and the rare occurrence of pure Hellenic
race
government Byzantine
borne in mind, as it is a
to clung empire
with tenacity
which the
Roman
any identificationwith Greek nationality. before us, to selectfacts in the period It is difficult, now both of the condition, that convey a correct impression of the government and the people. The calamities and crimes
we
are
to compelled
mention
worse,
tend to create
an
that opinion
the
governmentwas
more empire
and the incursions Tlie ravages of war the case. really of the Byzantine of pirates wasted onlya small portion tervals aflForded by the long inand ample time was territory, and the depopulation to repair of tranquillity central The desolation caused by foreignenemies.
to
many
storms political
1
that ruined
neighbouring
Y
Contin. 288.
VOL.
I.
338
BOOK
iL
BABILIAN
DYNASTY.
nations ;
the of the people, ^^LlL^ of the court,and the corruption during and his father-inof Constantino Porphyrogenitus reigns seemed to indicate a rapid law Romanus I., decayin the and theyform a heterogeneous of the empire, strength which still combination with the institutions guaranteed for life and propertyto an extent unknown in security whether under Christian of the world, eyery other portion
or
Mohammedan
sway.
defects of the
government are not found Byzantine until we of history, any other portion
times.
in combination in
modem approach
established in successionwas never firmly Hereditary the Byzantine empire. The system of centralisation who carried on the administration rendered the prime-minister, for a minor or a weak sovereign, master virtually of the empire. Against this danger Alexander had endeavoured to protecthis nephew, a regency by creating of six members, no one of whom could aspire at becoming of young Constantino. But the arbitrary the colleague nature of the imperial of insecurity power created a feeling in the minds of all officials, not as that power was as long vested in a single individual. This feeling inspired every of of influencewith the hope man beingable to render and with the desire of assuming himself sole regent, the title of Emperor,as the onlymethod of permanently the post of guardianof the young prince. maintaining The of the time was most Constantino man popular
Dukas, who had fled to the Saracens with his father Andronikos,in order to escape the anger of Leo VI. His father had embraced Mohammedanism, but Dukas
had thrown himself on
sake the mercy of Leo rather than forhis religion, and had been rewarded by a command
on
the south-easternfrontier. For three years he served with distinction, and his valour and liberality rendered
him
popular among
340
BASILIAK
DTNASTT.
BooKn.
banished to
^
her
f^mj^^ cbu^s.
was
her onlysurriying son, monastery. Stephen, made a eunuch, and every other male of the noble
on perished
house of Dukas
of
name,
origin.^
and of the young emperor for his mother, The aflfection members of the regency, who of the diflFerent the intrigues
to expected
in the palace, from which she Carbopsina had been expelled by Alexander. As she had received the imperial she shared the sovereign authority crown, the with the regentsas a matter of right, and through Zoe
influence of John
mistress of the
Eladas, she
soon
became Zoe
the absolute
administration. public
amusement.
a
of thought
little but
was
and luxury
Her
administration
defeat of the Byzantine complete that the created a general feeling army by the Bulgarians directionof public aS'airs to be intrusted no ought longer of her thoughtless to a woman disposition. The evils inflicted on the inhabitants of Thrace by with Alexafter his rupture ander, Simeon, king of Bulgaria, the sufferings of the empireduring the equalled earlierincursions of the Huns
to the walls of
and unfortunate,
and
Avars.
In the year
almost without opposition Constantinople ; but he found the city too well garrisoned to admit of his in itsvicinity afteran ineflec: he retired, remaining long tual attempt to settle the terms of a treaty in a conference with the Patriarch. In 914 he again invaded the empire, and in this campaign into his was Adrianople betrayed hands
by its governor,
soon
an as
Armenian
the
named
Pankratakas,
who, however,as
it to the
A
^
Byzantine government.
tribe,called by the Byzantine writers
Leo Gramm. 492.
Turkish
il 272. Zonaras,
THE
PATZINAKS.
341
who had contributed to destroy the flourishing Patzinaks, a. d. ^'^^^' monarchy of the Khazars, had driven the Magyars or before Hungarians them into
and Europe,
at this period
of the Russians They were thus neighbours and the Bulgarians, as well as of the Byzantine proyince of Cherson.i They were nomades, and inferior in civilisation to the nations in their vicinity, were by whom they dreaded as active and insatiable plunderers, always for and The for war ready rapine. regency of eager the EmpressZoe, in order to give of Thrace the people from the ravages of the Bulgarians, some cluded conrespite who engaged, alliancewith the Patzinaks, an on with of money, to act in co-operation a sum receiving the imperial forces. They were to attack the Bulgarians in the rear, the means the Danube of crossing being fiumished by the Byzantine government. Zoe, in the she was carrying to negotiations mean time,trusting on in Asia Minor, transat Bagdatfor securing ferred tranquillity the greaterpart of the Asiatic army to Europe, and prepared into the heart of Bulgaria, to carry the war and compel in order to prevent Simeon to fight a battle, his countrybeing laid waste by the Patzinaks. A splendid and placed reviewed at Constantinople, army was under the command of Leo Phokas, a man possessing and great influencewith the aristocracy, a highmilitary Before the troops marched northward they reputation. and equipments received new arms ; liberaladvances of and numerous promotions pay were made to the soldiers,
were was
Danube.
made
among
second in command
in conspirators the
Constantino the
of the
the
^
had
escapedthe search of
The Patzinaks are called also Petcbenegs. The Magyars are called Turks in bis curiouB work, De Admimttrando Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Uzes,and Kumans, who allmade 6. The Patzinaks, Magyars, chap.4, Imperio, Turkish tribea their firstappearence in Europe about this time,were
by
342
BASILIAN
DYKASTY.
BOOK ^'"
n.
^^
Zoe's governregency until he obtained the pardon of The fleetappointed to enter the mouth of the ment.
the Patzinaks oyer Danube, in order to transport of Romanos under the command was river, placed
grandadmiral.
Leo Phokas Romanus
one
felt no
a
of operation
whom
of the
empire. He
impediments throwing
to transport and delaying in the way of the Patzinaks, them over the Danube most likely at the time and place to
the
The Bulgarians.
duct con-
of Leo
was
Siineon was
enabled to concentrate
with defeated,
a battle at fight
placecalled Achelous,in
an
Byzantine army
to
immense
Mesembria, where
but
Romanus,
to directly
ouring any diversionfor the reliefof his countrymen,or endeavthe defeated troops as he passed to succour Mesembria.
He
was
accused of
treason
to lose his
sight ;
her unpopularity, empress, who began to perceive countenanced his disobedience, to make as she expected
use
of his
support.
Leo
The
^
of partisans
urgedhis openly
claims to be
AoHelous seems garia. of both a river and fortress in Bulto have been the name River:" Contin. 240. Symeon Mag. 476. Qeorg. Moii. 569. LeoGramm. 491. Fortress :"Cedrenu8, 613. See Krug, ChnmologU der Byz,180, note \* The defeat took place Anchialus. Leo Diaconus, 124, edit. Bonn. The near Achelous seems to have misled Gibbon into a singularcomplication of name His words are, '* On classic ground, errors. the banks of the Achelous,the on Greeks were defeated : their bom broken by tho streng^ of the barbaric was Hercules." He transports the battle into Greece, calls the Asiatic troops of Leo Phokas Greeks ; and grows more than Ovid, whom he quotes. poetical Decline and Pall,vol. x. 201.
" "
INTBiaUSS
OF
BOMAKUS.
843
at the head of the administration, placed as the only man a. d. capable by his talentsof preventing a revolution ; and the ^^^f^ chamberiain Constantino urged Zoe to appoint him a
of the regency, and invest him with the conduct of public affairs. The empress beganto distrustRomanus, from the preponderating as long power he possessed
as
member
the fleet remained in the vicinity The of the capital. fleet was therefore ordered into the Black Sea; but Romanus had already received secret encouragement to
of Leo from Theodore, the governor of oppose the designs the young emperor, and he delayed under the sailing, would not put to sea untiltheir pretextthat the sailors
arrears were
paid.
The
crisiswas
so important;
the
chamberlain Constantino visitedthe fleetwith the money determined to hasten necessary for payingthe sailors, its departure, and
perhapsto
arrest the
grandadmiral.
This stepbrought seized matters to an issue. Romanus the money and paid the sailors himself, keepingthe chamberlain under arrest. This
daringconduct
in the
on
the
part of a
as
man
for it palace, revealed to the empress that there was another pretender the to supreme Zoe immediately despatched power. of officers Patriarch Nikolaos, of the principal and some
as
well
capacity, spreadalarm
in order to induce the sailorsto state,to visitthe fleet return to their allegiance ; but the populace, eager for
the government in a state of embarrassment,attacked the envoys with stones,and and delighted to change,
see
to
the concerning
causes
At last Theodore,the young emperor's governor, declared that the conduct of Leo Phokas and the chamberlain
Constantino had
caused the
the administration. He
for dissatisfaction, popular and Constantino had corrupted that the easiestmode suggested
344
BOOK
n.
BASILIAN
an putting
DYNASTY.
of
end to the
y^ chj^s.
This was done, and supreme power into his own hands. rather his tutor Theodore in his the young prince, or
name,
one
of the regents
named
to be adoptto consult on the measures ed, Stephen both were known to be hostileto his mother's though administration. This produced an immediate revolution of state attached to the The principal officers at court.
were
party of Phokas
which
were
to supportthe new pledged that advisersof the young emperor. Leo, not perceiving Romanus stration, adminiconnected with the new was directly but received from that a coalition, proposed and support, of friendship onlyassurances wary intriguer the orders of the new ministers. while he openly obeyed informed by his friend soon Romanus, however, was Theodore that the Patriarch and Stephenhad resolved him from his command, that they to remove mightrender
conferred on
him
as
harmless
as
Leo
bold
measures
were
therefore
rendered necessary, and without hesitationthe admiral rangedhis fleet in hostile array under the walls of the Bukoleon. His friends under the direction within, palace of the patrician invited him to enter and proNiketas, tect the young emperor, and at the same time forced the stantine Patriarch and Stephento retire.^ The Emperor Conhad Romanus been in alreadypredisposed favour of
by his tutor,so that he received the insurgent admiral in a friendly The young prince, manner. panied accomin Pharo, to the chapel by the court, repaired
where Romanus took
an
oath of
the on fidelity
wood
of
^ This Niketas landed proprietor a Sclavosian in the Peloponnesus, was married to Christophoros the eldest son whose daughter was of Romanus. His ass-like Sclavonian visage,to use the an expression which amused and has troubled modem courtiers of Constantinople, excited the scholars, relative." Ck)mpare Contin. 243, Constant. Porphyr. of his imperial De spleen Themat, 25, edit Banduri,and note at page 362 of this volume.
INTEIGUBS
OP
ROMAKUS.
345
was
and
on guards,
the fortunes of Romanus were elapsed, further advanced by the charms of his daughter Helena. Constantino VII. became deeply smitten with her beauty, and the ambition of the father precipitated the marriage in order to secure the titleof Basileopater, which gave
a
Before
month
him
over precedence
He was now than prime-minister, 919. even more April and his position Leo Phokas took excited deeper envy. in Bithynia and marched to arms Chrysopolis up that his object to deliver the was (Scutari), declaring young
so
emperor
from
was
the evidently
result of
that taken
the assassinationof object also failed. The EmpressZoe was accused of attempting to poison him, and immured in a monastery. The that he no longer enjoyed governor Theodore,perceiving
the confidence of the friend he had contributedto elevate, of Romanus, and beganto thwart the ambitious projects
Opsikion.Romanus, his indulgthat there was now to prevent ing nothing finding his son-in-law his ambition, to confer on persuaded him the titleof Caesar, and shortly after to elevate him
was
to the rank
of emperor.
He
was
crowned
as
the colleague
cember 1 7th De-
of Constantine
Patriarch
men
ever
absolute directionof
pub-
But the date is giyenby the Continaator, 243 ; Symeon Mag. 478. with learningand accuracy by Krug, this periodis renewed der Byzantini"chen mtt hetonderer KrUiseher Venuch Zur aufkldrung ChronologUy GesehuSue BUeksicht auf diefiUkere Rui$laHd$; St Petersburg, 1810, p. 133. The of chronology
"Krug,140.
S46
BOOK
iL
BASILIAN
DYKASTT.
lieaffairs in the
^''*^
the without assuming Byzantine empire ting title, eren imperial though theyhad no intention of setIt aside the sovereign whose throne theyshared
was
no
other
means
of
their position, for as long as theyremained only securing with the rank of prime-minister posed Caesar, or theywere exto lose their sight, or be put to death by a secret of order of the soyereign, the intrigues obtained through eunuch or a slaye. But as soon as theyassumed the an
rank of emperor of the
was
sacred,
the
as
both by the law of hightreason and being protected force of public which regardedthe emperor opinion,
Two
sate
on
and (Phokas),
VIII., as Romanus
I.did with
too weak to
Constantino VII.
Romanus
was a man
hurt by the views. His vanity was enlarged fact that he occupied in the empire, the second place only and to gratify his passion for pageantry, and secure the ceremonies of the Byzantine placeof honour in the numerous and the place of his son-in-law, court,he usurped wife Theodora, conferred the imperial on his own crown both preceand on his eldest son Christophoros, giving dence served had the hereditary Romanus over emperor. in his youthas a marine, and he had risen to the highest rank without rendering himself remarkable either for his ^ of his family, valour or ability the successfulcareer ; of the excited the dissatisfaction therefore, naturally ofl"cer. and the ambition of every enterprising aristocracy all His reign disturbed by a seriesof conspiracies, was the restoration of Confor their avowed object having stantine Porphyrogenitus to his legitimate though, rights, admit of
I
an
illiterate person of
IwTos
Adm.
348
BOOK
n.
BA8ILUN
DTNASTT.
procored
his
^**^
artificial hand
of brass,with which
he widded
sword ; the common sisted peopleflocked round him, and rethe gOTemment with so much determination that
he
he
was
revenge
at
he had
was
nople.^ Constanti-
lifeRomanus had been a votaryof pleasure, early but when the possession of every wish for three-andhe became a votary twenty years had tamed his passions, of superstition. of religion Feelings beganto affect his
In
mind, and
felt some who
at last he
remorse
allowed it
to
be discovered that he
for
in order birthright,
robbed his son-in-law of his having his own to bestow the gift children, on
law.
Constantine
in the government, to the first place or Porphjrrogenitus excited by the usual unprincipled ambition that pervaded of the Byzantine the possession court,resolved to secure his father. Romanus was by deposing supreme authority seized by the agents of his son and carried off to the the where he was compelled island of Prote, to embrace his younger son, though he monastic life. Constantinos, had not been privy in profitto the plot, joined ing readily father's his Such ill-treatment. h owever, crimes, by breasts excite in the of the people always indignation ; and in this case the inhabitants of Constantinople, ing hearvague and
rumours
of
scenes
of dethronement, banishment,
for
Constantine Porphyrosovereign, They feltan attachment to the injured prince, genitus. whom at all the church ceremonies, theysaw constantly
1
Ck"ntiii. 261.
CHARACTER
OP
CONSTANTINB
VII.
349
a.d. degradedfrom his hereditary place;his habits were ^^^^' known, many spokein his praise, nobodycould tell any evil of him. A mob rushed to the palace, and, filling the courts,insisted on seeing the lawful emperor. His the populace, but tranquillised appearance immediately hopeswere awakened in the breasts of many intriguers of his influence. A new vista of by this sudden display laid open, and the most sagacious statesmen was intrigue
saw was
on
the throne
as
sole emperor
of maintaining in order. Everyman means only of his long-neglected and rights, power became a partisan efi^ected without opposition. perors The Ema restoration was and Constantinos were seized by the Stephanos order of Constantino VII., while they were at sitting and compelled a to adopt the monastic supper-party, 27th January945.^ habit,
SECT.
IV."
CONSTANTINB
VIL
(P0RPHYR0GENITU8"-R0MANITS
H.
946-963.
ChARACTEB
"
op
CONSTANTINB
at the court EMPIRE war op
" "
VII.,A.D. 945-959
Pride
"
"
LiTBRAKT
government IN
"
WORKS
"
"
DEATH
Conspiracies
OP
"
op
Byzantine
Internal
"
CONDITION
THE
PELOPONNESUS
op
Mainates
Saracen
"
war
Character
op
Romanus
IL, 959-963
Conquest
Condition
Greece.
of the indebted to the writings principally piled or to works comEmperor Constantino Porphyrogenitus, of Byzantine by his order,for our knowledge duringthe latter half of the ninth and earlier history half of the tenth centuries. His own us a give writings communicates his of his mind, for he generally picture
We
are
information
^
as
it
occurs
to
I may
here correct
Essai Sauloy,
de
By-
edition of LeUres du Baron Marthe in attributing Marchant chant sur la Numismatiquey was After all, 89. right I. The twfrappeengraved coins usually II. to Romanus ascribed to Romanus as he supposes. is too imperfect to fix any point as incontestably by Langlois In my own VIL, with collection I possess three good examplesof ConstanUne I possess, moreover, his longvisagestruck over Romanus. a coin of Constandecisive. I tine and Romanus IL struck over Romanus L, which is certainly
350
BOOK
Cb.
1.
BA8ILIAN
DYKA8TT.
n.
1 4.
to
confose and
tine Byzan-
nobles who
person
we
affected the
a
have
correct
He was tall and well made, with broad dependants. face. This last feature neck and a long a long shoulders, of the coins of his in caricature on some is represented his complexion fair, reign. His skin was extremely his nose aquiline, ruddy,his eyes soft and expressiye, He and his carriage a a lover was as straight cypress. and a cellar of of good cheer, and keptthe best of cooks, excellentwine of all the choicestkinds ; but he indulged
his
in
no
excesses,
and
mild
that we must so dependants, his defects. In not wonder that his panegyrists forgot such a charactercould not failto be a despotic sovereign, popular.^ Constantino's longseclusion from public business had and eloquent
been devoted to the cultivation of his taste in art,as well in mathematics, was a proficient as to seriousstudy. He and music. sculpture, painting, astronomy, architecture,
liberal to his
of
course was
lauded
as
equal
his voice
often heard in
of encyclopedia historical knowledge of which a part onlyhas reached our time,but even this part has preserved many valuable of ancient historians and treatiseson agrifragments
An
"
I had entertained no doubt of tbe correctness of Marchant's attribution before these examples,from the great number of the coins I had met have been brou^tto with in the Peloponnesus,and which I supposed must 1 posI. employed there againstthe Sclayonians. pay the troops Romanus sess also struck over of the incertains of John Zimiskee, a Romanus I., as one but which appear to date from the reignof Basil I. The coins they are called, attributed by Saulcy,201, to Basil L and Constantino his son, also belong, in at least, to Baisil 11. and Constantino YIII. I possess a pieoe in some oases copper,in which the youth of both princeslesTss no doubt on the subjeot
own
meetiDgwith
2d2. Continuator,
LITERARY
WORKS
OF
OONSTANTINB
VII.
361
art,were veterinary
written
under compiled
his
a. d.
inspection.1 by his order were a chronicle in continuation of the Chronography of Theothe period of Leo V. from the reign embracing phanes, to the death of Michael III. The (theArmenian),
The
name
^^
historicalworks
second
work
but including the ^me the reign of period, Basil I., also written by Genesius ; and a third work, was
an
by
down
Romanus
The
treated by for several relate to subjects valuable, other author. The life of his grandfather, Basil L, no from vanity, that an experienced tellssome terer flattruths,
would
woundingfamily
of the themes
or
pride.^A
us empire gives Byzantine medieval with ancient geography. the means of connecting But the emperor's most valuablework is a treatise on the written for the use of his son government of the empire,
administrativedivisions of the
Romanus,
which
abounds
with
limits and political the geographical lations reconcerning the northern frontier of the of the people on tine empirenear the Black Sea, with notices of the Byzanand of the condition of the Greeks power in Italy, of which we should and Sclavonians in the Peloponnesus,
the later portion of Roman are coUected history of the edition of the Byzantinehistorians published at Bonn kittoriarum quce Menandri Prisci,McUchi, EunapUf Petn PaUridi, Dexippi, The
to relatiDg fragments
^
in the firstvolume
"
iupertunt,1829, 8vo.
directed to conattention of the Emperor Constantine was tinuing naturaUy his mother's the work of Theophanes, as that celebrated annalist was The continuation of uncle. De Adm. Imp, chap,zzii page 76, edit. Bonn. contained in the of Basil I., and the history of the successors are Theophanes, of the Byzantine historians entitled Scriptorea volume pott Theophanem, but a more in the Venetian edition, Geneeiiis was firstprinted correct text is givenin the Bonn edition. ' The Life of Basil is contained in 8eriptore$ po$t Theopkanem. The
"
'
352
BASILIAN
DYKASTY.
BooKiL
otherwise know
"
^""'"^*-
Two nothing.^ essays on milito naval and military operations tarytactics one relating and the other to with the regular troopsof the empire, contain also much information.^ the usages of foreigners The longest work,however,that Constantino wrote, and himself most, was an account of that on which he prided It is court the ceremonies and usages of the Byzantine the least read of his writings, now yet it has probably without an it is published been edited with care, though than a translation.^ more index,which it required
almost
"
The
government of Constantino
was
on
the whole
and the empiredimng his reign was equitable, master When he became despotic flourishing.
to
East,he continued
think and
and
as
he had done in his forced seclusion. He of manner simplicity him weakness prevented but his humanity and
same
the displayed
of heart. His goodness from beinga good sovereign, him love of justice preserved His subjects. his son, kind
from
beinga bad
the him induced
one,
mass
with popular
tion disposiII.,to
to
Romanus
and of the of singular a Theophano, girl beauty, but the daughter most graceful and fascinating manners, of a man in mean rians, histocircumstances. The Byzantine cratic who are more the chroniclers of aristofrequently scandal than of political and whose appetite history, for popular calumnyswallows the greatest ties, improbabilihave recorded that Theophanorepaid the goodness of the emperor by inducing his Romanus to poison marry
^ The contained in works De TTiematibw and De Adminutrando are Imperio Banduri's Imperiwn OrientalCf and in the Bonn collection. The work De Adnk Imp. was terminated in the year 952. Knig, 266. * The best edition of these treatises is contained in the sixth yolume of the works of MeursiuB. ' Part of the work De (kremoniit Avia Byzanttna has been interpolated at a later period, and hence some that the whole is the compilahave conjectured tion of the Emperor Constantine VIII. The onlycomplete edition of the Notes is that of Bonn.
"
DEATH
OF
CONSTANTINB
VII.,A.D. 959.
353
that the chief butler was gained, a.d. They pretend and that Constantine partook of a beverage, in which ^^^^ with medicine prescribed was mingled poison by his physician. him from swallowing Accident prevented enough but the draught to terminate his life, tion a constituinjured weak. To recover from the languor into already which he fell, he made a tour in Bithynia in order to air of Mount and visit the the bracing enjoy Olympus, monasteries and cellsof anchorites, with which principal the mountain was covered. But his malady increased, and he returned to Constantinople 9th Nov. 959. to die, which we The picture stantine possess of the conduct of Conin his own is so amiable, that we are family the accusations brought against to reject compelled Romanus and Theophano believethat we no more can ; than we can credit all the Constantine, theypoisoned Justinian recounted by Procopius. calumnies against
"
father.^
To
one
such perpetrate
a
crime,Romanus
of whose character
a so
would
acts
have been
served prefour
has history
record ; and
diabolicalwould
have
duringthe
with absolute power. the empire Yet years he governed ho appears onlyas a gay, pleasure-loving, ing pleasure-hunt-
prince.His
father and
the youngest, Agatha, in his study, her father'sconstant companion and was acted as his favourite secretary.Seated by his side,
through public created no business. That such a proceeding alarming nor abuses, and producedneither serious complaints honourable to the heart of the is more family quarrels,
her intermediation that he consented
to
when
transact
accuse
TheopbaDO and
Z
Romanus
of pairicide.
VOL,
I.
364
n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
^'"^*'
of her task to her successfulperformance and that and affection, and Historians
novelists may
a
Romanus, who lived in i^eobecame tionate intercourse with such a father and sister,
that but parricide, of
the sibility the tenor of actual life rejects posfor and of any man a as once, acting suddenly,
iniquity.^ tion, dissatisfacfor political of a safety-valve The necessity such as is afforded by a free press or a representative when we to prevent sedition, is evident, assembly, like Constantino exposed find a popular to numerous prince will not respect laws which Men conspiracies. and appear to their minds to be individual privileges, then form an not national institutions. Conspiracies tune, method of gambling for improving a man's forordinary and though few could aspire to the imperial in a change. could hopefor promotion throne, every man concocted to place the old Romanus Hence, we find a plot I. again the throne. Partisans were found who on even laboured for the worthless Stephanos, who was sively succesremoved to Proconessus, Rhodes, and Mitylene. Constantinos also, who was to Tenedos and transported
monster
then to Samothrace, made several attempts to escape. In the lasthe killedthe captain of his guards, and was slain by the soldiers. The conspirators in allthese plots
were
or
Constantino VII.
In
of the wealth of the empire, and though the govspite ernment maintained a powerful standing army and regular there were of an inherent weakness in navy, many signs the state. The emperors attempted to make pride serve
as a
an
inordi-
Contin. 286.
866
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL
^"'"^*'
and of course the head of the Eastern hardly questioDed, to the Pope of church occupied a very inferior position with courtly filled The church of Constantinople, Rome. and and both religion lost its political influence, priests, of ciyilisationsuffered by this additional centralisation cabinet. From this period we may power in the imperial date the decline of the Greek church.
The
Patriarch
Nikolaos,the mysticwho
had
been
his fourth marriage deposedby Leo VI. for opposing (a.d. 908),was reinstated by Alexander, who acted in of his brother's measures to most (a.d. 912). opposition After Romanus
so yielded
I.
was
Nikolaos throne,
far to the
to
a
to
consent
union with
to
own
had
by
the
of the
facto.
bigoted
and power to the emperor, and not to the people, he became at last as subservient to the court as the mild
Euthymioshad ever been. On the death of Nikolaos of Amathe eunuch,who was archbishop Stephen (925), his successor, who, after a patriarchate was sia, appointed of three years, was succeeded by Tryphon (a.d. 928). held the office until Tryphon provisionally Theophylaktos,
the
son
of the
Emperor Romanus
the full age for ordination ; but in order to avoid too a year great scandal in the church, Tryphon was deposed
was Theophylaktos appointed. The imperial youth was then onlysixteen years of age, but his father obtained a papal confirmation of his election by means of consul and patrician of Rome, who kepthis own Alberic, at the time. Legates brother. Pope John XI., a prisoner sent to Constantinople, who installed were Theophylaktos in the patriarchal the chair on the 2d February 933.
before
THBOPHYLAKTOS
PATRIARCH,
A.D.
933-956.
357
then calledthe a.d. corporation ^^^^ Church, both in the East and West, insulted Christianity. The crimes and debauchery of the papal court were, offensivethan the servility and avarice of however,more John XI. was appointed the Greek hierarchy. Pope at the age of twenty-five, the influence of his mother through of in priests
order highest
the
(a.d. 931). Marosia and her second husband, had dethroned, and it is supposed dered, murGuy of Tuscany, of Cenci. John X., of the family John XI.,as we have mentioned,was imprisoned by his brother Alberic. and died in confinement,a victim to the political intrigues
Marosia of his brother and his mother. about
for
that time the popes were thirty years, and during of the Latin church. On Alberic's onlythe patriarchs and death,his son Octavian succeeded him as patrician, under the name of became Pope at the age of eighteen, John XII. (a.d. considered the 956). He is generally throne.^ the papal criminal that ever occupied greatest not The conduct of the Patriarch Theophylaktos was much worse from a young than mighthave been expected whose father had provided him with a bishopric, man that he mightenjoy revenue. a suitable rank and merely As longas his father could keeppersons about the young outward decency his conduct, of controlling man capable rendered him independent was ; but age soon preserved of advice, and he openly tastes extremely unsuitable indulged to his ecclesiastical dignity. He lived like a and sold ecclesiastical debauched young prince, ments preferHe converted for his pleasures. to raise money into a the celebration of divine service at St Sophia's adorned with rich pageantry. His pasmusical festival, sion for horses and for hunting exceeded that of the
to Daunon, calls him almost Bellarmine, aoooFcUng Rom, Ponl. ii. chap. 29. Mooter, Hi$to%re des il fiit ii.94, says, " Quant k rautorit^ religieuse, Pontiff^onMxnt^ il usait d*un droit reconnu.'' Historians doubt ""vire, mais, pape legitime,
'
Baronius,Ann.
EeeU$,
"
of the popes.
De
he
was
murdered
on
account
358
BOOK
iL
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
CB.i.f 4.
aod it caused his death, as ithad done Emperor Basil I., stables are The patriarchal that of the imperial groom. said to have contained two thousand horses. The magnificence in which his of the building, and the manner
favourite steeds
one were
fed,bathed, and
of
was perfumed,
Once, as TheoConstantinople. at the highaltar of St Sophia's, was phylaktos officiating ite that his favourto him and whispered a slave crept up alarmed had foaled. The congregation was mare with which the most holy"pontiflF by the precipitation
of the wonders
"
young
as
and
The
peopleof
procession.
gious receive reli-
loving hunting
Patriarch for twenty years ; but strange have been must the reports that circulatedthrough of the the provinces
the impious concerning empire proceedings, profane songs,
indecent dances, and diabolical with which be ceremonies, defiledthe Church of the Divine Wisdom, could we look
into the secret
death of
One of his horses, and as as self-willed as the Patriarch, unfit for its duty, dashed him against dent The accia wall.
and he died in 956, after having a dropsy, on brought too longdisgraced the Greek church,and made St He was succeeded by Polyan Sophia's opera-house.^
whose parentshad marked him euktos, an ecclesiastic for an ecclesiastical life.^ It has been said that the condition general
out
of the
^ These not stroziger than those of Cedrenus, are 638, who was expressionB scandalised by the remains of the mummeries introduced into the cathedral service by Theophylaktos, and which were to his time. perpetuated ' The practice of making children eunuchs to insure their promotion in the church was common at thu time in the Byzantine empire.
CONDITION
OP
THE
BMPIBB.
369
Byzantine empire was prosperous ; but in a despotic the on government, any negligence followed part of the central administration is infallibly and extortion on of its the part of some by cruelty
distant agents, who exercise a power too great left uncontrolled without the certainty of abuse. weakness both of Romanus
I. and
to
inhabitants of the
a. d.
^^^^
be The
Constantino
VII.
at prevail
nople, Constanti-
tyranny to be committed
of Saracen extraction, Chases, a man provinces. raised to highofficeby the companions of the was of Alexander, and was of the debauchery governor theme of Hellas duringthe minority of Constantino. His insatiable avarice and infamous profligacy at last drove the inhabitants of Athens to despair, and as he divine servicein the great templeof the was attending of the dedicated to the Divine Wisdom once Acropolis" theyrose in tumult,and stoned their oppressor pagans
"
to
death the
at
the altar.^ A
governor
of Cherson
of the
had of
reignof
attention
the governor
no
Calabria, now
was
shared the
same
fate. As
the commercial protecting of linesof trade either by sea or land, the navigation the Archipelago and the Adriatic was infestedby pirates, and the greatroads of Asia and Europe were dangerous from the bands of brigands, who remained unmolested in officers to
by the Byzantinewriters deserves be an example of individual wickedness, not general demoralisation. An Athenian named Rendakios (who may have been of Sclavonian descent, ruined by as he was a relative of the Patrician Niketas), his fitther. The old man and debt, laid a plotto murder quitted debauchery but was taken by piratesand Athens to live in tranquillity at Constantinople, carried to Crete. Rendakios pretendedthat his fiitherwas dead, took possession His to Constantinople. of the family property, sold it, and removed to seek an became known, and he was compelled attempt to commit parricide order was of St Sophia's given to arrest asylum in the precincts ; but an from the him. letters of recommendation He contrived to escape, and foraged and conbut was to Simeon, king of Bulgaria, demned captured, Emperor Romanus
notice,though it may
to lose his
1
paid by such
Gontin.
240.
An
anecdote reoorded
360
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BooKiL
their
^'"**'
the serenth doge of Ursa Participation vicinitj. to announce sent his son Petro to Constantinople Venice,
concert
measures
to
commerce
of the Adriatic
Petro pirates. But emperor. trade ; and as
the against
was
Saracen
Sclaronian
honoured
the
of the
home, he
was
deliveredto
duke of Sdavonia, and seized bj Michael, The Sclavonian Simeon, kingof Bulgaria.
had
to
the
Bulgarian
for his
largeransom
Hugh
Romanus
Thessalonica attacked the ambassadors;but the Italians and captured of their suite defeated the brigands, sdVeral, whom
they carried
to
and Constantinople
delivered to
Weak, however,as the Byzantine empiremay appear porary a very different aspect to all contemus, it presented ministrati governments; for in every other countrythe admuch was were worse, and propertyand life
insecure. Its alliance
every
was
more
consequently eagerly
state, and the court of independent visited by ambassadors from distant was Constantinople and Asia. The Greeks were parts of Europe,Africa, then the greatest merchants and capitalists in the world, and theirinfluencewas felt not onlyby all the nations of Bagdat but by the rival caliphs professing Christianity,
Maratori,AnnaU tFItalia, v. 270. Lebeao, xilL 40S. The Btep"ther of Luitprand the historian, who was afterwards ambassador from Otho to Nicephorus IL, was one of the envoys. Among the presents two immense boar-hounds. were These dogs were so enraged at the appearance the Emperor Romanus made in his imperialrobes, for they took him for a wild animal,that theycould hardly be held by their keepers ing from attackhim on his throne,they were De Reim$ so eager to worry him. Luitprand, 9U0 iii chap. 5. Muratori, Temportin Europa getUi, t. 422. Lebeau,xiil 445.
I '
"
soughtby
SCLAVONIANS
IN
PELOPONNESUS.
361
and
of princes
to
a.d.
Egypt and
The
the Saxon
^^^^'
who had gained Peloponnesus, a temporary independence duringthe latter part of the of Theophilus, remained tranquil from the time of reign their subjection by Theodora's regency, until the careless administration of Romanus Two the Melings and tribes, Mount
I. againinvitedthem to rebel.
Sclavonians of the
in a state of partial ceived conTaygetus independence, the hopeof delivering themselves from the Byzantine and r efused usual tribute.^ to the yoke, boldly pay Krinites Arotras, the general of the Peloponnesian theme,
was
ordered
to
reduce them
to obedience ; but
he
was
unable to make them laydown their arms laid waste their country from March without them allowing either to reap
was
or
until he had
to
sow.
November,
On
their
to pay six hundred byzants obliged annually. But disturbances occurring not long afterwards among the and a new tribe called the Sclavesians officers, Byzantine and Ezerites sent the Melings the peninsula, entering to solicit to the Emperor Romanus a reduction deputies their inhabitants saw of their tribute. The peaceable and devastation if the propertythreatened with plunder and Ezerites should unite with the Sclavesians; Melings
threatened with the loss of the central government was the revenues of the province ; so the emperor consented charter with a golden to issuea golden bull, or imperial
the tribute of the Melings at sixty seal,fixing gold and that of the Ezerites at three hundred,as it byzants,
Sclavonian
the mountain
was
as called,
50. Imp,ohtt/p,
BASILIAN
DYKASTT.
BOOK Cb. Lf
n. 4.
districts ; tributary
who
nor,
indeed, were
own
onljSdavonians
The
retained dieir
local
administration.
from the northern whole country, of the Alpheusto the sources of the Ladon and
in their possession, and theygOYemed was Erymanthus, it according to their national usages until the Crusaders Greece. A considerablebody of the Sclavo* conquered and nians had also begun to adoptByzantine civilisation, in of the wealthiest contended for the highest some places Niketas the administrationof the empire. The patrician took an actiye share in the intrigues which placedthe His pride the head of Romanus. crown on imperial and presumption, are as well as his Sclayonian descent^ ridiculedby the Emperor Constantino Porphyrogenitus, had formed an alliance with the though the patrician family.^ imperial From thistime we hear nothing of the Sdavonians more settled in the Peloponnesus, until the peninsula was invaded by the Crusaders, tinople, after they had taken Constanand established the Frank empireof Romania
(a.d. 1204).
The condition of the town
about
of Maina
with
a
cissitude of the vipicture the Greeks had snfieredduring the declineof the Roman empire. The population of this rugged tory promonconsisted of the poorer class of agricultural Laconians, and it keptpossession of this arid district vonians when the Sdaseized the rich plain and drove of the Eurotas, the Greeks out of Sparta. The strangers all occupied the rich pastures Mount Taygetus, but want of water on
-De
GroBOodavioa, p. 68.
364
BOOK
II.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
amidst all their civil wars, the MohammedaDs tinual incursions into Asia
made
con-
^'"**'
were
with inhabitants, once valleys, swarming and cultivatedwith the spade, could support so that they the regency reduced to sheep-walks. millions, were During with a powerful fleetunder of Zoe,Damian, emir of Tyre,
reduced
ashes ;
his
was
repulsed ; and in the following army year the Byzantine made an irruption into the territories of Germanicia and thousand prisoners, cording acSamosata, and carried off fifty
to the accounts
of the Arabian
historians. The
concluded peace with would have willingly empress-regent the Saracens at this time, for she was compelled port to transthe greater part of the Asiatic army into Europe to resist and it appears that a Simeon, king of Bulgaria,
truce and
arms
had been
so
much
more
successful than
when
the all
Saracen
the
the preceding that during campaigns, Christians had been exchanged, the number still unredeemed
was so
hammedans of Mo-
had to pay a hundred and twentythousand pieces of gold for their release, to the stipulated fixed by according price
the convention.^ Romanus who had obtained the throne by means I.,
of
paidmore
atten-
^ Strobelos the ancient Myndoe. It is called an island by the Bysantine was writers from itspeninsular situation." Const. Porphyr. De Them, page 15, edit Bonn. ' ii.635. The Byzantine Weil, Oetchichu der Cfhal\fen, ambassador at was Bagdatin July 917.
SABACBN
WAR.
366
tion to
In a. d. good order than his predecessors. ^^^^^' who visited the year 926, Leo of Tripolis, the Archipelago, to repeat his exploits at Thessalonica, countered enwas seeking in the waters of Lemnos by the imperial defeated under John Radenos,and so completely squadron that it was with difficulty he saved his own ship. The wars of the Karmathians brought the caliphate
keepit
in
into such
disturbed
state
raised their banner, and, uniting theirforces again with the Byzantine obtained greatsuccesses over generals, the Saracens. been
John, the
son
for conspiring of sight Basil I., was deprived against commander-in-chief by Romanus, and commenced appointed of conquest a career ablyfollowed up a few years later by the Emperors Nicephorus II. and John I. The military the skill of John Kurkuas,. (Zimiskes). which of his army, and the tideof conquest highdiscipline of military flowed with his presence,revived aspirations The learned renown long dormant at Constantinople. and Belisarius, to compare him with Trajan were pleased the heroes of the Western and Eastern Empires. As early of Leo VI.,the Armenians under as the reign Melias had made considerable progress. The territory was theydelivered from the yoke of the Mohammedans and Melias formed into a small theme, called Lykandos, named itsgeneral, with the rank of patrician.^ From was
to
942, John
Kurkuas
was
almost uninterruptedly
In 927 he the Saracens. engagedagainst of Melitene, the province and took the capital, of ravaged he onlyretained possession for a month.^ which,however, the Saracen emir of Melitene, Two years after, finding himself unable to resistthe Byzantine to armies, engaged In the mean pay tributeto the emperor. with the assistance of a divisionof
^ "
Byzantine troops,
228.
50,page Imp.ohap.
366
BASILIAN
DTNASTT.
BOOK ^
n.
had
'"***
the lake of Van, and forced the Saracens of Aklat and Betlis not only to pay tribute,
cross
theirconquests to pushed
nual longseriesof anand Arabian incursionsrecorded by the Byzantine writers may be described in the words plunder, slavery, In the campaignof 941, the Byzantine depopulation.
The
But slavery.
the
to
of John Kurkuas
of the acquisition
which raised the reputation exploit the the highest of glory, was pitch
a
likeness
its texture ; a relic on visibly impressed which the superstition of the age believedhad been sent by In the Christ himself to Abgarus, of Edessa. prince plundered year 942, John Kurkuas crossedthe Euphrates, took Nisibis, as far as the banks of the Tigris, Mesopotamia and laid siege The inhabitants of the city to Edessa. the miraculous their safety purchased by surrendering handkerchief. The victoriousgeneral removed from was his command and the relicwas transported after, shortly to Constantinople by others.^ The parallel drawn by the people of Constantinople between Belisariusand John Kurkuas seems imperfectly of the latergeneral borne out by the conquests ; but the than of a relic weighed, in those days, more acquisition that of a kingdom. Yet, perhaps, the miraculous even with of Edessa would not have been compared portrait
of
our
Saviour
had the conquestof the Vandal and Gothic monarchies, the two-and-twenty years of John Kurkuas's honourable service not been
In the ingratitude. repaid by courtly the veteran was accused of aspiring of his fame, plenitude and removed from all his employments. at the empire,
Romanus
^
accu-
Qeorg.Hon.
"ehement
iL82.
590. Contin. 268. Erng, 225. In ihis age there was a desire to gainpossession of relics. Chamich,Hiitoryof Armenia,
"
SABACSK
WAB,
A.D.
962.
was
satioD, was
mean-spirited.^ W5^ the of Coustantine the war VII., During goyernment continued with vigour was on both sides. Seif Addawalah, the Hamdanite, called bj the Greeks Ohabdan, who was emir of Aleppo, with powerful armies.' invaded the empire Bardas Phokas, the Bjzantine more general, displayed avarice than energy ; and even when replaced by his son the future emperor, victory diately not immewas Nicephorus, restored to the imperial standards. But towards the end of Constantino'sreign, removed Nicephorus, having various abuses both in the military and civil service, which had grown out of the gains from the traffic arising in plunder, and slavescaptured in the annual forays of the
at last led troops,
secute army into the fieldcalculated to prothe war with glory. The result of these preparations II. in the reign of Romanus became visible
an
After the conquest of Crete, the whole force of the empirein Asia was placed under
of
disposable
the
mand com-
to the Arabians, who, according Nicephorus, of 962 at the head of one hundred openedthe campaign
thousand
oppose and Anathis army in the field;Doliche,Hierapolis, zarba were and captured, Nicephorusadvanced to where Aleppo,
to
was
men.^
The
Saracens
were
unable
to
protecthis
turned
had
collectedan
the
by
tactics of superior
his general,
communications
Byzantine with his capital cut ofi; his palace and the suburbs
and troops,
the wrote a work in eight books on Manuel, a judgeand protoepatharios, of John Kurkoaa As the holy handkerchief of Edesaa was brought exploits after his disgrace, is not men15th August 948, his name to Ck"nstantinople tioned
by the servile historians of the empire in connection with its capture. This fact shows to what extent these writers conceal the truth. Compare Contin. 265, and Krug, 224. * Leo ben Hamadan Diaconus, note, page 415, edit Bonn. D'Herbelot, Hcmdoun, Weil, iii 14. ' Leo Diaconus,878, edit.Bonn.
"
368
a
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BooKn.
Ch.
I.
f 4.
between the inhabitants and the garrison, quarrel enabled Nicephoras to enter the city ; but tlie citadel of a Saracen army defied his attacks. On the approach his conquest, abandoned from Damascus, Nicephorus of Aleppo, bootyfrom the city carrying away immense of sixty forts along and retaining the range of possession Mount Taurus as the resultof his campaign. The disastrous defeat of the Byzantine army by the of the the primary at Achelous was cause Bulgarians elevationof Romanus he conducted the
of operations
now
war
the fleetwhen
admiral,thoughhe could
the disastersof
deriye
no
his country. In 921, the warlike monarch of the Bulgarians after advanced to the walls of Constantinople, The a defeating Byzantine army under John Rector. of the fountains, and many villasabout imperial palace the city, were burned, and Simeon retired unmolested with immense booty. The city taken of Adrianople was in one in lost and reconquered campaignby treachery, another by famine.^ In the month of September 923, Simeon againencamped before the walls of Constantinople, the greaterpart of Thrace after havingravaged and Macedonia with extreme the destroying barbarity, fruit-treesand burningthe houses of the peasantry. He oflered, a however,to treat of peace, and proposed i nterview Romanus who was compelled with I., personal his proud enemy without the walls, in such a to meet had the appearance of a Roman way that the meeting emperor suingfor peace from a victorious barbarian. the ground marked out Romanus, when he approached for the interview, the Bulgarian saw army saluteSimeon
as an
emperor
music,while the
silver
of body-guard
^ The second writers in is placed by aU the Byzantine captureof Adrianople 922 ; but Krug givesreasons for placing it in the year the 10th indiction, a.d. 923." CAron. dtr B^ 155.
AFFAIRS
OF
BULaARIA.
369
of Constantinople people by its A.T" and the veteran soldiers of the empireby its ^^^ splendour, It seems that the rebellion of the steady discipline.^ Sclavonians in the Peloponnesus filledRomanus with anxiety ; but he affectedto solicit peace from motives of and humanity, that he mightalleviate ings the sufferreligion of his subjects. The basis of peace was settledat tliis and Simeon retired to his own conference, kingdom laden with the plunder of the provinces and the gold of The Byzantine the emperor. writers omit to mention of this treaty, so that there can any of the stipulations
armour,
astonished the
be
no
pire. em-
always
in their notice of treaties, and have extremely negligent of any of those connot transmitted to us the stipulations cluded with the Khazars,or other nations through whose of the a great territory partof the commercial intercourse with India and China was carried on, Byzantine empire
in was Constantinople
can
greatmeasure
that one
derived.
There
be
no
doubt,however,
the public of this treaty was stipulations of the Bulgarian of the independence acknowledgment of the archbishop and the official of church, recognition both by the emperor as Patriarch of Bulgaria, Dorostylon
of the
Constantinople.^ the Servians and arms against in these hostilities is said to Croatians. His cruelty have surpassed tants witnessed. The inhabiever anything murdered, and all were deliberately everywhere that its richest plains Servia was reso depopulated
and the Patriarch of Simeon then turned bis
' alliance with the Pope,who sent to have formed Simeon is suppoeed an him a royal to reward his hostilitiesagainstthe Byzantine crown empire and il 187. Slavitche AlUrthilmer, church." Schafarik, ' The fact is proved by the listof the primates of Bulgaria givenby Duabolished in Bulgaria was dignity cange, Fam. Aug, Byz.176. The patriarchal The Greek in the 972. he I. when John conquered country (Zimiskes), by church when they assert that the head of the Bulgarian writers err, therefore, as a patriarch never was recognised by the church of Constantinople. officially 1 1227,and ii. "Le Ckritiianus, 287, and Neale's History Quien, OruM of ike voL L p. 44, afford no information on this curious question. Holy Eatiern Church,
VOL.
T.
2 A
370
BOOK
n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
mained uncultivated for many years. Everyinhabitant carriedinto Bulgaria to be sold as a slave ; ^^^ gi^jj^ chm^4. ^^ and the
was capital so seven that, completely destroyed, men only fifty years after the retreat of the invaders, found in itsvicinity, were as hunters.^ At lastthe living
defeated by the Croacompletely to despair. of Simeon had driyen whom the cruelty tians, itself under and Servia placed Simeon died shortly after, the protection of the Byzantine government. had been formidable at this time by the Bulgaria
Bulgarian army
was
talents of Simeon
now
power.
It
was
who were by the Magyars, incursions into Germany,Italy, on carrying plundering threatened with invasion
into France. and
even
who Peter,
to secure
had
succeeded his
anxious
: he married a closerunion with the empire by forming of the Emperor Christophoros, and a Maria,the daughter ance long peace followed this alliance. But the tiesof alleginot very powerful were people, among the Bulgarian and a rebellionwas headed by Michael the brother of
Peter.
state of
afterMichael's death; and when they were independence entered the territory at last compelled to emigrate, they of the empire, the themes of Stryand, passing through
mon,
retained
that
It
and city
seems
countryfor
time.
Sclavesians into the Peloponnesus was thisinroad of the Bulgarians.' Thrace had
ravages of the
not
before it its losses, to recover Bulgarians who advanced to the was by the Hungarians, plundered walls of Constantinople in 934.' The retreat of these
Sendt wag ravaged in 927." Const Porphyr. De Adm, Imp.chap. 82. Wo Servia with may compare the way in which Simeon laid waste and depopiuated that in which William the Conqueror treated Northumberland from policy, and the New Forest for amusement." ir. Hume, BUt, of Engiand, chap. * 628. Cedrenus, " Contin. 262. Symeon Mag. 488. Oeorg.Mon. 588. Leo Qramm. 606.
*
372
BooKH.
^'
'"
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
This tribute was Sicily. but the treaty reduced to 11,000 byzants, subsequently of the Emperor Niceremained in force until the reign in the south of 11/ Even this distant province phorus incursions of not safe from the plundering was Italy who in the year 948 embarked on the the Hungarians, under the walls of Otranto. and ravaged Adriatic, Apulia interestsof Christianity, The general as well as the extent induced the Byzantine commerce, ment governByzantine to aid Hugh of Provence and the Genoese in established at the nest of Saracen pirates destroying in the Alps, to the eastward of Nice.' Fraxinet, II. was Romanus only twenty-one years of age when
of
He
bore
strong resemblance
much of his goodhis father in person, and possessed nature and mildness of disposition, but he was of a more
dulged he inUnfortunately, with an eagerness that in every species of pleasure ruined his health and reputation, thoughhis judicious selection of ministers prevented the empire. its injuring He was blamed for inhumanity, in compelling his sisters to enter a monastery ; but as his object was a political he was satisfied one, in order to prevent their marriage, with their taking the veil, thoughtheyrefused to wear
the monastic dress ; and he allowed them to liveas they and dispose of their own fortunes at fit, thought private will. His own obtained if he prevented was object any alliancewith an forming which would have endangered the hereditary tliem, right of his own children. His good-nature is avouched by the fact, that when Basilios calledthe Bml, a favourite ministerof his father engaged in a number of patricians
" "
he allowed none of the to seize the throne, conspiracy to be put to death. conspirators Though he spenttoo
a
^
"
v. 319. d'ltaliay
BOMANUS
II. A.D.
959-963.
373
A.D.
much
by actors
945^3.
conducted
surrounded
in
and hunting,
he spentmuch of his time in the country his horses, and his by his gay companions,
in
dogs.
His
excesses
ruined
his constitution ; but when he died the people, who remembered four,
and smiling figure countenance, attributed his death to manner poison.His wife,whose beautyand graceful the public never which apwon to pardona low alliance, peared to their prejudices of the the majesty to disgrace accused of this crime, of having was purple, as well as the death of her father-in-law.^ Romanus on instigated his death-bed did not neglect his duty to the empire. He had observed that his able prime-minister, Joseph had begun to manifest too great jealousy of Bringas, Phokas ; be therefore left it as his dying Nicephorus
that Nicephorus should not be removed injunction the command of the army employed the against who conducted the Joseph Bringas, the reign of Romanus II.,was a during and integrity. His worst act, in the eyes
was, that he withdrew
an
from
cens. Sara-
administration
man
of talent John
of his contemporaries,
eunuch,named
monastery into which he had been exiled by Constantino VII.,and conferred on him the dignity
a
from Cherinas,
of
with the command of the foreign patrician, guards. The Patriarch protested in vain against this act of sacrilege wanted a man the guard, to command over ; Bringas whom he knew the leading ence nobles could exerciseno influhis frock, ; so the monk quitted put on armour, and became
a
ablest and
of the at court. one Sisinios, man leading in the public most upright was men service,
'
Leo
31,odiL DiaoonuB,
Boon.
874
BOOK II.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
^'"'^
and rendered the admiof Constantinople, prefect A general nistrationof justice prompt and equitable. and he tried the talentsand firmness of Bringas, scarcity it occurred met the difficulty though by hisgreatexertions, made
at
necessary to make
extraordinary
Crete. the expedition to prorision against preparations taken distress the public to alleriate was Everymeasure
in
a
paidfor ; to prevent speculation army was immediately in com, the exportation from the capital of provisions law whidi may often be rendered was a prohibited
"
of police, thoughit is necessary as a temporary measure of sound a direct violationof the permanent principles commercial
The
policy.
II. was the of Komanus greatevent of the reign inflictedon Byzantine conquest of Crete. The injury fittedout in the numerous commerce by the Saracen corsairs, compelled ports on the north side of that island, many
from the rulersof Crete by the payment of a protection tribute. The trade of Constantinople and its regular of provisions were supplies yet constantly interrupted, several expeditions fittedout on the largest Crete, against had been defeated. The overthrow scale,
in the
reignof Leo VI. has been noticed.^ RoI. was im willing to revivethe memory of his share manus in that disaster, and left the Cretans undisturbed during his reign ; but Constantino VII., towards the end of his the an on reign, a very grand scale, prepared expedition
command of which he intrusted
to
an
eunuch
named
defeated ; the was Gongyles.This expedition completely taken,and the greaterpart of the Byzantine camp was force destroyed. with diffiGongyleshimself escaped culty.2
1 '
Seepage 881.
Leo Diaoonus,6. 640. Cedrenue,
Zonaras, ii.195.
Constant.
EXPEDITION
AGAINST
CBBTB,
A.D.
960.
875
seated on the throne before he a. d. hardly ^^^^ resolyed to wipeoS the disgrace the empire had suflFered. The only mode of protecting the commerce of the capital
was
Romanus
and
the coasts
of Greece
was
determined to fitout
an
on expedition
scalesuitablefor
this undertaking, Phokas and he knew that in Nicephorus he possessed to the enterprise. a general Bringas equal aided the emperor with zeal and energy, and gave no to the endeayours that some countenance courtiers made
to awaken
the jealousy of Romanus, that too much glory from the successfultermination mightaccrue to Nicephorus
of
and
The
dromon
the
which war-galley,
had
of the triremes of the ancient Greeks and place the quinqueremes of the Romans two tiers ; it had only of rowers, and the largest carried three hundred men, of
whom
seventywere
chelands
were
for rapid vessels, movements, adapted lighter fittedwith tubes for launching Greek fire, and their
seem
to 160
men.
More
with freighted
not to suppose
war
of attended the ships large transports machines and stores.^ We military that the dromons few
were only as
and chelands
were
allfittedfor the
; a
provisions necessary
for
sian with Armenian, Sdavonian,and RusEurope, auxiliaries. The port of Phygela, near Ephesus,
^ of the veeaelB compoeing the us the enumeration Symeon Mag. 498,givee He says there were dromons, two thousand chelandia, a thousand expedition. and he is an author deserving tion. attenand three hundred and sixty transports, caUed donkeyfWgates Our admiralty built at one time a daas of fHgates ; goYemment was no better advised. perhiqwthe Byzantine
376
BOOK u.
BA8ILIAN
DYNASTY.
seryed
as
the
of rend^vous place
f^^^ ^YiQcoasts of Greece and CHjj^i. was Everything readjin the disembarked his troopsin Crete withcmt sustaining Nicephorus the Saracens attempted to oppose though any loss, the operation. The city to of Chandax was prepared defend itself and the Mohammedans to the lastextremity, in the rest of the island took active measures for resisting the progress of the Byzantine their and preventing troops, from the interior. Chandax was deriving any supplies fortified too strongly to be taken without a regular siege, it that the of first invest to so was operation Nicephorus To insure the fallof the place in form. at the risk even ing he began of prolonging his operations the siege, by formcircumvallationround his camp and naval a complete which he connected with the station,
the and city,
sea on
collected ships the islands of the Egean.^ month of July 960, and for the
both sides of
thus cut the enemy oflf tion from all communicaof with the Saracens in the country. The pirates
had often been at war with all the world,and their stronghold in such a way that it theyhad fortified
could be defended with
Chandax
while the bulk garrison, of their forceswere in search of plunder.The cruising attacks of the Byzantine repeated emperors had also warned them of the dangers to which they were exposed. Towards the land, wall the a high ; it was protected city but the mortar of which composedof sun-dried bricks, theywere formed had been kneaded with the hair of
a
small
into
mass
broad that
A
two
hard
as
its summit.
double ditch of greatdepth and breadth the work, and rendered approach diflBcult. strengthened
One of the
sent parties out
he had
Strabo
Symeon Mag.
498.
CONQUEST
OP
CRETE,
A.D.
961.
377
A.n.
the fortress completedhis arrangements for blockading the during winter. The
an
attempting army, and proposed attacked in when they to relievethe besieged were city,
their position, and routed with great loss. The Byzantine i n of defenders the general, order to intimidate
silverfor every head. They were then ranged on spears the whole line of the circumvallation towards the along fortifications of the that many great,
of
more
city ;
were
of slainwas
so
in order catapults, A
to
into the
strictblockade
was
winter. When
the weather
before the port, and at all times several of the swiftest dromons and chelands were kept ready to pursue any vesselthat might either attempt to enter or quit the port.
thoughthe Saracens were reduced to suffer great showed no disposition and to surrender, privations, they the siege advanced with on as spring pressed Nicephorus mines and battering-rams. At last a practicable breach and the place taken by storm on the was effected, was 7th of May 961.^ The accumulated wealth of many abandoned to the troops, was years of successfulpiracy but a rich booty and numerous carried to slaves were and shown in triumph to the people. Constantinople, To complete the conquest of the island, it was necessary to exterminate the whole of the Saracen population. To
effect of Chandax the fortifications this, the ground, and
on a a new were
But
levelledwith
into corrupted
378
BOOK
^'
'"
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
iL
* **
and garrisoned by a body of Bjsantine Armenian troops. Many Saracens, boweyer,remained in the island, but they redaced to a state approachwere ing senritude. The greater part of the Greek population
constructed and
in
some
Mohammedan*
ism
the daring
the island
he had back
to
As soon as the conquestof the island was Christianity.^ the greater completed, part of the army was ordered to Asia Minor ; but Nicephorus inyited by the emperor was to yisit where he was allowed the honour Constantinople, of a triumph. He brought Kurup,the Saracen emir of in his train.^ Crete, a prisoner
here pause to take a cursory yiew of the state of Greece during the ninth and tenth centuries. The We
may
preceding pages
in the
haye
conc^*ning
preseryed
how a people, and whose language explain litei*ature in society, a occupied predominant position neither political enjoyed power nor moral pre-eminence instruction of eyery child in nation. The literary a as the empire roughly culture was thowho receiyed any intellectual
insufficient to
Greek
; its
its firstprayers
were
were feelings
refined
by
the
choicestpassages of the Greek poetsand its opening mind was enlarged by the
^
Annal Baronius,
Eocies,ajx
961.
F.
240. Leo Diaoonus,28,420, edit Bonn. Krug, 314. There is a oontemporaiy in five cantos (acroases) the conquest of Crete,by TheodosioSy a on deacon, which givesa tolerably pictureof correct^though not a very poetical, the war. and is givenin the It was publishedin the Oreta Sacra of Cornelius, volume at of the Byzantine historians that contains Leo Diaoonus,printed Bonn. poem
*
380
was
BA8ILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL
^'^^^
of great actiritj, increase, a period unqaestionablj and improTement as among every other among the Greeks, of the Eastern Empire. But of the population portion after the subjection of the Sclavonian colonists in the first
years of the ninth and the re-establishment of century, nean, the whole Mediterra-
into a stationary dition. conrelapsed again society There is no doubt that the general aspectof the a total change ; and its condition countryhad undergone
centurywas as differentfrom its condition in the seventh,as the state of the southern provinces is from their state in of Russia, in the presentcentury, the thirteenth, after the devastations of the Tartars.
in the tenth
Numerous
The
us
new
of legendary history
the Greek
monasteries tells
that the that the country was deserted, once utterly ruggedlimestone mountains were overgrown with forests and thick brushwood, and that into these deserted spots holy hermits retired to avoid the presence of pagan and pastoral the rich plains who occupied Sclavonians, of the slopes
chorites holyan-
in celb once dwelling occupied by saintsof an earlierday men who were supposed Roman fled of from have to persecutions imaginary whole provinces by their emperors, who had depopulated hatred to Christianity, instead of by administrativeoppression where the and visions hermits saw ; revealing these predecessors had concealed portraits paintedby
dreamed
theywere
"
the work of no miraculous pictures, himself, or human hand. Such is perhaps a not unapt representation the of a large part of the rural districtsof Greece during seventh century. The immense extent of the private
^ Of like Lacssdemon, others constraoted on ancient sites, these, were some replacedneighbouringancient cities^ like Monemvasia, Piada,UMi, Veligoeti, Andrayida, and Arkadia.
St Luke
CONDITION
OP
GREECE.
381
A.D. 945-963.
estates of
populated, deleftwhole provinces Philosopher, and fit to be used as pasture.'Landlords, only and slavery had all conspired to reduce robbers, pirates, and depopulation before Gi-eece to a state of degradation
the Sclavonians colonisedher soil. administration of the Iconoclastsrestored vigorous subdued the reduced the aristocracy to obedience, order, and commerce. and revived industry The Sclavonians, the Greek population state of Greece was again changed, increased as if theyhad been new colonistssettled on a and from the end of the ninth centuryto the soil, virgin invasionof the Crusaders, Greece was a richand flourishing The material causes of thiswealth are as evident province. of its political The as the moral causes insignificance.
The
greatpart of the
the hands
commerce
of the Mediterranean
was
in
of the Greeks ; the wealth and laws of the at theircommand empire ; Byzantine amplecapital placed
was
the silkmanufacture
cotton manufacture
now
is to Manchester
and
Glasgow ;
at
a
Monemvasia
was
then what
Venice became
later
period ; the slave-trade, thoughit filledthe world with and Christian society with demoralisation, brought misery, wealth to the shores of Greece. The mass of the agricultural as as much too, enjoyed population, prosperity the commercial. The produce of the countrywas dant, abunand labour bore a far higher than has ever price been the case in western Europe. This was a natural resultof the state of things in the vicinity of every town and village in Greece. able The nature of all the most valuof the land rendered the demand for labour produce at particular seasons very great; and thislabour yielded for it fructified immense profits, vineyards, olive-groves, and orchards of the choicestkinds, formed by the accumulated
of ages. capital
The labour of
few
created days
382
BOOK II.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
an
amount
of
which produce
at
bore
Greece
this time
habits of the Sclavonians, who still pastoral large occupied at a distancefrom the principal towns, prevented provinces
of the cultivation
; and greatextent of country which in ancient times the ruin of the excellent roads, had admitted of the transport of huge blocks of marble,
corn over a
of grain rendered the transport mountains, roughest cumstances All these cirany considerable distance impossible. of rendered labour valuable. The cultivation
often a matter of necessity, was husbandry by spade grain labourer could easily maintain a so that the agricultural and abundance. of comparative ease position chance of improvement the only In thisstate of society, which was layin the moral advancement of the citizen, with onlyattainableby the union of freelocalinstitutions central administrationof the state,and a well-organised a judicial political system over which the highest power central could exert no influence. Unfortunately no which has posgovernment on the continent of Europe, sessed and sufficient to repress local selfishness, strength has ever yet avoided the undue power of privileged dasses, the case in the Byzantine fiscal ; and thiswas oppression empire.The social condition of the Greeks nourished intense local selfishness of the ; the central operation exactions. The Byzantine government led to severe fiscal result of the political and financial, well as of the as moral state of the country,was to produce a stationary Taxation absorbed allthe annual condition of society. of industry offeredno invitation to form ; society profits and or extend existing manufactures, new plantations, the age afforded no openings for new enterprises ; each in the limitsof that which had moved exactly generation
CONDITION
OP
GREECE.
383
in a state of material so that Greece, it, though preceded the brink of decline. That was on prosperity, standing
a.d.
^^^^
decline commenced
to
the moment
enabled
of their
country. Amalfi,Pisa,Genoa, and Venice,freed from the fiscal of a central government, became first oppression
the rivals and then the
merce,
of the superiors
Greeks
in
com-
CHAPTER
II.
PERIOD
OP
CONQUEST
A.D.
AND
96S-1025.
MILITARY
GLORY.
8RCT.
I."REIONS
OP
NICBPH0RU8
A.D.
IL, PHOKAB,
963-076.
AND
JOHN
(ZTlflSKESf).
AOMnflSTRATION 96S-969
"
OF
JOSEPH
ADMnnsTRATioN
BrINO
"
AS
"
CHARACTER
war
"
OF
NiOBFHORUS
nr
"
XL,
Sicilt,
^Public
Saracen
of
"
Affairs
Italy,
OF
and
Bulgaria"
Assassination
"
Nicbphorus
of
II.
the of
Character
fakilt of
John
I., 969-976
IL
war"
Coronation
"
Rebellions
war"
Nicbphorus Saracen
(Phokas)
Death
of
Russlah L
Rbpubuo
Chersok"
John
The
Empress
Tbeophano
sons,
was was
leffc by
Romanus
to
II. of
a
but
as
she
brought
bed
days before her husband's death, the whole direction of publicbusiness remained in the hands of Joseph Bringas,whose acknowledged, was universally ability but whose suspicious character severity and him rendered generallyunpopular. His jealousy soon him involved in a contest with for power Nicephorus daughter only two
Phokas, who, however, did
until his
not venture to
personal safetywas
and the
guaranteed by
Polyeuktes. to celebrate his victories in Syria he displayed to a superstitious crowd the relics he had obtained by his victories over the Mohammedans the pietyof the age attached as much ; and importance to these as his troops did to the booty and slaves with which they were enriched.^ Bringas saw that
'
Patriarch
Cedrenus,
6i6,
Zonaras, ii 198.
ADMINISTRATION
OF
JOSEPH
BRINGAS.
385
the
influof Nicephorus and the powerful a.d. popularity ^^^^' of his family connections must soon ence gain him the title of Emperor, and his jealousy pitated appears to have precithe event he feared. He formed a plotto have in order that his eyes might the victorious seized, general be put out. being informed of his danger, Nicephorus and having secured the support of the Patriarch by his to take prompt devout conduct,persuaded Polyeuktes of Bringas. to protect him from the designs measures The senate was convoked, and the Patriarch proposed should be intrusted with the command of that Nicephorus the army in Asia,according to the lastwill of Romanus II.i Bringas did not venture to oppose this proposal of the Patriarch, which was eagerly adopted ; and Nicephorus, the children of after taking oath never to injure an him at the head of Romanus, his lawful sovereigns, placed allthe Byzantine forces in Asia. his schemes ; he wrote to John still Bringas pursued the ablest and most popular of the generals Zimiskes, him the supreme under the orders of Nicephorus, oflfering if he would seize the general-in-chief, command and send him to Constantinople the Zimiskes was as a prisoner. conduct shows nephew of Nicephorus ; but his subsequent
in the
cution exe-
for project
not
his
own
have
be
permanent,and he may
have known
show little for any gratitude of Nicephorus with the service;while the popularity the soundest policy. to his general troops made fidelity Zimiskes carried the letterof the
the phorus, to Niceprime-minister and invited him to assume the imperial title, as his own lifeand protecting of securing onlymeans
that he would
Leo
S4. DiaooDua,
VOL.
I.
886
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BooKu.
Ofl.u.fl.
their swords, and before he would allow himself threaten to killtheir uncle, The same had been to be proclaimed thing emperor. Kurkuas
were
to compelled
draw
who it was beUeved had (the Armenian), the throne by his murderer and been compelled to mount and marched yielded, successor, Michael 11.^ Nicephorus where he enfrom Csesarea to Chrysopolis, camped. immediately found littlesupport in the capital. Briugas the natural son of the Emperor Romanus I., Basilios, said of Leo
V.
armed
his
and exciting of the populace, sallied into a sedition slaves, and attacked the houses of Constantinople, to seek an asythe ministers, most of whom were compelled lum in the churches.^ Nicephorus the invited to enter was where he was crowned by the Patriarch Polyeukcapital, the streets of the 16th of August 963.^ on Sophia's, The family and of Phokas was of Cappadocian origin, had now for three generations the empirewith supplied an able emperor, generals.^ distinguished proved Nicephorus and a faithfulguardian of the young emperors ; but his personal with military was bearing tinged severity, and his cold phlegmatic his the temper prevented using either with the courtiers arts necessjiryto gainpopularity
tes,in St
or
was
moral,and he
was
cerely sin-
religious ; but
the
he
was
too
to confound enlightened
of his real piety, in spite he was and, consequently, calumniated by the clergy as a Indeed, hjrpocrite.^
there was
who ascended the throne at the age of fifty-one, should prove a popular when he succeeded a young prince,
and gay monarch
^
like Romanus
II.
Leo Diaoonus,38. Zonaras,ii 198. Basilios was the son of a Sc^vonianwoman eminent men of ; like many his time,he was an eunuch. Leo Diaconus,94. " Leo Diaconus,48. * 727. Luitprand,847. Cedrenus, ' of goldfrom the spoils of Crete sent a hundred Nicephorus pounds' weight
*
"
388
BooKiL
CB.n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
while it
f 1.
among
anpopular
had devoted great attentionto improving Nicephoras of the Byzantine the discipline army, and, as it consisted this could onlybe done by in greatpart of mercenaries, His chief object to obtain was a liberalexpenditure. of his and all the measures troopsof the best quality, An administrationwere directed to fill the treasury. civil efficient ; and army was the chief supportof the empire
to it seemed,therefore,
an
a maintaining and well-appointed force. Perhaps numerous military of Constantinople would have applauded his the people
emperor
was
to
secure
of
his conduct,had he been more liberalin the wealth he extorted from the provinces on lavishing maxims
and and shows festivals in the
the commencement
This
of his
A severe famine,at capital. increased his unpopulareign, rity. in the of Romanus reign
commenced scarcity
was
II.,and, among
it Bringas, the of price
for a piece of gold, that, a high, should much man as as he could carry onlypurchase It is very probable that the measures away in his pockets. tended to increase the evil, adopted by Nicephorus in saying that he allowed each merchant Zonaras, though
wheat
law,would lead us to infer that he abolished monopolies and maximums, and left
to
use
his
own
interest as
the trade in
free.^ grain
of his reign,
of the court,and curtailedthe penlargesses sions courtiers. of The worst his t o act granted reign, the which for h istorianshave one Byzantine justly
Cedrenus, 660.
The priceof a modios of wheat bushel for eleven shillings), the emperor sold itfrom the public at half that price granaries grumbled, ; yet the people because it was said Basil I. had, on some oidered wheat to be sold at occasion, the rate of twelve modioi for a goldnomisma.
Zonaras,ii.203-206.
to
a
havingrisen
nomisma
a (that is,
eccl':e:siastical measures,
a.d.
963-969.
889
branded bim with merited odium,was bis yiolationof tbe and tbe bonour of tbe Eastern Empire, faitb, public by
and issuing called tbe coin, debased coin, a adulterating tbe tetarteron. Tbis debased money be employed to pay
a. a
"^^-
tbe debts of tbe state,wbile tbe taxes continued to be exacted in tbe old and pure coin of tbe empire. Tbe
standard of tbe of coinage
tbe Eastern
must
until
are
of
tbe few emperors wbo purity ; and witb tbe currency bave been branded reigns by tampering witb infamy.Perbapstbere is no better proof of tbe in Byzantine civilisation bigb state of political society.* But tbe stronggroundsof dissatisfaction Niceagainst into personal dental were pborus animosity ripened by an acciin wbicb many persons tumult in tbe bippodrome, lost tbeirlives. It happened wbile tbe troopswere tbat, tbe evolutions of a sbam-figbt, a report goingtbrougb intended to punisb tbe people, tbat tbe emperor arose
Tbe
stones
at
as
be
of and
passedthroughthe
streets.
caused
men,
rush out
women,
course,
insistedtbat
premeditated.^ disturbed by tbe of Nicephorus The whole reign was and one of his wisest measures ill-will of the clergy, met with tbe most determined opposition. In order to render jects, tbe military service more popular among his native subtbe army and prevent the veterans from quitting under the influence of religious distorted by feelings to declare that all he wished the clergy superstition, in war Christians wbo perished tbe Saracens against
Cedrenus, 658. Diaconus witnessed the insults Nicephornsbore, and admired his burnt for throwinga stone at him. P. 65. was equanimity ; but a^woman ii. 203. Zonaras,
' 1
"
390
BOOK
11.
BASILUN
DYNASTY.
w^e
^""*^'
who
of
it greater gainto of
But the Pairiardi, religion. than a patriot, considered a churchman the clergy to retain the power of granting of
to bestow
than absolutions,
the
most
donation liberal
the
canons
; and he
to appealed
of St Basil to prove that all war was tian to Chriscontrary and that a Christian who killedan enemy, discipline,
eren
in
war
with the
Infidels, oughtto
be excluded from
for three years. in the holy sacrament participating the With a priesthood such religious opinions, supporting Byzantine empirehad need of an admirable system of and administration, perors, to year of his
a
series of brave
and
warlike
^n-
endeavoured to restrain Nicephorus reign, for founding monasteries that then reigned the passion dences resialmost universally. Many converted their family into monastic buildings, in order to terminate their lives as monks, without changing their habits of life. The emperor prohibited the foundation of any monasteries and hospitals, that onlythose new enacting in existence should be maintained ; and he already declared all testamentary donations of landed property in favour of the church void.^ He alsoexcited the anger of the
to
be made
He approbation.
in the habit of
wealthiest sees
or
the new of to pay a large compelled bishop porti(Mi into the imperial his receipts annually treasury.^ well that his of was so aware Nicephorus unpopularity, which he he converted the great palace into a citadel, As the made capable of defence with a small garrison. the walls army was devoted to him, he knew that beyond
^
Zonarasiii 208.
The NorelicB of
s
"
CHABACTBE
OP
IflCEPHORUS
II.
891
danger. In estimatinga. d. ^^^^' the character and conduct of Nicephorus must II., we not forget that his enemies have drawn his portrait, and modem for his reputation, that^ historians unfortunately have generally attadied more credit to the splenetic account of the Byzantine the bishop court by Luitprand, of Cremona^than diplomatic of that age are despatches entitledto receive. Luitprand visited Constantinople as
no
of
he was ConstantiDople
in
ambassador from
to
the German
Otho expected Nicephorus. that the Byzantine emperor would cede his possessions in southern Italy the dowry of the princess; Nicephorus as the German emperor would yield expected up the and Capua for the honour Beneventum over suzerainty of the alliance. As mightbe expected, from the pride and rapacity the ambassador failed in of both parties, his mission ; but he revenged himself by libelling phorus; Niceand his picture of the pride and suspicious in its intercourse with of the Byzantine court policy his libel some value,and serves an as foreigners gives for his virulence.^ apology of Nicephorus to break the The darling was object power of the Saracens,and
the phano,
of Mesopotamia. In the spring Tarsus,which was 964, he assembled an army against frontier. The river the fortress that covered the Syrian it into two dividing Cydnus flowed throughthe city, The place which were united by three bridges. portions, with and amply supplied well fortified, was populous,
airr"imjs as an may be estimated from to be a hundred father of Nicephorus,appeared sador in visited had Constantmople 948, as ambasold. and fifty Luitprand years then exported. of Berenger,with a present of eunuchs, which Verdun that and the eagle He then saw the singing tree,the lions of metal that roared, flappedits mngs."Luitprandi Hist, lib.vL chap. 1. Daru, Hittoire de Venise^ isin Muratori, Scrip. embassy to Nicephorus i 92. The account of Luitprand's Collectionpublished 479 ; and in the volume of the Bysantine Ber. lud. tom. ii. at Bonn, which contains Leo Diaconus.
^
The
value of the
evidence bishop's
Bardas,the hi8jBaying;that
892
BOOK ^"
n.
BABILIAN
DYNASTY.
eTeiy
means
of
was
com-
**'
to polled
raise the
Adana, which he took. He siegeof neous subterrahis men to run a and, employing Mopsuestia, the besi^ed he prevented under the walls, gallery
from taken the operation observing by throwingthe from the excavation into the his mine
was
against
earth
walls
were
burned, and
die
the Byzantine rampart fell, army year of Tarsus with siege The Next of
carried the
placeby
the
placewas the inhabitants wei*e a warlike race, who had and though territory, long carried on incursions into the Byzantine and their native city, to abandon theywere compelled with them onlytheir personal retireinto Syria, carrying A rich cross, which the Saracens had taken clothing. when theydestroyed the Byzantine army under Stypiotes in the year 877, was recovered, and placed in the church of St Sophiaat Constantinople. The bronze gates of Tarsus and Mopsuestia, which were of rich workmanship, also removed,and placed in the new were by Nicephorus citadel he had constructed to defend the palace.^ In the same reconquered by an expedition year Cyprus was under the command of the patrician Niketas. For two years the emperor was tinople at Constanoccupied by the civil administration of the empire, by a threatened invasion of the Hungarians, and by disputes with the kingof Bulgaria resumed ; but in 968 he again the command of the army in the East. Earlyin spring he marched past Antioch at the head of eighty thousand that city, he to besiege and, without stopping men, in its of the fortified places rendered himself master in order to cut it off from aJl relieffrom neighbourhood,
^
Leo
DiaoonuB,61.
ZoDarae,iL 201.
SARACEN
WAR,
A.D.
969.
a.d.
*
caliph of Bagdat. He then pushed forward his Aleppo,Area, and ; Laodicea, Hierapolis, conquests and Damascus Emesa taken, and Tripolis were paid
the tribute to
save
this
campaign many
winter,the emperor
until the
in
a
fort
to watch
the
city,
and prevent the inhabitants from collecting proyisions and military of the army, under The remainder stores. the command
was
of
Peter,was
stationed in CUicia.^ As he
of restoring glory
anxious to
to
reserve
to himself the
he ordered his lieutenants not empire, of the his absence. But one to attack the city during of him the measure employedby Burtzes brought spies and of a tower which it was easy to approach, the height the temptation not to to take the place was by surprise while be resisted. Accordingly, on a dark winter night, himself there was a heavyfall of snow, Burtzes placed and gained at the head of three hundred chosen men, diately of two of the towers of Antioch.^ He immepossession
Antioch
the
sent
oflf a courier
to
to
tress of
remarkable of these relics were old garment and a bloody an and the tilewith the said to have belonged to John the Baptist, hair, miraculous portraitof our Saviour,which last was taken at Hierapolis. an ancient terrarcotta, Cedrenus, 656. Zonaras,iL 201. This tilewas probably The with a head of Jupiterresembling the received type of the Savioor. The most
"
of Mahomet also taken in this campaign, for the Mohammedans was much votaries of relics in this age as the Christians. combat with a Peter was an eunuch ; he distinguished himself in single Russian champion, whom he killed with his lance. Leo Diaconus, 109. ' The towers of Antioch presentvery much the appearance they did when " attacked by Burtzes. they were They are about thirtyfeet square, and each way so as to defend the interior side, as well as the exterior face project of the wall : the latter is from fifty to sixtyfeet high,and eightor ten feet broad at top,which is covered with cut stones terminated in a cornice. The and three loop-holed towers have interior staii*cases, stagesrestingon brick and is a small cistern there the uppermost having a small platform arches, ; tures beneath. Low doors afford a passage along the parapet,so that these strucconnected small castles a chain curtain, be of a asby regarded may for the rather than as simple towers." Colonel Chesney. The Expedition and Tigris.Vol. i.p. 426. Survey of the rivers Euphrates sword
were ' as
" " "
S94
BASILIAN
DT9ASTT.
BOOK
fixmi of the city ; bat Peter, possession f^^ ^f ^^ emperor's c"^^i. moving to the jealousy, delayed thisintaral, assistanceof Burtzes for three days.Daring the repeated Bartzes defended himself against howerer, culty. with great diffiattacks of the whole population, though and AnThe Byzantine arrived, army at length remained tioch was annexed to the empireafter having The Emperor 828 years in the power of the Saracras. Bartzes for his energy, instead of rewarding Nicephorus,
n.
The Fatimite
was
had
of diiefly conquered ; and the army, consisting Cyprus under the orders of more was cavalry, particularly placed Manuel Phokas, officer.^ the emperor's cousin, a daring The troops were landed
on
the eastern
was
little preparation
was
stormed,and
Africa.
to
phorus, Nicethe
in
had
great esteem
for Niketas in
to sending
of spite
Moez
his captivity Syria. Niketas consoled himself during by works his the of MS. of St Basil, and a transcribing manship penstill existsin the National Library at Paris.^ embroiled The affairs of Italy by local were, as usual,
L riyal of Romanus Cedrenus of to consider the conqueror seems different persons ; but we can Cyprusand the prisonerof Sicily hardlysuppose and there were of Niketas who were two eunuchs of the name patricians, held the officeof drungarios or admiral" Pp. 654, 655. The MS. ismentioned 443. Pal. Grceea,45 ; and by HaBe,inhis notes to Leo Diaconus, by Montfiiucon,
was ^ *
He Leo
the
son
of Leo
the Phokas,
396
BOOK
Ch.
a.
BA8ILIAN
DYNASTY.
iL
IL
his in the capital, II. was as Unpopular Nicephorus free from rebellions of the troops or was reign unnsuallj terminated His life insurrectionsin the provinces. was in his own His beautiful palace by domestic treachery. wife Theophano, and his valiant nephew John Zimiskes, said to have been his murderers. Theophano were was from love for induced to take part in the conspiracy to marry after he mounted whom she expected Zimiskes, the throne. Zimiskes murdered
his friend and
relation
from the personal enemies of the emperor, among whom to John Zimiskes at midnight Burtzes, accompanied wall overlooking the port palace
of Bukoleon, and the female attendants of the empress hoisted them up from their boat in baskets. Other assassins had been the concealed in the
and all marched the day, palace during to the apartment of the emperor. was ing sleepNicephorus the floor for he retained the habits of on tranquilly his military life amidst the luxury of the imperial palace.
"
Zimiskes awoke
him with
a
kick,and
on
one
of the
spirators con-
gave him
wound desperate
most
the
head,while
:
Zimiskes insulted his uncle with words and blows others stabbed him in the barbarous
manner.
"
the
The
God !
grant
John I. was immediately thy mercy.*' claimed proof The phorus Nicemurderers. body emperor by the thrown into the court,and left all day on was the snow view,that everybody might exposedto public be convinced he was it was dead. In the evening interred. privately ber Phokas on the 10th DecemThus perished Nicephorus 969 able general, and, with all a brave soldier, an
me
"
^ A eunuchs of Basil that Nicephorus intended to make reportwas spread and Constantine, and declare his brother Leo his successor." Zonaras, iL 207. This was probably invention of Theophano, but it met with little credit, an and her crime was ascribed to her warmth of temperament and the coldness monasteries with eunuchs of her husband. There was a greatfashion of filling at this time.
JOHN
I.
A.D. (ZIMISKES),
969-976.
897
of the
most
virtuousmen
of
aud conscientious
A.D.
^3-"76.
of and sure Empire, the highest o"Sces at a proud and luxurious obtaining in pursuit of military court,he chose a lifeof hardship who wrote after ; and a contemporaryhistorian, glory had been ruined by proscription, his family and his name
no
one
had
ever
seen
in revelry in his youth.^ or debauchery even indulge warrior and an able general.^ John I. was a daring He was thoughtless, sures generous, and addicted to the pleaof the table, he was by no means so that, a though he was far more better emperor than Nicephorus, popular find that his base assassiat Constantinople nation : hence we of his sovereign and relative was easily pardoned of his predecessor and forgotten, while the fiscalseverity The court of Constantinople never was was forgiven.
so
that it was relieved from all sense of corrupt, utterly knew no law but fear and ; the aristocracy responsibility and successfulambition rendered every interest, private
was
who had courage enough to gamble, risk their eyes and their livesto gain an empire. Yet we and John were must observe that both Nicephorus men
of nobler minds
and persons of their wards and legithe rights respected timate and Basil and contented Constantine, princes, and the rank themselves with the post of prime-minister
of emperor.
Leo Diaconos,78. Armenian The name an Tzimiskes, word,was given to John on account of Leo Diaconus,92, 454 ; Lebeau, Bittavre du Bcu-Empire, his short stature. and with variations not is written in a fearful manner, 100. The name 1X7. by Aydall in his translation of Chamich." adaptedto render it euphonious, History ofArmenia, ii 77, 91. He calls him Johannes Chimishkik in one passage, Chumuskik and in another, the on Keuijan. He was bom at Hierapolis, called by Aydall of Amida in the present pashalik or Diyar-bekr, Euphrates, Chumushkazak, and by Saint Martin, Tchemesohgedzeg. Mimoiret $ur PArminU, i.95.
'
" "
898
BOOK Ch.
XI.
BASILIAN
DYNAfiTY.
n.
The
bj
Nice-
IL
the throne,
of the
a Council^ dignity
created on purpose. He was now intrusted by John with directionof the civiladministration. The the complete
of removed from all offices of Nicephorus were partisans filled and their places trusty by men devoted to Zimiskes, All political exiles of Phokas. to the family or hostile the young emand a paradeof placing were recalled, with their on an equality perorsy Basil and Constantino, senior colleague was made, as an insinuation that thej had hithertobeen retained in an unworthy state of infe* At the same time, measures were riority. adoptedto from plundering the prevent the rabble of the capital nobles who had been dismissed houses of the wealthy from their appointments, which was a usual proceeding at every greatpolitical revolutionin Constantinople.^ The coronation of John I. was triarch delayed by the Pafor a few days, lostno opportunity for Polyeuktes his authority. He therefore refused to perof showiug form
the ceremony until Zimiskes declared that he had not imbued his hands in the blood of his sovereign. The
Leo V alantes out his fellow-conspirators, emperor pointed and Atzypotheodoros, and excused himself as the murderers, press the whole blame of the murder on the Embythrowing thus sacrificed exiled, were Theophano. The officers the empress was removed from the imperial palace.^
and
John
on
the favour of the Patriarch, the law of Nicephorus, to abrogate consenting ing providwas
then admitted
to
CedrenuB,663.
Gold
all the honours of his rank. ILt attest that Basil preserved
"
"
BASILIOS
APPOINTED
PATEIAECH,
A.D.
969.
399
and beforetheirelection, a. d. approbation emperor's ^^^^ to bestow all his private fortune in charity. on promising After his coronation, he accordingly distributedone-half
receivethe
of his fortune among the poor peasants round Ck)nstantiand employed the other in founding an nople, hospital in consequence of that disease having for lepers, greatly increased about this time. He also increased his popularity the by remitting tribute of the Armeniac and province,
theme,
the
to
which
was
his native it
was
to by adding
Patriarch of Mount
died Polyeuktes
after the
and coronation,
which forbid the interto the canons ference paying any respect in the electionof bishops, he ordered of the laity him to be installedin his dignity. The monk proved less than the emperor expected. After occupycompliant ing chair about fiveyears, he was deposed the patriarchal for refusing to appear before the emperor to answer an
The
peror em-
that he to sit as his judge, asserting incompetent onlybe judgedor deposed by a synodor general
He
was
nevertheless banished to
the
on
Patriarch in his place. appointed the highThe family of Phokas had so longoccupied est of the patronageof commands, and disposed military to be that it possessed the empire, a party too powerful
saylDg
" Bhe assaulted with words and blows her son Basil ; but Lebeau has the celebrated it Cedrenus says distinctly was committed the same error. There is not eunuch she assaulted, woman. and he was the son of a Scythian indeed of the young Basil, about her proclaiming nor the illegitimacy a word of Leo the accounts he from to Diaconus, reason was present, any suppose when Basil became the ruler of the Cedrenus,and Zonaras. On the contrary, Cedrenus,684. empire,he recalled his mother from banishment. 1 Leo Diaconus, 100.
**
"
400
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
^'
""
iL
*"
submissioD. The
than
one
of reign
John
rebellionexcited by its
guished had distinLeo, the brother of Nicephorus, the Saracens himself by gaining over a greatvictory in the defilesof Kylindros, while Andrassos, near
was
with the conquest of Crete. occupied he held the office of During the reignof Nicephorus but had rendered himself hated on account curopalates, of his rapacity. His second son, Bardas Phokas, held the officeof governor of Koloneia and Chaldia when was murdered,and was banished to Amasia. Nicephorus Bardas
was one
his brother
in the from
Byzantine army.
and confinement,
of
where he assumed the titleof Emperor. In the Caesarea, time his father, from Lesbos, and his elder mean escaping brother Nicephorus from Imbros, attempted to raise a in rebellion
and captured, he when John, satisfiedthat he had ruined the family murdered the Emperor Nicephorus, their lives, spared
Europe.
These
two
were
soon
which
condemned
a
them
to
lose
retained way that they their eyesight. Bardas,however,gave the emperor some
and it trouble,
was war
their eyes
to be executed in such
to a castle by his army, escaped of refuge, where he defended a place himself until Skleros pursuaded him to surrender, on a that he should receive no personal Zipromise injury. who admired his daring him miskes, courage, condemned to reside in the island of Chios, and adopt the monastic robe. His father Leo, who escaped a second time from and visited Constantinople in the hope of confinement, himself master of the palace the absence rendering during
Phokas,when
deserted
he had fortified as
is mentioned
TRANSPORTATION
OF
MANICHEANS.
401
and discovered,
an sought
a.d.
^^^^'
then put out,and his immense John, in order to connect married Theodora,one dynasty,
estates
of Constantino daughters VII. (Porphyrogenitus). Another more tant imporis unnoticed the marriage passed by Byzantine that ill writers. Zimiskes, could finding he spare troops in Italy the to defend the Byzantine possessions against
emperor, released Pandulf of Beneventum, after he had remained three years a prisoner his and by cable at Constantinople, means opened amicommunications with Otho the Great.
A
treatyof
concluded between young Otho and Theowas marriage the sisterof the EmperorsBasil and Constantino. phano, the 14th of The nuptials celebrated at Rome on were of the Byzantine 972 ; and the talentsand beauty April and noble part enabled her to act a prominent princess in the history of her time.^ A curious event in the history of the Eastern Empire, isthe transportation of which ought not to pass unnoticed, called by historians Manicheans, of heretics, a number of Asia Minor, to increase the from the eastern provinces established coloniesof Pauliciansand other heretics already This is said to have been done by the round Philippopolis. Emperor John, by advice of a hermit named Theodores, of Patriarch of Antioch. whom he elevated to the dignity The continual mention
of
numerous
communities
of
heretics in
history Byzantine proves that there is no tian of the Chrisof the unity delusion than to speak greater as prechurch. Dissent appears to have been quite valent,
both in the Eastern and Western
before churches,
the time of Luther,as it has been since. Because the feelin religious Greeks and Italianshave been deficient
1
AhhoU Muratori,
v, (TltaUa,
485.
VOL.
I.
2 C
402
BA8ILIAK
DYKASTY.
BOOK "^"
n.
*'-
enabled them to affect knowledge iDg, and their superior of dissent has been contempt for other races, the history decried and religions inrestigation neglected, of heresy.^ appellation
The John
Russian Zimiskes.
war
was
the greatevent
fame military
of the of the
The
emperor, who was whose power of the Russian nation, the greatness his time, tined of the contest,desthe scene orershadows Europe, now of Russian in our day to be againthe battle-field
interestwhich attachesto the first and the political armies, stantinople to march by land to Conattempt of a Russian prince
allcombine
to
as
nople Constantiexpedition against have been followed by a in 865 would probably likethosecarriedon by the seriesof plundering excursions, and France, Danes and Normans on the coasts of England
The firstRussian naval had
not
themselves masters
of the
Dnieper,
and become instruments in the hands of the emperors to The northern of the bold Varangians. arrest the activity rulersof Kief
were
the
same
then in of the
advanced
state of
the
mass
in population
'
Britain and
of the majority
when that dissent was prevalent CedreDus,665. It cannot be eorprising read how the clergybehaved. called BonifMO The Pope or anti-pope, stantinople, the Vatican, fled to ConVII.,assassinated Benedict VI.,and, after despoiling In 984 he returned to Roma, dethroned A.D. 974. the reigningthe papal throne himin prison, self. and occupied Pope,John XIV., who perished He died in the following year. * Gibbon observes the singularundeclinable Greek word used to designate the Russians, but does not mention that it occurs twice in the Septua'Pear, Eoek. zzzviii. 2, 8 ; zxzix 1. Our translation makes no mention of the gint, Ros or Russians, would read thus : " Therefore,thou son of or the last verse man, prophesy Gog, and say, thus saith the Lord God, Behold I am against The of the Russians, Meshech and Tubal" against thee,O Gog, chief prince Russians appear idso to be mentioned twice in the Koran. Al Fourkan, v. 39 ; Sale's Koran^ 25 (theRass on which Sale has a note is supposed to mean chap. ** the Russians) See Hammer, v. 11." Sale, chap. 50. Kaf,** ; and Ths LeUer 8ur let Originet Rutus,
wo
"
404
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
11.
In
966,
corps
^"""^^'
of expedition
.^ There can be no doubt that these Sicily likethe Danes and Normans allVarangians, familiar, were of the sea, and not native in the West, with the dangers Niketas to whose senriceson board Russians,
been of little value to the masters
wars Byzantine In the year 907, Oleg, who was with the Russians. of Igor the son of the minority regent of Kief during Sclavonians, Rurik, assembled an army of Varangians, and Croatians, two thousand vessels or and, collecting
But
to return
to
the
of history
on
The exploits Constantinople. of this army, which pretended to aspire at the conquest confined to of Tzaragrad, were or the Cityof the Caesars, the countryround Constantinople ; and it is plundering undertaken to that the expedition not improbable was obtain indemnity commercial lossessustained by for some The subjects or oppression. imperial negligence, monopoly,
Euxine,advanced
to attack
of the emperor were murdered, and the Russians their captives in the amused themselves with torturing
most
barbarous
manner.
At
retreat
by the payment
of
transmitted to
by the
Russian
monk
writer notices the expedition, Byzantine than a plundering which was doubtless nothing more in which the city of Constantinople not incursion, was
to exposed by a
are
^
These hostilities nated termiwere any danger.^ in 912, and its conditions commercial treaty
De Ceremoniit Aula Byz. i 652,660,^^i, edit. Bonn. Constant Porphyr. The Arabian historian Novairi, quotedby Earamsin. ' their fleet The Russians are said on this occasion to have transported in imitation of the exploit of Niketas Oryphas at the neck of land, over some C^nmLa isthmus of Corinth, but it cannot have been near Constantinople. traduite en Frangai$e i 36. iquede Nestor, par LomM Paris, * Nestor, I 39. Krug, 108.
'
"
RUSSIAN
WARS.
405
In the year
941, Igormade
the
an
attack
on
Constantin-
a.d.
^^^^'
the charm of existence among allthe tribes of Northmen, else roused to rerenge by some or violationof the
treatyof 912.
small
phorus while
the Archipelago.^ on Igor landed at diflerent places coast of Thrace and Bithynia, and plundering ravaging the
country;the inhabitants were treated with incredible others were burned alive, were crucified, cruelty ; some
were priests
the Greek
heads,and
the
shipsremained
nails into their driving churches were destroyed. Only fifteen but these were at Constantinople, soon
killedby
fitted up with additional tubes for shooting Greek fire. This force, in number, gave the Byzanas it was trifling tines
an
immediate
at sea, superiority
and the
patrician
of the
number
by
more
and endeavoured to carry them them on allsides, boarding ; but the Greek fire became onlyso much
boats and available against the attack
was men
crowded
together,
In the
and
mean were
with repulsed
fearfulloss. landed in
time, some
defeated
Bithynia
by Bardas Phokas and John Kurkuas, and from the naval defeat were those who escaped pursued and slaughtered the without coast of Thrace on mercy. ordered all the prisoners The Emperor Romanus brought overtook to Constantinople to be beheaded. Theophanes and the the fugitive in the month of September, ships his relicsof the expedition were Igoreffecting destroyed, escape with onlya few boats.^ The Russian Chronicle of
prand,whose
*
but LuitByzantme writers and Ne8t("r speak of ten thousand boats, from step"tber was then at Constantinople as ambassador than a thousand. more LuUprandi Hugh, king of Italy, says there were
^
The
"
Contin.
"
Romanus
490.
Nestor,i 64.
Leo
Gramm.
606.
Symeon Mag.
406
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
n.
Nestor says
^""**-
assisted by other in the year 944, Igor, that, and by the Patzinaks, a second prepared Varangians,
but that the inhabitants of Cherson so alarmed expedition, of its magnitude, the Emperor Romanus by their reports that he sent ambassadors,who met Igorat the mouth of the Danube, and sued for peace on terms to which Igor consented. This is probably and his boyards merelya
to the salve applied
Kief
by
their
was
of peace treaty
the emperors
in the year attached to the comof this treaty merce prove the importance Concarried on by the Russians with Cherson and stantinople of princes treatiespreserved Russo-Byzantine in tracing by Nestor are documents of great importance the history of civilisation in the east of Europe. The attention paidto the commercial interestsof the Russian Cherson and Constantinople, and the traders visiting instead of practical givento questions utility prominence of to points of dynastic ambition, may serve as a contrast modem to many treaties in the west of Europe.^ The classeswould not have been powerful trading enough to The two command this attention to their interests
on
the
part of
the warlike
had a numerous body of free Varangians, citizens not been closely connected with the commercial of Russia. the for the people, prosperity Unfortunately which had enabled of their cities, municipal independence
trauBlation of Nestor gives945 as the date of the treaty, bat in the text. Constantlne,and Stephen are the emperors named Romanus I. was deposed in December 944 ; Constantine and Stephen, his sons, the 27th January 945 ; and Romanus on of Constantine V II. (Porphyson 11., 945. crowned as his father^s colleague the 6th April was rogenitus), on Krug, 210, considers the treaty as concluded II., by Constantine VII. and Romanus and it must have been ratified in the interval before Igor's death,which happened
^
The
French
Romanus,
before the end of 945. of increasing was as a means beginning power and population, to excite the attention of the barbarians in western 925Europe. Athelstan, of a thane on any English 941, enacted a law to confer the privileges merchant who had made three voyages to a fordgn country on his own account" Wil. kins,Leg,Sat, 71.
*
Commerce,
RUSSIAN
WABS.
407
a. d. 963-976
to
tion, was
not
joinedto
a
'
m-
quently consejustice, fellseparately each city a prey to the superior force of the comparatively barbarian Varangians military of Russia had of Scandinaria. The Varangian conquest
strictadministrationof
yery much
more
the
same
and Norman
people
however,the
the modem and the separates medieval history of Russia, the country and which plunged
into the state of barbarism and the Great first raisedit. The of cruelty the
from slavery
which Peter
after his Igor, Varangian prince return to Russia,caused him to be murdered by his his widow, became regentfor rebellious Olga, subjects.^ their son
gion, SwiatoslaflF.She embraced the Christian reliin 957, where she was and visited Constantinople
Porphyrogenitus reception preserved the commercial treaties of the empire emperor ; a Byzantine records the pageantrythat amused a Russian princess. The highposition by the court of Kief occupied in the tenth century is also attested by the style with which it was addressed by the court of Constantinople. The golden bullsof the Roman dressed ademperor of the East, to the prince of Russia, ornamented with a were in size to a double solidus, like those seal equal pendent addressed to the kings of France.^ II. sent We have seen that the Emperor Nicephorus Emperor
of the ceremony of her at the Byzantine court.^ A Russian monk has
an
Constantine
account
Leo
Northmen.
*
CedrenuB, 636.
CoBBt
Porphyr.De
Cer. AuL
690.
Byz,
280.
I 594, edit
Bonn.
Kmg, 267.
*
Kmg,
408
BA8ILIAN
DYKASTT.
to excite Swiatoelaff to inrade patrician Kalokjres |^Q(}(;im( ii^Q Byzantine ambassador proreda OH^njiL Quigi^fii^ traitorand assumed the purple.SwiatoslaflP inraded soon at the head of a powerful Bulgaria annj, whidi the gold assisted him to equip, and defeated brought by Kalokyres the Bulgarian A.D. 968. Peter, army in a great battle, died shortly and the countrywas after, kingof Bulgaria, Swiaof which, involved in civilbroils; taking advantage and rendered himself toslafftook Presthlava the capital, of the whole kingdom. Nicephorus formed master now to alliancewith the Bulgarians, and was an preparing
BOOK
iL
the
defend them
to compelled the against
home, in order
of
to
defend his
capital
Patzinaks.
sons
Romauus, the
concluded who
an
oflfensive and defensive alliance with Boris, the throne. After the assassinationof occupied
with Swiatoslaff returned to invade Bulgaria Nicephorus, assumed the an army of 60,000 men, and his enterprise
character of
of those great invasions which had torn whole provinces from the Western Empire. His army increased by a treatywith the Patzinaks and an was
one
to dream so that he began Hungarians, of the conquest of Constantinople, and hopedto transfer the empireof the East from the Romans of Byzantium It was to the Russians. fortunate for the Byzantine empirethat it was ruled by a soldier who knew how to The in tacticsand discipline. by its superiority profit Russian was not ignorant secured and having of strategy, his flank by his alliancewith the Hungarians, he entered Thrace by the western passes of Mount Hsemus, then the road between Germany and Constantinople, most frequented in the habit and that by which the Hungarians were of makingtheir plundering incursions into the empire. toslaff in the East when SwiaJohn Zimiskes was occupied and the second conquest of Bulgaria completed
Google^
RUSSIAN
WAR,
A.D.
970.
409
Thrace to subdue Hsemus, expecting a:d. passed Mount ^^^^^' the emperor's absence with equalease, a.d. 970. during The empirewas still from famine.^ Swiatoslaff suflFering took Philippopolis, and murdered twenty thousand of the inhabitants. An missed embassy sent by Zimiskes was dis^
with
demand
of
adranced
to
where Arcadiopolis,
division was
defeated
by
Bardas
Mount In the
Skleros,and
Hsemus.^
retired
again
took
behind
Emperor John
a a
the field
the head
of
an
army
of fifteen thousand
and infantry,
thirteen thousand
besides cavalry,*
guard body-
of chosen
hundred
country.*
marked
for the defence Military operations are dependenton some features of the
physical
countrybetween the Danube and Mount Hsemus. The Danube, with its broad and rapid stream, and line of fortresseson its southern bank, would be an
barrier to a military an impregnable power possessing active ally in Hungary and Servia ; for it is easy to descend the river and concentrate the force on largest any of attack, desired point to cut off the communications or disturb the flanks of the invaders. Even after the b'ne of the Danube
^
*
is
Hsemus
covers
LeoDiaconu8,103.
Leo DiacoDus,106 ; Bee a note at page 472, by Hase, on the chronology of Nestor. received on the authority of this period. I follow that generally * five thousand 180. Cedrenus The numbers Leo gives Diacouus, are givenby infantryand four thousand cavalry,672; Zonarus, ii. 211, the same affords some The number. insightinto the constitution of proportion armies at this period of military glory. The cavalryserved as the Byzantine could still gain but the sword of the legionary model for European chivalry,
a
* battle. " Leo vessels triremes, thoughthey certainly Diaconus,129, calls the lai^er Of the smaller he says, uwaita Xtft^s than two tiers of oars. had not more
A "caiaKarioK,
wp
410
BASILIAN
DTHASTY.
BOOK
n.
Thraoe
manj It was
^'^*''
in Constantinople of danger nnder the Byzantine periods emperors. roads passthen trarersed by three great military able
;
a
and it formed
rampart
to
for chariots.
The
doable goirge,
led from
to Sardica by the pass called the Philippopolis Gates of Trajan out three (nowKapou Dervend), throwing grade.^ trunk to Naissos and Belbranches from the principal The great pass forms the pointof communica* from of the Strymon, tion likewise with the upper ralley and the northern parts of Macedonia. Skupito Ulpiana, with this road to Uie Two secondary passes communicate that of for an north^east^ affording passage army
"
about
preserved among
between
It is situated
communication
Through this
pass a The third great pass is that to the east,forming the line of communication between Adrianople and Lower Danube Turks
near
the
is called
range of Hsemus has several other passes independent of these, and its parallel defiles. The ridges presentnumerous
by the
Nadir
celebrated Turkish
cover
at position
Shoumla
is
adaptedto
the
on converging
great
eastern road to
The
from
knew that the passes the greateastern road had been leftunguarded by "e
xxi. 10. Biaroelliniu,
"
would
Ammianus
Nioe-
Sardica is Triaditza, i.281. now pbonisGregoras, Sophia, s The Turks call itDemir Cedrenus,784,dib. t^sXcyoftcwTt 2idrfpas,
kapou.
412
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK ^'
""
n.
* **
Swiatoslaff hopedto be able to open his communications with the sorrounding by bringing country,
and besiegers,
on
to
fences before all the degeneral engagement in the plain of the enem/s camp were completed He expected defeat the attacks of the Byzantine cavalry by forming
a
his men
ed
by
in squares, and,as the Russian soldiers corerwere he expected longshields that reached to their feet,
to be
of the enemy. But while the Byzantine plain the heavy-armed met the Russians in front, legions cavalry and tiie assailed them with their long spears in flank, archers and slingers to transunder cover watched coolly fix where an opening allowed their missiles to every man but in penetrate. The battleneverthelesslasted all day, of their the evening the Russians were compelled, in spite without having to retire into Dorystolon valour, desperate effectedanything.The infantry of the north now began of Asia to feel its inferiority to the veteran cavalry sheathed in plate paigns by longcamarmour, and disciplined the Saracens. Swiatoslaff", however, continued against to defend himself by a seriesof battlesrather than in which he made desperate efforts sorties, to break through itbecame the ranks of the besiegers in vain, until at length
clearthe
evident that he
Before
must
either conclude
field of battle, or
be starved
himself to his fate, he make a last effort resigning to cut his way through the Byzantine army ; and on this that occasion the Russians fought with such desperation, ascribed the victory of the Byzantine contemporaries tacticsof the emperor, nor to not to the superior troops, of a veteran the discipline army, but to the personal
assistanceof St the
of charge
who Theodore,
the Roman
the Russians himself, before theirphalanx could be broken. The victory and Swiatoslaff sent ambassadors was complete,
to the emperor
to
offerterms of peace.
RUSSIAN
WAR,
A.D.
971.
413
of Dorystolon had now lastedmore than two a. d. siege ^^^^* reduced by repeated months, and the Russian army, though
The
to
twenty-twothousand
men.
The
had contempt of death which the Varangians the contest,convinced the emperor that it the loss of many brave veterans to insist on their
arms
; he
was
was
therefore willing
on
to terms, and
peace
concluded
condition
with all the yield up Dorystolon, and prisoners in possession of the Russians, slaves, plunder, and engage to swear perpetual amitywith the empire, and never to invade either the territory of Cherson or the while, on the other hand, the kingdom of Bulgaria; Emperor John engagedto allow the Russians to descend the Danube in their boats, them with two meto supply dimni of wheat for each
to return to soldier, surviving
home
without
to
renew
treaties
Kief and
treatywas
his conqueror. John rode clad in splendid to the bank of the Danube armour, suite of brilliant the emperor
on guards was no
accompanied by a
The short he
was
back. horse-
of figure
tage disadvan-
countenance, attention of
which
distinguished by the beautyof his the splendour of his arms, while his fair and piercing blue eyes fixed the hair, light all on his bold and good-humoured face,
and sombre
visages
in a
SwiatoslaflF arrived
an
by water
His
boat,
was
oar.
dress
in no way from that of those under him, white, diflFering cleaner. in the stem of his boat, Sitting exceptin being
here the common means Diaconos, 155. I presume the medimnus about a bushel,without any reference to Attic measures. A part of the treaty is given i.100. by Nestor,with the date. Trad. Fran9.
Leo
measure ^
4.14
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL
^""^^
he conversed for a short time with the emperor^ who remained on horseback closeto the beach. The appearance of the bold described those who
was
is thus
by a
were
historianwho
of the middle stature,well formed,with strong neck his eyebrows and broad chest. His eyes were blue, thick, his
was nose
shaded with
The hair longand thick mustaches. croppedclose, except two long locks
on
hung
as wore
down
a
worn
mark
and were each side of his face, of his Scandinavian race. In his
he
between fierce.^
two
ornamented with a ruby goldenearrings and and his expression stem was pearls,
Swiatoslaff immediately but he Dorystolon, quitted the shores of the Euxine, and he attempted famine thinned hb ranks. In spring to force
was
to obliged
winter
on
his way
and perished the defeated, near cataracts of the Patzinaks, Dnieper. Kour, prince became the possessor of his skull, which he shaped into a and adorned with the moral maxim, doubtless drinking-cup, had it falleninto not less suitableto his own skull, the hands of others, He who covets the property of had occaWe have already oft loses his own." sion others,
"
to record
king ;
tents of
a
that of
Turkish tribe.
to were as campaign advantageous the Byzantine to the Emperor were as they glorious empire John. lished estaba stronggarrison was Bulgaria conquered,
in
and Dorystolon,
the Danube
once
more
became
empire. The
156. Diaconus,
Leo
CHERSON.
415
until about the year 988, anintemipted A. D. 963-976. Vladimir the when, from some unknown cause of quarrel, of Swiatoslaff attacked and gainedpossession son of Cherson bj cutting oflf the water. The Greek citj of Cherson, situated on the extreme for ages from the verge of ancient civilisation, escaped and demoralisation into which the Hellenic impoverishment race was centrating precipitated bj the Roman system of conall power in the capital of the empire.^ son Cherelective was goyemed for centuries by its own and it was not until towards the middle of magistrates, that the EmperorTheophilus the ninth century destroyed its independence. The people, however,stillretained in
was
Russians
their own
hands
some
control oyer
their localadministration,
thoughthe Byzantine government lost no time in the moral foundation of the free institutions undermining which had defended a single against city many barbarous
nations that had made the favour of the
emperors tremble.^ The inhabitantsof Chei-son long looked with indifference
the Roman
on
Byzantine emperor,
cherished the
institutions of Hellas,and boasted of their self-goyemment.^ A tiiousand years after the rest of the Greek nation was
in feeling Cherson remained sunk in irremediableslavery,
a
free. Such
one
contented in
phenomenon as the existence of manly eke slept when mankind everywhere city, deserved of political a state degradation,
be better able
attentiveconsideration. Indeed,we may the political to appreciate causes correctly the Greeks in the Eastern
if Empire,
we
that
can
corrupted
ascertain
^ stands near Cherson replaced and Sevastopol now the ancieDt CherroneeoB, HuL its ruins. Cherronesos was reoogmsed as a free city by Augustus. Pliny, and Nat. iv. 26, mentions and its attachment to Greek manners its importance, 2 9. Hudson. eostoms. 808. viL Strabo, Scylax, " Constantino the measures in explaining is very particular Porphyrogenitus He shows it was in possesto be adoptedin case of insurrections in Cherson. sion of a numerous commercial navy, thoughit imported wheat,wine,and other necessaries. De Adm. Imp. 53. B There published by is a very late testimony to these facte in a Hase, in his notes to Leo Diaconus,p. 503, edit Bonn avrovofUiv dc /MiXtora
"
fir^ent
"
ljpy""y dtaiirfNov/LtcPM.
416
BASILIAN
DYKASTT.
Cberson, though surrounded enemies and barbai*ous nations, to preserve po^^ifij CHji^i.
BOOK
11.
those which
enabled
bj
"
A Homer^B language marmuring in her sta^eetSy And in her haven many a mast from Tyre."
of mankind in every age shows us that the history of the people, the first material improvement greatpublic extension of and trade, works of utility, and the commerce of local institutions. Such are effectedby the impulsion of the popular that excites feeling progress is the expression The
and causes to better his own condition, every man to better the condition of the society in him, in so doing, which he lives.
too often expresses Order,unfortunately,
of the classpossessing wealth. Its necesthe feelings sity only but the problem of connecting it may be felt by all, and making it dependent is not with equity, on justice, and hence the pretextof its maintenance solved, easily for the creation of irresponsible The govserves ernment power. in which the family and the parish occupy the most important for itwill secure partwill ever be the best, to honesty and truth that deference which a more extended
circleattemptsto transfer to the conventional virtuesof honour and politeness. It isin the family and the parish
that the foundation of all virtue is
the camp, the senate, or the court The of Egypt doubled the extent and wealth of
the country by digging the canal of Joseph, and forming the lake Moeris,before the Pharaohs became conquerors and energy of municipal institutionsfilled the Mediterranean and the Euxine with
rose
builders of
pyramids. The
to
greatnessas
ity municipal-
arrested her progress and depopulated ; centralisation with her colonies and Indian the world. Great Britain,
affordsan instance of the superiority of the empire, and self-respect patriotism by generated institutions over
conferred the strictobedience and
vidual indi-
local
scientific power
centralisationof
of
CHERSON.
417
of scientificpower, are in the A. D. authority, by the weight 963-976. their fullest development of receiving under the course of the United States of America and two mighty empires Both these governments have displayed of Russia. summate conin the conduct of their respective ability political decision of the problem, and the practical whether systems, local or central government is the basis of the political of man, institutions best adaptedto the improvement seems as a moral and social being, by Providence to have intrusted to the cabinet of the emperor of Russia, of the United States of America. and to the people been In the of of Diocletian, while reign Themistos
Cherson,^Sauromatos
the
along the eastern shores of the Euxine, invaded the Roman Lazia and Pontus without empire. He overran but on the banks of the Halys he found the diflEiculty,
of Constantius army assembled under the command Diocletian sent of this invasion, Chlorus. On hearing Roman
peopleof Cherson to attack Sauromatos to return home. in order to compel Bosporos, the rank of an allied city, could not Cherson, holding
ambassadors avoid that degreeof conceding which
a
to invite the
emperor command.
supremacy to the Roman small state is compelled to yield to the invitation was received
as
a a
Chrestos had succeeded Themistos in the sidency preand took the ; he sent an army against Bosporos, brave warriors, though city. But the Chersonites, sought
peac^, not
^ '
the Bosporian Constantine Porphyrogenitus calls tbis chief Sauromatos the son of Kriskon-OroSy which, it baa been conjectured, ought to be read is a name Sauromates Kriskon the son of Bosporos of Oros, a Sarmatian to several kings of Bosporos ; but Sauromatos, which Constantine common givesto the three chiefs he mentions, is not found elsewhere, Porphyrogenitus calls them kings. The coins of Bosporos give the names of other and he never both from his kingsabout this period. The text of Constantine is so inexact, and from the inaccuracy in history, of transcribers, that I prefer errors own I have changed Conas they stand in the original authority. givingthe names See Koehne, Bettrdge zur Geschichte und Arehdstans to Constantius Chlorus. 100. in Ckerr(me80$ Taurien, von ologie
.
VOL.
I.
2d
418
BA8ILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
n.
^""
*^'
in a way that had falleninto their hands, places of their enemies. Their successes the goodwill conciliate
of the
to
conclude peace and evacuate the of his in order to regain Roman possession territory, cletian Dioand family.As a reward for their services, capital forced Sauromatos
to
grantedthe
the Roman
Chersonites additional
Duringthe
called on
over
then presided
a
They sent
to
field-machines
attack the
crossed the Danube, and defeated Goths,who had already to the barbarians with great slaughter. Ck)nstantine,
reward
in the service of the empire, promptitude sent them a golden robes,to statue of himself in imperial with a in the hall of the senate, accompanied be placed charter ratifying nity and commercial immuevery privilege to their cityby preceding He granted emperors. bestowed on them also an annual supply of the materiab the warlike machines of which necessary for constructing sand theyhad made such good use, and allowances for a thouto work these engines.^ This subsidy continued men in the middle of the tenth century, in the time to be paid of Constantine Porphjrogenitus. Years passedon, and Sauromatos, the grandson of him who invaded the empire in the time of Diocletian, to efface the memory of his grandfather's determining declared war with Cherson. defeated He was disgrace, the president of Cherson, at Kapha, and by Vyskos, to conclude a treaty of peace, by which Kapha compelled
of Acv^pw and ankela Porphyrogenitus says the privileges then conceded to Cherson ; but it enjoyed the firstin the time of Augustus, and the second from the time of Hadrian, when it ceased to form part of the Roman empire.
were
1
their
Constantine
Imp. chap.63, tom. iil p. 251, edit Bonn. ringswith his portrait engraved,to be used in certain The statue was not of solid gold,perhaps onlygilt iv. 637,places Stritter, this expeditionA.D. 327 ; Koehne, 100, a.d. 318.
The emperor also sent official commimications.
"
Constant
2)"!Adm, Porphyr.
420
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK ^
"-
iL
her husband
son, and
* ^-
employed ships
walls of his
he concealed in the
the
followersfrom collectedtwo
of lapse
years, Asander
had
of Gycia, with their armour, in the palace Bosporians, of the for the approaching and was anniversary waiting of Cherson. death of Lamachos to destroy the liberty It happenedat this time that a faYOurite maid of banished from her her mistress, was Gycia,offending presence, and confined in a room in which the Bosporians were
over
the warehouse
As
concealed.
the
her spindle and spinning, alone, was girl sitting singing and rolled along the floortillit fellinto a hole dropped, it by the wall,from which she could onlyrecover near raising up one of the tilesof the pavement. Leaning of men in the the ceiling down, she saw through a crowd warehouse below,whom she knew by their dress to be and soldiers. She immediately called a servant, Bosporians, and sent him to her mistress, her to come conjuring curious to see the effect to see her in her prison.Gycia, of the punishment visited her immeher favourite, diately, on and was of a crowd shown the strangespectacle of foreign soldiers and a magazine of arms concealed in her own palace. The truth flashed on her mind ; she her husband was plotting of her to become the tyrant saw native city, and every feeling of her heart was wounded. She assembled her relations, and by their means municated comwith the senate, revealing the plotto secretly that a chosen committee, on a solemn promise obtaining
city, thoughsuch
thingwas
at variance
with the
Hellenic usages of Cherson. from the danger Whether of attacking two hundred heavy-armed to avoid or men,
CHEESON.
421
the president and senate of Cherson Bosporos, determined to destroy the conspiracy by burningthe in their placeof concealment,and Gycia willingly enemy her to the flames to save gaye her ancestral palace
war
with
a. v.
^^^^^'
country.
of her father's funeral dayof the anniversary for the annual arrived, Gycia ordered the preparations feast to be made with more than ordinary and liberality,
When
the
Asander
was
; but
due
taken that the gatesof the city should be closed at the usual hour,and allthe citizens in their dwellings. At the banquetin her own palace
had precautions
Gyciadrank
wines.
To
water
on
out
of
the
vant ser-
Asander
husband,Gyciaproposed that all should retire to rest at an early hour,and she took a last melancholy leave of her husband,who hastened and then to give his three confidants their instructions,
of delight
should enable him to lay down to rest until midnight his treachery. The gates, and windows doors, complete of the palace shut up, and the keys, laid were as usual, beside Gycia. Her maids had packedup all her jewels, and when Asander was in a sound sleep from the plunged wine he had drank, Gyciarose, locked every door of the and hastened out, accompanied as she passed, palace by slaves. her Order was to set fire to immediately given the building of Cherson and thus the liberty on every side, saved by the patriotism of Gycia. was The spotwhere the palace had stood remained a vacant square in the time of the Emperor Constantine Porphyand Gycia duringher lifetime would never rogenitus, allow
Her countrybe cleared away. men her bronze honour of erected two statues to ism patrioteven
the ruins
to
"
one
her in the flower of in the public agora, showing in her native costume,
a as
dressed youth,
her
when
she saved
to defend
heroine armed
the
city.On
both
422
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL
her rating
services ; and
to
no
CHjM1.
keep the bases of these statues bright of in order that the memory and the inscriptions legible, due to of the king's the treachery son, and the gratitude of G} cia, the patriotism mightbe ever fresh in the hearts
Cherson than
of the citizens.
was Stratophilos dent, presiof her that the gratitude men countrysuspecting Gycia, be inclined that theywould no longer so weakened was her within the of burying to fulfiltheir promise The event she to be dead. was as walls,pretended feared ; but when the procession she had passed tlie gates,
Some
years after
when this,
" up from the bier and exclaimed, Is this the way the people of Cherson keeptheir promise to the preserver
rose
V Shame of theirliberty
The the
was
more proved
now
Chersonites
swore
if she would pardon their falsehood. city, and built during her lifetime, accordingly
was
tomb
gilded
that
In
statue of bronze
erected over
should not
as it,
an
assurance
be
again violated.
Gycia was
when century,
admiration
seen
among
transmitted a record of her empire, deeds to posterity.^ Cherson retained its position state as an independent until the reign of Theophilus, who compelled it to receive wide-extended
a
governor from
under the
it continued to defend its municipal Byzantine government, the institutions, and, instead of slavishly soliciting it favour,and adoptingByzantine imperial manners, But it boasted of its constitution and self-government.^ lost its former wealth and extensive trade ; and gradually when Vladimir, the sovereign of Russia,attacked it in
* *
SARACEN
WAR,
972-976.
423
988, it was
formed him
of ambition
who ininto his hands by a priest, a. d. betrayed ^^^^' how to cut oflf the water. The greatobject of all the princes of the East, from the time of
Trebizond,
to
form
matrimonial
alliances with
the
imperial
family.Vladimir obtained the hand of Anne, the sister of the Emperors Basil II. and Constantine VIII., and and married in the Church of the Panaghia was baptised at Cherson. of the empire, he preTo soothe the vanity tended of his conquestas the dowry to retain possession of his wife. Many of the priests who converted the Russians to Christianity, and many of the artists who adorned the earliestRussian churches with paintings and
mosaics,were
Vladimir
on
natives of Cherson.
a
The
church
raised
to the rank of
conferred
John
the of
Russian
war,
Boris compelled
acceptthe
court.
more
and Bulgaria, titleof M agister, of the Byzanas a pensioner tine The frontierof the Eastern Empirewas once
crown
the resign
extended Saracen
to the
war
Danube.^
had been carried
on
on vigorously was
The
EmperorJohn
pied occu-
cesses campaign. The continued sucof the Byzantine had so alarmed the Mohammedan arms that an extensive confederacy formed was princes,
the Russian
to recover
was caliph
Antioch,and the command of the army of the intrustedto Zoher,the lieutenant of the Fati-
led by was imperial army who of great military skill, a man Nikolaos, patrician
mites in
Egypt.
The
the had
been
an
time.^
But in the
ordered
the against
Christians.
'
The
Byzantine troops
"
Cedrenus,694.
666. Cedrenua,
424
BASILIAN
DYNASTV.
in
He
was
bj an Armenian named routed near Amida. was completely and died after a year's himself taken prisoner,
commanded allhis talents as
a
confinement.^
With
to have
John general,
the same control over possessed quered conas Nicephorus ; and many of the cities of which in the majority the by his predecessor,
inhabitants were
oflF the
yoke.^ Even Antioch declared itself Byzantine A greatefibrtbecame necessary to regain independent. Joha that had been lost ; and,to make this, the ground of the Byzantine Zimiskes took the command army in He marched in one campaign person in the year 974. banks of the Tigris, and from from Mount Taurus to the the banks of the Tigris back into Syria, Mount as far as his victorious arms, according to the Libanon, carrying of the Byzantine clature, nomengeographical vaunting inaccuracy into Palestine. His last campaign, in the following In Mesopotamia of his exploits. year, was the most brilliant of Amida and Martyrohe regained possession bitants ; but these citiescontained so few Christian inhapolis to leave the administration that he was obliged in the hands of Saracen emirs, who were charged with
the collection of the tribute and taxes.
Nisibishe found
to
Hierapolis
Membig, where he
which
captured many
our
valuable relics,
among
the shoes of
enumerated. From especially John marched to Apamea,Emesa, and BaalHierapolis bec,without meeting The emir any seriousopposition. of Damascus sent valuable presents, and agreed to pay annual tribute to escape a visit. The emperor then the fortressof Borzo, crossed Mount Libanon,storming
an
which commanded
'
sea-
and 889.
309. Gljcas,
SARACEN
WAR,
975.
425
which soon and surrendered, A.D* Berytus, ^^^^^' an image of the crucifixionthat he deemed worthyof beingsent to Constantinople. From he marched northward to Tripolis, which he besieged Berytus in vain for forty days. The valour of the garrison and the strength of the fortifications him compelled to raise the siege ascribed to fear of ; but his retreat was liancy.^ a comet, which illuminated the sky with a strangebrilAs it was he wished to place now September, his worn-out in Antioch ; but troops in winter-quarters the inhabitants shut the gates against him. To punish them for their revolt, he had the folly to ravage their and cut down their fruit-trees in territory, ; forgetting, his barbarous and impolitic revenge, that he was ruining his own empire. Burtzes was left to reconquer Antioch for the second time ; which, however, he did not eflfect until after the death of the Emperor John. The
was
army of frontiers
to
then
hastened
he
to
return
On the journey, as Constantinople. and Dryze, in fertileplains of Longias Anazarba and and
Podandus, he
saw
them
smiling
country
so
He villages.
the
on
conducted
grand
acquired by
the
the enormous
hands of
of the
is
toil like
the riches of
raised both
now
speechwas
that he had
to reported
the
that required
Leo DiacoDUB,169.
426
BASILIAN
DYKASTY.
BOOK
iL
^"""*^
his heritage.The enjoy of Romauos, a grandat the palace son way to Constantinople of Romanus I. ; and it is said he there drank of
a
to him by a servant gainedby poisoned cup presented Certain it is that John Zimiskes reached the president. the 10th of the capital in a dying on state,and expired January796, at the age of fifty-one.
SROT.
n."
REIGN
OP
BASIL
XL
(BULGAROKTONOB),"
or
AJ". 97e-ieS"
autd war kingdom his or
"
Charaoteb Phokas
OF BiDA
"
or
Basil
II.
"
Rebillioks
private kino of
Baboas
"
Sklerob Bulgarian
the eyes of
Bardas
Dkteat
of
Wealth II.
"
of
individuals
Basil
"
Samcel,
of the
"
Bulgarla,
puts out
"
founds the
Ach"
Defeats
or
Samuel"
kingdom
Basil
of of
prisoners
"
Conquest
IN
Achrida
Basil
visits
Athens
quests Con-
Armenla
Death
Basil II.
only twenty years of age when he and for some assumed the direction of public time affairs, ing allowhe continued to indulge of pleasure, in the pursuit Basilios to exercise the imperial the president power
Basil II.
was
to its fullestextent.
Indeed, there
can
be
no
doubt that
would have attempted to occupy the prime-minister had his condition not and Zimiskes, of Nicephorus place For some excluded him from the throne. effectually the
to
exclude
Basil from
any endeavoured
imperial
court,and
to which it passions, inclined. This the young man was was thought naturally conduct probably in the mind of awakened suspicions and who possessed character, Basil, a firm and energetic he watched the proceedings minister with of his powerful to the
of indulgence
' Gibbon says he enjoyed ihe titleof Augustus sixty-six years, and the reign of the two brothers (Basil and Coustantine) is the longestand most obscure of the Bysantine history. ~i"^t"t" and FeUl,chap.48, vol. ix. 69. We possess few no a contemporary historian, except Leo Diaconus,who only supplies 169. Cedrenus, howeyer, gives some details concerning notices, interesting the Bulgarianwar, 684. The other Byzantine sources are Zonaras, ii 215 ; Manasses,120 ; Glycas,809 ; Joel,181 ; Ephrsemius,126.
428
BASILIAN
DTKASTY.
duke or governor of Mesopoappointed his rebellion. The two j^j^^jj^ rpjjjgg^p precipitated ca^H^i in the empire Bardas Skleros and ablest generals were
BOOK
iL
tliearmy, and
Bardas
Phokas
both
were
men
of illustrioas families, As
as early
Skleros had been governor of of Michael I., a reign the family the Peloponnesus ;^ and for four generations the empire with a succession of of Phokas had supplied been leaders. Skleros and Phokas had already military of John I. These two men opponentsin the reign may be taken as typesof the military nobles of the Byzantine in the tenth century; and no tale of daring deeds empire
or
romantic vicissitudesamong the chivalrousadventurers but their swords, of the West, who had no patrimony
was more
these two
was
in the lives of than many an episode strange nursed in silken raiment, whose youth nobles,
the soft shores of the in marble palaces on passed who were educated by pedantic Bosphorus, grammarians, and trained by Greek theologians, who deemed the shedding
even
of Saracen
as
blood
on
sin.
Yet
these nobles
arms
valued themselves
and
much
as headlong daring
adventurer
or
man Nor-
knight.*
Bardas Skleros he assumed Minor.
he He trusted
no sooner
Mesopotamiathan
Emperor, and invaded Asia had made no preparations for his rebellion ; to his military for a reputation collecting
the best
m as
the title of
small army, and to his own skill to make the troopsthat joined his standard : nor
to his fame.
use
of
he
wanting
a
Some
the emirs
of Amida
and
body
^
"
of three hundred
can
was
428. be no doubt that for several agee the Byzantine nobles were as instructed in military regularly discipline duringtheir youth as our boys are in their Latin grammar. Byzantine education seems to have been excellent before entering and very bad afterwards ; ours is better after on life, public than before. There
DEFEAT
OF
SKLEROS,
A.D.
979.
429
considered
mayed Undis-
A.D.
defeats and immense difficulties, he at ^^1025. by partial last gained the Byzantine a over complete victory army the of at Lapara, frontiers on Armenia/ and a second at Rageas, of the empire, who had a over generalissimo been sent to repair disaster. Skleros then the preceding and sent his son marched to Abydos,took Nicaea, Rointo Thrace to make preparations for the siege of manos Constantinople.
The rebellion of Bardas
have been
mentioned. already
called from
his retreat, and laid aside the monastic dress, which he had worn for six years, to resume his armour. The old rivals
to
defeated at Amorium, but the imperial army was valour of Phokas covered the retreat of his soldiers, personal and preserved their confidence ; for when Constantine Gabras pressed the rear, Phokas, who too closely on his movements, suddenly turned his horse, was watching struck him lifeless and, galloping chief, up to the gallant with his mace-at-arms, and rejoined his own rear-guard second battle was unhurt. A foughtnear Basilika and Skleros was Therma, in the theme Charsiana, again where victorious. Phokas retired into Georgia(Iberia), he received assistance from David, the kingof that country,
The
Halys.
assemble
of Pankalia. plain
An
rebel emperor
was
again
by a
They
soon
met, and
nate to termisought despair, encounter with his rival. personal the their companions suspended
^ The who commanded the imperial Pefcros, patrician army, had been an guished Phokas, and had distineunuch of the household of the Emperor Nioephorus valour in the Russian war. himself by his personal Cedrenus, 685. Leo Diaconus,81.
"
430
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
n. ".
ciijM
to view the combat yicinity celebrated for tbeir both equally champions,
personal prowess.
Phokas the and
Skleros
was
armed
with
the
sword,
; the sword
mace
from glanced
armour, well-tempered
Skleros
fellsenseless
to guards rushing
an eminence, gained of his army in from which he could already see a portion full retreat. But the fortune of the day was changedby accident. As the oflBcersof Skleros were an carrying their wounded leader to a neighbouring fountain,bis horse escaped and galloped throughthe ranks of the stained trappings army, showingthe troopsthe imperial
with blood.
cry arose that Skleros was tie that united the rebels was broken,and fled in every laid down or direction, their
The
slain.
The
the soldiers On
re-
arms.
leftfor him but Skleros found that nothing was coTering, to escape with bis personal attendants into the Saracen where he was thrown into prison territory, by order of the Several of his partisans their resistance caliph. prolonged the winter.^ through Bardas Phokas continued to command the imperial with the on war army in Asia for eight years, carrying and compelling the emir of Aleppoto pay triSaracens, buteik) Constantinople. But as the Emperor Basil II. advanced in years, his firm character began to excite
the
who Byzantinenobles,
that their personal and power of enriching influence, themselves at the public to be greatly expense, were likely attention the emperor paid to his strict control over the conduct command the army
curtailed. The
public
and of all business, Basilios ; while his officials, beganto alarm the president
determination
to
in person, and
to
1 Skleros was defeated in the sammer of 979,as the rebeUion was sappreesed in the 8th indiction, in the fourth year of its duration. Leo Biaconus, 169. Cedrenus, 694. The 8th indiction commenced the Ist September979, and on the rebellion continued for some time after the flight of Skleros.
"
REBELLION
OF
PHOKAS,
A.D.
987-989.
431
of Phokas, a. d. excited the dissatisfaction promotions, regulate of ^^^'^^^' who allowed his government to become the reftige in which campaign ererj discontented courtier. The only the emperor had yet commanded Samuel, one was against which had provedsignally disastrous, king of Bulgaria, matters did not appear 80 that his interference in military in tacticsand strategy. to be authorised by his experience that the president excited Phokas to It seems probable of rendering take up arms, as a means the emperor more his influence and the supportof the aristocracy on dependent ing prompt; but Phokas doubtless required very little to make an attempt to seize the throne. Assembling in his government,and the principal the leading men of of the army under his command, at the palace officers
Eustathios
was
claimed pro-
emperor on the 15th of August 987. about the same time,Bardas Skleros succeeded Nearly in He from escaping
the Saracens
the empire. entering and his prison at Bagdat, of a legion of Christian himself in the distinguished His adventures in this in the
and
of the Mohammedans.
not
in the His sudden appearance reignof Theophilus.^ and his resumption of his claim to the imperial empire, the two ancient rivals into the field, throne, again brought both as rebel emperors, and it seemed that they must decide by a new which was to march as victor against war Phokas the advantage Basil at Constantinople. gained He concluded a treatywith his rival, by treachery. by which a division of Asia Minor was agreed on ; and when Skleros visited his camp to hold detained him a prisoner.^ Phokas
"
697. CedroDus,
Skleros was confined at Tyropaion, had fortifiedas a refuge a place Phokas John I. Skleros had secured his personal he rebelled against on safety him to surrender it." Leo Diaconus, 126. forcing when
'
482
BOOK
iL **
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
^"'^
the summer ; and daring energy to dethrone his sovereign of 988, he subdued the greater part of Asia Minor; but
at the commencement
of the
division of
defeated
an
by auxiliary
corps of Varangiansfrom his brother-in-law Vladimir, the sovereign of Kief.^ Phokas was at this time besieging until Abydos,which defended itself with obstinacy the Emperors Basil and Constantino arrived with the imperial troopsarrived army to relieve it. The imperial formed their camp near by sea, and, debarking Abydos, in the plain.Phokas, leaving tinue part of his force to condrew out his army to givebattle to the the siege, the two armies were When taking emperors. up their the field, Phokas rode along for an opporseeking ground, tunity to decide the fate of the war by one of those feats of in which his personal arms so distinguished. prowess was of the Emperor Basil engagedin His eye caught a sight the movements of his army, and, dashing forward ordering with his mace-at-arms, he prepared to close in single when At the very moment combat with his sovereign. flashed on the minds the object of his sudden movement of all, Phokas wheeled round his horse,galloped to a of both little eminence,where he dismounted in sight armies and laydown on the ground. A long interval of
Then a rumour suspense occurred. of the rebels that their leader was
without striking blow. a dispersed of cold water as he mounted a glass to his usual custom, and whether
ran
alongthe ranks
had drank
horse, according
perished by poison not a or by a stroke of apoplexy was naturally question and vicious Constantinosettled by the suspicious easily Thus ended the career of Bardas Phokas, by politans.
1
he
The
emperor
ordered
the
of general
the rebels to be
impaled. CedrenoB,
"
699.
WBALTH
OF
PRIVATE
INDIVIDUALS.
483
death
as
as the strange
a.d.
989. April Bardas Skleros regained his liberty the death of on his rival, but resigned his pretensions to the imperial the pardonof Basil. The meeting on dignity receiving
^^^^'
of the emperor and the veteran warrior The eyesight of Skleros had begun to grown
was
remarkable.
He corpulent. extremely
were
which costume, but continued to wear purple boots, of an emperor. As he advanced part of the insignia
of
to the tent
Basil, on leaning
man we
two
of his
equerries,
"
Is this the
soon as
alltrembled
at
the purple he refused boots, perceived to receive the infirm old general until theywere changed. Skleros had then a gracious and was requested audience, survive.^ He did not long to sit down. The same business on the part of attention to public
as
But
he
the emperor which caused the rebellionof Phokas, duced prothe fall of the president w hom Basil Basilios,
of deprived
estates
were
the
same
time.
His
his confiscated,
acts
his palace, the allowed to plunder were Constantinople sacred ofierings and dedications he had made were destroyed,
of
and
even
The
the monasteryhe had founded was dissolved. celebrated minister died in exile, after
attained a degreeof wealth and power which having in the marks an unhealthy condition of the bodypolitic Byzantine empire. No such accumulation of fortune as Basilios is reported could ever have to have possessed, been obtained by a public servant without the exertion of the grossest eitheron the partof the individual oppression, the government. The richesof Basilios must almost have rivalledthe wealth of Crassus ; at least, he came
or
^
CedrenuB,701. 2
E
VOL.
I.
434
BooKn.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
^"'**'
a was
rich
man, to
to according
that
able
maintain
an
army.
a career, he armed early part of his political the household of three thousand slayesto aid in placing
the head of Nicephorus II. The on crown imperial of Constantinople at thb period bore some aristocracy in its socialposition, to that of Rome at the resemblance, fallof the Republic, both in wealth and political cormp*
Maleinos, in whose house Phokas raised the standard of revolt, not less were
tion. The
estates
of
Eustathios
fortunate
to enough
some
escape years
after, as Basil
ing return-
in Syria(a.d. he stopped at 995), campaign and was the palace of Maleinos in Cappadocia, amazed of the building, at the strength and the wealth, power, and splendour of the household. The emperor saw that of courage, in possession of so much influence, and a man commandingsuch a number of armed servants,could at
a
from
any moment
commence
rebellion as
as that of dangerous
SUeros
or
Phokas.
Maleinos received an
invitation to
and was never again accompany the court to the capital, his estates in Cappadocia. allowed to visit At his death, his immense fortune
was
and confiscated, of
most
writers
ascribedthe legislative the measures to protect Basil, landed property of small proprietors from the encroachments mind
;
to the impression on his wealthy, produced the power of Maleinos in Cappadoby witnessing cia
of the
but
we
must
bear in mind
Romanus
to stem the torrent of aristocratic endeavouring nance predomiin the provinces ; and both Constantino VII. and Nicephorus in general II., (Porphyrogenitus) though dissimilarin character and policy, in extremely agreed laws to protect the poor against the rich.^ Basil passing
^
702. Cedrenus,
I., NoveU,1,2, 8
Constantine
436
BOOK u.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
and patriotism for to fight strength possessing of invaders poured into the homes when a new jjj^j^ race cm^ujr empire. of Bjof Basil II. is the culminating The reign point of Constantinople flew zantine greatness. The eagles of victory, his life, from the banks in a long career during and from the of the Danube to those of the Euphrates, of Italy.Basil's mountains of Armenia to the sliores indifference to art indomitable courage, terrific cruelty, and religious all combine to and literature, superstition, and age. The great render him a true type of his empire of his policy of the to consolidate the unity was object of administrationin Europeby the complete subjection and Sclavonians, whom of language the Bulgarians similarity remained
had
one
nation, and
had
united completely
to the imperial hostility government. rank had noble of the highest Four sons of a Bulgarian in Bulgaria commenced a revolutionary movement against the royal after of death Peter and the first the family,
In order to
put
an
end to
II. had, on the retreat of these troubles, Nicephorus Swiatoslafl^, Boris,the son of Peter, on the replaced throne of Bulgaria Boris ; and when the Russians returned,
submitted
after the death Shortly the Bulgarian roused of John I. (Zimiskes), leaders again for independence. the people who to a struggle Boris, from Constantinople his to attemptrecovering escaped and the four throne,was accidentally slain, paternal
to their
domination.^
brothers
the nation.
In
and Samuel, who alone remained, perished, of King. The forcesof the emassumed the title pire with the rebellion of Skleros, that were so occupied the vigour and military talents of Samuel succeeded both in expelling the Byzantine from Bulgaria, and authorities
^
CedrenuB,646,666, 691
BULGARIAN
WAR,
A.D.
976-1018.
to
437
A.D.
in
the rousing
Sclavonians of Macedonia
and Byzantine yoke. Samuel then invaded Thessaly, extended his plundering excursions over those parts of still inhabited by the Greece and the Peloponnesus Hellenic
race.
976-1026.
He
carried away
the
inhabitants of
the town of Prespa, Larissa in order to people which he then proposed with intelligent sans artito make his capital, and
to their
manufacturers
new
and, in order
to attach them
he by ties of old superstition, the body of their protecting removed to Prespa martyr, St Achilles, who some had been a Roman pretended and others a Greek archbishop. Samuel showed soldier, both in ability and courage, a rival worthyof himself, time Basil ; and the empire of the East seemed for some in danger of being transferred from the Byzantine Romans to the Sclavonian Bulgarians. In the year 981, the Emperor Basil made his first in person. the new Bulgarian campaign against monarchy His plan of operations to secure the great western was Mount Haemus, on the road from Philippasses through and by the conquestof the latter city to Sardica, popolis garians he hoped to cut off the communication between the Bulresidence
Haemus
and
army, caused this well-conceived in vain for twenty fail. Sardica was besieged and the disobedience officers
to be cut foraging parties in a of the besiegers burned the engines off; the besieged victorious sortie, of and the emperor felt the necessity the commencinghis retreat. As his army was passing defiles of Haemus, it was assailed by the troops Samuel had collected to watch his operations, and completely the emperor's routed. The baggageand military chest, and tents,all fellinto the hands of the Bulgarian plate and Basil himself escaped to with some king, difficulty
438
BABILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL
where Philippopolis,
Leo the
^"""*^
of
and was fortunate of the imperial clergy chapel, has left us a short but enough to escape the pursuit, of Basil, authentic notice of this firstdisastrouscampaign the slayer of the Bulgarians.^ of the The reorganisation of his army, the regulation internal administration of the empire, the rebellion of and on the Asiatic frontier, Phokas,and the wars in Italy Basil from attacking Samuel in person for many preyented forces carried on this years. Still a part of the imperial unable to that he was soon war, and Samuel perceived
resistthe
of Bulgaria, in the plains Byzantine generals and superior where the heavycavalry, military engines, of the imperial to armies could all be employed discipline to transfer the seat dierefore, advantage.He resolved, of the Bulgarian tion. government to a more inaccessibleposibut He first selected Prespa future his as capital, he subsequently abandoned that intention, and established
at Achrida.
well
with
his Sclavonian
Achrida,therefore,
he transferred the
to this
day the
tical he received from Samuel, still holds an ecclesiasposition of several suffragans over jurisdiction independent the Patriarch of As a military position, Constantinople. had Achrida commanded it also, an ; many advantages in the Via Egnatia, the greatcommercial important point road connecting well as the Adriatic with Bulgaria, as with Thessalonica and Constantinople, and afforded many of facilities for enabling Samuel to choose his points attack on the Byzantine themes of Macedonia, Hellas, Samuel and Nicopolis. Here, therefore, Dyrrachium,
^
KINGDOM
OF
ACHRIDA,
A.D.
981.
439
A.O.
of capital
the
dom kingBulgaro-Sclavonian
became
as
^^"
extensive as The
of the two monarchs ran into one another in possessions inhabited by a a form, and both were Tery irregular bound of races, in differentstates of civilisation, variety and no common attachment together by few sympathies,
to
was
whole of ancient
Hsemus.
king Bulgarian
in the upper part of Macedonia, in layin his possessions and the southern part of Illyria, in the chain Epirus, of and
and Pindus,
western
in mountains
of Thessalonica of the great plains slopes the greater and Thessaly. In all these provinces part of the rural population consisted of Sclavonians who were hostile to the Byzantine government and to the Greek Albanian and Vallachian population an race ; and though scattered over some was they parts of the territory, off the Byzantine united with Samuel in throwing readily and only his government when he attempted yoke, opposed
the expense of their From habits of local independence. the nature of his
to
at
his only dominions, a regular hope of consolidating tem sysof civilgovernment was by holding allurements out
to his authority. voluntarily It was onlyby continual plundering into the expeditions and especially into Greece,that this Byzantine territory, could be attained. He was, therefore, object indefatigable in forming and it cona large stantly force, military employing in ravaging and of Thessaly, the plain attacking to the localchieftains to submit
the Greek cities. In the year 990, Basil visited Thessalonica, to take
1
4iO
BOOK Ch.
ft.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
iL
IS.
the progressof Samuel, aud left for arresting the Taronite with a strong to resist Gregory garrison the Bulgarians, until he himselfshould be able to turn them.^ For sereral the whole forceof the empire against of Samuel, but at checked the incursions years Gregory lasthe was slainin a skirmish, and his son Ashot was taken prisoner. This success secured Samuel from all and of Thessalonica, the side of the garrison on danger he resolvedto avail himselfof die opportunity to complete the conquest the of Greece, or at leastto plunder marched with should he meet He inhabitants, opposition. and into the Boeotia, Attica, rapidly through Thessaly, shut theirgates, Peloponnesus ; but the towns everywhere for a long and prepared so that he could effect defence,
measures
and laying waste the open nothing beyondplundering of the the emperor, hearing country. In the mean time, sent Nioeand the invasion of Greece, death of Gregory Ouranos with considerable to take reinforcements phorus the command of the garrison and march of Thessalonica, with allthe force he should be able to collect in pursuit of Samuel. Ouranos entered Thessaly, the and,leaving of his army at Larissa, rapidly heavybaggage pushed southward to the banks of the Sperchius, where he found Samuel encamped home with on the other side, hastening the plunder of Greece. Heavyrains on Mounts Oeta ^which at the and Korax had rendered the Sperchius end of summer is only torrent a brook an impassable
" "
had reached itsbanks, and Ouranos for the night in the vicinity of the Bulgarian encamped
causing army, without his arrival any alarm.^ But the of the country had observed that the river was people
^ Gregorywas desoended "rom longsettledin the empire. a
of Taron, princee
' I was onoe witness of the extraordinary effects of an autumnal storm in these mountains. The waters of the Yistritza and the streams from Oeta passable impoured down with such violence as to render that river and the Sperchius for several hours.
DEFEATS
OF
SAMUEL,
A.D.
996-1001.
441
to fall, and as they were anxious that both A.D. beginning 976-1025. armies should quit their territory as fast as possible, they battle. the In to a were bringon nightthey eager showed the river Ouranos a ford, he which passed by and surprised in their camp. the Bulgarians Samuel and his son Gabriel escaped with the greatest difficulty to the counter-forts of Oeta, from whence they gained Pindus. the of and The Tymphrestos Bulgarian range and all the plunder annihilated, completely army was and slaves made fell into the during the expedition
hands
of Ouranos,A.D. 996.
This great defeat paralysed the military of operations Samuel for some time,and it was followed by a domestic
his
resources.
He
had
and in order to attach that brave and able young officer he had intrusted him with the government to his service,
with his Dyrrachium. But Ashot was dissatisfied the Bulgarian and succeeded in persuading position, Before to Constantinople. to flywith him princess however, he formed a plotiwith quitting Dyrrachium, of the place, the principal men by which that valuable delivered up to the emperor. fortress was subsequently well as a grievous This was serious political, as a domestic wound to Samuel ; for the lossof Dyrrachium with the commercial relations of his subjects interrupted them of the support they might and deprived Italy, have derived from the enemies of the Byzantine empire beyondthe Adriatic. the external relations of Basil had at length arranged of
the
a
able to assemble way that he was the the military operations against he determined to conduct
now
kingdomof Achrida,which
person.
in
Sclavonians
formed the
most
rous nume-
442
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
n.
and theywere Danube, the Egean,and the Adriatic, the line of mountains
a
in "om
of oujM*. possession
that
runs
of of chains, to the ricinity variety that the whole Basil saw Constantinople.^ many signs SclaYonic race in these countrieswas united in opposition the existence that to the Byzantine so gOYernment, of his empire the demanded conquestof the BulgaroTo Sclavonian kingdom which Samuel had founded. in Dyrrachium,
lesserPresthlava and
In Bulgaria. the
himself the directionof the army destined to act against he Samuel. at Thessalonica, his headquarters Fixing recovered
of the fortresses of Vodena, Berrpossession he became master hoea,and Servia. By these conquests of the passes leading of Thessalonica out of the plain into the plains and over the Cambunian of Pelagonia, mountains into Thessaly, the way for an thus opening attack on the flank and rear of the forcesof the kingdom of Achrida. Vodena or Edessa, the ancient capital of had become,like all the cities the Macedonian princes, of this mountainous
on
a
rock
the overhanging
the scenery around, the abundance of water, the command of the fertile of the below,the salubrity valleys
of the position spot,and the strength closing up the
Thessalonica and
Achrida
"
all
of Vodena an possession important step of the Byzantine to the furtheroperations arms. In the following the emperor changed (1002), campaign the field from Philippopolis of operations, and, marching the western passes of Mount Haemus, occupied through
1
chiL TssetEes,
z.
192.
444
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
n.
The
of oonqaest
Vidin
eoabled hayiDg
and
Basil to
deprire
^''"**-
of Bulgaria
the SclaYonians of
the Macedonia,the Bjzantine completed generals easily of the whole of the rich conn try between sabjection
Momit
Hsemos
The
king of
Acbrida
the troopsof Basil in circumscribed the field, his territory and seeing constantly all determined to fortify by the captureof his fortresses, himself unable finding the passes in the mountains
donia. that lead into Upper Maceing and formBy stationing strong bodies of troops, behind these intrenchments, he hoped to magazines in situations to his assailantsthe difficulties of a siege present where all their supplies to be drawn would require from a great distance, and exposed to be captured or the way by the Bulgarian on light troops and destroyed
For sereral
carried on, which and indecisive war was bloody weakened the resources of the kingdom of gradually the power of the Byzantine Achrida,without affecting empire. In the year 1014, Basil considered everything ready for a finaleffort the subjection of the Sclavoto complete nian of the mountainous districts round the population the pass of of the Strymon. On reaching upper valley then called Kimbalongo, the Kleisura, Demirhissar, or he found it strongly fortified. Samuel had or Kleidion, himself at the head of the Bulgarian placed army, prepared oppose his progress. pass too strong to be forced ;
to
The
emperor
found
the
of
with a strong detachment,to make the Philippopolis, circuit of a high mountain called Valatbista, which lay that he mightgainthe rear of the Bulgato the south, rian This manoeuvre was ful. successposition. completely On the 29th of July,Nicephorus attacked the and the enemy's rear, while Basil assailed their front,
DEATH
OF
SAMUEL.
445
in spite of Bulgarians,
a.d.
^76-1025.
Gabriel
that the
being taken enabled to gainPrilapos in safety. The emperor is said to have taken fifteen thousand prisoners, and, that he of his subjects from the might revenge the sufferings and Sclavonians, he gratified ravages of the Bulgarians his own cruelty by an act of vengeance, which has most entailed infamy his name. His frightful manity inhuon justly has forced history to turn with disgust from his conduct,and almost buried the records of his military
was
Achrida
saved
from
achievements
in oblivion.
On
the eyes of all his prisoners to be put out, leaving a leader of every hundred, and in this single eye to the forth to seek captives When their kingor perish on the way. theyapproached the had that Achrida, a rumour prisoners been released
condition he
sent
the wretched
induced Samuel
the full extent
to
go out
to
meet
them.
On
learning
of the
he calamity,
with rage and grief, and died two overpowered ground, daysafter. He is said to have murdered his own brother of his throne, to secure so that his heart was possession touch of humanity it ever felt.^ broken by the first Basil occupied After his victory, the fort of Matzouwhere he ordered kion, and advanced on Strumpitza, the governor of Thessalonica, Botaniates, Theophylaktos
^ similar to tbat of Basil was perpetrated on a smaller scale by Cruelty Richard Coeur-de-Lion, it is not necessary to place strict though of course reliance on the numbers reported by the Byzantine historians. Richard, to French knightsto revenge the loss of a body of men, ordered three hundred sent home who were be thrown into the Seine, and put out the eyes of fifteen, led by one whose righteye had been spared. PhilipAugustus,nothing blind, fifteen English knightsin the same way. loath, revenged himself by treating France a" TempedesOroisacUi, Capefigue, AugusUfiL 102; Vaublanc,X^ Philippe all a common ii.4. Putting out men's eyes was, for several centuries, practice horror. As late as the reign of over Europe, and not regarded with much for making it felony Henry IV.,a.d. 1403,an Act of Parliament was passed, Englishmen to out out one another's tongues,or put out their neighbour's
"
eyes.
446
BOOK
^
""
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
II.
* '^
to joinhim bodyof Balgarians, large and clearing northward, by marching away theintrenchconstructed by Samuel on the road leading ments from Thessalonica directly In this operation to Strumpitza. and surrounded by the Bulgarians was Theophylaktos
his
the emperor to retire by the Zagocompelled succeeded in gainrian mountains to Mosynopolis, having ing of Melenik fortress of the strong by negopossession tiation. At Mosynopolis, the 24th October 1014, on he heard of the death of Samuel, and immediately determined to take adyantage of an to event likely arms. Marching prove so favourable to the Byzantine with a strongbody of troops through Thessalonica and Vodena, he advanced into Pelagonia, carefully protecting that fertile from ravage, and destroying district nothing From but a palace of the Bulgarian at BoutelioiL kings thence he sent a division of the army to occupy Prilapos and Stobi, with the river Tzerna (Erigon) and, crossing the main body, he returned by Vodena to Thessalonica, which he reached on the 9th of January1015.^ of Basil awakened an energetic The cruelty resistance and Gabriel on the part of the Sclavonians and Bulgarians,
son
of
Samuel, was
enabled to
obstaclesto the progress of the Byzanofferunexpected tine and expelled the imperial armies. Vodena revolted,
that so garrison, of 1015
to open the campaign compelled with the siege of that place, which he inhabitants were transported to Beleros, to
Basil
was
The
two
were Elias,
the pass
the
ward. west-
from Gabriel, with an receiving embassy of attention, which he did not cousider deserving proposals Basil joined in besieging a divisionof his army engaged After
Cedrenus,709.
GABRIEL,
KING
OP
ACHRIDA,
A.D.
1015.
447
ad.
Moglena under the immediate command and Constantine Diogenes, who Xiphias
of
Nicepboms
had succeeded
^76^^.
as governor of Thessalonica. By turning Theophylaktos the course of the river, the besiegers enabled to run were a
props.
When
the mine
itwas completed,
with filled
which reduced the props to ashes,and as combustibles, and openeda breach,Moglenawas soon as the wall fell taken
by assault. The whole of the Sclavonian population of bearing order arms was capable by the emperor's in Armenia. The fort of to Vaspourakan transported Notia in the vicinity also taken and destroyed. was the kingof Achrida,though alienated Gabriel, brave, the favour of his subjects and his by his imprudence, whose lifehe had saved in youth, John Ladislas, cousin, in order to gain base enough to become his murderer, was in order to gain of the throne. Ladislas, time, possession himself on the throne and resisting both for strengthening the Byzantine sent ambassadors to Basil with invasion,
of peace ; but the emperor, satisfied favourable offers that between the Sclavonians and Greeks could the struggle all by the conquest of one, rejected and pushedon his operaterms but absolute submission, tions with his usual vigour, the country waste laying about Ostrovos and Soskos,and marching unopposed the fertile defeat of of T he plains Pelagonia.^ through of the Byzantine of the one a portion army by Ibatzes, the emperor to march generals, Bulgarian compelled him in person ; and when Ibatzes retreated into against Basil returned to Thessalonica, and shortly the mountains, The conquest after established himself at Mosynopolis. sion diviof eastern Macedonia was not yet completed : one under the comof the Byzantine troopswas placed
onlybe
terminated
ii.226, says Basil took Achrida ; but this could not be the case, ZoDaras, Cethe treasures of the Bulgariankingsonly fellinto his hands in 1018. drenus,713.
^
as
"
448
BASILIAN
DYHA8TT.
BOOK
II.
mand
^'^**'
and took the which besieged Arianite, : fortress of Thermitza on Moant another, Strompitza
of David the
Hsemus from Mount Xiphias, crossing Nicephoros took Boion,near Sardica. Philippopolis, in the The Emperor Basil returned to Constantinople month of January1016, in order to send an expedition of which had been concerted the operations to Kbazaria, under with Vladimir of
Russia,his brother-in-law. He
the
also
was
he terminated, to Pemikon, which repulsed army at Sardica and laid siege his attacks, as ithad done fourteen years before.
He
conquest of Kbazaria
but place,
was
at
lastcompelled to retire to
Mosynopolis. againturned
his
arms
Kastona, a town situatedon a rocky agaiust Pelagonia. in a small lake,resistedhis attacks, but the peninsula
the open country was considerable; and thishe divided into three parts--onehe bestowed on the Russian auxiliaries who served in his army, another he divided among the native Byzantine and the legions, third he reserved for the imperial The operatreasury.^ tions
of Basil in the west
news were
bootycollected in
for
time arrested
by
he received from the governor of Dorystolon, whidi threatened to render his presence necessary in Bulgaria. Ladislas was induce them with the Patzinaks to measures concerting to invade the empire;but after a slight
Basil was informed the alliance had failed, and he delay, resumed his activity. After laying allthe country waste round Ostrovos and Moliskos that was by Sclapeopled and repairing the fortifications of Berrhoea which vonians, had fallen to decay, he captured where Samuel Setaina,
1
Cedrenus, 711.
DEATH
OP
LADISLAS,
A.D.
1018.
449
had formed greatmagazines of wheat. These magazines a. d. ^^^^' well filled that Basil became were so bj Ladislas, kept
master
of
so
greata
his
troops. At
last the
King
of Achrida
the approached
emperor at the head of a considerable army, and a part of the imperial troops was drawn into an ambusc^e. The emperor happenedto be himself with the advanced division of the army. He instantly mounted his horse led the troops aboat him to the scene of action, orders for all the other divisions to hasten forward sending
and
supporthim. His sudden appearance at the head of a lancers of the Byzantine strongbody of the heavy-armed
to
of his charge, the terror his very name fiiry and the cry, The emperor is upon us ! ^ soon inspired, and changed confusionthrough the Bulgarian ranks, spread the fortune of the day. After this victory, Basil, finding
" "
army, the
the
season
of
January1018.
whose affairs Ladislas, were
made becoming desperate, to Dyran attemptto restore his credit by laying siege which he hopedto take before Basil could relieve rachium,
it. Its
munications comeven
afterthe
and Africa, but he was slain Sicily of the siege.He reigned commencement
two
As the emperor soon as years and five months. heard of his death, he visitedAdrianople to make preparations
which he hopedwould end in the campaign, of the Bulgarian and Sclavonian complete subjugation of the kingdom of Achrida. The Bulgarian population
Cedrenos, 712. B"piT" 6 TCtapare the words as givenby Skylitoes. Latin This suggeststhe question, was o Ckuar, Xylandersays this is fuffUe used as the military languagein the Bulgarian army 1 or are these words of the ancient Maoedonians, or of the dialect of the remains of the language
"
for a
modem VOL.
VaUachians L
or
Albanians ?
450
BOOK IT.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
Qi.it.fl.
leaders gave up all hope of resistaiice.Krakras, the who had twice foiledthe emperor, brave chiefof Peroikon^ fortress and thirtj-fire impregnable delidistrict. DragomoutzcB castles in the surrounding and both he and yered up the fortressof Strumpitza, rewarded with the patrician chair. Basil Krakras were wh^:^ and Serres to Strumpitza, marched by Mosjnopolis from most of the citiesin Pelahe received deputations their keys at his feet. Even David, the gonia, laying lettersfrom the Patriarch of Bulgaria, arrived, bringing widow of Ladislas, to surrender the capitalThe offering and Stypeia, emperor continued to advance by Skopia, and on reaching Achrida he was received rather Prosakon, than as a foreign as the lawful sovereign conqueror. He took possession of all the treasures Samuel immediately had amassed ; the gold alone amounted to a hundred and with this he paidall the arrears due to his centners,^ and rewarded them with a donative for their long troops, and gallant service in this arduous war. Almost the of Achrida submitted, whole of the royal and received family surrendered that the most generous treatment. Three sons of Ladislas, who escaped to Mount Tmorus, and attempted to the contest, were prolong
were soon
captured.The
court. imperial the ab^nce of all indeed, Nothii^, decidedly proves more Greek nationality in the Byzantine administrationat this than the facility with which allforeigners obtained period, favour at the court of Constantinople ; nor can anything
be
more
by the power in the person of the emperor, as completed Basilian dynasty, had now the administrative destroyed
of the old Roman centralisation
have
that proofs
considerable Greek
This
Bum
is not
462
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
Oh.
n.
IT.
authoritieson
shore.
The
of princes
Serria
agreed to
I S.
tino the supremacy of the emperor, and Constanacknowledge the Danabe, gained the imperial on general Diogenes, of the dtj of Sirmiam by an act of the possession basest treachery.^
After made
a
the winter in his new Basil passing conquests, progress throughGreece. At Zeitounion he
of battlewhere the power of Samuel had visitedthe field of Nicephorus been firstbroken by the victory Ouranoa,
and found the slain.
strewed groundstill
The wall that defended the pass of Thermopybe retained its antique Skelos; and its masonry, name, which dated from Hellenic days, excited the emperor's admiration.
and Athens,
last Basil arrived within the walls of he was the only emperor who for sevaral
At
with a visit Many magnificent ages honoured that city in structures in the town, and the whole of the temples sufieredany rude touches hardly from the hand of time. If the original of the splendour and gilding external painting which had once adorned the Parthenon of Pericleshad faded, the mural paintings the had Acropolis, then of
the interior of the cella, to the Church gave a new interest of the Virgin, into which it had been transformed. The mind
was
combination glorious
nature
and
touched his stem Acropolis soul. He testified his feelings to the gifts by splendid and rich dedications at the shrine of the Virgin in city,
saw
that he
the Parthenon.^ Greece the emperor returned to Constantinople, himself in the pomp of a triumph, where he indulged makinghis entry into his capital by the Golden Gate,and From
^ *
717. Gedronos,
POPULATIOK
OP
THE
EMPIRE
IN
EUBOPE.
453
of the populace, with satisfaction who to the cries a. d. listening his cruelty him with the titleof ^'^^^^ applauded by saluting The Slayer of the Bulgarians." I have entered into the history of the destruction of the Bulgarian detail, monarchy of Achrida in some because the struggle national as well as political was ; and the perseyering resistanceofferedby the SclaTonian like of Macedonia to a warlike sovereign population condition of that and flourishing Basil, proves the density and the complete annihilation of all Hellenic people, influencein extensive provinces, where for ages the civili* sation and the language of Greece had be^ predominant. Againstthis national energy on the part of the united and Sclavonians, tinople the governmentat ConstanBulgarians had nothing to oppose but a well-disciplined army and a well-organised administration. The Byzantine empirehad never less of a national character than at the presentperiod, when its military had reached glory the highest pitch.Its Roman traditions were a mere
"
name,
and
it had
not
it was
Comnenos.
tion popula-
his ravages tricts, hence it appears that extensive discruelty ; and instead of being mained reby Greek settlers, repeopled
systematically by depopulated
in
nomadic Vallanew
colonists
laterthey that about a century so rapidly multiplied found occupying the mountains round the great were of Thessaly.^ The changes which have taken place plain and places in the numbers of habitation of the different of mankind, are really races as a branch of important historicalinquiry the geographical limitsof political as
1
Benjamin of Tudela.
The
edited
by
A.
Asher,
148.
454
BASILIAN
DTKASTT.
BOOK
u.
that
the regulate
in-
^"""**'
race, at
and under the same period gOTemment, and actions of of the are as deserving study as princes siderable for Uiej exert no inconof paiiiaments, the l^idation
influaice on
readers
the
rise and
fall of
states ; bat
littleto
their enlighten
these
subjects.
war, Bulgarian
the attention
were political dianges banning to take placein of of the (^phs Asia,caused by the decline of the empire of Bagdat; but theae revolutions lie beyond the sphere at this time, politics though Byzantine they beganalready influence the of Armenia. to exert on an sovereigns
in Armenia (a.d. Bulgarian war, he had made a campaign and gained of a considerable portion of possession 991), Iberia or Greorgia. The whole kingdomhad been left to him by the will of David, its last sovereign ; but Gwtgej the brother of the deceased monardi, advancing his claim to the in order Basil, succession,
to avoid
a
war,
agreedto
leave
George
in
of possession
the northern
in reigned
was
each of the
divided.
of Iberia and Armenia, population coloniesof Bulgarians and Sdavonians into transported
on
check
the
same
of
Bulgaria.
East,in order
to reestablish
Syna,where
it had
fallen into discredit in consequence of the defeat of the in the preimperial army on the banks of the Orontes,
AFPAIES
OP
ARHBKU,
A.D.
1021.
455
ceding year.^ The emperor soon succeeded in re-estabhis authority. He took Aleppo,Hems, and lishing and laid siege to Tripolis resisted Sheizar, ; but that city
his attacks, it had as and afterhis return to the Fatimite done those of John Zimiskes
;
a. d.
^^^^^
Aleppo.
In the year 1021, the emperor the fieldin person, to make head bination of enemies
on
the Armenian
frontier. Sene-
of Vasparoukan, had bera so alarmed karim,the prince of the Mohammedan by the threatening population aspect his frontiers that he had ceded his dominions to Basil, on of Sebaste the city exdiange where adjacent countryas far as the Euphrates, and received in and
the
he established
families who quitted himself with many Armenian their native seats. Basil undertook to defend Vasparoukan and the Turkish tribes that beganto attack it, against Senekarim engagedto govern Sebaste as a Byzantine After this cession had been made, Geoi^e, viceroy.2 the sovereign of the northern part of Iberia and Abasgia, in conjunction with Joannes Sembat, the King of Ani, attacked the Byzantine and their operations territory, rendered the presence of the emperor necessary. They had formed secret relationswith Nicephorus who, Xiphias, himself had distinguished while governor of Philippopolis, the son of in the Bulgarian war, and with Nicephorus, Bardas Phokas ; and these two generals broke out into and endeavoured to incite open rebellionin Cappadocia, all the Armenians
to to
take up
arms.
Basil
was
obliged
engageda foreign
"
^ Ouranos, who defefttod Samuel on the banks of the Sperohiiu Nioephorus in 996, appears to have been taken prisonerby the Saracens in this battle. Cedrenus, 702. For the date o^ Basil's campaign in Syria, compare Cedrenus, iil 43, note. 701,and Weil, Getehichie der Chalifen, ' Saint Mimoira $ur VArmenU, i 368. Chamich, iL 1 12. Martin,
456
BOOK
u.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
^"'**'
of treacherj enemy, and he ayailed himself of (he spirit in power in most absolute governinherent among men ments his purpose. to effect
He
sent to letterssecretlj
each of the rebel chiefs, to him who would offering pardon assassinatehis colleague. Phokas, who was bold and
daringlike
received
one
his father,immediately communicated the that he had letterto Xiphias, who, concealing emperor's of similar availed import,
a
The rebel army then melted away, and Basil was able to turn allhis forces against of Iberia. the sovereign but in remained doubtful, victory a second the Iberian and pletely Abasgian troopswere comthe defeated (11th September1022). Liparit^ of of the Abasgians, and the kings was general slain, Iberia and Armenia were to sue for peace. A obliged concluded on the banks of the lake Balagatsis, was treaty to be by which Joannes the King of Armenia,who began alarmed at the progress of the Turks, ceded his capital, Ani, to Basil after his death, condition of retaining on the government in his own hands as longas he Uved.^ thiscampaign, sight Basil displayed allhis usual foreDuring and energy : he took measures the for putting fortresses in a state on the eastern frontierof the empire
In the first battle the
to
resist the
of
he ordered to be engines military constructed were of such power and solidity, that when the Seljouk Turks invaded the Byzantine in the territory of Constantine IX. (Monomachos), found them reign they
; and some
Asia
the expel Saracens from Sicily; and he was engagedin making for reconquering that island, when he greatpreparations seized with an illness, was which quickly provedfatal. He expired in December 1025, at the age of sixty-eight,
was
still well suited for service. The next object of Basil's ambition
to
DEATH
OF
BASIL,
A.D.
1025.
457
the empire with absolute power A.D. haringgoverned 976-1026. for fifty He extended the limitsof the Byzantine years. and at the end on territory every side by his conquests, of his reign the Byzantine emphreattained its greatest extent and highest power. The body of Basil was interred in the Church of the in the Hebdomon. Two centuries and a half Evangelist, had nearlypassedaway. The Byzantine empirehad been destroyed the Asiatic Greeks were by the Crusaders, to expelthe Franks from their conquest, endeavouring and Michael Paleologos their emperor was besieging stantinople, Conwhen some Greek officers, through wandering the ruins of the church and monasteryof the Evangelists, admired the remains of its ancient magnificence, and lamented of Byzantine to see that so splendid a monument had been converted into a stable under the ruinous piety
after
CaBsars.
In
corner
of the
broken recently open aiTcsted their attention. A well-embalmed bodyof old man and in his hand some an layin the sarcophagus, idle herdsman had placed a shepherd's tion pipe. An inscripwall contained that the the showed on sarcophagus the mortal remains of Basil the Slayer of the Bulgarians. The Emperor Michael VIII. visited the spot,and when he found it necessary to retire from before Constantinople for a time, he ordered the body to be removed to Selymtomb that had been and interred in the monastery of bria, 1260.
*
our
a.d. Saviour,^
719. Cedrenus,
Pachymer,i
80.
CHAPTER
III.
PERIOD
OP
CONSBEVATISM
A.D.
ON
THE
BVB
OF
DECLINE,
1025-1057.
SECT.
L-G0N6TANTINE
Vni., A.D.
OP
"
1096-1098.
COITDITIOH
ICBKT TRATiON
OF
THE
KXPIRB"ChaBAOTSK
BY of HI8
COITBTAKTIVB
VIII."
OOVBEKADlONlfl-
ABMINIBTEBED
"
EUNXJOHS
OpPRESSIYE Romanus
FINANCIAL
Marriage VIII.
Zoe
with
Arohtbos"
Death
of
CONSTANTINB
The
cedonian, conquest of the Sclayonians in the Thracian,Maof securitj and lUjrian mountains, gaye a degree
to
Empire which
how
to
it had
the
of the
or country,
if the Greek
had people
energy and moral conyictionsnecessary to their ri^tsas men and citizens, force the court to respect the possessed
the whole
to the south of Mount lying proyinces HsBmus mighthaye become thickly peopled by the natural increase of the Greek race. Land of the best quality from was eyerywhere readyto receiye a better cultiyation colonists checked on the part new was ; but improyement of the goyemment, by exactions similar to those which in allarbitrary arrest the progress of society goyemments ;
of the
were
"
now
tional na-
was
taxes,seyere
agri-
460
BOOK
u.
BASILIAK
DYKASTT.
the idea of interdread the array of troopsas suggesting His fears ^j reTolutions rather than of foreign CMjiLji^i. wars. rendered him
a
and suspicious
of all men
confer the
the eunuchs of of
his household.
bred up amidst
scenes
dissipation,
and hunting, destitute of all exand utterly perience gambling, with in public were business, charged suddenly the most important duties in the empire.^ of the wardrobe, of chamberlain,^ The dignities keeper and commander of the
watch, were
intrusted to three
eunuchs of the domestic establishment of Constantine, and each receiyed the titleof President of the Senate. conferred mercenaries was foreign The Byzantine on a fourth. emperors, likeother despots, of with the guardianship preferred intrusting strangers their persons.^ A fifth, named Spondyles, was appointed The command
of the
of the
band, named
Niketas,
Emperor Basil II. must ter the lathaye humbled the pride of the aristocracy during in its and effecteda greatchange part of his reign, in the time of Basiliosthe chamberlain and before position
duke of Iberia. The the rebellions of Skleros and Phokas,or the direction
ii.228. Zonaras, and Aofurueos rciv Cedrenus,719. Nikokos was made Uapa Koifi"fuvos (ryoX"y or ministo^at-war, and Simeon ilpovy^ KioephorusUpwro^ridpuK^
* 1
ympuK T^spiykas, ^ The Utle of the oommander of the foreign guard was Mfyaghmpfuipx^* The Varangian formed about this time, was body-guard corps of the imperial and consisted firstof Scandinavians and Russians,afterwards of Danes and at page 755, and their commandant English. Cedrenus mentions Varangians Akoulothos at page 787." For the German guardof Augustus, see Suetonius, in Aug. 49; TaciHAun. i.24; and Emesti's note to Ann, 18,18. Oberlin, i 754.
OPPRESSIVE
FINANCIAL
ADMINISTRATION.
461
a. d.
of the gOTernment would Dot haye been allowed to remain in the hands of six eunuchs. The spirit of conserlong vatism
_J
to such a degree as to already pervaded society form a firm support with which of despotism. The patience Constantine's measures endured gives were us some insight into the social eflfected aswell as the administrative changes of his brother. We see that his policy by the longreign had provedquite the power of as successfulin breaking the great and in diminishing the influence of the families, of themes,as in destroying the Bulgarian generals dom kingand subjugating the All the Sclavonian people.
power the emperor had taken from others was accumulated in his own done to confer any rights was person ; nothing
on on the injustice against part of the imperial agents. The emperor's power was made absolute in practice in theory, and thus the as nor people,
the
to
secure
them
were
enabled
and it is usually of Byzantine principle policy, factitious into slavery to delude the people a phrase by of theirnatural and devotion order to means justice. Basil II. is accused by the Byzantine historians of fiscal In severity.
thisaccusation thereisreason
murmurs
to
suspect
that
of the nobles and lace popuof the of Constantinople than the deliberate expression
we
of the whole empire. Basil endeavoured to opinion public dens, burof the public from the rich their due proportion levy and to put a stop to the absorption of the estates of the poor by the aristocracy, while at the same time he refrained in from lavishing the immense sums on the shows
But hippodrome. his
to
avarice; we
see
whatever may have been the extent of in his exertions of true liberality signs
and real the burdens of the industriousclasses, lighten in his endeavours to spare the poor. It has humanity
462
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK ^
n.
been
arrear
DOtieed already
when
a
'""*^-
he died.
to
two
form
contrast
On
one
hand" be
exacted the
arrears
while, on seyerity,
extorted from the
in in wasteful expenditure provinces the capital. of three years he collected Duringhis reign like that and expended the revenue of five. His palace, with for^gnslaves and of a Saracen caliph, filled was whose strange eunuchs, appearance and barbarous language of the empire.^ astonished the natural-bom subjects insurrectionbroke out, the geneThough no dangerous ral and discontent could not be mistaken, fears of Constantine and his creatures.
men,
it excited the
Many
eminent
of families renowned in the annals representatives of the empire, and condemned to lose their seized, were because the services of their ancestors in pastgenesight, rations them to too much influence on appeared give in each case, to determine, public opinion.It is difficult whether this was a measure of precaution, or a punishment for political The or actual conspiracy. imprudence
of
some
names
of the sufferersdeserve
because recc"xl,
of several distinguished lies famitheyindicate the position at the time. Comnenos, the gov^nor of Nicephorus Media or Aspourakan, bad bravely defended his province the incursions of the Saracens; but his troops against him some and timidity, of indiscipline having given signs he had invited them to take an oath that they would
never
desert him
on
of the emperor, who recalled Comnenos to Conjealousy where he was condemned to lose his sight for stautinople, unlawful oaths to the army.^ Constantine, administering the
son
was Antioch,
also
Byz, 170.
NOBLES
PUNISHED.
468
case
it was
as
a. d.
had
informed Basil of
in order that brother, Bardas Skleros and Bardas of the riyals, grandsons Phokas, were united in misfortune. These two patricians
some
by the eunuchs Skleros had quarrelled with PruMan,the son of Ladislas, the last king of Achrida. Prusian, who held the rank of magister, and was goyernor of the theme Boukellarion, of the Byzantine a duel with Skleros ; for the pride fought itself with as much courage, military displayed aristocracy if not with as much gallantry, shown by the ever as was duellistswere of western Europe.^ The two chivalry
exiled to differentislands of the Basilioswas he
was soon
to escape. Romanes ber Kurkuas, a memplotting which had supArmenian family, of a distinguished plied with many able generals, and of which the empire also lost his the Emperor John Zimiskes was a scion, not severalindividuals who bear names as weU as sight,
unknown
barous barand others whose Byzantine history, and Sdavoappellations prove that the Bulgarian nian aristocracy divided with the Greeks and Armenians influence at the court of a competent share of political Constantinople.^ The extent of the disorder caused in the provinces by the creatures sent to govern them by Constantino and his eunuchs,is attested by the notice we possess of som6
in
1
Cedraniu,721.
a
oorded in
on III.,
Lebeto, ziv. 284, remufa,tbat this is the firstduel reof Romanus history.Prusianos lost his eyes in the reign Bjzftntine of Conwith Theodora, the daughter that he was plotting suspicion
"
Btantme
'
VIII.,to mount the throne. Oedreou8" 723. Zonaras,ii 230. who lost his Zacharias, Cedrenus, 721. Bogdan,Qlabas, and GoudeUs. tongue,was a relation of a personage called Vestas Phevdatos.
464
BOOK
n. 1.
BASILIAN
DTKiSTT.
occurrences
at
of that pro-
chjm
^jj^ Mad
^j^
intrustedto
drove the conduct, who, bj his tyrannical George, which ensued. insurrection to despair ; and in an people Mad and his palace bj the plundered Georgewas slain, populace.This insurrectionwas soon quelled ; but Constantine took
seyere
vengeance
on
the inhabitants of
of his was Naupactos.Even the archbishop deprived the the people to protect for attempting sigh^ against
exactions of their tyrant.
the government, and hastened to profit by the disorderly affairs. In 1027 the Patzinaks made an state of public
into Bulgaria, where they laid waste everything irruption
Saracen fleetcruised among the Cyclades, and the islandsone afber another, visiting
on
theirline of march.
infusedby Basil spirit into the army and navy was not extinct, thoughtheir directionhad falleninto unworthy hands. Diogenes, the governor of Sirmium, beingcreated duke of Bulgaria,
the defeated the Patzinaks, and drove them back beyond Danube. The governors of Samos and Chios assembled
a
naval
the
crews. was
Constantine V III.
which
was
mortal. evidently
he fixed his eyes on Constantine Dalassenos as his successor. The choice was judicious ; and an eunuch of the
was palace
about to
summon
theme, when
Simeon, the
a
mander com-
weaker
and
connected
with the
emperor to recallhis
who was Arghyros, the on imperial family, prevailed and transferthe empire firstorder,
DEATH
OP
CONST
ANTINE,
A.D.
1028.
465
to Romanus.
was palace,
The informed
destined
a, d.
bj Constantine
selected
^^^^^^^^'
to
mount
the
one
must
and
maiTj
hesitated to become
must
stantine, emperor on this condition ; but Conto quicken informed him that he his decision,
or
lose his
and eyesight,
gave him a few hours to reflecton the choice. The wife of Romanus, learning the alternative, ordered immediately her head
to
be
shaved,and entered
to
monastery ; thus
of sacrificing tine Constan-
ambition.
destined Theodora, the youngest of his three to be the wife of Romanus daughters, ; but she refused
to mount
the husband of another by marrying The emperor was to make woman. therefore, compelled, his second daughter Zoe empress, for the eldest had retired The daughters of Constantine into a monastery.^ Their education had been of mature were already age. neglected by their father ; and Zoe had taken shamefully of the want of all moral restraint in which she advantage when she lived. She had attained the age of forty-eight II. and of Romanus became a bride ; but the posterity and Theophano were all remarkable for health, vigour, III. and their with Romanus Her marriage longevity.^ the throne coronation On
^
was
celebrated
on
1028.
Constantine VIII.
expired.
ance. appear-
which malady,
may
Zonaras, iL 228.
more
and in the reign of Romanus III., Zonaraa,ii.223, 260, says Zoe was fifty The Chronicle of Lupus, Bibliotheea Hiti, than seventy at her death. in Regni SicUue,edited by Carushis, p. 89, says she was seventy at her death,
a
1050.
VOL.
I.
466
BASILUN
DYNAST7.
SECT,
n."
THE
RKI0N8
OT
OP
THE
HUSBANDS
OF
PlBBONAL
WAR"
OONDUei
ROMANUS ROMAIHTB"
or
DiFBAT
"
.or
OT
MaNIAKXB"
ofibateokb
AUTOORAFH
"
OF or a.i".
Chrut RoMAKUS
AoQUDXTioir
IIL" JoHW
THB WAR"
"
Pbbkbin
of
Natal IY.
Dbath
Character
Miohabl
(thb Paphlagonun),
OPPREBBION"
1084-1041" LOflS
OETIO
Orphanotroph" AlTlMFT
OF TO
Pinanoial
SXTRPRIBB
CoifBPTIK
RAOm"SARAOEir
OF
EdKBA"
AND OF
WaR IV.
"
SlOtLT
"
"
SSRYIA
CONDUCT
RbBELUON
OF
BULGARIANS
"
SCLAVONIANS
"
E^NXROF
MiCHABL
or
IV.
DkaTH
MiCHARL
ajx
ReIOK
Zob of Caulkxr), (Kalafhateb, IX. Constantine of Character 1042 AND (Monomaohus), Theodora, Constantine of 1042-1054 concubine IX., created Skleraina, the yifitmAwt.v."
thb
1042
Rbigh
"
"
"KFRBBB
"
^Lavish Rebellion
of
expenditurb
of
"
of
Thbodora
of the
"
Sedriob
dt
Ctprus"
"
Maniaess" War
empire
"
Consfiract
plots"
eunuch
war
"
Rebeluon
Leo
WARr"
Tornikiob"
in
Servian
of
war^Patzenak
sioH
OF
Conquest
Seuouk Zoe
and
Armenia"
the and
Byzantine Latin
Turks"
Separatioii IX.
Greek
churches
Deaths
Constantine
BOOK ^
iL
"'"*'"
ruled by a sucwas twenty-nine years the empire who owed their position the throne on cession of princes of Constantine VIII. Under such to the daughters For of the court of it is natural that the affairs circumstances, than usual attention in a attract more Constantinople in review of Byzantine Every class of society history. to have slumbered this period the empire appears during in a firm connction its revenues in prosperity, consuming that no external power could disturb the internalsecurity of the civilised In no othor portion world of the state. of wealth and did the inhabitants enjoy an equal degree for life and property ; and the military security power of every neighbouring and financial resources goyemment of the far inferior those to empire. Byzantine appeared Conservative
Romanus
was lethargy
III.
an
was
sixty years
made him
He was allied to several of the emperor. of the aristocracy, and is a oldest and most illustrious
duringa
time
468
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
the failure of his of bis age. Considering superstition cii^nM g^j^^^ for his sins, and not a as a punishment campaign he sought of military affairs, consequence of his ignorance tical Heaven by a lavish expenditure to propitiate on ecclesiasHe founded a new monasteryof the Virgin objects.
BOOK II.
1.
on
of which
he
laid out
He profusion.
revenues
endowed
even
ecclesiastics, Byzantine of placblame the incongruity his liberality, in recording ing and commonks in the position of luxurious nobles, plain merit with God of the emperor seeking to acquire Romanus also by exactions that ruined his subjects.^
enormous
covered the
of the capital
columns
in the churches of St
and enriched the with gilding, and Blachem Sophia's He is said likewise with expensive ornaments. buildings from the Fatimite caliph to have obtained permission at Daher to rebuild the Church of the Holy Sepulchre which had been destroyed Hakem Jerusalem, by Caliph with the Egypin the year 1010. disputes Subsequent tian the have ment delayed commencegovernment appear to
reignof
Michael
IV., and it
not
of Constantino IX.
(Mono-
Whenever
in feelings the supply nations.
has failed to
moral implant
laws prove ineffectual to want, whether in the case of individuals or The people of the Byzantine were now empire
men,
to beginning
^ ^
have
the
same
Zonans, ii.231.
The
discussion concerning the site of the Holy Sepulchre still cided. undeseems The author of this work has endeavoured to show that evidence, and in the time of Constantino. must have determined the position not tradition, On the Site of the BolySepulchre, guson, by Geoi^ge Finlay: London, 1847. Mr Ferin a very able work, entitled, An Etsavon the Ancient Topogravhyof in the same that Constantine did not Jerutalemfpublished year, has mamtained but that in some fix on the presentsite, later period the present site was posed immankind on as the site selected by Constantine or Helena. Though the tradition of the church cannot be received as of much value on a topographical questionbefore any site was determined on, it becomes of value from the time of nations and sects began to worship at the same a variety shrine : now, as this has been the case ever since the time of Constantine with the Holy Sepul"
STATa
OF
THE
EMPIRE.
469
been manifested by the continental A.D. lately 1028.1054. Europefor representatiye government;
but in both
end. As
cases
there appears to have been a want of for attaining required any desired
in political matters, the fault happens usually and educated classes of society, who laywith the higher allowed themselves to quit the line of dutyto pursue any lure held out to their prejudices Hence we or passions. find conspiracies and rebellions continuing in to occur where they rapidsuccession in the Byzantine empire, evil in unavoidable the lot of were as an regarded
man.
Conservative tendencies
were
the most
nation.
her sister Theodora EmpressZoe never forgave that superiority of character which had induced then* if she would acceptthe father to ofier her the empire,
The
husband
of his choice ; and Romanus for refusing his hand, and feared her
talents. He
set
a
III. dislikedher
on
account
of her
from spy over her conduct by drawing his retreat John, one of the ministers of Basil II., who had deemed it prudent to retireinto John the intrusted with
a
monastery on
was
now
the
the brothera duel with Romanus Skleros, fought of the Emperor Romanus III.,was accused of
At what periodwas it possible for the priests chre,the questionarises, and of many different nations and sects to agree on a fraud so abhorrent pilgrims to the superstitious The authorities relating to the of mankind? feelingj destruction and ro-edification of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at this and burnt the Sutu:ens set fire to the church are as follows :" The period, Patriarch of Jerusalem in 968. alive,after the victories of Nicephorus 11.^ Hakera, called by Byzantinewriters. Cedrenus,661. The caliph Aziz, razed
"
in 1010." Cedrenus, 706. the church and demolished the sepulchre William of Tyre, L iv. Bongars,631. Romanus III. obtained permissionto rebuild William of Tyre, L vi. Bongars, the church. 632. The new Cedrenus, 73 1 was building completed by Constantine IX. (Monomachus)." William of T^nre, i.vi. Bongars,632.
" .
^^
470
BooKiL
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
with plotting
of Romanus
a
Theodora
QY
to
seize the
The reception.
emperor
had
him by condemning Prusian to revenged his mother,the late queen and bybanishing sight,
to the
lose his
of Bulgaria,
monasteryof Mantineion
in the Boukella-
rian theme.
alarmed when the court was Subsequently, and Sclavonian rebellion at the prospectof a Bulgarian under the direction of Constantine Diogenes, Prusian was to embrace the monastic life. It seems compelled strange that the project the sovereignty of transferring of the should be recorded by Byzantine empireto a Bulgarian the Byzantine without the smallest notice that writers, such an event was either the Roman to wound likely of the aristocracy of Constantinople, or the national pride of the Greek race ; but we must recollectthat vanity the founder of the Basilian dynasty known to have was
been
was
formed
same
soon
afterthat Constantine
of
Prusian, was
on
and interests,
counted
the
for feelings
success.
the Diogenes,
and had been it was there,
and duke of Bulgaria, governor of Sirmium had married a niece of the EmperorRomanus III.,
appointed governor
discovered that he
of Thessalonica.^ While
was
in frequent engaged communications with the leaders of the Bulgarian and Sclavonian population of the empire, and it was deemed
necessary to transfer him to the government of the him. He was found Thrakesian theme before arresting
the Emperor, and of conspiracy guilty against
to
be
as
monk
in the
seems
monastery of
to
Studion.
'
who syncellus,
notee
Cedrenus, 728; Zonaras, ii. 230; Ducange,Fam. Byz, 153, and in bis to Zonaras,p. 90, edit. Venet, disagree concerningthe relationfihip.
SARACEN
over gained
WAR,
A.D.
1029.
471
by Theodora,whom
he had been
appoint-a.
the governor of watch, Eustathios Daphnomeles, of Michael Burtzes,the Achrida, two grandchildren conqueror of Antioch, and George and Varasvatzes, all condemned of the patrician Theudatos, were nephews
ed to in this conspiracy/ for participating They were and then banished. Theodora, who scourged of
was
^^^'^^^'
publicly
accused
driven from her palace, to their plots, was being privy and imprisoned in the monastery of Petrion.^ Some time the EmpressZoe visitedher sister, and compelled after, her to assume the monastic habit. Constantine Diogenes of Thessalonica of also accused by the archbishop was the in order to assume to escape into lUyria, plotting and title of emperor. To avoid the lossof his eyesight, the disgrace the streets of the of being through scourged he threw himself from a window and was killed capital, buried in the place the spot. He was on appropriated
to
1032.^ those who committed suicide, a.d. of Constantine VIII. had weakened The negligence
the
the eunuch force of the empire. Spondyles, military that intrustedwith the government of Antioch,finding the Saracen emirs who had been rendered tributary by II. and John Zimiskes refused to pay tribute, Nicephorus His undertook to re-establishthe imperial authority. defeat of the led to the complete rashness and incapacity Byzantine army on the 31st of October 1029, by which out withall the imperial in Syria were exposed possessions defence to the attacks of the emirs of Aleppoand who pushed their incursions up to the walls of Tripolis,
and rendered themselves masters of the fort of Antioch, diate constructed in its immeMenik, which had been recently
vicinity.
^ Varaeyfttzes founded the monastery of the Iberians, Mount Athos. on CedrenuB, 724. The account of Mount Athos, by Comnenos, in Montfaucon's omits this fact Grceoa^ Paleographia ' situated without the walls, at the head of the port was Ducange It^ Nut(B in ZonarcB Ann.'p, 90,edit. Yenet.
" "
"
729. Cedrenus,
472
BOOK
^ iL
BAfllLIAN
DYNASTY.
Romanus
at empire
*""**"
brother-in-law,
to
CoDstantine
forward
supersede
Spondjles.When
be Pisidia,
who Aleppo, and empire,
was
the emperor
reached Philomilion in
from the emir of by an embassy the supremacy of the offered to recognise tribute he had paid to to pay the same
met
Basil II.
him
The
to
mended recomwas
season
want
rendered
of the light-armed of the operations cavalry tactics of the Byzantine Arabs, than for the military The emperor was coTcred with heavyarmour.^ troops, that he believed it destitute of military so experience, to rival the exploits would be a matter of little difficulty of Nicephorus, Zimiskes,and Basil,and he marched of Aleppo. He had arrived forward to take possession march fortresscalled Azaz, about two days' at a strong when from that city, his outposts attacked and were driven in by the Arabs,who prevented from his cavalry and his troops from approaching the collecting forage, The position of the ByzanM'ater in the neighbourhood.^ tine ill chosen ; an the attempt to repulse camp was Arabs led to an unpremeditated engagement, in which and the considerable body of troops was defeated, a into the camp, spread disorder far and rushing fugitives, wide. No measures were order, adoptedfor restoring
advanced up
to
the intrench-
Cedrenus,726. miles north by west of Aleppo. The mound Azaz is about twenty-six on and partly of limestone, with a circumfewhich it stands is nearlycircular, rence and fifty of about two hundred and ninetyyards at yards at the base, the top of the cone, which is about a himdred and twenty feet high ; its natural kernel having been increased to this extent,in order that the work might be defensible. Colonel Chesney,The Expedition for the Survey of the more i.422. This quotationfrom Colonel Chespeyis rivers Euphrates and Tigris, in the present instance necessary to prove that Cedrenus is a better authority than the Arabian Geographer Aboulfeda,thougha native of DamaEcuf, who, accordingto Weil^ iii.71" note, placesAzaz only a mile from Aleppo.
"
MANIAEES.
473
ments, and
The This
commander
blockaded. a.d. kept the imperial army closely and under such a i"|28-iu helpless, utterly emperor was
there
was
no
conducted in the most was operation disgraceful At daylight Romanus abandoned the camp, manner. his own and the warlike tents and leaving baggage, machines,tents, and baggageof the army, a prey to the enemy ; and this booty fortunately detained the Arabs so long that a greatpart of the flying army gained Antioch in safety, August1030.^ for military tened Romanus, cured of his passion fame,hasback to Constantinople. he left in The generals command of the army proved as incapable as their sovereign, and Menik, the fort in the vicinity of Antioch, remained in the hands
at however,
emperor, the commander of the last sent Theoktistos, with a considerablereinforcement of mercenaries, foreign
native and
an
of the Saracens.
The
foreign troops;
the fort of Menik. Alach, the son of the taking visited the court of Romanus, and so emir of Tripolis, ideas of the Byzanlax were and religious the political tines, of theirecclesiastical that he was in spite bigotry, honoured with the rank of
a
Roman
at
Cedrenus,726.
Cedrenus, 728.
Zonaras,ii 231.
honoured with the 1 believe the Grand Mogul was ooce rank of Christian knighthood sovereign. by an English * of Maniakes, For the family 727,731 ; Georg.Hon. Cedrenus, compare 461. 538 ; Leo. Gramm.
474
BOOK ^^
II.
BASILIAK
DYNASTY.
'""**"
before the i^alls of the fortress appeared in which he was the.death of the residing, announcing power in emperor, and the orerthrow of the Byzantine Syria. They ordered Maniakes to eracuate the place, and put every threatened to storm it next day, or they hondred Arabs
person within its walls to the sword.
Maniakes
sidered con-
nature
of their summons
to
indicated either
their determination
for his preparations with food and retreat. The Arab camp was supplied Maniakes refreshments in abundance, and at midnight led out the garrison to attack the enemy, who were found without a guard. The greaterpart plungedin sleep and two hundred and eighty slain, camels,laden were This of Romanus's camp, were recaptured. with the spoil to the emperor, accompanied sent as a present was prize
with the
noses
and
ears
of the
vanquished.
appointed
was
To reward the valour of Maniakes,he was governor of Lower Media" of which Samosata
the
The following potamia, capital.^ year the Saracens invaded Mesoand plundered the countryas far as Melitene;
but in 1032, Maniakes contrived to bribe the governor of Edessa,who was to the emir of Miarfekin subject
But as soon as to deliverup the town. (Martyropolis), the Byzantine of three towers in troopsgot possession the wall, theywere assailed by the Saracen inhabitants, and Maniakes was attacked by Apomerman, the soon emir of Miarfekin, who hastened to expel him from his The Saracens, to regain it impossible position. finding of the towers, and learning that fresh troops possession abandoned were to the assistance of Maniakes, marching Edessa ; but before quitting it theyburned most of the and destroyed the great church. Though the houses,
'
727. CedrenuB,
476
BooKiL
BA8ILIAN
DYNASTY.
^^'"'***
the greaterpart of their fleet. Next destroyed and, if we believe force, year theyreturned with a large consist* their fleet the accounts of the Byzantine writers, ed of a thousand vessels, and transported ten thousand
who
ed defeatof thisgreat armament were troops.Two divisions the governor of Nauplia, Karantenos, by Nicephorus and of upwards
a
stantinople sent to Conwere prisoners under the comIn 1033, the imperial mand fleet, of the protospatharios Tekneas,made a descent on considerable the coast of Egypt,and after collecting the expedition off many and carrying booty, prisoners, returned to Constantinople. Every government at this of its time found it much easier to plunder the territories
thousand
rivalsthan
to defend
its own,
for most
had sovereigns
the great body of their the policy of disarming adopted if theypossessed that, arms, theywould subjects, fearing in delivering themselves from the employtheir strength fiscal exactions of their princes. of Roman us III.,several parteof Duringthe reign Asia Minor suffered very severely from earthquakes, and pestilence dition conlocusts, famine, ; and in a stationary of society amount these calamities often destroy an of capital and become,therefore, which is never replaced, of a rapid immediate cause an depopulation.^
For
two
afflicted by
was years before his death the emperor wasted his frame, disease which gradually a
Many ascribed the disorder to the use of aphrodisiacs, which he took to immoderate extent,in the hopeof leaving heir to an an the empire ; but others believed that the disease originated in a slow poison administered either by the who expected EmpressZoe or by John the orphanotrophos,
to raise his
John
was
an
brother Michael to the throne. This eunuch and a monk, who had entered the
^ Many of the iDbabitantsof Asia Minor were reduced to such distress as to sell their children as slaTes, to saTo the livesof both parties." Cedrenus, 732.
DEATH
OF
ROMAKUS
III., 1034..
was
477
a
household of Romanus
while he
yet in
private a.d.
officewhich proves the existence of a high of civilisation in the Bjzantine administration. degree
an
of
whom, named
Michael,
and money-changer, but goldsmith received a place in the imperial houseMichael of of a perfect had the beauty
fullof grace, and his manners were attractive and dignified, but the young man liableto was
sudden handsome
and
violent attacks of
upwardsof
servant, and to have carried on an intrigue with him by the assistance of his brother John. Romanus,
thoughinformed
to the
of his wife's
conduct, paidno
attention
of Michael seemed which the epilepsy accusations, In the mean the health of the to render improbable.^ time, and on the 11th of April 1034 declined, emperor rapidly
he
dyingstate. While life of the yet remained, he was visitedby Zoe and some and of the court, but he was officers speechless, already his side to take measures with the the empress quitted her epileptic for placing orphanotrophos paramour on
was
a
the throne.
The Romanus
moment
extinct in the
body
of
state in the
robes. and invested Michael IV. with the imperial palace, He was immediately proclaimed Emperor of the Romans,
and seated himselfon
The
1 as
who had been edu^kted and Q"orge, Conntanime John had two hrothers, doctors, and were, like himself,eunuchs; another Niketas, and a sister
a
named oaUed
was
" Zonaras, ii.233, often called Michael to says that the Emperor Romanus refrain from in bed with Zoe ; and adds.Who can rub his feet when he was that the hands of the young valet-de-chambre did not find an opportunity supposing of touchingalso the feet of the empress 1
478
BOOK II.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
with which this singular a step of raising promptitude domestic to the throne was conceired and executed prevented CBumji. The its encountering the slightest opposition. where he Patriarch Alexios was summoned to the paUce, learned the death of Romanus" and was, to his great Michael the Paphlagoordered to crown astonishment, with the widowed press. emnian,and celebrate his marriage The Patriarch would this open Michael seated ing makhare delayed willingly but he of contempt for decency, display
on
of and he was the throne, aware the power and ability of his brother the orphanotrophos ; tates that reasons of state mightoYerrule the dicso, admitting
saw
to avoid greater marriage the aged Zoe the wife saw single night
a
emperors,
a
widow
and
and bride,
to
Michael
In sovereign.
order
domestic of the
for his successor, and crowned before his death. he ascended the throne in though the most disgraceful some ties goodqualimanner, possessed ; and his natural gooddisposition appears neither to have been corrupted by his education as a money-changer, of accused him of having been a fabricator though calumny false coin ; nor byhis menial serviceata corrupt and vicious member. After he court,of which he was a depraved mounted the throne, he soon lostthe gaiety of disposition and tranquillity of mind which had increasedthe beauty of his figure and the grace of his manner. In spite of his The
new
emperor,
not
of character, and with his viceshe united a strength The conduct of Zoe awakened strong sense of justice. in his mind feelings of distrustfor his own and he safety, had spirit enoughto dismiss from her service many of the eunuchs of her father's household, who
seemed fit
CHABACTEB
OP
MICHABL
IV.
479
plots.His conscience was soon troubled a.d. ^^^^^^^' and during his whole to his benefactor, by his treachery he suffered the pangs of remorse. He sought reign pardon from heaven by praying at the shrines of different saints, and he wasted the revenues of the empirein building monasteries and chapels, and in makinglavish donations and monks.^ But as he continued to enjoy to priests he had purchased the historians by his crimes, every advantage observe that he seemed to trust of his reign justly in the blindness of God for the forgiveness of his sins, could regard as if divine justice good deeds done at the to be a fitatonement for his private expense of his subjects of sincere repentanceon the part of sins, or any proof the imperial sinner.^ It must be owned that there is truth in this observation than is agreeable either to more the Papalor the Greek cliurch. The anxiety produced increased his situation the of the soon cares by emperor's he that became liable to such sudden a degree maladyto at public attacks ; and even when he was ceremonies,
seated
on
agentsfor new
of state
hung round
with
his countenance
indicated he
was were
convulsions
seized
to which
pressions, ex-
his eyes rolled in wild agony, and he often the wall until he fell exhausted sti'uckhis head against
on
the floor.
date,the
to
to be of
a
old
judgment
appealed
visible him
a
abandoned
demons
as
from
1 He of gold to every priest, and one in all to every monk sent two pieces the proTinoesand islands of the empire, and he paid a pieceof gold and four miliaresia at the baptismof every infant" Cedrenus, 742. ' 815. Cedrenns, 788. Glyoas, * Zonaras,ii .289.
480
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
vooK
o"
I.
jMi.
that Miit appears strange Under these circamstances, and met ^Ij^j retained the throne with so little difficulty,
rival. It is true,he possessed an able dangerous whose the orphanotrophos, in his brother, prime-minister interests were identifiedwith his own, and who completely with
no was
a
statesman
John, who
nor
the throne
covet
posterity.
brother and the orphanotroph a faithful was though and his able minister, he was rapacious and tyrannical, an administration, rious thoughserviceable to Michael,was injuis He of the empire. to the wealth and resources doctor. While said to have commenced lifeas a travelling he intrusted John III. was in a private Romanus station,
But with the direction of his household ; but after he became of Orphanowith the modest title trophos, emperor, his intendant, and in the humble
garbof
assumed the duties of prehe openly throne, sident of the imperial and though under council, suffering in the mouth, the enerthe loathsome disease of a cancer getic
the
people
serves deorphanotrophos from forming feature not only a principal attention, in the reignof Michael IV., but also from markingthe in the financial era of a mischievous change systemof the The taxes were Byzantine government. everywhere and collected in a more manner. augmented, arbitrary An additionalcharge of from four to twenty byzants was landed to its extent^ on every estate,according imposed of the reyenue John's avidity in the collectors compelled the provinces to increase their exactions, for when they The
the
1 *
Cedrenus,787.
FINANCIAL
OPPBBSSION.
481
were
to
a.d.
^^""^^^'
of Michael IV. At itscommencethe reign ment during the people the collector of of Antioch murdered taxes in that city, and, alarmed at the vengeance John shut their gates to take for such an was oflFence, likely his against brother whom Niketas, in he sent
to
be their
duke.^
Niketas
was
succeeded
to
his firstact
put to death
hundred
families. The
purposes, and of the
the impeof Aleppoalso expelled rial people them for fiscal reside among their position secured them from the vengeance
to
commissioner sent
When
Maria, the
a
of the
future emperor,
pilgrimage
was
struck
she
with
at compassion
the
of sight
she misery
turned re-
beheld
in all the
to
When
she urged her brother,the Constantinople, and religion, of humanity by every feeling orphanotrophos,
to
moderate
were
the empire. The orphanotrophos depopulating rapidly with a smile You reason like a woman, replied rant ignoof the necessities of the imperial .'' His treasury conduct,however, provedin the end unprofitable as a for it caused an extensive insurrection financial operation, which cost of the Bulgarian and Sclavonian population,
"
more
the Greeks
Even been wrung from them. found their fiscalsufferings so greatthat they
seemed throw
the Sclavonians in an attemptto to join disposed of thereveoffthe Byzantine yoke. The collector
'
Zonaras,ii 286.
CedrenuB, 787. 2
H
VOL.
I.
482
BASILIAK
DYNASTr.
Ch.
iL jW)OK I S.
m.
nues
of the theme
of
was Nioopolis
torn in
by the pieces
the and the western parts of Greece welcomed people, troops.^ Bulgarian that of Constantinople A goTemment so unpopular as not only at this time required great talentsto direct the but also a numerous central administration, body of firm all the provinces, interested through dispersed supporters
to
defend the systemwith all itsabuses. This with men on dependent by filling every office
the IV., and crowding
senate
was
effected
the
family
of Michael
with
creatures
of the
On orphanotrophos.
who was almost as stantine, duke of Antioch,and became John, was appointed
Conthe death of Niketas, able and active as his brother wards after-
George was appointed protointrusted their brother-in-law vestiarios, Stephen was named with the command and subsequently of the fleet, whilehis son Michael, commander-in-chief in Sicily; called, the from his father's earlyprofession, or Kalaphates,
which received the rank of CsBsar from his uncle, caulker,
was
granddomestikos.
almost tantamount
to
the
far as to make
an
attempt
as
placehimself
the state.
at
the head
of the church
well
Having gainedover a party among the of the Patriarch to object to the appointment bishops the ground that he had been Alexios as uncanonical, on intruded on the church by the nomination of Basil II., John proposed to depose Alexios. The Patriarch, however, encountered the attack with courage. He openly and asked what measures discussed the question, to were be taken if all the ordinationswhich he had made, during the church, the twelve years he had governed now were declared void; and he boldly reminded unexpectedly of the the coronation and marriage John, that even
'
Cedrenus,747.
484
BASILIAN
DTNASTT.
BOOK
n.
died
on
j.j^^ CB^^m^s. j^^^ the woman's conduct, thejapplauded put hw in had left in his of all the propertyher assailant possession his body, without burial, and exposed as if he quarters, had committed suicide.^
The
heard the spot ; but as soon as the foreign troops instead of insisting of the affair, venge, reon history
greatwealth and highcharacter of the excited the fears of Michael IV., and the jealousy Constantine Dalassenos, the man was orphanotrophos,
onlynoble
whose
who
had
been
was
first selected
on residing
as
the husband
of Zoe.
Dalassenos
Armeniac
his immense
estates in the
riage mar-
theme when
to
said
peror em-
Dalassenos
soon
receired an
inritation from
ever, to risit Constantinople. He, howorphanotrophos until he his person in the capital declined trusting received a solemn assurance of his safety from the emperor. The
the
guarantees he ventured
to
to
demand, and
curiouspicture
a
afford a give,
the
sad evidence
in the of falsehood and treachery prevalence A member of the emperor's high^t ranks of society. in high sent to Dalassenos wiUi a household, office, was of the holy cross, with the napkinon which the piece with the of Christ was miraculously figure imprinted, and with the portrait letterof Christ, of the autograph Virgin Mary,painted by the hand of St Luke ; and on
Emperor Michael
IV. take
an
if he visited the capital injury On this assurance tinople, to ConstanDalassenos repaired where he was well received by the emperor, and received the title of Proconsul But shortly Nikeafter,
^
Cedreims, 735.
SARACEN
WAR.
485
tas, the
who was duke of Antioch, a.d. brother, emperor's ^^^"^^^' accused him of being to the insurrectionin which priyy the imperial had been slain; and on this tax-gatherers Dalassenos was confined in the island improbable charge of Platj. His son-in-law Dukas was thrown into prison, and three nobles of for cated, greatwealth had their estates confis-
that thisproceeding was a violation complaining of the emperor's oath. rebellionin 1040, a conspiracy Duringthe Bulgarian formed to dethrone Michael. Many of the chief was in Constantinople men accused of beingprivy to were the plot with their lives, the ; and thoughtheyescaped fortunes of the
was conspirators were wealthy
confiscated.
Among the
Michael Keroularios, whose guilt pelled comhim to protecthis person by becoming monk. a He afterwards attained the dignity played and disof Patriarch, the
same
at the head of spirit unquiet intriguing the church as he had done in a private station. Some seditious proceedings in the Asiatic army were who brother,Constantine, suppressed by the emperor's to put out the eyes of severalofficers ; and not venturing their chief, who was a patrithe Taronite, cian, punish Gregory nople, Constantito local that sent a tribunal, by dignitary in of sewed up the hide a newly-slain ox, with only holes cut in it for his eyes, and for breathing.^ The military not tarnished was power of the empire by the conduct of Michael IV., thoughhe was sneered at by the aristocracy as a Paphlagonian money-changer. The Saracens vainly the possesendeavoured to recover sions in the Christians which had been conquered by Constantine, and Mesopotamia. The emperor's brother, Syria
tary miliwhile governor of Antioch, some displayed talents. He relieved Edessa when attacked by a Saracen army.
The of Edessa by the Byzanpossession
Cedrenus, 747.
486
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK ^'
n.
tine emperors
incessant.
was
source
of oontinual annoyance
to
to the
'""**"
regainit were
In the year 1038, two years after it had been of a stratagem relieved by Constantino,theymade use Eastern tale, which has obtained immortality as an it remains buried in the dulness of fact, as a though, commanded a Georgian, Varasvatzes, history. Byzantine selves themin Edessa when twelve Arabians of rank presented dred attended by an escort of five hunbefore the gates, and followed by a train of five hundred camels, horse, that they were going on an embassyto the declaring The wary from the caliph.^ emperor with rich presents escort ; and however,distrusted their numerous Georgian, and thoughhe gave the chiefs a hospitable reception, for them a sumptuous entertainment in his prepared he ordered the escort and the train of camels to palace, be encamped without the walls,and sharply watched. in the city, While the banquet a poor was proceeding offeredhis Armenian, well versed in the Arabic language, services to the travellers, and was permitted to wander about the encampment. While standing the wicker near
he laden,
heard over-
with another, that and perceived conversing band of armed for the purpose of surprising a men, for the emperor which the Edessa,was the onlypresent camels carried. Hastening to the palace of the governor, he succeeded in revealing the secret to the watchful who found an excuse for quitting his guests. Georgian, A bodyof the garrison sent to overpower the cavalry, was while Varasvatzes, in person to the encampproceeding ment, ordered the emperor
as
the wicker baskets with the presents for to be opened, and slew the concealed soldiers found. He then returned
to
theywere
1
his
palace,
informed
aa
This Yarasrateee, being ftn Iberian or Qeoi^gian, may have been a relation well as a namesake of the founder of the monastery on Mount Athoa.
WAR
487
to
announce
Bagdat.^
The ravages of the Saracen fleets from Africa and Sicily destructivethan the incursions of their were now more
armies in Asia.
were Cyclades,
towns
in the
the
following
these
governors
year, when
two
separatefleetsretui-ned to
both
renew
devastations, theywere
of the Thrakesian and
were
defeated
by the
and impaledalongthe pirates, Asiatic coast, from Adramytiumto Strobilos. To preventthe recurrence of these plundering tions, expediwith it was resolved to carry the war into Sicily the greatest vigour.Maniakes, who had distinguished with himself as governor of Vaspourakan, was charged the task of expelling the Saracens from the island. Abuthe emir of Sicily, formed an alliancewith laphar, having rity receivedthe title of Magistros the empire, ; but his authocontested by his brother Abucab, and Sicily was was In the mean the indepeninvolved in a civil war. time, dence
as
treated
that many continued great, the Christians, their piratical expeditions against
so
relations established with the friendly emirs. The civil war, however, enabled the Byzantine and they allies of Abulaphar, as troopsto enter Sicily
met
with
such
success
that the
two
brothers became
to
get
The to become masters. soon promised the Saracens favourable for expelling appeared Michael ordered
from
Maniakes, who
^ in the Arabian Compare the story of All Baba and the Forty Thleyes, similar ii.287. There is a somewhat with Cedrenua, 742,and Zonaras, Nights, concealed in skins, introduced into a place, who, by a lady, story of armed men du of her husband." -^TiJ^otVe in this way, succeeded in avenging the murder Ofund OtngkiMcant by Petis de la Croix,29.
488
BASILIAK
DYNASTY.
the to cross forces in Italy, Byzantine under his gjj.j^jg Qf Messina,and sent a powerful CB^m^t. fleet, of the brother-in-lawStephen, to assistthe operations that Maniakes had assembled Among the troops army.
BOOK
11.
commanded
the
in Calabria
were arms
three hundred
had
Norman
mercenaries^
obtained for them the already 1038.^ a.d. highest reputation, military Messina was taken by storm, and though a large army
whose skillin
defeated by Maniakes completely called Reraata. enabled the at a place This victory to subdue the greater general Byzantine partof the island, and he employed the winter in constioicting citadelsin bitants the towns he had conquered, in order to keepthe inhain check ; for the number of Saracen proprietors of local indepensettledin the island, and their spirit dence, of the combined with the financialexigencies threatened the Byzantine administration, Byzantine ernment govof with a violent opposition. The importance the exploits and the solidity of Maniakes, of his buildings, of and the relics of his name are attestedby the renown
his works. The thick walls and massive round towers
of
bear the name the citadelhe constructed at Syracuse still of the Castle of Maniakes,and show us how much of the and stability survived in of Roman architecture strength the Byzantine in the eleventh censystemof fortification tury.2The siteof another of his works retainshis name, situated on have the roots of Mount Etna ; but allthe remains in constructing the disappeared
modem
town
of
Bronte.^
In the
1
of 1040, spring
741. CedrenuSy
Saraeeniearum Berum
MmhI
"
L 108. SicUicBy Two fine antique bronEo rams, of the natural size, which adorned the entrance of the castle of Maniakes,are stiU preserved in the Palazzo Reale at is inhabited
Palermo. * Bronte
by an
Albanian
SMly,
166.
MANIAKES
IN
SICILT,
A.D.
1040.
489
in
domination. a.d. to support the Mohammedan Sicily, ^^^^^^^ Maniakes made his dispositions for a battlewith his usual the talent, and, confidentof success, he ordered Stephen, admiral of the fleet, for cutting off to make dispositions the retreat of the Africans. The Byzantine army was and the invaders were worthyof its general, completely routed at a place called Draginas ; but the incapacity and misconduct of Stephenallowed the beaten troops to escape
was on
put
to
sea.
Maniakes
On
cowardice. at this proof of negligence or indignant he lost all command oyer his temper, meeting Stephen, and reproached brother-in-law with the emperor's the admiral
tured ven-
the proudManiakes, the prince, struck the caulker, and forgetting recollecting him on the head with the seiromast in his hand.^ This
in reply
an
insolentmanner,
outbreak of
of
to complained
to rebel ; design which appeared when brought accusation, no improbable brotherwho dared to strikethe emperor's a man against
him of
Maniakes
and
was
and arrested,
sent
government the affairsof the Christians soon fell into confusion. Fresh bands of Saracens arrived from Africa ; the Byzantine authorities were driven from the
towns
Maniakes;the
army
conquered by of Stephen
^ The of Ravelin. a kind to the olassio meaning was seiromast, accordiog But the three weapons which hung at the saddle-bow of every Byzantine officer, instroment at this period, a batUe-aze, a mace-at-arms, and a hooked were for catching the enemy's bridle. Such instruments formed the perfect ment equipand may stillbe seen of a Mameluke at to the end of the last century, times exposedfor sale at Cairo and Damascus. ' of Michael III. ; The family of Maniakes ia mentioned as early as the reign is shown and the great influence of the commander-in-cMef in Sicily by the Skleros in Asia Minor. that existed between him and Romanos Geoig. rivaliy 781. Mon. 538. Leo Oramm. 461. Cedrenus,7127,
"
490
BOOK
n.
BASILIAN
DYKABTY.
^^'^**'
worsted ; and in a short time Messina eyerjwhere stantinople to the government at Conalone retained its allegiance by the yalour of itsgOTemor preserred being
was
European
the year 1034, when thej extended their ravages almost to the walls of Thessalonica. Two years and wasted Thrace after, theyagaininvaded the empire
with unasual of
highrank
In the year 1040, Servia, which had submitted to the became so discontentedwith the fiscal Emperor Basil II., in that the people rose orphanotrophos, rebellion and shook off the Byzantine yoke. Stephen himself at the head of his countrymai Bogislav placed and expelled the imperial authorities. The success of his rebellionwas promoted with a by the seizure of a vessel, thousand pounds' of gold to the imperial weight belonging which was driven on the coast of lUyria.The treasury,
measures
of the
emperor
was
demanded
sent refused,
the restitutionof thissum, and when it George Provatas with a large army to
reduce
to obedience. The Byzantine were Stephen troops defeated through the incapacity and the of their general, of Servia firmly established and tacitly independence
recognised.^
orphanotrophos duced prothe which threatened to deprive rebellion, empireof the fruits of the longcampaigns of Basil II. The land-tax or tributeof the Sclavonian population had been left, it had been by their conqueror, on the footing established by Samuel when he founded the kingdom of
another and consistedof Achrida,
a
The
yoke of
oxen
moderate annual payment in and each strema of vinegeneralsin the tenth and elerenth
492
BOOK
n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
to
put Teicbomeros
the The rebels
were
to
death in order
to
preserve the
^^'""*^
of unity
kingdom.
now
to adyanoe powerful suflSciently where the Emperor Michael had Thessalonica, against
fixed his
celebrated shrine of St
threatening aspectof
state
and the unprepared revolution, and Greece, of the central authorities in Macedonia
he hastened to
of
warlike preto expedite Constantinople parations, Ibatzes n amed in a charge leaving Bulgarian with orders to follow him to the capitaL his baggage,
to
intrustedto his
care
the
new
monarch.
In the
mean
the younger brother of Ladislas, the last time,Alusianos, of Achrida, the rapid lion, king witnessing progress of the rebelwith the avarice and injustice of the disgusted of which he was Theodosiopolis, orphanotrophos, quitted Deleanos in his camp at Ostrovos. governor, and joined He
was
and
of
Bulgarian army,
ordered
to
undertake
si^ of
where he conducted his military Thessalonica, operations t hat he the defeated ill, so was imperial by very soon and lost about 15,000 troops,
men.
The
of splendour
the
was
of course attributed to St Demetrius, who was victory to have taken the command of the Greeks reported The failure before Thessalonica
was
in
some
of Dyrrachium, which degree compensated by the capture fallen into the already Bulgarian generals. hands of
Kaukanos, one
in the
of
While
these
were operations
going on
Sclavonian army under Anthimos invaded endeavoured to rouse their countrymen in the
to take up
was
arms.
a north, Greece,and
nesus Pelopon-
then
took boldly
BULGARIANS
INVADE
GREECE,
1040.
493
but were defeated with great loss.^ The a.d. population, ^^"'^^ conduct of the Byzantine fiscalagents had oppressive been so general, in some that the Greeks were places inclined favour the revolutionthan to to more Bulgarian The supportthe centralgovernment of Constantinople. in the theme of Nicopolis murdered Koutzomjtes, people the tax-collector and invited the Bulof the province, garians who easily rendered themselves to their assistance, of all western Greece. The cityof masters in its iJlegialone preserved was Naupaktos (Lepanto) ance by the presence of its garrison. It was fortunate for the Byzantine empirethat the political government of the rebels was directed by men destitute of talent and honesty, for the minds of the Greek population in general and the alienated, were so of the imperial amount forces in Greece was so trifling, that it would
not
have been
difficult matter
to have
of attending subdued the whole country. But in place to the public cause, Deleanos and Alusianos turned all
theirattention to
not
The intrigue.
he should lose his throne ; his rival, destroy other feared that his royal blood and his recent
defeat
an
would
cost
him
his life.
At
of seizing the kingby treachery, and,putting opportunity out his sovereign's eyes, he assumed the vacant crown. But bred up amidst the luxuries of Byzantine civilisation, and caring he preferred little for Sclavonian nationality, the insolenceof the orphanotrophos to encountering enduring He deserted the hardships of a revolutionary war. and made his his countrjrmen, the title of king, resigned peace with the court of Constantinople.
1 and high state CedrcDUB, 747. The greatwealth,commercial enterprise, the of of culture at Thebes,during this flourishing Byzantineempire, period Benjamin of Tudela gives us of the may be estimated from the description tants, in a declining period. It had even then 2000 Jewish inhabisubsequently, city cloth ; and scholars, eminent manufacturers of silk and purple who were i.47,edit Asher. whose equal was only to be found at Constantinople.
"
494
BOOK
II.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
under a Emperor Michael IV. was now suffering in addition to repeated CH^^wji^a. ggygj.^ attack of dropsy, paroxysms the greatest of his old malady; but he displayed enei^ rebellion broke oat. that the Bulgarian from the moment that he could not hope to surrive for He was well aware of time,but his mind seemed to gainyigonr any length he held without from his anxiety to transmit the sceptre He assembled an army at to his successor. degradation its movements, though his and accompanied Thessalonica, The disease had made such progress that he
was
liftedfrom
The garian Bul-
exhausted. eveningutterly
a
of by the treachery The blind Deledefeated and destroyed. was Alusianos, and the deserter Ibatzes were both taken prisoners, anos and in one campaign the dying emperor reduced all the mission, and Sclavonians who had taken arms to subBulgarians in Macedonia, Epirus, and restored tranquillity and Greece. and noble conduct closed the This vigorous of Michael. He returned to Constantinople to die. reign The people, who looked on his original maladyas a confirmed in this superstition divine judgment, were by Hailstones the prodigies his witnessed during reign. they fell which killedmen at theirwork ; earthquakes followed another with fearfulrapidity blazed in the one ; meteors rendered invisible that the stars were at sky so bright, visitedvarious parts of the midnight ; and a pestilence with such terrible that the living found empire mortality it difficult Taxation also began to to burythe dead.^ a on so society, stationary severity press with increasing in spite of Michaels charitableworks his building that, and hospitals hisdeath was awaited churches, monasteries, with impatience in the hopethat it would by his subjects, deliver the empire from the effects of divine wrath. of the Michael himself participated in the superstition
" "
left without
leader
^ u. 832, describes a Cedrenus, 785. Walsh, JRe$idence at CcnstarUinople, Bimilar bail-storm in modern tbe tilesof tbe times. Tbe bail-stones perforated and were solid lumps of ice about five incbes in circumference. roof,
DEATH
OF
MICHAEL
IT., 1040.
495
and when he felt his end approaching, he retired A. D. people, 1028-1054. from the imperial to the monastery of St Anarghypalace
roB, where
monk.
He
died
the 10th of December on daysafter, months.^ seyen reigned years and eight few The
1041, having
Empress
as
Zoe
now
assumed
administration
husband,and she
of the eunuchs
her government with the assistance of her household. But a few days' rience expewere
of the toilswhich
imposedon
of dangers
the
soon
sovereign
showed
of administration
her
position.
solute ab-
empire as
years, and several female regents still the government at different times,
state to female sway
extinct.* Zoe, therefore, immediately entirely the of giving the necessity a male sovereign, empire perceived and she took onlythree days to choose between Michael the son or a husband. a son marrying adopting had been of Stephen,the unluckygovernor of Sicily, raised to the rank of Csesar by his uncle Michael IV., of being of capacity and and he had the reputation a man
not to have formed a energy ; but his unde, who seems than the world at correct judgmentof his disposition
more
large,
had
seen
so
much him
to
from
cessor. hope of mounting the throne as his suctalents confidence his in more Zoe, too, displayed the crown his principles on ; for before placing no It
Cedrenus, 749.
was
Michael
the
and rebuked the prideand insolence of the Byzantine oourt " Bancus,** v. Latinitatit, given by Ducange, Olo8$, tned, et inf. and Trebizond, 83.
' The aversion to female succession is mentioned death of Theodosius II." Prisous,161, edit Bonn.
in the fifthcentury, on
496
BOOK
n.
BABILIA^
DTKASTY.
his head,she
manner
him required
ever as
to
swear
in the most
as
solemn
to
^^'^^^
that he would
her regard
his benefactress,
him required
his mother.
She also
Constantine the domestikos, orphanotrophos, and George Michael promised the protoyestiarios. ererjand obtained the crown. thing himself firmly in power, But as soon as he felt established banish the he revealed his
tress with
meanness
of
insolenceas well as
recalled
and conferred on him to his counsels, orphanotrophos the highdignitj of despot his advice, ; but he soon neglected and placed allhis confidencein Constantine, whom he honoured with the rank of nobilissimus.^ He then began the Patriarch Alexios. After receiving to intrigue against the Patriarch with honour,and bestowing him a on donation of four lb.of gold, with he appointed a meeting him at a monasteryon the Bosphorus, to exclude intending him from the city, Patriarch elected and get a new his absence. At lasthe carried his presumption during Zoe to Prince'sIsland, and so far as to send the Empress her to adoptthe monastic habit But when the compel heard of this lastinstance of his ingratitude, which people in a public he had the insolence to announce proclamation, their fury burst through every restraint. They assailed the imperial heralds and paraded the city, that exclaiming the caulker had ceased to reign, and that theywould scatter his bones abroad likedust. An assembly held was in the church of St Sophia, to which Theodora was from the and proclaimed brought monasteryof Petrion,
the
"
"
time the emperor, alarmed at the progressof the sedition, Zoe back brought
mean
to
the
to
and attempted to pacify the people palace, by persuading her to appear at a balcony the overlooking hippodrome. The sight of Michael, who endeavoured however, address the assembly, revived the popular and ftiry,
^
Zonaras,ii.248.
ZOB
AND
THEODORA, to storm
A.D.
1042.
4.97
ema. d.
were preparations
made
the
The palace.
showed himself a coward as well as a tyrant, peror now and wished to fly to the monasteryof Studion. His uncle made Constantine, howeyer,
him understand that his only
^^^^'^^'
hopeof lifewas
and roused him the throne, preserving the palace. to take measures for defending The attack was made on the following day,and after who assaulted it in three dividefence the people, sions a long from the hippodrome, the coutt of guard, and the stormed the palace.^ who tchukanisterion, Katakalon, saved Messina, had just returned from Sicily, and happening be to directedthe defensivearrangeat the palace, ments, while Constantine the nobilissimus, all assembling of the guards.^ his household in arms, added to the strength The fury all resistance of the people overcame ; but it is in
theyforced their entrance into the interiorof the building.^ Everything and the public then plundered, was were registers Michael V. and his uncle Constantine succeeded destroyed. in escaping the to the monasteryof Studion during assumed the ensigns confusion. Zoe immediately of the imperial power, and endeavoured to force her sister but the senate and people Theodora back into retirement, insistedthat the two sisters should reignconjoindy. her sister, she over Though Zoe was eager to tyrannise showed a disposition to spare her own tyrant Michael. She was, however,compelled by Theodora and the senate
were The tzukan was the favourite game of Byzantine gentlemen. Every city its tchukanisterion. Ducaoge,Glouarium vtud. eU inf,Chceeitatis; and Medieval Oreeee and Trebizond, 891. ' Cedrenus, 751. The wealth accumulated by Constantine in the public which could enable him to arm a numerous household,shows us how service, much of the Roman stillexisted in the aristocraticalorganisation of society had
"
slain before
Byzantine empire.
' It historians generally report ** that may be remarked that the Byzantine " in every sedition. The number it is said three thousand persons perished Israelites slain by the Levites, idludes to the throe thousand who rushed of the golden throughthe camp with drawn swords to avenge the idolatry the principal and the Iliad were oEdfl" Exodus, xxxii. 28. The SeptuagitU for some centuries. of literary at Constantinople sources inspiration
VOL.
I.
498
BA81L1AN
DYNASTY.
BOOK ^^
II.
'""'*"
joinin his condemnation, for the populacesboated let him be cradfied, "Let him be impaled, let incessantly, OflSoers were his eyes be put out 1 thereforesent to drag him from his asylumand put out his eyes. When placed beside his unde in the Sigma to sufier his sentence
to
"
entreated the executioners to put out the eyes meanly eunuch submitted to of Constantino first; and that daring while the dethroned the punishment with the greatest firmness, emperor exdted the contempt of the peopleby his cries and moans. They were then sent to pass the
he
as
monks
in the
sate
on
monastery of
the
Elegmos.
The
Michael
the
Caulker
imperial
joint goyemment
We
lasted less
yio-
that it wonder,therefore,
a
for the salutary of effects is praised by allhistorians, lent display of popular were indignation
sure
to extend oyer
the whole
their
exactions in
alarm,and the
be
public opinion ord^ In impunity. and the supportof the imperial coundl of state, to secure of the munidpality of Constantinople or of the Roman selves themsenate and people, as these bodies proudly styled tions donamade and large were numerous promotions lavished. An ordinance was published prohibiting the sale of official of traffic had for this species situations, been rendered an of revenue source by the ordinary eunuchs of the imperial household,who had possessed of the state. At themselves of most of the highest offices
with despised
"
"
two
were
reminded
the
same
were
of
restrain
conduct oppressive
government.
The
manner unprincipled
^
the adventurers
CedrenuB,751. Zonaras,ii.246.
500
Dooft II.
BASILIAK
DYNASTY.
administration since the death of system of the imperial the vices of the court,and concealed his contemptforher own conduct. Sach hardly g^ji J J
.
CH^nM
1.
^^^
blamed openly
husband
mighthave
infused new
not
severe
inclined
a
to
master.^
of her former lovers, but when his wife heard of the she displayed none destined,
III.
of
Artoklinas
sickened and died,and his wife was supposed suddenly from her to have poisoned or him, either from jealousy aversion to be immured in a convent. Zoe was easily soled. conShe again selected an old admirer,Constantine Monomachos, who had been banished to Mitylene by the of Michael IV., but recalledon the accession of jealousy Zoe and Theodora, and named Judge of Greece.^ A to convey him to the was swift-rowing despatched galley invested with the he was where, on his arrival, capital, celebrated with Zoe was robes. His marriage imperial for the Patriarch Alexios declined by one of the clergy, of the empress, which was at a third marriage officiating and the since both the bridegroom uncanonical, doubly bride had the emperor
The from
on Nevertheless,
the
more
empirethan the Byzantine the feeble policy of man or It typifies his cabinet appears at first to require. glance had the moral degradation into which Byzantine society
^
Zonaras,ii.246.
^
De Off, 52. Gibbon 52,edit. Venet Codinus, Duoange,NoUb in Cedrenum, of Monomachus The epithet must have been ex(the combatant) says, single of his yalour and victory in some or pressive private quarrel public ; but it relation to the qualitiee of was and had no more merely a hereditary surname,
*
"
surnames
the
same
others of
SKLERAINA.
501
1028-1054. of his subjects. His open profligacy large presses exportion the immorality of the age ; his profusion indicated the general jects. of living manner among all classesof his subWhile he destroyed the civilorganisation of the of the Roman government, and undermined the discipline and diminished armies, theywasted the national capital the resources of the empire. The domestic profligacy of Zoe had been concealed from the public rounded by the household of eunuchs that surher,and by whom the inhabitants of the palace from the world without were kept completely separated
its walls.
was machos, as
But
so an
her third
husband,Constantino
Mono-
indifierent to all
open paradeof After he had buried two ceremonies of the court. he obtained the favour of
to
a
to make
wives,
longing be-
beautiful young
widow
the
Skleros.
of that celebrated Bardas, granddaughter who had disputed the empirewith Basil II.,and the the brother-in-law of the of Romanes Skleros, daughter of her family The eminence III. Emperor Romanus called of her husband, and she was the name eclipsed Skleraina. Infatuated by love for Constantino Monoof his mistress, assumed the position machos, she openly It is, and shared his banishment at Mitylene. however, fair Skleraina of the to to the character onlyjustice members of of the bigoted in the opinion observe that^ of mistress, less her position the Greek church, as being than it would have more uncanonical, was respectable She
was
the
When
he bargained to throne,
and the peopleof Constantinople retain his mistress, of an emperor of treated to the singular spectacle were the Romans making his publicappearance with two
female
602
BASIUAW
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL
one was
as
as
^'""*^
saluted regularly
the title of
and Augusta,
with a separate installedin apartments in the palace, dora. court as empress, and a rank equal to that held bj Theoon the best terms, and together of the agedwife is less murprisiog the want of jealousy of the The disposition than her want of self-respect and she was beautiful Skleraina was amiable, extremely for the constancy of her to a certain degree respected
which conlover in his misfortunes, trasted allowed with the behaviour of Zoe,who had never however violent, to retain permanent hold of any passion, her heart. She soon she enlost whatever popularity joyed attachment
to her
with the
on people,
account
an ample possessed fortune when Constantino was e^le, an impoverished and her wealth had been consumed to gratify her lover^s luxurious habits. The good-natured sensualistnow strove
of the emperor.
She
had
to
repay
Skleraina with
rendered
seen
unbounded
more
apartmentswere
round her
a
had yet
from its contrast
her
court,which graceful
seemed
more
brilliaut
in with the dull ceremony that reigned the apartments of Zoe and Theodora. As the populace
can
ings in their moral feelcompletely corrupted of their superiors, the extravagantexpenditure as the emperor on his concubine awakened the public indignation. felt financial the more They oppression grievous when their theysaw money employedto insult their and theybeganto fancy that the livesof Zoe feelings, and Theodora mightbe in danger where vice in a palace and where secret murder was supposed to was honoured, be an ordinary occurrence. Constantino IX. had pursued his career of voluptuous extravagancefor two years, without a thoughtof his duties either to God or to his subjects, denly when he was sudbe rarely
so
awakened
to
sense
of the
dangerof
his situation
LAVISH
EXPBNDITUBB.
503
by a
furioussedition of the
people.On
a. d.
Martyrsit was usual for the emperor to walk in Forty solemn procession to the Church of our Saviour in Chalke, from whence he proceeded on horseback to the Church of the Martyrs. But as the procession about to move was from the palace, a cry was raised, Down with Skle"
i02aao54.
raina ;
we
will not
are
"
Theodora
and
our
Zoe have her for empress ! mothers will not allow them we
"
and
to be
murdered !
The
furyof
an
the
was populace
able, ungovernon
theymade
attemptto
layhands
the
Many persons were emperor, to tear him to pieces. and Constantino was in trodden to death in the tumult,
imminent
of Zoe
of his life, when the sudden appearance danger and Theodora at a balcony drew off the attention
allowed the emperor to escape. The in the sistersassured the people not that they were and as no leaders stepped forward to smallest danger, restored; but the populace, direct was tranquillity easily the emperor did not accompany the procession to the Churdi of the Forty in the year 1044.^ Martyrs There
age, and and
are some
in the articles
To solace his civilised people. he constructed houses of refuge for the aged conscience, for the hospitals poor,
as
well
as
monasteries and
tinguished He also raised the most disclergy. of his time to highoflBces.^He men literary the rebuilding the Church of the Holy Sepulchre completed the endowments of at Jerusalem, and augmented the clergy be of St Sophia's, in order that servicemight with due pomp every day.^ performed churches for the
Cedrenus,761." 0th March. called mXvMichael Constantine Psellos, who for his much scribhUng was Coustantithe last man and who was really of superior learning ypaxfi^raTos^ raised to officeby Constantioe IX. and took a considerable was nopleproduced, until the death of Michael VII." Schoell, affidrs OesekiehU der part in public Griech. Litleraturvon Pindar, m, 269, 419. ^ relations that existed between Constantino IX. and the court The friendly of the Fatimite caliph is noticed by Cedrenus, 789.
' 1
504
BASILUN
DYNASTY.
BOOK ^
11.
'"'*''
which he adopted a measure by his lavish expenditure, immediate and was an provedruinous to the empire, of the success of the Seljouk Turks in Asia Minor. cause The frontierprovinces of the East had been exempted from the payment of direct taxes to the central government, and the dependent in the alliancewith states in empire that quarter had been relievedfrom tribute, on the condition of maintaining militia bodies of regular under constantly
IX. stantino arms, to defend their territories.Conto
consented
relieve them
from
these
into his their payinga sum of money on obligations, exhausted treasury. an By this impolitic proceeding, thousand men nian the Iberian and Armeon army of fifty frontiers and the Asiatic provinces was disbanded, leftopen to the invasion of the Seljouk Turks, whose The money remitted increasing. rapidly power was
to
in
luxuryand
vice.^ The death of the Patriarch Alexios, who died in the church year 1043, after havingruled the Byzantine upwards of seventeen years with some reputation, afibrded a sad confirmation of the depraved state of and the frightful extent to which avarice had society, The emperor, who knew the Eastern clergy. corrupted that the Patriarchhad heapedup considerable sums of
sent and money in a monastery he had constructed, seized this treasure,which was found to amount to the who of 2500 lb. of gold.^Michael Keroularios, sum
had been
to compelled
enter
a
on monastery
account
of
lY.,was
1 '
to notice these laiige CedrenuBy 758. Zonaras,il 250. It is important at a time when accumulated in privatehands,in the Byzantine empire, extort from the wealthiest sovereign of western Europe could with difficulty
sums
his
the subjects
smaUest
sums.
zed by Digiti
SEDITION
IN
CYPRUS.
505
a. d. in the disagreement between by his yiolent proceedings 1028-1054. the sees of Rome and Constantinople. she was Theodora, thoughby her sister's marriage of alldirect influence oyer the administration^ depriyed still the power of yiolating the law with impupossessed nity. John the orphanotrophos seized by her order was while liying and in banishment at Marykatos^ tranquilly of sight.It was said by some that this cruel depriyed deed was executed without the emperor's but permission,
others attributed it to reyenge on the who ascribed his longexile at malice of the
We orphanotrophos.
was
partof
tino, Constan-
to Mitylene
the
must
howrecollect,
more
of
sterner and
unforgiy-
and that she had ing temper than her brother-in-law, of the conduct of probably good reason for complaining
the
nus
he
was
minister of Roma-
In any case, it is a sufficient proofof the of the administration that the act is disorganisation
who by Zonaras,
was
was
himself
eyen
inflictedwithout
the
A weak and layish court,surrounded By a under the goyemment of wealthy aristocracy, is the soyereign, bad ascended the
proud and
an
absolute
hotbed of rebellion. Constantino IX. without any merit of his own, throne,
by the
of a worthless old woman. preference It is not surprising, that many nobles should therefore, haye attempted to wrench the sceptre from his hand; but it is a strong of the original excellenceof the orgaproof nisation
shameless
Byzantine system of administration that all these attempts unsuccessful. The conseryatiye proyed tendencies of society, which had grown out of the system of goyemment, presented resistance to allreyoa passiye
endeayours to lutionary
^
of the
il 251. Zonaras,
CedrenuB,758.
"
506
BASILIAK
DTNASTV.
BOOK
^^
n.
things.A
was
sedition in
eren
'"'**'
sooner
that Michael V. had the empire throughout and that tiie been dethroned by a popular insurrection, to proye gOTemment of Zoe and Theodora was not likely the goTemor of long than Theophilos Erotikos, duration, of of gaining of Cyprus, formed the project possession the threatened coafnthat ridi island for himself during turbulent and presumptuous sion. was a Theophilos of ability far inferior to his ambition. Two man, years driyen his he been in had t o rebellion preyious Cyprus from Seryia, whidi he then goyemed, Bogislay; by Stephen the he now incited the people to attack Theophylaktos, the ground that this officer intendant of finance, on collected the taxes with undue rigour.Theophylaktos was a nd the in check slain, a that, remoying goyemor expected bitants the inhahis plot, he had succeeded in compromising on
so
far
as
to
secure
the goyemment, despatched force to suppress a and as the Cypriots the reyolt, had no idea of waging
war
of
the central goyemment at Constantinople, or against the imperial to assume crown, aiding Theophilos they
and the goyemor resistance,
was
offeredno
sent a
arrested and
The insurrection was conto the capital. sidered prisoner exhibited to that Theophilos so contemptiUe was the people at the public and games in a female dress, with the confiscation of his estates. escaped The rebellionof Maniakes,which occurred in the first of Constantino IX., would in all probability year of the reign
had it not been him of the throne, depriyed terminated by one of those stroke of fortune suddenly the wisest plans and destroys by which Heayen deranges l^e most powerful released Maniakes was expeditions. from
#
haye
confinement
at
IV., and
re-
to appointed
the command
Byzantine possessions
508
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
n.
administer he
in justice
his
own
cause.
He
immediatdj
naries merce-
^^"^^^
and other
able
collectin
himself emperor.
arrest
so on
he heard
with officer
body of troopsto
as
it had
of Byzantine troopsat the moment their arriyal, of the routed them, and, gaining possession embarked his own treasure they had brought, army at of in the month Otranto, and landed at Dyrrachium,
Maniakes fellon
the
1043. February
The emperor
of Zoe's
sent
an
command
to eunuchs,named Stephen, arrest the progress of the rebel. Maniakes, despising the unwarlike character of his Opponent,attacked the
one
of
His
chargebore
down
to
standard,
a
when
an
arrow
from
an
unknown
him pierced
the heart.
as
cause,
and theyinstantly retired leader, from the field of battle. The Norman, Frank,and Italian
as
well
without
mercenaries in the rebel army entered the Byzantine serand continued for many years to make a prominent yice, eunuch in the wars of the empire.^The yictorious figure made his
white him
on
mounted on a public entryinto Constantinople with the head of Maniakes borne before charger,
a
lance.
he
found,on
not
awakened
emperor did
was
their due,he
beganto
sidered con-
He
of Melitene,as the
"
future
^ These J. Sk^iUcB mercenaries formed at firsta corps called Maniakatoi Their numbers CurotxUatcB Bisioria, oonaiat the end of Cedrenus, 854. were deraole in the army of Nicephoms Briennius, defeated by the Kmperor AleziiiB, in the year 1078. III. (Botaneiates) Anna duringthe reign of Kicephorus
"
Comnena, 11.
REBELLION
OP
LEO
TORNIKIOS,
A.D.
1047.
509
a.d.
but Stephen of sight, was ^^^^^* Lampros were deprived in immured afterhis estates were a monastery fiscated. cononly In the year
was
in danger again
of
relation,
tremely ex-
Leo Tornikios.
him
To
named of
from the seat of his influence, the emperor him goremor of Iberia, where he was soon accused the throne. Constantino IX., jealous of
at aspiring
his ordered him to resign popularity, and adoptthe monastic life governorship ; but the friends of Tornikios put him on his guardin time to enable him to escape to Adrianople, where he was immediately claimed proof that At the head of the garrison emperor. and such motley forces as he could assemble on the city, he marched to Constantinople. He spur of the occasion, by the hoped to render himself master of the capital their aversion to favour of the citizens, more on counting conduct than on the military the emperor's force under his own orders. But the inhabitants feared a military revolution far more than they hated their sovereign. Constantino also, the firstinformation of the on receiving orders to a Saracen eunuch,who commanded revolt, despatched in to march a corps of Byzantine troops Iberia, with all the forceshe could conto the capital, centrate rapidly
of
to invest the
line of the
from the port to the Sea of Marmora, established fortifications The emperor, himselfbefore the gateof Blachem. of his warlike surname, was utterly who, in spite ignorant
party of a thousand men to intrench themselves outside this gate. The operation
of
was
the against
advice of his
counmilitary
510
BASILIAN
DYKASTT.
BOOK
II.
^^'^**'
the emsellers tactics^ ; and^ to see the resultof his ovn the walls" himself in a balcony oyerhanging peror placed in fullview of the nikios of his adranced guard Tcn^position of the imperial took advantage immediately folly ; and the rebel archers, ing sendintrenchment,
arrows
he stormed the
a
of flight
at to
the
But Tomikios,proudc^ of the enemy. the day'sexploit, and trusting alwaysto the deludre well
as
hope that the inhabitants would open the gates, delayed the assault as the fugitives within were pressing entering when he found the people the walls. Next day, would
hold
no
communication
The
with
him, he ordered
general
had employedthe whole nightin garrison it ; and as the defence was to meet makingpreparations and the citizenssupportintrusted to experienced officers, ed their the regular to save troops, property from tiie if a victorious dangerto which itwould be exposed enemy Tomikios entered the city, able defeated with considerwas found it necessary to raisethe si^e loss. He now he attacked the and retireto Arcadiopolis. after, Shortly of Rhedestos, the inhabibuits and, the bishop keeping city he was again defeated. His cause firm in their allegiance, his camp became desperate now ; for the news reaching that the Asiatic troops had arrived at Constantinople, his followers quitted his standard, and he was forced to seek refuge in a church, from which he was taken by assault. and force,
eve
in chains.
On
Christmas
he
was
of deprived
his
sight.
*
In the year 1050, several nobles of distinctionwere accused of conspiring The to dethrone the emperor. accusation may
or intrigue a
have
been
than
was
court
punished
by
Cedrenusy 786.
COURT
PLOTS.
511
Another the
shows the contemptible conditionto which plot imperial power had fallen in the estimation of the
A.D.
1038.1054.
courtiers. Boilas, of low birth, had gained the a man favour of Constantine IX. by his talentsfor buffoonery
and his for capacity
business. He
amused
by his wit,and relieyedhim from much Boilas being destitute of all by his application. utterly and possessing little principle, judgmentwith a daring conceived the preposterousidea of making character,
himself emperor. throne than the
He
knew that he
was
the reigning emperor, and he thought court worthless that he expected to succeed in his so to several persons in high ofiiceto design.He applied and found intriguers their assistance, and malcontents secure who were willing to make him an instrument in their hands,while he believed he was using them as the ambition. The conspiracy servants of his own was vealed reit had been resolved to assassithe very night nate on Constantine ; but it that persuaded
soon seems
the emperor
was
never
buffoonery.^ of Basil II. marks the summit of the miliThe reign tary of empire. In the reign power of the Byzantine Constantine IX. the firsttraces of decayare visiblein the military which,for three centuriesand a half, system, had uphelda standing to the Saracen forces army equal in the East,and superior to any troopsthe nations of in the Europe had been able to maintain permanently
field. The allianceof the Servians and Armenians
now was an acquire existence in Italy sians independent ; and thoughthe Rusand Patzinaks were the Seljouk Turks defeated, began to undermine the whole fabric of the Byzantine were
lost ;
the Normans
allowed to
power
^
in Asia.
Bolilas See page 347.
to attempted mount
named patrician I.
the throne
in the reignof
Romanus
512
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BooKiL
^
The
disorders which
of
'""**'
of the soTereign Bogislay, Stephen and Macedonia, from which he to inyade Illjria Serria, carried off immense booty, the countrylike a ravaging
Michael V. induced
man.^
the gOTemor of Dyrrachium to march into Senria with a of all the neighbouring body of troops the garrisons large
"
concentrated ; and immediately it was that the army consisted of sixty sand thoupretended men.^ The general, of military science, ignorant trusted entirely to his numbers,whidi the Servians were in the open field. He pushed unable to resist carelessly forward into the heart of the country, ravaging eyeryself untilhe inyolyed himaround,and collecting thing booty, in the mountainous and full of district,
no narrow
defiles
roads. rugged
As
enemy
was
to be
found, he
no
here gave the order to return to the retreat commenced sooner was resumed
and their activity,
; but Dyrradiium
than
the Servians
time,the mardi
lost. The Byzantine and the booty general, delayed, of his different of combining the movements incapable
divisions for their mutual support,and his lieutenants, thrown into of one another's movements, were ignorant attack of the Servians confusion. A general inextricable
the rout of the completed believe the Byzantine seven writers, army, and, if we thousand men and forty in this expeperished generals dition.^ in
one
of the mountain
passes
We
^
"
have
seen already
' The called Triballi, and sometimes mentioned in Servians are sometimes that name to the Sclavonians genecoDJunotionwith the Triballi, beingapplied 17. Cedrenusy 754. Zonaras,H 248. Laon. Chalcocondylas, rally."
RUSSIAN
WAR,
A.D.
1043.
513
inhabitants of Russia in the advanced more siderably western Europe. Their which had been one empire,
in wealth and
was cona. d. preceding century than that of the peoplein ^^^^s-io with the Byzantine commerce
of the
causes
ciyilisation, was
the presentcentury; and after the conquest of during of that flourishing able a considerCherson,and the decay city, number
at
of Russian
merchants
establishedthemselves
soon
The Constantinople.
became
on
besides the regular trade they for, ried carvery great, between the north and south,theyalso acted as and Varangian Russian mercenaides in the
and as agentsfor many Bulgarian and service, Byzantine whose produce Sclavonian landed proprietors, theypurchased. About the commencement that a Russian of rank was happened of Kief" Yaroslaf, and the sovereign Constantinople, in the deemed ita favourableoccasion for making conquests had done in France, as the Normans territory, Byzantine and the Danes in England. The Emperor Constantino in vain ofiered allreasonable satisfaction ; the Northmen and the Russians
war,
were
determined
to
theywanted to obtain something very difierent for the consequences of a tumult in the from indemnity An expedition, streets of Constantinople. composedof
for and Russians, under Varangians
son
the command
of Vladimir,
of
Yaroslaf, who
had
with Viuchata, as his Novgorodby his father'sinfluence, crossed the Black Sea. counsellorand lieutenant-general, The commerce of Russia was a matter of so much ance importand Russian mercenthe Varangians to the capital, of the imperial aiies formed so valuable a part land-forces, and the indolent Constantino he made
a was
so
averse
to war,
that
of the sacrifice
demanded ment again peace when the hostilearmathe entrance of the Bosphorus.But ofi^ appeared and
VOL. I.
514
BASIUAN
DYNASTY.
BooKiL ^'
"'"**"
and conqnest, the RussiaDS,bent on plunder rejed;ed peace, unless the emperor vould engage to pay diree
expedition. for repolaiiig Constantino now made actiye preparations He had already arreted all the attack on his capital. and the Russian merchants and soldiersin the empire, sent them into distant themes,to be guarded as prisoners
untilthe the
war
should be terminated.
The
part of greater
eitherabsent in the Archipelago fleet was Byzantine in the the coast of Italy on or employed ; but the ships for sea ; and their were prepai^d port of Constantinople
as well size, a as
the
use
of Greek
sudi
oyer superiority
that the
sailors were
battle. The first nayal ment engageand the contriyed to Russians proyedindecisiye,
eager for
from which separated a part of the Greek fleet destroy the main squadron ; but in another action the Rusdans and a storm shortly sufferedgreatloss, after completed the ruin of their enterprise. In landing their to plunder,
troopswere
storm
also defeated. On
Varna, and their losses passing to the accounts of their were so great that,according Three fifteenthousand men own historians, perished. but a treaty before peace was re-established, years elapsed and the trade at Constantinople then concluded, was From thisperiod the alliance on the old footing.^ placed of the Russians with the Byzantine empirewas long uninterrupted ; and as the Greeks became more deeply imbued with ecclesiastical and hostile to prejudices, more
the Latin nations, the Eastern Church became, in their of their nationality, and the bigoted eyes, the symbol attachment of the Russians
to the same
oyertook them in
obtained for them from the of the most Christian nation.^ appellation
"
516
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
II.
".
of
and Keghenes
thinned
famine,and by disease,
his whcde
Tyrach and
siuriying
Keghenes to to put all their prisoners urgedthe Byzantine generals when that it was wise to kill the yiper death,observing he was benumbed, lest the returning warmth of the sun
should enable him to escape and use his yenom too ciyilisedfor such was Byzantine empire and the wholesale inhumanity,
; but
an
the of
act
estab^ Sar-
lished as
colonists on agricultural
lands
near
been always
of the
of how to find the means empire the drain of the native population that time seemed perpetually The to sweep away with unsparing activity. stantinople kingand many of the Patzinak nobles were sent to Conand were where theyembraced Christianity, well treated by the emperor. In the
mean
problems filling up
were
selected from among the prisoners, enrolled in the the troops nian on the ArmeByzantine army, and sent to join where frontier,
an
to encounter a army was preparing threatened attack of the Seljouk Turks under Togrulb^.
under the command body of Patzinaks was placed of the patrician but was formed Constantino Artovalan, into four divisions under native officers.On reaching Daof the Patzinak generals, Kataleim, one matrys, persuaded his
This
countrymen
to
reach the
but Bosphorus,
on the monasteryof St Tarasios, found no boats to cross they part of the straits,
a body of Europe. Kataleim immediately arranged in order, and plunging intothe stream at their head, cavalry A sufficiency of boats was easily secured on the swam across. and the whole army was transported over. Europeanside, Without any delay on to Sardica and Naissos, pushed they
into
PATZINAK
WAB, 1049.
SI*?
where theywere joined who had a.d. by their countrymen, ^^'^^^^' in that country been established as agricultural colonists, and then, to the banks of the Danube, they hastening the mouth of the river a strong near occupied position Osmos. They also formed a second camp at a place calledthe Hundred Hills, and from these stations plundered the districts in their vicinity. On hearing of thisdaring moned movement, the emperor sumand his to followers Eeghenes Constantinople. As these troops without the wallswaiting lay encamped for orders, three Patzinaks attempted to assassinate him some but were secured afterinflicting on Keghenes, wounds. before the emperor, they When brought severe accused Keghenes with the of treasonable correspondence
with suspicious and Constantino, fugitives, timidity, gave creditto theirimprobable and ordered Keghenes to story,
put under arrest. The immediate consequenceof this false of the arrested general stepwas, that the followers fledand joined who had advanced to the their countrymen,
of Adrianople. The emperor in his alarm neighbourhood his oath released the Patzinak king, on receiving Tyrach,
be
reduce his countrymen to obedience; but that monarch, laid aside his Christianity, his liberty, on regaining diated repuand placed himself at the head of a his promises, powerful army, eager to avenge his former defeat. Two armies were routed with great slaughter. Byzantine Great exertionswere used to assemble another army in order to repress the ravagesof the Patzinaks, who were all the country between the Danube and devastating took the command at Adrianople. Nicephorus Bryennios the head of the Frank and Varangian and mercenaries, and the Asiaticcavalry from Telouch, Cilicia, Mesopotamia. sent to restored a nd to favour, was Keghenes terms of peace with his countrymen.The negotiate the forays of the enemy, circumscribed operations military and destroyed and the Byzantine a number army surprised
to
618
BASILIAN
DYKASTY.
BOOK ^
n.
'""**"
forced the Patrinaks were After many vicissitudes, and concluded a truce for thirty to retreat, years.^ of the empire went to ruin after In Italy the affairs the
of departure
Maniakes.
he had
Constantine
IX.
fayoured
opposedManiakes, and that and assumed chief rendered himself virtually independent, of Prince of Bari and Duke of Apulia. The the title sions and dissenof the intrigues Normans, taking advantage of mercenaries theirprofession that prevailed, quitted such a for that of feudal chieftains, and by taking and Guaimar, prince part in the wars between Arghyros succeeded interests of Salerno, dictated, as theirown they into a confederationof territorial in forming theircaptains
because Arghyros under barons,
a
who leader,
became
Count
of
Apulia.
stantinople Their progress excited the alarm of the emperor of Conand the Pope ; but the emperor of Germany, their services were so often in requisition by powerful
that they prudent, vented prehave which might any coalitionof their enemies crushed them in their early The Byzantine career. many the intrigues of the emperor of Gerwere defeated, troops were baffled. Pope Leo IX.,who ventured to appeal tors, to arms, was beaten and taken prisoner ; while the victhe support of the See as pious as politic, purchased of Rome from their captive to hold all their by offering
was so
a
as conquests
Greek and
Latin
out with
great
about this time, increased the aversion of the animosity Italians to Byzantine and tended quite as domination, much as the military of the Norman troops to superiority to theirgovernment. give stability The capture of Otranto by the Normans under Robert
*
Cedrenus,790.
CONQUEST
OP
ABMBinA,
A.D.
1046.
519
the year 1055, may be considered as the termination of the Greek power in Italy. in Ouiscard, While the
was empire Byzantine
a. d.
ia"^.
to beginning
exhibit
Christian mountaineers
flank of
that had
hung
on
the
invaders. It has been mentioned that previous the the Emperor Basil II., against duringhis campaign Joannes Sembat to sign Iberians in 1022, compelled a whole Ani and his at his death, kingdom treaty ceding,
Constantino IX. considered the moment emperor.2 the nephew of favourable for calling on Gagik, the obligations of this treaty;and when to fulfil Joannes, the Armenian objected, with Aboulhe formed an alliance and sent a sewar, the Saracen emir of Tibium (Tovin), of the The treachery Byzantine army to attack Ani. and Armenian nobles aided the progress of the Byzantine Saracen arms. of some a prince ability, finding Gagik, it useless to struggle with so powerful sulted cona combination, to the interests of his subjects by submitting the Christians. On receiving a safe-conduct for his person, stantinople, he repaired his cause before the emperor at Conto plead and the city of Ani surrendered to the Byzantine t here no 1045. was A.D. hope finding Gagik, troops, rank of of preserving the his ancestral kingdom, accepted and received extensive estates in Cappadocia. magistros,
to the
^
At
this time
ArmeniaQ
princes governedSebaste,Kamz,
the
Gfu^gars,
520
BASILIAN
DYNASTT.
BOOK
Cm
iu.
iL is.
Thus
was
erased from
the
list of
ouljArmenian districtwhich and Saracens was between the Byzantines independence of the Kars, where GagikAbas, a member of the family nded as prince.The Byzantine Bagratians, go?emment carried itsjealousy of the Armenians so far as to compd. their Patriarch, of Ani and take up the city to quit Peter, his residence at Arzen, from whence theysubsequenUj transferred him to Constantinople.^
In the year 1048 the
Turks SeljoiJc
attacked the
pire. em-
They were one of the hordes which formed itself of that great Turkish empire, out of the fragments whose commercial connection with Constantinople the occupied
attention of Roman
statesmen
its chief
The
Turkish
were
now
in the empire of the caliphs of Bagdat, the part, acting which the Goths formerly acted in the Roman empire. Under
Mahmoud
the
furnished mercenaries
an
the
founded caliphs
son
defeated
chief. of the
of the Gasnevid
This
after destroying the dynasty sovereign, touched the frontiers of the visited Togrulbeg
of his dominions
conquestsin Armenia.
of the
Caliph ;
master
and when
pelled comtemporal power the haughty to receive him as a son-in-law, caliph the representative of the Prophetthat he by showing the power of starving him on his sacred throne. possessed
of the
^ in 1079. The the last kingof Armenia, was murdered at Cybestra Gagik, where he died in Patriarch at lant obtained permission to reside at Sebaste, Mimoirei 1060." Chamich, HidoryofArmenia, ii 161. Saint 2^Iartin" by Avdall, aur VArmenie, L 421. ' Greece under the BomanSf 381.
INVASION
OP
THE
SELJOUK
TUBKS, 1048.
521
Eight jears
himself
mish
as a
a. d. establishing
his cousin
^^^^^^^'
Koutoulmish
was
to
to retreat to the compelled Armenian frontier of Vasparoukan, where he solicited to pass through the Byzantine permission territory, mising proto maintain the strictest in his march. discipline The governor of Vasparoukan refused the request of the defeated general, and prepared the Turks, to oppose should they venture to pass the frontier. Koutoulmish, who saw that only could measures prompt and vigorous him from being attacked the Byzantine save surrounded, him away as a governor, routed his army, and, carrying sold him as a slave in Tabreez. On his return, prisoner, and he vaunted so loudly the fertility of Vasparoukan, with such contempt of the Byzantine that spoke ^troops, determined to invade the empire. Hassan Togrulbeg the Deaf was intrusted with the vanguard, to amounting
and defeated,
twenty thousand
the river
men,
but
was
defeated completely
of of
near
kingof
and Vasparoukan, The main body of the Katakalon the governor of Ani. Turkish army, however,under Ibrahim Inal, the nephew of Togrulbeg, of avengedthe defeat. It was composed Turks,Kaberoi,and Limnites.^ Katakalon, an enced experiwished to meet this army in the field, as it general, whose horses of infantry, or cavalry was chiefly composed to unshod ; but his Bulgarian were colleague appealed which ordered his army to the emperor's instructions,
^
the
The
before the inyasion of the empire,but the takingof Bagdat by Togrulbeg place der Chalifen, in 1050." Weil, QuohidkU iii 87, it happenedeight years later,
94.
Mahommedan,
of Merwan, was prince of Diarbekir, and, though a mish of the empire. St Martin, ii.216. Koutoultributary
"
and the ancestor of the Se^ouk sultans of of Seljouk, the grandson He and his eldest son loonium. perishedin attempts to render Roum or themselves independent Soulelman, his second son, was appointed by Malekto found a feudatory in Asia Minor, with authority shah to a command principality, 24. in 1074." Nicephorus Bryennins, ' that ii 204, conjectures Cedrenus,771. St Martin, Mim. iur VArmenie, the Kaberoi were Curds, and the Limnites Dilimites.
522
n.
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
^"-^^
adwealth of the country secured in strong fortresses^ of Arzen, which was yanced to attack the populous city to their numbeis unfortified. The inhabitants, trusting and
in their fortressof Theodosiopolis, impregnable of the Arzen was at this time one neighbourhood. filled and was centres of Asiatic commerce, principal Armenian with warehouses to Syrian and belonging merchants. The inhabitantsdefended themselves against the the Turks with courage for six days, by barricading from the roofisof the the enemy streets and assailing his colleague to mardi houses. Katakalon in vain urged to the relief of the place.Ibrahim, however, felt the the dangerof an attack on his rear, and, abandoning of the place, thought hopeof securing by the taking booty the resources it furnished to the Byzantine onlyof destroying reduced the and to place government. He set fire the whole of this greatcommercial city to ashes. Never and it has witnessed before, was so great a conflagration One of Moscow. onlysince been rivalledby the burning thousand persons are said to have hundred and forty so perished by fire and sword, yet the Turks captured that the slave-markets of Asia were filled many prisoners
into the
with
Arzen.
The
Armenian
mity, this terriblecalaon deepfeeling for it commenced a long seriesof woes which gradually all the capital accumulated by ages of destroyed which had rendered in the mountains of Armenia, industry them East. the
one
historiansdwell with
of the richestand
most
of the dispersion
524
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL J.
men
to
it prored
CH^uM
Turks, for
Gaul
in the
tine Byzan-
service destroyed it by
an
oyer breaking
it three bottles
inflammable mixture,while he was approaching the camp of the besiegers the bearer of a letter to as the sultan. The loss of this engine, however, did not
abate the courage of the troops, and Alkan, the general of the Khorasmians, the sultan to carry the promised
placehy assault. The governor of Manzikert made the storming for giving preparations party a desperate and with engines, The walls were garnished reception. the artillery well supplied with ponderous was stones, to launch on gigantic arrows, and beams shod with iron,
the assailants. The defenders were
ordered to remain and Alkan, concealed behind the battlements, carefully after commencing the attack with volleys of missiles, that he had advanced to the foot of the wall,satisfied silencedthe enemy. But when his men beganto plant
tempestof stones,arrows, beams,boiling and smoke-balls overwhelmed the bravest, and the pitch,
rest shrunk back.
their ladders, a
for a Their hesitation the signal was in which Alkan was and furious sally, taken prisoner,
of the beheaded on the city in sight walls, immediately kert, sultan. Togrul, that he could not take Manzifinding the barrier through gave up all hope of breaking of fortresses that defended the frontier of the empire, and retired into He
a.d. 1050. Persia^
havingreceived a strong reinforcement of showed itself so Varangian mercenaries, pline, discisultan in military to that of the Seljouk superior it prudent that Togrulthought to retirewithout a battle.^ The military hazarding by system established
army Frank and
1 of the Byamtme Cedrenus,780,788. Chamich, iL 142. The chronology credit than the Armenian. hlBtorian is entitled to more For this period, indeed, Oedrenos is a valuable authority.
SEPARATION
OF
GREEK
AND
LATIN
CHURCHES.
525
Constantine V., and perfected by Nice- a.d. ^^^^^' John I., and Basil II., stUl upheld the glory II., phorus
of the
arms. Byzantine In looking back from modern times at the history of the Byzantine of the Greek and the separation empire, Latin churches appears the most important event in the of Constantine IX. ; but its prominency is owing, reign on
Leo
III. and
the
one
after to beganshortly
and Western
nations ; and, on the other, to the decline in of the Byzantine tical which gave ecclesiasempire,
theywould
resources
otherwise
IX. of the
of Constantine
and
the schism would never I., have acquired itactually the political attained; importance
of Leo III.
or
Basil
for as it related to
of opinion on secondary points tions, quesand details would of ecclesiastical the people practice, have abandoned the subject and the church, to the clergy the the welfare of Christians, not affecting as nor one of Christianity. who was interest The Emperor Basil II., had still as well as pious, bigoted good sense to view the He rather than a religious one. as a political question
to reunite the two impossible churches ; he saw the disposition of the Greek clergy to to avoid which he endeavoured to commence a quarrel, ecclesiastical of the Byzantine the amicable separation negotiate He establishment from the papal supremacy. that the Pope should be honoured as the first proposed in rank, but that he should receive a Christian bishop of the Eastern and admit the right indemnity, pecuniary affairsaccording to itsown church to govern its own stitution conthe Patriarch and localusages, and acknowledge reasonable as it This plan, of Constantinople as itshead. chance of success. mightappear to statesmen, had little of Rome to be the agentof the The claim of the Bishop
knew
that
it would
be
526
BA8ILIAN
DYNASTY.
too gene-
but the open rejected, with Rome did not take place until 1053, when it rupture caused by the violent and unjust conduct of the Greek was Michael Keroularios. He ordered allthe Latin patriarch, churches in the Byzantine in whidi mass was empire, celebrated according rites Western of the to the church, with Leo, bishop of to be closed ; and, in conjunction addressed a controAchrida,the Patriarch of Bulgaria, yersial letter to the bishop which reviyed all of Trani^ the old disputes with the papal church, adding the about the use of unlearened bread in the holy question The people both sides, who understood communion. on little of the points contested by the clergy, adoptedthe that it was their dutyto hate the members rule, simple of the other church ; and the Greeks, having their condensed in their ecclesiastical establishment, nationality far exceeded the Western nations in ecclesiastical bigotry, for the people in the western nations of Europewere often The extreme bigotry not very friendly to papal pretensions. of the Greeks soon tended to make the people of the with the Latins, to allintercourse averse Byzantine empire and theyassumed a superiority nations as over equals, in activity, gence, wealth, rapidly advancing power, and intellibecause theydeemed them heretics. The merely of the two churches proved, separation more consequently, to the Greeks, in their stationary condition of injurious than to the Western Christians, who were society, eageriy in forward of social pressing improvement. many paths The of Basil propositions Zoe died in the year 1050, at the age of Empress Constantine IX. survived to the year 1054.^ seventy.^ When the emperor felthis end approaching, he ordered to the superstitious fashion of the time, himself, according
1 '
The
Zonaras,IL 260.
ii.262. Zoxuuras,
39.
THBODOBA,
to be to transported
A.D.
1054^1056.
527
a. n.
he had
which the monastery of Mangana, constructed. His ministers, and especially his
^^^^^^'
John the logothetes, of and president prime-minister, the senate,^ urgedhim to name Nicephorus Bryennios, who commanded forms of the
the Macedonian
his troops,
successor.
constitution rendered it necessary imperial that the sovereign nople, should be crowned in Constantiand a courier was despatched to summon Bryennios to the capital. But as soon as Theodora heard of this her of the throne attemptof her brother-in-lawto deprive
The
the senate, ordered the herself as the guardsto be drawn out, and, presenting lawful empress, was proclaimed of the empire sovereign
with
to
to
universal acclamations.
The
news
of this event
of the
dyingvoluptuary, inspired.
8B0T
ni^REIONS
OF
THEODORA THE
AND
MICHAEL
A.D. 1054-1067.
VI.
(8TRATI0TIK0S,
OB
WARLIKE),
OF
Characteb Michael
TO the
and
ADM
misTBATiON
Thbodoba, 1054-1056~Iiioapaoitt
of thi empibb
of
VI.,1056-1057"
eunuchs in of the
"
Administration
impbrial
tranbfbbbbd
of the gbeat
household"
Conspibact
nobles
Asia Minob
^Michabl
YL
dxthbonbd.
of with a good deal of masculine vigour Theodora, the confined views and acrimonious character, possessed
of a recluse. Her firstact was to revenge on disposition the attempt which her brother-in-law had Bryennios made to deprive her of the throne. He and his partisans
were
estates
a
confiscated. Her
and the sovereign, administration, with which she overlooked the general strictness she acted unlike her predecessor, that, proved
attentionto personal
the duties of
1 but of pretensions, ZonaraSyii 261. John was an eunuoh of greatliterary knowledge. "cantyclassicaland no greatpolitical
528 to according
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
BOOK
iL
own
conscience in
public
tion. exer-
^^'"'*^
and affairs,
were
the
instrument passive
of those who
in establishing their despotic family, power, had administration. undermined the fabric of the Byzantine the ablest native senators to act as Instead of selecting she intrusted the directionof every ministers and judges, of government to eunuchs of her household, department Leo and her prime-minister an was Strabospondyles, of the Patriarch of Constantinople. ecclesiastic, synkellos Isaac of her eunuchs to supersede She even sent one Comnenos as commander-in-chief of the army placed on of her
to watch the the frontier to belonged
one
movements
of those wealth
power had long excited played disthe jealousy of the emperors ; and Theodora now much too openlythe distrustwith which they Asia Minor whose
were
regarded by the centraladministration. To preserve in her own allpower as much as possible hands,she presided
in person in the cabinet and in the senate,and even heard appeals in civilcases. The formance as supreme judge perwith in of this lastduty, little though harmony
the executive power, was in her time looked upon as a most laudable act. subjects
Fortune her short favoured and reign, She
by her
of
Theodora her
in the circumstances in
a
great
no
measure
which had family the institutions with glory of the empire for nearly upheld which had secured to its subjects two centuries, a degree of internal tranquillity and commercial prosperity far the same period greaterthan had been enjoyed during by the human race, and the memory of of portion any equal
1
control
the lastscion of
Cedrenus, 791.
NOMINATION
OF
MICHAEL
VI., 1056.
629
deep regret in the a. d. breasts of the Greeks themselves, thoughthe Greeks *"^^^7. treated with greatest the body of their subjects were the neglect by the Basilian dynasty. Duringher reign, disturbed by no civilwar, nor desolated by was empire the invasion. The seasons were temperate, any foreign to enjoythe of the earth enabled the people fertility which had previously of peace, and a pestilence blessings ceased. the principal of the empire cities suddenly ravaged Theodora felt At the advanced age of seventy-six, herselfso robust that she looked forward to a long life; her and the monks who swarmed in her palace, observing infatuated confidence in the vigour of her frame,flattered for her with prophecies destined to reign that she was of the time,as feelings many years. The superstitious well as the personal of Theodora,caused her to vanity soothsayers confidence in these ecclesiastical placeimplicit she was suddenly ; but in the midst of her projects attacked by an intestine her to the disorder that brought To prevent the government falling into the grave. hands of the territorial she,with her dying aristocracy,
which in
succeeding years
excited
of general
some
and reputation,
an
efficient
age
doting
and the eunuchs of Theodora prime-minister had nevertheless suggested his nomination, it as to place the throne one who could not avoid on promised instrument in their hands. Theodora,hoping an being her health, the new emperor to swear to recover compelled with the most that he would tremendous imprecations
obedient
to
her
onlya
expired
surname.
Had
stratiotikos is really and not, like Monomachos, a an epithet, Michael VL left posterity, his children might have converted VOL. I.
it into
surname.
530
BASILIAK
DYNASTY.
BOOK
^
n.
the
"''*''
of Basil the Sclayonian groom, and the admiof the Bjzantine nistratiYe glory the 30th on empire,
race
of
August 1057.^
The accession of Michael VI. of the president of Constantino
was no
sooner
known
the
than the
senate,Theodosios Monomachos,
to IX., attempted to
nephew
mount
the
imperial
dares,who
his
formed
numerous a
lected colbody,
assistance from
assembled friends,
mob, and,
band, broke
His
open
talked of reyolution.
but the moment
planwas
were
the known
palace ;
to the
his moYemeuts
made
by all his followers. When he sought he found the doors of the an asylum in St Sophia's, church closed against him, and was taken with his son the steps. This sedition was on so sitting contemptible ridiculed the affairin a lampoon, that the people and the emperor onlybanished its leader to Pergamus.^ and his of a limited capacity, Michael VI. was a man dulled by age ; yet accident intrusted faculties now were
abandoned
him with the direction of the
was
goyemment
at
delicate
of integrity
administratire
empire. of Michael must be regarded Yet the incapacity as haying onlyaccelerated a changewhich it would haye required
the and genius like Leo ayerted
at yariance with
greatadministratiyereformer
ZoDaras,ii.262. Zonaras,ii.264.
Cedreniu,792,
532
BOOK iL
BASILIAN
DYNASTY.
devotion than sjstepersonal and no stronger ^'ml*"matic service, proofcan be adduced of the progress which the Byzantine government had made than the power the emperors had towards pure despotism, of ruling their subjects acquired bj the members of their
to pelled
household. Michael VL
was
not blind to
class of powerful
his
but subjects,
the permanence
things.The support
stantinople of Conmunicipality the conservative feelings of the clubs of the and of the corporations of the traders, seemed hippodrome, of any revoluthe success tion a complete guaranteeagainst
; and
the emperor
He felt, ment likewise, so confidentin the attachliberality.^ that of the soldiers to their military organisation, and self-interest he imprudently of wounded the pride of the army and the official the principal officers nobility, and donatives back from them the promotions by holding sures, theywere accustomed to receive at Easter. Other meawere equally ill-judged, adoptedabout the same time. in the empire, the most popular Katakalon, general of the command of was at Antioch on a charge deprived the number himself by diminishing fraudulently enriching of soldiers in his government, and extorting money from the inhabitants. The justice of the act was, however, he was as suspected, replaced by Michael Ouranos, a on establishing renephewof the emperor.^Michael VI. likewise, in the rank of which Nicephorus Bryennios he had been deprived by Theodora,refused to restore his
and thing. But if the priest buy any 80ul with his money, he shall eat of it, he that is bom in lus house : theyshall eat of his meat.** ^ He was of promotingclerics from the accused, however, after his fall, in the provininstead of senators,to be collectors of the revenue ces." offices, public Cedrenus,793. ' This Michael the name of Ouranos,and did not belong to the assumed of that Ouranos who defeated Samuel, kingof Achrida,on distinguished fieunily ii.263. the banks of the Sperchius.Cedrenus,793. Zonaras,
"
TREASON
OP
HBRVfi
AND
BRYBNNIOS.
533
which had been unjustly fortune, priyate ; j^/Jg^ sequestrated and when Bryennios his in the claim old urged person, short his cut solicitations emperor by saying, Finished work alone merits wages." He had already ordered the
*
"
restored
to
men
reinforcethe army in Cappadocia, and Bryennios now leftthe capital inflamed with Several of the most
formed a already plot to overthrow the existing government, and they availed themselves of the oflFence to Katakalon and given to establish Bryennios secret communications with these oflScers and engage them in the conspiracy. Isaac Comand Nicephorus Michael Burtzes, nenus,Romanos Skleros, who residedat Constantinople in princely Botaneiates, state, directed the plot rebellion.^ of the plan and arranged
nobles powerful
of Asia
The attention of government was diverted from these with whom conspirators they by the conduct of an ofiBoer had no connection. Herve, a Norman who general, had himself under Maniakes, had subsequently distinguished served the empirewith zeal and fidelity. On soliciting the rank of magistros, treated by the emhis claim was peror in a way which irritatedthe pride of the Norman and to such a degree that he quitted Constantinople, nia. in Armehastened to an estate he possessed at Dabarme three hundred of bis countrymen from Collecting the garrisons he deserted to the in the neighbourhood, Turks.
He
less
that of independence proudspirit characterisedthe Normans than the Byzantines, and, w ith whom the from leader, Seljouk separating Samouch, of Aklat, he quarrelled, band to the city he led his little where he was and made prisoner by the emir surprised
inclinedto toleratethe
Aponasar.2
Manasses, Chron, 129. The adventures of Herr^ are recorded by Cedrenus,794. The importaDce of the Norman without any is a curious instance of moral superiority, race and in Scotland, where of oivilisation. In the Byzantine empire, superiority
' ^
534
BOOK II.
BASILIAN
DTKASTT.
The rashness of
of Herve
; and
as
was Brjennios
even
^'"'^^
his conspirators, conduct mighthave mined their enterprise. The chiefe settled their plans, at Constantinople, decided that having he
was
one
of the
was
; and after
mutual
and horrid
which imprecations
then
dered consi-
estates
retired to their necessary to bind the conscience, to collecttroops. Brjennios had, in the mean where Cappadocia,
time,reached
the master payof the army to make an adyance of pay to the soldiers under his command. This was refused, at as being
he ordered
who Opsaras, held the oflSceof paymaster, was a patrician ; yet,when he visited Bryennios in his tent, that officer so completely orders. emperor's John lost all command
temper,that he struck him on the face, his beard, threw him on the ground, and pulled
over
his
then
ordered
him
to
be
dragged to prison.Another
the
who commanded patrician, Lykanthos, Pisidia and Lycaonia in a separate camp, the conduct of
troops of
convinced that
BATTLE
AT
HADES.
535
a. d.
to lead
i"***-i^
them the
Samouch, against
Turkish
chief who
had invaded
and threats, he succeeded in empire.^By promises the officers of this force to jointhe rebellion ; engaging with the troops and, eflfecting Isaac had already a junction the rebels crossed the Sangarius, and gained assembled, of Nice.^ possession
The
under
Theodore,an eunuch whom he had raised to the rank of Domestikos of the East, and the Bulgarian Aaron, who, thoughthe brother-in-law of Isaac, prince,
The imperial broke personal generals enemy. down the bridges in order to cut off the Sangarius, over the communications in of the rebels with the provinces and then approached which theu* familyinfluence lay, Nice. Isaac Comnenus was encamped about twelve stades to the north of the city, and the foragers of the
was
the command
his
two
armies
were
soon
in constant
communication
the
leaders on
the intercourse, in the overlooking deserters. The imperialists of gaining urged expectation their opponents not
own
both sides
their to sacrifice
lives for
an
tious ambi-
from the rebel camp. A battle was thus inevitable. Isaac Comnenus
out his army, which
'
drew
was
composedof
veteran
at troops,
of western Europeans, one of Ruscomposed Cedrenus, 790. of Koloneia and Chaldia. legions ' the who was a daughterof Ladislas, his treasures and his wife, Isaac placed the banks of the on last Bulgarianking of Achrida,in the castle of Pemolissa, Halys." Cedrenus, 799. Two of these legions were
natiye
"
536
BOOK
iL
BA8ILIAN
DYNASTY.
^'""*^'
the left called Hades. Katakalon commanded place and was opposed the general to Basil Tarchaniotes, wing, the ablestand most distinguished of the European troops, of the Macedonian nobilitj. at the Romanos Skleros, head of the right to Aaron, who had was wing, opposed under his ordersthe patrician and the Norman Ljkanthos Randolph. Isaac and Theodore directedtheir r^pectire The battlewas not severelj contested. Aaron centres. routed the right but his success led to wingof the rebels, nian defeated the Macedono result ; for Katakalon,haying stormed the imperial threw troops, camp, while Isaac overtheir centre. The constitution of aristocratic in the incidents of this battle. The itself society displays of the chiefs gave their superior temper of the arms in the Homeric battles. as as much exploits importance When
and
Katakalon
Randolph found himself borne away among a crowd of fugitives. Disengaging be perceived the Botaneiates leading himself, Nicephorus met his war-cry, the Norman knight pursuers. Shouting
the Asiatic noble ; but his sword
was
broken
on
the well-
helmet of his enemy, and he was led a prisoner tempered slain to the rebel camp.^ Several officers of rank were The in the imperial made prisoners. army, and many victora lost onlyone man of rank.
where he was advanced to Nicomedia, met by envoys from the Emperor Michael,who offered him the title of Csesar for himself, and a general amnesty Isaac Comnenus
for his
if they would lay aside their arms. partisans, Isaac knew that he had no safety but as emperor, and Katakalon boldly opposed all terms of arrangement called the Prince of Philosophers, Michael Psellos, was to how matters were likely of the envoys, and seeing one
cause
of his old
master
with
more
'
Cedrenus,802.
MICHAEL
VI.
DBTHRONED,
1057.
537
than might haye been expected from a a.d. promptitude ^Q^^^^^learned pedant. The emperor, finding he had nothing to expect from negotiation, himself to fortify attempted in Constantinople. He compelled the senators to take that they would an oath,and subscribe a declaration, Isaac Comnenus as emperor ; and he never acknowledge lavished and privileges, the on promotions, money, places, Yet the moment and the municipality. the victors people reached the palace the senators rushed to of Damatrys, St Sophia's, and beggedthe Patriarch to absolve them from the oath theyhad just taken. The stem Patriarch,
Michael Keroularios, affected to resist, but consented to be himself the medium of communication with the new
emperor. The
cause
of Michael VI.
was
now
hopeless ;
was proclaimed emperor, and his predecessor that it mightbe preordered to quit the imperial palace, pared was
Isaac
of the new It is said sovereign. reception the old man, before departing, sent to ask the Patriarch what he would give him for his resignation ; the intriguing with sarcastic humility,The kingdom pontiff replied, of heaven.^' On the 31st of August, Michael VI. returned individual to his own as a private house,where he lived undisturbed, tember, dyingtwo years after. On the 2d of Septhe in Isaac I. received the imperial crown Church of St Sophia. To contemporaries, this revolution presented nothing of sovereign, which to distinguish it from the changes had been an ordinary event in the Byzantine empire, and which were of the ascribed by the wisest statesmen time to the decree of Heaven, and not to the working of and moral causes, which the will of God allows political the improvement of man the intelligence to employfor effecting for the
"
'
or error
decline of human
affairs. It would
be
an
rapacious
5S8
GENERAL
OBSERYATIONS.
BOOK
^'
n.
'""*'"
without taking the apathyof into account ooDspirators, the inhabitantsof the empire to a mere changein the then living of their emperor. name Perhapsno man destined to changethe that this event was perceiyed whole system of government, destroy the fabric of the deliver up the provinces of Asia central administration, a to the Seljouk Turks,and the capital an easy conquest
prey to
We Roman
band of crusaders.
have
and
traced the progress of the Eastern of three centuries an eventful period Empirethrough
now
a
the rare contemplated of a greatempirereviving from a state of polispectacle tical have and social seen we anarchy disorganisation ; of it reinvigorated by the establishment of a highdegree have order and security for life and property ; and we recorded its progress to the attainment of greatmilitary
half. We
have
power.
We
to
trace
the
causes
that
led
to
this change, as
which this
It would
be
an
instructive task to
Empire with
once
constitutedthe
not
Empire of
scholarshave
work necessary for such an inquiry, so that even would run into a superficial examination of the subject discussionson vague details. Each student of history,
who may happento turn over the pages of this therefore, the comparison for himself in that volume,must ^institute research with which antiquarian he is most familiar. Unfortunately the records of the Eastern Empire are deprived torical of hisof one greatsource the interest they tell us very little concerning condition of the mass of the population ; and while they of the enable us to study the actions and the policy emperors, and even to observe the political consequences of their respective leave in ignoadministrations, us they
"
branch of historical or
540
GENERAL
OBSERYATIONS.
influence proTed explains sufficiently why its political with its numbers, ciijB^a. when compared gj^ijfgu^iy insignificant and social importance. Local institutions were wealthy reduced to such a state of subordination by the central rent that theypossessed no authority, power to train the diffenations of which the middle class was composed to similarpolitical sentiments. All attemptsof the people and condition provedfruitless, to reform their own could only demands for redress of public grievances prove be successful by a revolution. Perhapsthis evil may
BOOK
iL
nature
of all
as
of suppress the expression in municipal bodies. In such governments, public opinion far
to
the central authority republican, cacious becomes so powerful, that public is rendered ineffiopinion learn to to effect reform, and the peoplesoon the onlychance of improverevolutions as offering ment. regard
whether monarchical
or
The
a
middle class
of ancient
vived societyan element that had surand national from the days of municipal liberty continued to till independence. Many free citizens still their lands many were in manufactures and occupied
remnant
"
commerce.
It
was
over
yields (taxation tively comparaand impoverishe littlein a state peopled nobles by great and it was the wealth of the Byzantine serfs); government which gave it an ultimate superiority all itscontemporaries for several centuries. Military
"
excellence was
at that time as
much
and activity in the soldier, as of discipline strength i in the army or talent in the general.The wealth of the to filltheir armies Byzantine emperors enabled them with the best soldiers in Europe; in their mercenary and nobles fought and the in the ranks, legions, knights Nor of their guards were captains kingsand princes.^
1
was
alain at
QBNBRAL
0B8BEVATI0NS.
541
were
the native
book
^
"''
n:
oflGicer famous in personal was Bjzantine before the aristocracy of western Europe encounters long exercise in which an renown sought by imitating military rather than yalour secured the victory.^ sleight-of-hand It is not difficult the causes to pointout generally with large the Byzantine which supplied revenues, treasury at a period when the precious metals were extremely in the of A curious west rare Europe. might comparison be made between the riches and luxury of the court of the reign of Theophilus, and the Constantinople during of at the court poverty and rudeness that prevailed Winchester under his contemporary, ference Egbert. The difof the value of the precious metals is peculiarly striking. weightof gold, Theophilus gave two pounds' for a fine horse, of or a hundred and byzants, forty-four
The
lance of the
*^
which
the market value appears to have been the Saxons, about the ; yet, among byzants the
hundred
same
time,
of a common horse was two-thirds of a pound price of the rarity to explain weightof silver.^ It is difficult metals in the West, when we remember that the precious the tin of Egbert's dominions found its way to Constantinople, and that the byzants of the Eastern emperors the current gold coin throughout were England. The the greater of the Byzantine empiresupplied subjects part of western and the whole of northern Europewith fine woollen Indian produce, stones,silk, precious spices,
we
now
callmorocco
leather,^
Bohn*8
Mallef
Northern
168,194" AfUiquiHet,
rian Antiqua-
Library.
^ See the account of the death of a Russian chief by the lanoe of Peter the Ennuch. Leo Diaconus, 107, edit. Bonn. ' Leo Gramm. 454, edit. Par. Henry, in his Ei$tory of England,quoting WiUdns' Legei ScuumuxBygives the value of a horse at only"1, 158. 2d. in older regulations There law of Isaac I., is a c\mous modem reviving money. which gives idea of the value of some concerningfees to be paidto bishops, Jus in the Byzantineempireunder the Basilian dynasty."Bonefidius, money 86. Leunclavius and Freher,Jut OrtBoo-Romanum, i. 120. Orientate, ' Among the presentsAlaric received to raise the siegeof Rome, were three thousand skins of red leather." Zosimus, lib. v. chi^. 41,page 306,edit Bonn.
"
542
QENERAL
OBSSBYATIONS.
^'^^^
oil,wine, and fruits; besides most and all luxuries. Yet, from the mannfactored articles, poyertjof the Western
however exorbitant their consumption must nations, small. The profits bare been comparatiyelj of the trade,
thejmight hare
not
been
on
particular
would transactions,
article important had been of national wealth,unless a constant profit metals of value of the precious realisedby the difference carried in the various countries with which dealings were
hare formed
an on.
Few
of the Western
a considerableamount constantly consuming and silver; the Byzantine of gold siderable conpossessed empire know that goldwas mines of silver, and we Gold and silvercoin alwaysabundant in the treasury.^ commodities and slaves were a on which consequently was sure alwaysrealised. But in the eleventh profit in western in society centurya great changetook place condition of the coincident with the stationary Europe, of socialreform In the West, the spirit empire. Byzantine into the counsels of kings infused a sentiment of justice ; of conservation, the in the East,a spirit pervading imperial the of withered administration, energies society.
We learn from many paaeages Biill common. 1 Byxantinegold coins are that fiUver was abundant in the Byzantine treasuxy; and seyeral silver mines stillworked in Turkey,though at presentto little are purpose.
rniNTSO
MY
WlLhlAH
BtJkCICWOOO
AKO
MNS,
EOlNBVmOM.