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Science
An approach to the gathering of knowledge
2 primary functions
the development of theory;
testing of substantive hypothesis deduced from theory
Research on human nature;
- no two persons are alike
- no one person are completely consistent
- human are influenced by the research
- lack of adequate definition
Role of theory
An attempt to develop a general explanation for some phenomena
Defines non-observable constructs that are inferred from observable
facts and events that thought to have an effect
Establishes a cause-and-effect relationships
Describes the relationships among key variables or explaining a
current state or predicting future occurrences.
Hypothesis
A formal affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome;
a tentative explanation of the relationship between two or more variables
Operationally defined
The null hypothesis relates to a statistical method of interpreting
conclusions about population characteristics that are inferred from the
variables relationships observed in samples.
Sampling
To draw valid inferences on the basis careful observation of small
proportion of the population.
A population is any group of individuals who has one or more
characteristics in common
A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation
and analysis.
Randomness
Selecting (who) are representatives of the population
Equating experimental and control groups (equal independent chance
of being assigned to each of the groups).
Simple random sampling
Systematic sample; Cluster sample
Non-probability samples
Sample size
Purposes of Research
Basic research / fundamentals – leads to knowledge for knowledge’s
sake; development and testing of theories
Applied research – improving a product or process; to develop
generalizations
Actions research – focus on immediate application; local settings; to
improve practices.
Dimensi Penyelidikan
Dimension I : Why?
Discovery of new information and the resolving of old problems
Powers the world
The ways in which we proceed to solve problems (methodology)
Dimension II : Steps
Beginning with a problem.
Data relating to the problem. That was fact.
Rationalization, guess: logical reasoning; a hypothesis.
Another fact.
Confirmed the hypothesis
The problem was resolved.
Procedure
It originates with a problem
It ends with a conclusion
Process based upon observable facts [data]
It is logical
It is orderly
It is guide by a reasonable guess.
It confirms or rejects the reasonable guess
Conclusions on basis of the data, only data
Conclusion resolve the problem.
Dimension IV : Where ?
Indexes
Reviews
Volumes
Net
Journal
Tools of Research
The library and its resources
Techniques of measurement
Statistics
The computer and its software
Facility with language.
Characteristics
Personal or researchable problems
Rarely happen by accident
Grounded and possess the ability
Fruitful conclusions
Specialist rather than generalists
Rifle rather than shotgun
Limited rather than broad
Testing rather than proving
Sources?
Daily classrooms
School
Community
Technical changes
Curricular developments
Educational innovations
Academic experiences
Reading assignments, textbooks, journals
Consultation
Keeping in Focus
Acceptable research problem?
What is to ‘think’
What is to do
To formulate a problem that is carefully phrased and represents the
single goal of the total research effort.
What am I doing, for what purpose am I doing it?
Definition
Involves systematically identifying, locating and analyzing documents
containing info related to the research problem.
These documents include articles, abstracts, monographs,
dissertations, books, other research reports and electronic media.
The 8 Purpose
It can reveal investigations similar [what has already been done], and
it can show how the collateral researchers handled these situations.
It can illuminate a method of dealing with a problem situation that may
suggest avenues of approach similar difficulties you may be facing.
It can introduce to significant research personalities, of whose work
and collateral writings.
It can help to see own study in historical and associational perspective.
It can provide with new ideas and approaches.
It can help to evaluate own research efforts; what need to be done.
It provides the understandings and insights necessary to develop a
logical framework into your research topic.
Rationale for research hypothesis and justifying the significance of the
study.
Getting Started
Familiar with the Library
Make a list of keywords to guide
Secondary sources
Primary sources
Remarks
The results can be discussed in terms of whether and how they agree
with previous findings
Often have difficulty in determining how broad;
Which are ‘related enough’?
Tips
Avoid the temptation to include everything you find; bigger does not
better.
Heavily researched areas usually provide enough references related to
a specific problem to eliminate the need relying on less related studies.
New or little-research problem areas usually require review of any
study related in some meaningful way to the problem in order to develop a
logical framework and sound research hypothesis.
Guidelines
Make an outline
Sort your references into appropriate topic piles
Analyze the relationships and differences between references in a
given subheading
Do not present as a series of abstracts or annotations
Discuss references least related to the problem first
Conclude with a brief summary and its implications
How?
Get the proper psychological orientation
Have a plan
Emphasize relatedness
Review, don’t reproduce it.
Summarize what you have said
Constructs
Regardless of the type of research, must collect data.
The scientific approach is based on the collection, analysis and
interpretation of data.
Data are the pieces of information collected and use to examine topic,
hypotheses or observation.
The relationship between constructs, variables and instruments.
Constructs
Abstractions that cannot be observed directly
They are invented to explain behavior e.g intelligence, personality,
ability, creativity,
Must be operationally defined, in terms of processes or operations that
can be observed or measure
When are operationally defined, they become variables.
Variables
A construct that can take two or more values or scores
People differ in them
Many different approaches and instruments to measure variable.
An instrument is a tool used to collect data.
Can be represented by different kind of measurements, identified as
categorical or quantitative, dependent or independent
Instrument Terminology
Test
A standardized test
Assessment
Measurement – the process of quantifying or scoring persons’
performance on assessments. Occurs after data collected
4 ways of Interpreting
Raw scores
Using the bell-shaped curve, transformed into percentile ranks,
stanines and std scores (Descriptive Statistics)
2. Norm-referenced
3. Criterion-referenced
4. Self-referenced
Test Administration
Arrangements should be made beforehand
Ideal testing conditions
Familiar with the administration procedures
Be prepared
Qualitative Method
Ethnography/fieldwork/observation
Interviewing, asking questions and conversations
Documentary research
Classroom observations
Case study
Formulated hypotheses
Inductive way
Developing grounded theories
Emergent, creative and open-ended
Case Studies
Concern with the rich and vivid description of events within the case
Chronological narrative of events within the case
Integral involvement of the researcher in the case
Prescribing the case which is able to capture the richness of the
situation
Temporal characteristics; geog parameters; boundaries; individual in a
particular context; characteristics of the group; role of function; shaped of
organizational or institutional arrangements
Action Research
Systematic inquiry to collect and study data that can help to
understand and improve own practice.
Reflect own practices, identify areas that need improvement,
Collect data pertinent to issue of interest, analyze data and to
determine whether results do in fact improve practice or understanding
Participants
Identify the number, source, and characteristics of the sample
Also define the population
Differ depending on approaches
Selecting a Sample
Defining a Population
Selecting a Random Sample
- Simple random sampling
- Stratified sampling
- Cluster sampling
- Systematic sampling
Selecting a Nonrandom Sample
- Convenience sampling
- Purposive sampling
- Quota sampling
Qualitative sampling
Most often deals with small, purposive sampling.
The R’s insights guide the selection of participants
Intensity sampling
Homogeneous sampling
Criterion sampling
Snowball sampling
Random purposive sampling
Instruments
How they will measure the variables stated in the hypotheses
The appropriateness for the study and sample
The measurement of properties
The process of administering and scoring
To develop own …
Measurement Scales
Consists of a group of several related statements that participants
select to indicate their degree of agreement or lack of agreement.
Variables
Is a construct that can take on two or more values or scores.
- Nominal/categorical variables
- Ordinal variables
- Interval variables
- Ratio variables
Reliability
is the degree of consistency that the instrument, whatever it is
measuring, it does it consistently.
Stability
Equivalence
Internal Consistency Reliability
Procedures
Describes all the steps that will be followed in conducting the study
from beginning to end, in order in which it will occur.
The techniques to select participant; the administrations [when and
how]; what going to occur
An assumption
A limitation
Execute exactly
Data Analysis
Statistical method
Statistical techniques
Interpretive
Data Kualitatif
Face to face and explain; earn trust
Sources : observation, interviews, phone calls, personal and official
documents, photo, recordings, drawings, e-mail, informal conversations,
Feild notes
Nonparticipant data collection
Threats
Observer bias
Observer effect
Analyze
To systematically search, categorize, integrate, and interpret the data
collected in a study
To narrow the focus
Think and make hunches
Describing what’s in the data
Interpretation involves making sense of what the data mean
The researcher has the key role
Guidelines
The credibility of the link between the topic studied and the data used
to examine the topic
The description of the methods used to collect, analyze, and interpret
the data
Expressing researcher and participant biases
Checking data quality
Data Analysis
What is Statistics?
A body of mathematical techniques or processes for gathering,
analyzing, and interpreting numerical [quantitative] data.
Numerical data gathered; by means of numbers.
A basic tool of measurement, evaluation and research.
Statistical data describe group behavior or group characteristics
abstracted from a number of individual observations that are combined to
make generalizations possible.
Data Characteristics
Discrete Data – exist independently of each other; examples include
individuals, bacteria, apples, nationalities
Continuous data – together from a continum; examples include
millibars, degrees of temperature, chronological age
Parametric :
Descriptive and Inferential Analysis
Descriptive : where the center is; how broadly they spread; and how
they related in terms of one aspect to another aspect of the same data.
Inferential : to extrapolate beyond the known into the realms of the
unknown.
Descriptive Statistics:
Points of Central Tendency
Measures of Central Tendency or Averages
- mean, mode, median
Mean – the precise center of the amalgamated values
Median – the precise center of the numerical array
Mode – the value which appears most frequently
*Normal Distribution; The Normal Curve
Skewed Distributions
Symbols -
Nonparametric Tests
Data sometimes look more like a stairway than a normal curve – data
ranked
Non-normal curve
The Chi Square Test – used in casual comparative studies
Spearman Rho – counterpart of Pearson product
The Mann-Whitney Test – counterpart of the t-Test
Etc.